Definition.

"Acid rain" is a popular term referring to the deposition of a mixture from wet (rain, snow, sleet, fog, cloudwater, and dew) and dry (acidifying particles and gases) acidic components. Distilled water, once carbon dioxide is removed, has a neutral pH of 7. Liquids with a pH less than 7 are acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are alkaline. "Clean" or unpolluted rain has an acidic pH, but usually no lower than 5.7, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a weak acid according to the following reaction:  Carbonic acid then can ionize in water forming low concentrations of carbonate and hydronium ions:  Unpolluted rain can also contain other chemicals which affect its pH (acidity level). A common example is nitric acid produced by electric discharge in the atmosphere such as lightning. Acid deposition as an environmental issue (discussed later in the article) would include additional acids other than.

History.

The corrosive effect of polluted, acidic city air on limestone and marble was noted in the 17th century by John Evelyn, who remarked upon the poor condition of the Arundel marbles. Since the Industrial Revolution, emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere have increased. In 1852, Robert Angus Smith was the first to show the relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England.  In the late 1960s scientists began widely observing and studying the phenomenon. The term "acid rain" was coined in 1872 by Robert Angus Smith. Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to research a "dead" lake. At first the main focus in research lay on local effects of acid rain. Waldemar Christofer Brøgger was the first to acknowledge long-distance transportation of pollutants crossing borders from the United Kingdom to Norway. Public awareness of acid rain in the US increased in the 1970s after "The New York Times" published reports from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire of the harmful environmental effects that result from it.  Occasional pH readings in rain and fog water of well below 2.4 have been reported in industrialized areas. Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in China and Russia and areas downwind from them. These areas all burn sulfur-containing coal to generate heat and electricity.  The problem of acid rain has not only increased with population and industrial growth, but has become more widespread. The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local pollution has contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation. Often deposition occurs a considerable distance downwind of the emissions, with mountainous regions tending to receive the greatest deposition (because of their higher rainfall). An example of this effect is the low pH of rain which falls in Scandinavia.

In the United States.

The earliest report about acid rain in the United States was from the chemical evidence from Hubbard Brook Valley. In 1972, a group of scientists including Gene Likens discovered the rain that was deposited at White Mountains of New Hampshire was acidic. The pH of the sample was measured to be 4.03 at Hubbard Brook. The Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study followed up with a series of research that analyzed the environmental effects of acid rain. Acid rain that mixed with stream water at Hubbard Brook was neutralized by the alumina from soils. The result of this research indicates the chemical reaction between acid rain and aluminum leads to increasing rate of soil weathering. Experimental research was done to examine the effects of increased acidity in stream on ecological species. In 1980, a group of scientists modified the acidity of Norris Brook, New Hampshire, and observed the change in species' behaviors. There was a decrease in species diversity, an increase in community dominants, and a decrease in the food web complexity.  In 1980, the US Congress passed an Acid Deposition Act. This Act established an 18-year assessment and research program under the direction of the National Acidic Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP). NAPAP looked at the entire problem from a scientific perspective. It enlarged a network of monitoring sites to determine how acidic the precipitation actually was, and to determine long-term trends, and established a network for dry deposition. It focused on the effects of acid rain by funding research to identify and quantify the effects of acid precipitation on freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems, historical buildings, monuments, and building materials. It also funded extensive studies on atmospheric processes and potential control programs.  From the start, policy advocates from all sides attempted to influence NAPAP activities to support their particular policy advocacy efforts, or to disparage those of their opponents. For the US Government's scientific enterprise, a significant impact of NAPAP were lessons learned in the assessment process and in environmental research management to a relatively large group of scientists, program managers, and the public.  In 1981, the National Academy of Sciences was looking into research about the controversial issues regarding acid rain. President Ronald Reagan did not place a huge attention on the issues of acid rain until his personal visit to Canada and confirmed that Canadian border suffered from the drifting pollution from smokestacks in Midwest of US. Reagan honored the agreement to Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau’s enforcement of anti-pollution regulation. In 1982, US President Ronald Reagan commissioned William Nierenberg to serve on the National Science Board. Nierenberg selected scientists including Gene Likens to serve on a panel to draft a report on acid rain. In 1983, the panel of scientists came up with a draft report, which concluded that acid rain is a real problem and solutions should be sought. White House Office of Science and Technology Policy reviewed the draft report and sent Fred Singer’s suggestions of the report, which cast doubt on the cause of acid rain. The panelists revealed rejections against Singer's positions and submitted the report to Nierenberg in April. In May 1983, the House of Representatives voted against legislation that aimed to control sulfur emissions. There was a debate about whether Nierenberg delayed to release the report. Nierenberg himself denied the saying about his suppression of the report and explained that the withheld of the report after the House's vote was due to the fact that the report was not ready to be published.  In 1991, the US National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) provided its first assessment of acid rain in the United States. It reported that 5% of New England Lakes were acidic, with sulfates being the most common problem. They noted that 2% of the lakes could no longer support Brook Trout, and 6% of the lakes were unsuitable for the survival of many species of minnow. Subsequent "Reports to Congress" have documented chemical changes in soil and freshwater ecosystems, nitrogen saturation, decreases in amounts of nutrients in soil, episodic acidification, regional haze, and damage to historical monuments.  Meanwhile, in 1990, the US Congress passed a series of amendments to the Clean Air Act. Title IV of these amendments established the a cap and trade system designed to control emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Title IV called for a total reduction of about 10 million tons of SO emissions from power plants, close to a 50% reduction. It was implemented in two phases. Phase I began in 1995, and limited sulfur dioxide emissions from 110 of the largest power plants to a combined total of 8.7 million tons of sulfur dioxide. One power plant in New England (Merrimack) was in Phase I. Four other plants (Newington, Mount Tom, Brayton Point, and Salem Harbor) were added under other provisions of the program. Phase II began in 2000, and affects most of the power plants in the country.  During the 1990s, research continued. On March 10, 2005, the EPA issued the Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR). This rule provides states with a solution to the problem of power plant pollution that drifts from one state to another. CAIR will permanently cap emissions of SO and NO in the eastern United States. When fully implemented, CAIR will reduce SO emissions in 28 eastern states and the District of Columbia by over 70% and NO emissions by over 60% from 2003 levels.  Overall, the program's cap and trade program has been successful in achieving its goals. Since the 1990s, SO emissions have dropped 40%, and according to the Pacific Research Institute, acid rain levels have dropped 65% since 1976. Conventional regulation was used in the European Union, which saw a decrease of over 70% in SO emissions during the same time period.  In 2007, total SO emissions were 8.9 million tons, achieving the program's long-term goal ahead of the 2010 statutory deadline.  In 2007 the EPA estimated that by 2010, the overall costs of complying with the program for businesses and consumers would be $1 billion to $2 billion a year, only one fourth of what was originally predicted. Forbes says: "In 2010, by which time the cap and trade system had been augmented by the George W. Bush administration's Clean Air Interstate Rule, SO2 emissions had fallen to 5.1 million tons."  The term citizen science can be traced back as far as January 1989 and a campaign by the Audubon Society to measure acid rain. Scientist Muki Haklay cites in a policy report for the Wilson Center entitled 'Citizen Science and Policy: A European Perspective' a first use of the term 'citizen science' by R. Kerson in the magazine MIT Technology Review from January 1989. Quoting from the Wilson Center report: "The new form of engagement in science received the name "citizen science". The first recorded example of the use of the term is from 1989, describing how 225 volunteers across the US collected rain samples to assist the Audubon Society in an acid-rain awareness raising campaign. The volunteers collected samples, checked for acidity, and reported back to the organization. The information was then used to demonstrate the full extent of the phenomenon."

Emissions of chemicals leading to acidification.

The most important gas which leads to acidification is sulfur dioxide. Emissions of nitrogen oxides which are oxidized to form nitric acid are of increasing importance due to stricter controls on emissions of sulfur compounds. 70 Tg(S) per year in the form of SO comes from fossil fuel combustion and industry, 2.8 Tg(S) from wildfires and 7–8 Tg(S) per year from volcanoes.

Natural phenomena.

The principal natural phenomena that contribute acid-producing gases to the atmosphere are emissions from volcanoes. Thus, for example, fumaroles from the Laguna Caliente crater of Poás Volcano create extremely high amounts of acid rain and fog, with acidity as high as a pH of 2, clearing an area of any vegetation and frequently causing irritation to the eyes and lungs of inhabitants in nearby settlements. Acid-producing gasses are also created by biological processes that occur on the land, in wetlands, and in the oceans. The major biological source of sulfur compounds is dimethyl sulfide.  Nitric acid in rainwater is an important source of fixed nitrogen for plant life, and is also produced by electrical activity in the atmosphere such as lightning.  Acidic deposits have been detected in glacial ice thousands of years old in remote parts of the globe.  Soils of coniferous forests are naturally very acidic due to the shedding of needles, and the results of this phenomenon should not be confused with acid rain.

Human activity.

The principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and nitrogen compounds from human sources, such as electricity generation, animal agriculture, factories, and motor vehicles. Electrical power generation using coal is among the greatest contributors to gaseous pollution responsible for acidic rain. The gases can be carried hundreds of kilometers in the atmosphere before they are converted to acids and deposited. In the past, factories had short funnels to let out smoke but this caused many problems locally; thus, factories now have taller smoke funnels. However, dispersal from these taller stacks causes pollutants to be carried farther, causing widespread ecological damage.

Chemical processes.

Combustion of fuels produces sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides. They are converted into sulfuric acid and nitric acid.

Gas phase chemistry.

In the gas phase sulfur dioxide is oxidized by reaction with the hydroxyl radical via an intermolecular reaction: which is followed by: In the presence of water, sulfur trioxide (SO) is converted rapidly to sulfuric acid:  Nitrogen dioxide reacts with OH to form nitric acid:

Chemistry in cloud droplets.

When clouds are present, the loss rate of SO is faster than can be explained by gas phase chemistry alone. This is due to reactions in the liquid water droplets.  Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water and then, like carbon dioxide, hydrolyses in a series of equilibrium reactions:  There are a large number of aqueous reactions that oxidize sulfur from S(IV) to S(VI), leading to the formation of sulfuric acid. The most important oxidation reactions are with ozone, hydrogen peroxide and oxygen (reactions with oxygen are catalyzed by iron and manganese in the cloud droplets).

Acid deposition.

Wet deposition.

Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of precipitation (rain, snow, and so on.) removes acids from the atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth's surface. This can result from the deposition of acids produced in the raindrops (see aqueous phase chemistry above) or by the precipitation removing the acids either in clouds or below clouds. Wet removal of both gases and aerosols are both of importance for wet deposition.

Dry deposition.

Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the absence of precipitation. This can be responsible for as much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition. This occurs when particles and gases stick to the ground, plants or other surfaces.

Adverse effects.

Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect and aquatic life-forms as well as causing damage to buildings and having impacts on human health.

Surface waters and aquatic animals.

Both the lower pH and higher aluminium concentrations in surface water that occur as a result of acid rain can cause damage to fish and other aquatic animals. At pH lower than 5 most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pH can kill adult fish. As lakes and rivers become more acidic biodiversity is reduced. Acid rain has eliminated insect life and some fish species, including the brook trout in some lakes, streams, and creeks in geographically sensitive areas, such as the Adirondack Mountains of the United States. However, the extent to which acid rain contributes directly or indirectly via runoff from the catchment to lake and river acidity (i.e., depending on characteristics of the surrounding watershed) is variable. The United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) website states: "Of the lakes and streams surveyed, acid rain caused acidity in 75% of the acidic lakes and about 50% of the acidic streams". Lakes hosted by silicate basement rocks are more acidic than lakes within limestone or other basement rocks with a carbonate composition (i.e. marble) due to buffering effects by carbonate minerals, even with the same amount of acid rain.

Soils.

Soil biology and chemistry can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some microbes are unable to tolerate changes to low pH and are killed. The enzymes of these microbes are denatured (changed in shape so they no longer function) by the acid. The hydronium ions of acid rain also mobilize toxins, such as aluminium, and leach away essential nutrients and minerals such as magnesium.  Soil chemistry can be dramatically changed when base cations, such as calcium and magnesium, are leached by acid rain thereby affecting sensitive species, such as sugar maple (Acer saccharum).  Soil acidification  Impacts of acidic water and Soil acidification on plants could be minor or in most cases major. In minor cases which do not result in fatality of plant life include; less-sensitive plants to acidic conditions and or less potent acid rain. Also in minor cases the plant will eventually die due to the acidic water lowering the plants natural pH. Acidic water enters the plant and causes important plant minerals to dissolve and get carried away; which ultimately causes the plant to die of lack of minerals for nutrition. In major cases which are more extreme; the same process of damage occurs as in minor cases, which is removal of essential minerals, but at a much quicker rate. Likewise, acid rain that falls on soil and on plant leaves causes drying of the waxy leaf cuticle; which ultimately causes rapid water loss from the plant to the outside atmosphere and results in death of the plant. To see if a plant is being affected by soil acidification, one can closely observe the plant leaves. If the leaves are green and look healthy, the soil pH is normal and acceptable for plant life. But if the plant leaves have yellowing between the veins on their leaves, that means the plant is suffering from acidification and is unhealthy. Moreover, a plant suffering from soil acidification cannot photosynthesize. Drying out of the plant due to acidic water destroy chloroplast organelles. Without being able to photosynthesize a plant cannot create nutrients for its own survival or oxygen for the survival of aerobic organisms; which affects most species of earth and ultimately end the purpose of the plants existence.

Forests and other vegetation.

Adverse effects may be indirectly related to acid rain, like the acid's effects on soil (see above) or high concentration of gaseous precursors to acid rain. High altitude forests are especially vulnerable as they are often surrounded by clouds and fog which are more acidic than rain.  Other plants can also be damaged by acid rain, but the effect on food crops is minimized by the application of lime and fertilizers to replace lost nutrients. In cultivated areas, limestone may also be added to increase the ability of the soil to keep the pH stable, but this tactic is largely unusable in the case of wilderness lands. When calcium is leached from the needles of red spruce, these trees become less cold tolerant and exhibit winter injury and even death.

Ocean acidification.

Acid rain has a much less harmful effect on the oceans. Acid rain can cause the ocean's pH to fall, making it more difficult for different coastal species to create their exoskeletons that they need to survive. These coastal species link together as part of the ocean's food chain and without them being a source for other marine life to feed off of more marine life will die.  Coral's limestone skeletal is sensitive to pH drop, because the calcium carbonate, core component of the limestone dissolves in acidic (low pH) solutions.

Human health effects.

Acid rain does not directly affect human health. The acid in the rainwater is too dilute to have direct adverse effects. The particulates responsible for acid rain (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) do have an adverse effect. Increased amounts of fine particulate matter in the air contribute to heart and lung problems including asthma and bronchitis.

Other adverse effects.

Acid rain can damage buildings, historic monuments, and statues, especially those made of rocks, such as limestone and marble, that contain large amounts of calcium carbonate. Acids in the rain react with the calcium compounds in the stones to create gypsum, which then flakes off.  The effects of this are commonly seen on old gravestones, where acid rain can cause the inscriptions to become completely illegible. Acid rain also increases the corrosion rate of metals, in particular iron, steel, copper and bronze.

Affected areas.

Places significantly impacted by acid rain around the globe include most of eastern Europe from Poland northward into Scandinavia, the eastern third of the United States, and southeastern Canada. Other affected areas include the southeastern coast of China and Taiwan.

Prevention methods.

Technical solutions.

Many coal-firing power stations use flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) to remove sulfur-containing gases from their stack gases. For a typical coal-fired power station, FGD will remove 95% or more of the SO in the flue gases. An example of FGD is the wet scrubber which is commonly used. A wet scrubber is basically a reaction tower equipped with a fan that extracts hot smoke stack gases from a power plant into the tower. Lime or limestone in slurry form is also injected into the tower to mix with the stack gases and combine with the sulfur dioxide present. The calcium carbonate of the limestone produces pH-neutral calcium sulfate that is physically removed from the scrubber. That is, the scrubber turns sulfur pollution into industrial sulfates.  In some areas the sulfates are sold to chemical companies as gypsum when the purity of calcium sulfate is high. In others, they are placed in landfill. The effects of acid rain can last for generations, as the effects of pH level change can stimulate the continued leaching of undesirable chemicals into otherwise pristine water sources, killing off vulnerable insect and fish species and blocking efforts to restore native life.  Fluidized bed combustion also reduces the amount of sulfur emitted by power production.  Vehicle emissions control reduces emissions of nitrogen oxides from motor vehicles.

International treaties.

International treaties on the long-range transport of atmospheric pollutants have been agreed for example, the 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. Canada and the US signed the Air Quality Agreement in 1991. Most European countries and Canada have signed the treaties.

Emissions trading.

In this regulatory scheme, every current polluting facility is given or may purchase on an open market an emissions allowance for each unit of a designated pollutant it emits. Operators can then install pollution control equipment, and sell portions of their emissions allowances they no longer need for their own operations, thereby recovering some of the capital cost of their investment in such equipment. The intention is to give operators economic incentives to install pollution controls.  The first emissions trading market was established in the United States by enactment of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. The overall goal of the Acid Rain Program established by the Act is to achieve significant environmental and public health benefits through reductions in emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO) and nitrogen oxides (NO), the primary causes of acid rain. To achieve this goal at the lowest cost to society, the program employs both regulatory and market based approaches for controlling air pollution.

Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it has elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Some governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes, and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions. Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect and aquatic life-forms, causing paint to peel, corrosion of steel structures such as bridges, and weathering of stone buildings and statues as well as having impacts on human health.

Kyselý déšť je definován jako typ srážek s pH nižším než 5,6. Normální déšť má pH mírně pod 6 – je mírně kyselý. Toto přirozené okyselení způsobuje oxid uhličitý, který tvoří s vodou slabou kyselinu uhličitou.


Overview.

A multiple of a number is the product of that number and an integer. For example, 10 is a multiple of 5 because 5 × 2 = 10, so 10 is divisible by 5 and 2. Because 10 is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both 5 and 2, it is the least common multiple of 5 and 2. By the same principle, 10 is the least common multiple of −5 and −2 as well.

Notation.

The least common multiple of two integers "a" and "b" is denoted as lcm("a", "b"). Some older textbooks use ["a", "b"], while the programming language J uses codice_1.

Example.

LCM(4, 6)  Multiples of 4 are:  Multiples of 6 are:  "Common multiples" of 4 and 6 are the numbers that are in both lists:  So, from this list of the first few common multiples of the numbers 4 and 6, their "least common multiple" is 12.

Applications.

When adding, subtracting, or comparing simple fractions, the least common multiple of the denominators often called the lowest common denominator is used because each of the fractions can be expressed as a fraction with this denominator. For example,  where the denominator 42 was used because it is the least common multiple of 21 and 6.

Gears problem.

Suppose there are two meshing gears in a machine, having "m" and "n" teeth, respectively, and the gears are marked by a line segment drawn from the center of the first gear to the center of the second gear. When the gears begin rotating, the number of rotations the first gear must complete to realign the line segment can be calculated by using formula_2. The first gear must complete formula_3 rotations for the realignment. By that time, the second gear will have made formula_4 rotations.

Planetary alignment.

Suppose there are three planets revolving around a star which take "l", "m" and "n" units of time respectively to complete their orbits. Assume that "l", "m" and "n" are integers. Assuming the planets started moving around the star after an initial linear alignment, all the planets attain a linear alignment again after formula_5 units of time. At this time, the first, second and third planet will have completed formula_6, formula_7 and formula_8 orbits respectively around the star.

Calculation.

Using the greatest common divisor.

The following formula reduces the problem of computing the least common multiple to the problem of computing the greatest common divisor (GCD), also known as the greatest common factor:  This formula is also valid when exactly one of "a" and "b" is 0, since gcd("a", 0) = |"a"|. However, if both "a" and "b" are 0, this formula would cause division by zero; lcm(0, 0) = 0 is a special case.  There are fast algorithms for computing the GCD that do not require the numbers to be factored, such as the Euclidean algorithm. To return to the example above,  Because gcd("a", "b") is a divisor of both "a" and "b", it is more efficient to compute the LCM by dividing "before" multiplying:  This identity is self-dual:

Other.

Then  where the absolute bars || denote the cardinality of a set.

In commutative rings.

The least common multiple can be defined generally over commutative rings as follows: Let "a" and "b" be elements of a commutative ring "R". A common multiple of "a" and "b" is an element "m" of "R" such that both "a" and "b" divide "m" (that is, there exist elements "x" and "y" of "R" such that "ax" = "m" and "by" = "m"). A least common multiple of "a" and "b" is a common multiple that is minimal in the sense that for any other common multiple "n" of "a" and "b", "m" divides "n".  In general, two elements in a commutative ring can have no least common multiple or more than one. However, any two least common multiples of the same pair of elements are associates. In a unique factorization domain, any two elements have a least common multiple. In a principal ideal domain, the least common multiple of "a" and "b" can be characterised as a generator of the intersection of the ideals generated by "a" and "b" (the intersection of a collection of ideals is always an ideal).

In arithmetic and number theory, the least common multiple, lowest common multiple, or smallest common multiple of two integers "a" and "b", usually denoted by LCM("a", "b"), is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both "a" and "b". Since division of integers by zero is undefined, this definition has meaning only if "a" and "b" are both different from zero. However, some authors define LCM ("a",0) as 0 for all "a", which is the result of taking the LCM to be the least upper bound in the lattice of divisibility.

Nejmenší společný násobek (zkratka NSN, anglicky LCM - Least Common Multiple) několika daných čísel je nejmenší kladné celé číslo, které je celočíselným násobkem všech daných čísel. Společný násobek dvou nebo několika čísel je takové číslo, které je násobkem každého z těchto daných čísel.


History of Salyut space stations.

The programme was composed of civilian stations and military stations:  It was realized that the later civilian DOS stations could not only offer a cover story for the military Almaz programme, but could also be finished within one year and at least a year earlier than Almaz. The Salyut programme begun on 15 February 1970 on the condition that the crewed lunar program would not suffer. However, the engineers at OKB-1 perceived the L3 lunar lander effort as a dead-end and immediately switched to working on DOS. In the end it turned out that the Soviet N1 "Moon Shot" rocket never flew successfully, so OKB-1's decision to abandon the lunar program and derive a DOS space station from existing Soyuz subsystems and an Almaz/OPS hull proved to be right: The actual time from the DOS station's inception to the launch of the first DOS-based Salyut 1 space station took only 16 months; the world's first space station was launched by the Soviet Union, two years before the American Skylab or the first Almaz/OPS station flew.  Initially, the space stations were to be named "Zarya", the Russian word for 'Dawn'. However, as the launch of the first station in the programme was prepared, it was realised that this would conflict with the call sign "Zarya" of the flight control centre (TsUP) in Korolyov – therefore the name of the space stations was changed to "Salyut" shortly before launch of "Salyut 1". Another explanation given is that the name might have offended the Chinese, who purportedly were preparing a new rocket for launch, which they had already named "Dawn". The Salyut programme was managed by Kerim Kerimov, chairman of the state commission for Soyuz missions.  A total of nine space stations were launched in the Salyut programme, with six successfully hosting crews and setting some records along the way. However, it was the stations Salyut 6 and Salyut 7 that became the workhorses of the program. Out of the total of 1,697 days of occupancy that all Salyut crews achieved, Salyut 6 and 7 accounted for 1,499. While Skylab already featured a second docking port, these two Salyut stations became the first that actually utilized two docking ports: This made it possible for two Soyuz spacecraft to dock at the same time for crew exchange of the station and for Progress spacecraft to resupply the station, allowing for the first time a continuous ("permanent") occupation of space stations.  The heritage of the Salyut programme continued to live on in the first multi-module space station "Mir" with the Mir Core Module ("DOS-7"), that accumulated 4,592 days of occupancy, and in the International Space Station (ISS) with the "Zvezda" module ("DOS-8"), that accumulated 4,310 days of occupancy. Furthermore, the Functional Cargo Block space station modules were derived from the Almaz programme, with the "Zarya" ISS module being still in operation together with "Zvezda".

First generation – The first space stations.

Salyut 1 (DOS-1).

Salyut 1 (DOS-1) (; ) was launched on 19 April 1971. It was the first space station to orbit the Earth.  Its first crew launched in Soyuz 10 but were unable to board due to a failure in the docking mechanism; its second crew launched in Soyuz 11 and remained on board for 23 productive days. The world's first successful crewed flight to a space station was however overshadowed when the crew was killed before the re-entry of Soyuz 11 on 30 June 1971. A pressure equalisation valve in the descent module of the Soyuz opened prematurely when the three modules of the spacecraft separated, suffocating all three. Salyut 1 was moved to a higher orbit between July and August 1971 to ensure that it would not be destroyed prematurely through orbital decay. In the meantime, Soyuz capsules were being substantially re-designed to allow pressure suits to be worn during launch, docking maneuvers, and re-entry. However, Salyut 1 ran out of supplies before the Soyuz redesign effort was concluded, and it was decided to fire the engines for the last time on 11 October, to lower its orbit and ensure prompt destructive re-entry over the Pacific Ocean. After 175 days in space, the first real space station came to an end.

DOS-2.

DOS-2 was launched on 29 July 1972. It was similar in design to Salyut 1. The second stage of its Proton rocket failed; DOS-2 never reached orbit and crashed into the Pacific Ocean.

Salyut 2 (OPS-1, military).

Salyut 2 (OPS-1) (; ) was launched on 4 April 1973. The space station was, despite its "Salyut 2" designation, slated to be the first military space station, part of the highly classified Almaz military space station program – the Salyut designation was chosen to conceal its true nature. Although it launched successfully, within two days Salyut 2 began losing atmospheric pressure as its flight control system failed. The cause of the failure was likely shrapnel from the discarded and exploded Proton rocket upper stage that pierced the station. On 11 April 1973, seven days after launch, an unexplained accident caused both solar panels to be torn loose from the space station, cutting off all power. Salyut 2 re-entered on 28 May 1973.

Kosmos 557 (DOS-3).

The module DOS-3 was launched on 11 May 1973 – three days before the launch of Skylab – and was slated to become the next civilian space station with a Salyut designation. Due to errors in the flight control system while out of range from ground control, the station fired its orbital-correction engines until it consumed all of its fuel. Since the spacecraft was already in orbit and had been registered by Western radar, the Soviets disguised the launch as "Kosmos 557" – it was revealed to have been a Salyut station only much later. It re-entered Earth's atmosphere a week later, and burned up on re-entry.

Salyut 3 (OPS-2, military).

Salyut 3 (OPS-2) (; ) was launched on 25 June 1974. Like Salyut 2, it was another Almaz military space station, although unlike its predecessor, it was launched successfully. It was used to test a wide variety of reconnaissance sensors, returning a canister of film for analysis. On 24 January 1975, after the station had been ordered to deorbit, trials of an on-board autocannon (either a 23 mm Nudelman aircraft cannon or its 30 mm counterpart) were conducted with positive results at ranges from 3000 m to 500 m. Cosmonauts have confirmed that a target satellite was destroyed in the test. The next day, the station was ordered to deorbit. Only one of the two intended crews successfully boarded and crewed the station, brought by Soyuz 14; Soyuz 15 attempted to bring a second crew but failed to dock. Nevertheless, it was an overall success. The station's orbit decayed, and it re-entered the atmosphere on 24 January 1975.

Salyut 4 (DOS-4).

Salyut 4 (DOS-4) (; ) was launched on 26 December 1974. It was essentially a copy of DOS-3, but was a complete success. Two crews made stays aboard Salyut 4 (Soyuz 17 and Soyuz 18), including one of 63 days duration. An uncrewed Soyuz capsule (Soyuz 20) remained docked to the station for three months, proving the system's long-term durability. Salyut 4 was deorbited on 2 February 1977, and re-entered the Earth's atmosphere the next day.

Salyut 5 (OPS-3, military).

Salyut 5 (OPS-3) (; English translation "Salute 5") was launched on 22 June 1976. It was the third and last Almaz military space station. Its launch and subsequent mission were both completed successfully, with three crews launching and two (Soyuz 21 and Soyuz 24) successfully boarding the craft for lengthy stays (the second crew on Soyuz 23 was unable to dock and had to abort). Salyut 5 reentered on 8 August 1977.  Following Salyut 5, the Soviet military decided that with the advent of more sophisticated spy satellites, the tactical advantages were not worth the expense of the program and withdrew from the program. The focuses for the last two Salyut stations shifted towards civilian research and prestige for the Soviet Union.

Second generation – Long-duration inhabitation of space.

In 1977 another marked step forward was made with the second generation of Salyut stations. The aim was to continuously occupy a space station with long-duration expeditions, for the first time in spaceflight.  Although Salyut 6 and Salyut 7 resembled the previous Salyut stations in overall design, several revolutionary changes were made to the stations and program for the aim of continuous occupation. The new stations featured a longer design life and a second docking port at the aft of the stations – crew exchanges and station "handovers" were now made possible by docking two crewed Soyuz spacecraft at the same time. Furthermore, the uncrewed Progress resupply craft was created based on the crewed Soyuz, to resupply the crew and station with air, air regenerators, water, food, clothing, bedding, mail, propellants, pressurant, and other supplies. While the Progress docked to the station's second docking port, the crew's Soyuz spacecraft could remain docked to the station's first port. The Progress spacecraft even delivered hardware for updating onboard experiments and permitting repairs to the station, extending its life.

Salyut 6 (DOS-5).

Salyut 6 (DOS-5) (; ) was launched on 29 September 1977. Salyut 6 was crewed between 1977 and 1981 by 16 spacecraft, bringing five long-duration crews ("expeditions") and 11 short-term crews. The very first long-duration crew on Salyut 6 broke a record set onboard Skylab, staying 96 days in orbit. The short-term crews included foreign cosmonauts from the Interkosmos programme setting several firsts: the first citizen in space of a nation other than the United States or the Soviet Union, the first black and Hispanic person in space and the first Asian person in space. The longest flight onboard Salyut 6 lasted 185 days. The third long-duration Salyut 6 crew deployed a 10-meter radio-telescope antenna delivered by an uncrewed cargo spacecraft.  After Salyut 6 crewed operations were discontinued in 1981, a heavy uncrewed spacecraft called TKS, developed using hardware left from the canceled Almaz programme, was docked to the station as a hardware test. Some unconfirmed reports say that the station was functionally capable of even more missions, but combating the ever-increasing mold in living quarters was becoming impossible, and in practice caused the retirement decision. Salyut 6 was deorbited on 29 July 1982.

Salyut 7 (DOS-6).

Salyut 7 (DOS-6) (; ) was launched on 19 April 1982. DOS-6 was built as the backup vehicle for Salyut 6 with very similar equipment and capabilities, though several more advanced features were included. The station was in orbit for eight years and ten months, during which time it was crewed by ten spacecraft bringing six long-duration crews ("expeditions") and 4 short-term crews (including French and Indian cosmonauts in the Interkosmos programme).  On 12 February 1985, during an uncrewed period, contact with Salyut 7 was lost. The station had become crippled by electrical problems, with all systems shut down and the station beginning to drift. It was decided to put together a salvage mission, and on June 1985 the Soyuz T-13 mission, in what was in the words of author David S. F. Portree "one of the most impressive feats of in-space repairs in history," managed to bring the station online again.  The Soyuz T-15 mission was the last to visit Salyut 7 in 1986, ferrying equipment from Salyut 7 to the new "Mir" space station; This was so far the only ferry flight between two space stations.  Aside from the many experiments and observations made on Salyut 7, the station also tested the docking and use of large modules with an orbiting space station. These modules, called "Heavy Cosmos modules", helped engineers develop technology necessary to build "Mir".  Salyut 7 was deorbited on 7 February 1991.

Salyut's heritage – Modular space stations.

After the second generation, plans for the next generation of Salyut stations called for the cores DOS-7 and DOS-8 to allow, for the first time in spaceflight, the addition of several modules to a station core and to create a modular space station. For this, the DOS modules were to be equipped with a total of four docking ports: one docking port at the aft of the station as in the second generation Salyuts, and the replacement of the front docking port with a "docking sphere" containing a front port and starboard docking port.  While the station cores DOS-7 and DOS-8 were built and flown, they never received the Salyut designation. Instead, DOS-7 evolved into the Mir Core Module for the "Mir" space station that followed the Salyut programme, and DOS-8 was used as the "Zvezda" Service Module for the International Space Station (ISS) which followed "Mir".  The heritage from the Almaz program is present even today. While the last space station from the Almaz programme was flown as Salyut 5 in 1976, the development of the Almaz TKS spacecraft evolved into the Functional Cargo Block, which formed the basis for several "Mir" modules, the experimental Polyus orbital weapons platform and the "Zarya" module of the ISS.

Mir Core Module (DOS-7).

DOS-7 continued to be developed during Salyut 7, becoming the Mir Core Module of the "Mir" space station – the first modular space station, with crewed operations lasting from 1986 to 2000.  The station featured upgraded computers and solar arrays, and accommodations for two cosmonauts each having their own cabin. A total of six docking ports were available on the Mir Core Module, which were used for space station modules and visiting spacecraft – the docking sphere design had been upgraded from its initial Salyut design to contain a maximum of five docking ports (front, port, starboard, zenith and nadir). And finally, the modules for "Mir" were derived from the Functional Cargo Block design of the Almaz programme.  The name of the "Mir" space station –, literally "Peace" or "World" – was to signify the intentions of the Soviet Union to bring peace to the world. However, it was during the time of "Mir" that the Soviet Union was dissolved in 1991, ending what was begun with the 1917 October Revolution in Russia. This dissolution had started with the Soviet "perestroika and glasnost" ("restructuring and openness") reform campaigns by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in the 1980s, had reached a preliminary endpoint with the revolutions of 1989 and the end of the communist Eastern Bloc (Warsaw Pact and the CoMEcon), finally to reach the Soviet Union itself in 1991.  While the Russian Federation became the successor to much of the dissolved Soviet Union and was in a position to continue the Soviet space program with the Russian Federal Space Agency, it faced severe difficulties: imports and exports had steeply declined as the economic exchange with CoMEcon nations had crumbled away, leaving the industry of the former Soviet Union in shambles. Not only did the political change in eastern Europe signify an end of contributions to the space program by eastern European nations (such as the East German Carl Zeiss Jena), but parts of the Soviet space industry were located in the newly independent Ukraine, which was similarly cash-strapped as Russia and started to demand hard currency for its contributions.  It was during this time of transition and upheaval that the Shuttle–Mir Program was established between the Russian Federation and the United States in 1993. The former adversaries would now cooperate, with "Phase One" consisting of joint missions and flights of the US Space Shuttle to the Mir space station. It was a partnership with stark contrasts – Russia needed an inflow of hard currency to keep their space program aloft, while in the US it was seen as a chance to learn from the over 20 years of experience of Soviet space station operations. It was "Phase Two" of this Shuttle-Mir Program that would lead to the International Space Station.

Zvezda ISS Service Module (DOS-8).

DOS-8 evolved into the Mir-2 project, intended to replace "Mir". Finally, it became the International Space Station (ISS) "Zvezda" Service Module and formed the core of the early ISS together with the "Zarya" module (which was derived from Almaz Functional Cargo Block designs).

Data table.

For comparison, the modules that were derived from the Salyut/DOS development: All data for "Zvezda" (DOS-8).

The "Salyut" programme (,, meaning "salute" or "fireworks") was the first space station programme, undertaken by the Soviet Union. It involved a series of four crewed scientific research space stations and two crewed military reconnaissance space stations over a period of 15 years, from 1971 to 1986. Two other "Salyut" launches failed. In one respect, "Salyut" had the task of carrying out long-term research into the problems of living in space and a variety of astronomical, biological and Earth-resources experiments, and on the other hand the USSR used this civilian program as a cover for the highly secretive military "Almaz" stations, which flew under the "Salyut" designation. "Salyut" 1, the first station in the program, became the world's first crewed space station.

Saljut (rusky "Салю́т"; "„pozdrav“") byl sovětský program kosmických stanic a také název jednotlivých stanic tohoto programu. Program Saljut později nahradil z něho vycházející program Mir.


History.

The Falcon was released in late 1992 but was subsequently discontinued in late 1993 as Atari restructured itself to focus completely on the release and support of its newest product, the Atari Jaguar video game console. The Falcon was sold in relatively small numbers, chiefly to hobbyists.  Atari created a number of prototypes of the Falcon040 (based on the more capable fully pipelined, integrated-FPU, Motorola 68040, and using a "microbox" case), but canceled it. The microbox case resembled the later Sony PlayStation 2, right down to the ability to run it vertically or horizontally. It is even referenced in the PS2 patent applications.  Shortly after release, Atari bundled the MultiTOS operating system in addition to TOS. TOS remained in ROM, and MultiTOS was supplied on floppy disk and could be installed to boot from hard disk.  In 1995, the music company C-Lab bought the rights to the Falcon hardware design and began producing their own versions. The Falcon Mk I was a direct continuation of Atari's Falcon030 with TOS 4.04. The Falcon Mk II addressed a number of shortcomings in the original design, making it more suitable to use in a recording studio (these were unofficially termed 'Cubase modifications') such as accepting Line-level audio in without the need for a pre-amp or mixer. The Falcon Mk X was mounted in a 19" 1U rack case, with external keyboard and space for internal SCSI hard disk drives.  Due to its expansion capabilities, several accelerators have been produced. Some of them overclock the CPU and/or the bus, while others upgrade the CPU to a Motorola 68060.

Specifications (Falcon030).

Source.

Hardware.

The heart of the system is the 32-bit Motorola 68030 clocked at 16 MHz. It runs at about 5.76 MIPS while displaying video modes with the fewest colors. Despite its 32-bit CPU, the Falcon does not have 32-bit architecture throughout its design, as it has a 16-bit data bus and a 24-bit address bus. This reduces the 68030's performance when not operating inside its tiny cache and limits the maximum system memory to ≈14 MB.  The microprocessor is supported by a Motorola 56001 DSP clocked at 32 MHz and performing ca. 16 million instructions per second. Although it is oriented to sound processing (it is directly connected to the RAM and codec via an interconnection matrix), it is also capable of graphics processing (for example, calculation of fractals, deformations, 3D projections, and JPEG decompression). It can even, jointly with the 68030, play MP3 files in real time.  Another innovation (for its time) is the VIDEL video controller. The possibilities offered by the graphics processor are limited only by its frequency (25/32 MHz core, adjustable to 50 MHz with a hardware accelerator) and the slowness of the RAM, as the graphics memory is shared with system memory which can degrade performance significantly when using high resolutions or video modes requiring many bit planes. The parameters are numerous; each timing of a video line (start, end, number of pixels, etc.) is adjustable, the image may be interlaced or not, and the vertical frequency can go down to 50 Hz interlaced to display on a television. The number of colors is also adjustable when VIDEL operates in bit plane mode. This mode is available for compatibility with the previous generation, but is quite complex to manage. There is also a "true color" 16-bit mode in which bits defining each pixel are grouped together to display 65,536 colors simultaneously, though CPU performance is degraded while displaying this mode.  In addition, Atari adopted the IDE bus in addition to the SCSI bus for connecting hard drives and CD-ROM drives. This allows for less expensive disk and CD-ROM devices, as SCSI interfaced devices remained relatively expensive. However, the IDE connector is internal and requires case modification to connect two hard disks or a single CD-ROM. The other drawback is that this early IDE port uses only programmed I/O unlike a SCSI drive that can directly access the RAM (DMA).

The Atari Falcon030 Computer System is a personal computer released by Atari Corporation in 1992. The machine is based on a Motorola 68030 main CPU, and had a Motorola 56000 digital signal processor, a feature which distinguished it from most other microcomputers of the era.

Atari Falcon byl posledním počítačovým produktem firmy Atari, který je rovněž známý pod přesnějším označením "Atari Falcon030 Computer System". Počítač byl založený na tehdy hodně výkonném hlavním procesoru Motorola 68030 a kvalitním DSP procesoru Motorola 56001, což byla relativně běžná kombinace u skutečně vyspělých multimediálních počítačů typu NeXTstation, SGI Indigo a Macintosh.


History.

The Province was established in 1815, within the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, combining the valleys of Valtellina, Valchiavenna and Bormio.  Before the Roman conquest, the territory was inhabited by Celts (Lepontii) and Rhaetians (Camunni). The Romans included this area in their Cisalpine Gaul province.  After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it came under the control of the Lombards and was first ruled by feudal lords from the local area. During the Middle Ages it belonged to the Kingdom of Italy. In the 14th century it fell under the rule of the Duchy of Milan due to the House of Visconti and House of Sforza. Sondrio and Valtellina were strategically important in the politics of Europe, especially in the sixteenth and 17th century religious wars, due to their connections to Europe by Sondrio's Spluga Pass and valleys. Upon the collapse of the Duchy of Milan, rule over Sondrio was exercised by the Swiss Canton of Graubünden. Valtellina was invaded in 1622 by the Spanish Governor of Milan as the valleys had been used to transport troops around Europe; the Spanish efforts were assisted by a 1620 revolt in Valtellina against the Swiss.  The Peace of Westphalia (1648) secured peace in the region and granted the region to the Canton of Graubünden. In 1797, the Republic of Valtellina was formed but was quickly conquered by the French to become a component of the Cisalpine Republic client state. The Congress of Vienna (1815) Sondrio and Valtellina as a province of the Austrian Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia. Lombardy–Venetia was absorbed into the Kingdom of Italy in 1866.

Geography.

The Province of Sondrio is a mostly mountainous, sparsely populated area in the north of Lombardy. It borders on the Swiss canton of Graubünden to the north, the Provinces of Como and Lecco to the west, the Province of Bergamo to the south and the Provinces of Brescia, Trento and Bolzano to the east. The Rhaetian Alps are the highest mountains in Lombardy. The valleys mostly run from north to south, the main ones being the Valtellina and Valchiavenna. One of the main towns is Livigno (1,800 m above sea level), which is a tourist centre in the summer and a ski resort in the winter. There are 78 communes in the province and Sondrio is the biggest town and the administrative centre. The Stelvio National Park is located in the north-eastern end of the province.  The economy is based on construction, logging, quarrying, tourism and light industry. Workers from Switzerland commute to work in Sondrio, and other workers cross the border from Italy to join the Swiss workforce. Throughout the province grapes have traditionally been grown, each district having its own local variety and producing its own local wine. It has been necessary for farmers to engineer terraces on the steep slopes, building dry stone retaining walls and moving earth to make the best use of terrain that is unsuitable for general agricultural purposes. The traditions of viticulture are embedded in the culture of the countryside.

External links.

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The Province of Sondrio () is in the Lombardy region of northern Italy. Its provincial capital is the town Sondrio. As of 2017, it has a population of 181,403.

Sondrio ("Provincia di Sondrio") je provincie v oblasti Lombardie. Sousedí na severu a západě se Švýcarskem, na západě s provinciemi Como a Lecco, na jihu s provincií Bergamo a na východě s provinciemi Brescia, Bolzano a Trento.


Toponymy.

There is no definitive explanation for the origin of the name "Maine", but the most likely origin is that the name was given by early explorers after the former province of Maine in France. Whatever the origin, the name was fixed for English settlers in 1665 when the English King's Commissioners ordered that the "Province of Maine" be entered from then on in official records. The state legislature in 2001 adopted a resolution establishing Franco-American Day, which stated that the state was named after the former French province of Maine.  Other theories mention earlier places with similar names, or claim it is a nautical reference to the mainland. Captain John Smith, in his "Description of New England" (1614) bemoans the lack of exploration: "Thus you may see, of this 2000. miles more then halfe is yet vnknowne to any purpose: no not so much as the borders of the Sea are yet certainly discouered. As for the goodnes and true substances of the Land, wee are for most part yet altogether ignorant of them, vnlesse it bee those parts about the Bay of Chisapeack and Sagadahock: but onely here and there wee touched or haue seene a little the edges of those large dominions, which doe stretch themselues into the Maine, God doth know how many thousand miles;" Note that his description of the mainland of North America is "the Maine". The word "main" was a frequent shorthand for the word "mainland" (as in "The Spanish Main")  Attempts to uncover the history of the name of Maine began with James Sullivan's 1795 "History of the District of Maine." He made

History.

The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples, including the Passamaquoddy, Maliseet, Penobscot, Androscoggin and Kennebec. During the later King Philip's War, many of these peoples would merge in one form or another to become the Wabanaki Confederacy, aiding the Wampanoag of Massachusetts & the Mahican of New York. Afterwards, many of these people were driven from their natural territories, but most of the tribes of Maine continued, unchanged, until the American Revolution. Before this point, however, most of these people were considered separate nations. Many had adapted to living in permanent, Iroquois-inspired settlements, while those along the coast tended to be semi-nomadic—traveling from settlement to settlement on a yearly cycle. They would usually winter inland & head to the coasts by summer.  European contact with what is now called Maine started around 1200 CE when Norwegians interacted with the native Penobscot in present-day Hancock County, most likely through trade. About 200 years earlier, from the settlements in Iceland and Greenland, Norwegians had first identified America and attempted to settle areas such as Newfoundland, but failed to establish a permanent settlement there. Archeological evidence suggests that Norwegians in Greenland returned to North America for several centuries after the initial discovery to collect timber and to trade, with the most relevant evidence being the Maine Penny, an 11th-century Norwegian coin found at a Native American dig site in 1954.  The first European settlement in Maine was in 1604 on Saint Croix Island, led by French explorer Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. His party included Samuel de Champlain, noted as an explorer. The French named the entire area Acadia, including the portion that later became the state of Maine. The first English settlement in Maine was established by the Plymouth Company at the Popham Colony in 1607, the same year as the settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. The Popham colonists returned to Britain after 14 months.  The French established two Jesuit missions: one on Penobscot Bay in 1609, and the other on Mount Desert Island in 1613. The same year, Castine was established by Claude de La Tour. In 1625, Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour erected Fort Pentagouet to protect Castine. The coastal areas of eastern Maine first became the Province of Maine in a 1622 land patent. The part of western Maine north of the Kennebec River was more sparsely settled, and was known in the 17th century

Geography.

To the south and east is the Atlantic Ocean and to the north and northeast is New Brunswick, a province of Canada. The Canadian province of Québec is to the northwest. Maine is both the northernmost state in New England and also the largest, accounting for almost half of the region's entire land area. Maine is the only state to border exactly one other American state (New Hampshire).  Maine is the easternmost state in the United States both in its extreme points and in its geographic center. The town of Lubec is the easternmost organized settlement in the United States. Its Quoddy Head Lighthouse is also the closest place in the United States to Africa and Europe. Estcourt Station is Maine's northernmost point, as well as the northernmost point in New England. (For more information see extreme points of the United States.)  Maine's Moosehead Lake is the largest lake wholly in New England, since Lake Champlain is located between Vermont, New York and Québec. A number of other Maine lakes, such as South Twin Lake, are described by Thoreau in "The Maine Woods" (1864). Mount Katahdin is both the northern terminus of the Appalachian Trail, which extends southerly to Springer Mountain, Georgia, and the southern terminus of the new International Appalachian Trail which, when complete, will run to Belle Isle, Newfoundland and Labrador.  Machias Seal Island and North Rock, off the state's Downeast coast, are claimed by both Canada and the American town of Cutler, and are within one of four areas between the two countries whose sovereignty is still in dispute, but it is the only one of the disputed areas containing land. Also in this easternmost area in the Bay of Fundy is the Old Sow, the largest tidal whirlpool in the Western Hemisphere.  Maine is the least densely populated U.S. state east of the Mississippi River. It is called the Pine Tree State; over 80% of its total land is forested and/or unclaimed, the most forest cover of any U.S. state. In the forested areas of the interior lies much uninhabited land, some of which does not have formal political organization into local units (a rarity in New England). The Northwest Aroostook, Maine unorganized territory in the northern part of the state, for example, has an area of and a population of 10, or one person for every.  Maine is in the temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome. The land near the southern and central Atlantic coast is covered by the mixed oaks of the Northeastern coastal forests. The remainder of the state, including the North Woods, is covered by the New England-Acadian forests.  Maine has almost of coastline (and of tidal coastline). West Quoddy Head, in Lubec, Maine, is the easternmost point of land in the 48 contiguous states. Along the famous rock-bound coast of Maine are lighthouses, beaches, fishing villages, and thousands of offshore islands, including the Isles of Shoals which straddle the New Hampshire border. There are jagged rocks and cliffs and many bays and inlets. Inland are lakes, rivers, forests, and mountains. This visual contrast of forested slopes sweeping down to the sea has been summed up by American poet Edna St. Vincent Millay of Rockland and Camden, Maine, in "Renascence":  Geologists describe this type of landscape as a "drowned coast", where a rising sea level has invaded former land features, creating bays out of valleys and islands out of mountain tops. A rise in the elevation of the land due to the melting of heavy glacier ice caused a slight rebounding effect of underlying rock; this land rise, however, was not enough to eliminate all the effect of the rising sea level and its invasion of former land features.  Much of Maine's geomorphology was created by extended glacial activity at the end of the last ice age. Prominent glacial features include Somes Sound and Bubble Rock, both part of Acadia National Park on Mount Desert Island. Carved by glaciers, Somes Sound is considered to be the only fjord on the eastern seaboard and reaches depths of. The extreme depth and steep drop-off allow large ships to navigate almost the entire length of the sound. These features also have made it attractive for boat builders, such as the prestigious Hinckley Yachts.  Bubble Rock, a glacial erratic, is a large boulder perched on the edge of Bubble Mountain in Acadia National Park. By analyzing the type of granite, geologists were able to discover that glaciers carried Bubble Rock to its present location from near Lucerne, away. The Iapetus Suture runs through the north and west of the state, being underlain by the ancient Laurentian terrane, and the south and east underlain by the Avalonian terrane.  Acadia National Park is the only national park in New England. Areas under the protection and management of the National Park Service include:

Demographics.

Population.

The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Maine was 1,344,212 on July 1, 2019, a 1.19% increase since the 2010 United States Census. The population density of the state is 41.3 people per square mile, making it the least densely populated state east of the Mississippi River. As of 2010 Maine was also the most rural state in the Union, with only 38.7% of the state's population living within urban areas. As explained in detail under "Geography", there are large tracts of uninhabited land in some remote parts

Language.

Maine does not have an official language, but the most widely spoken language in the state is English. The 2000 Census reported 92.25% of Maine residents aged five and older spoke only English at home. French-speakers

Religion.

According to the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA), the religious affiliations of Maine in 2010 were:  The Catholic Church was the largest

Economy.

Total employment 2016 Total employer establishments 2016  The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that Maine's total gross state product for 2010 was $52 billion. Its per capita personal income for 2007 was $33,991, 34th in the nation., Maine's unemployment rate is 3.0% Maine's agricultural outputs include poultry, eggs, dairy products, cattle, wild blueberries, apples, maple syrup, and maple sugar. Aroostook County is known for its potato crops. Commercial fishing, once a mainstay of the state's economy, maintains a presence, particularly lobstering and groundfishing. While lobster is the main seafood focus for Maine, the harvest of both oysters and seaweed are on the rise. In 2015, 14% of the Northeast's total oyster supply came from Maine. In 2017, the production of Maine's seaweed industry was estimated at $20 million per year. The shrimp industry of Maine is on a government-mandated hold. With an ever-decreasing Northern shrimp population, Maine fishermen are no longer allowed to catch and sell shrimp. The hold began in 2014 and is expected to continue until 2021. Western Maine aquifers and springs are a major source of bottled water.  Maine's industrial outputs consist chiefly of paper, lumber and wood products, electronic equipment, leather products, food products, textiles, and bio-technology. Naval shipbuilding and construction remain key as well, with Bath Iron Works in Bath and Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery.  Brunswick Landing, formerly Naval Air Station Brunswick, is also in Maine. Formerly a large support base for the U.S. Navy, the BRAC campaign initiated the Naval Air Station's closing, despite a government-funded effort to upgrade its facilities. The former base has since been changed into a civilian business park, as well as a new satellite campus for Southern Maine Community College.  Maine is the number one U.S. producer of low-bush blueberries (Vaccinium angustifolium). Preliminary data from the USDA for 2012 also indicate Maine was the largest blueberry producer of the major blueberry producing states, with 91,100,000 lbs. This data includes both low (wild), and high-bush (cultivated) blueberries: Vaccinium corymbosum. The largest toothpick manufacturing plant in the United States used to be located in Strong, Maine. The Strong Wood Products plant produced 20 million toothpicks a day. It closed in May 2003.  Tourism and outdoor recreation play a major and increasingly important role in Maine's economy. The state is a popular destination for sport hunting (particularly deer, moose and bear), sport fishing, snowmobiling, skiing, boating, camping and hiking, among other activities.  Historically, Maine ports played a key role in national transportation. Beginning around 1880, Portland's rail link and ice-free port made it Canada's principal winter port, until the aggressive development of Halifax, Nova Scotia, in the mid-1900s. In 2013, 12,039,600 short tons passed into and out of Portland by sea, which places it 45th of U.S. water ports. Portland Maine's Portland International Jetport was recently expanded, providing the state with increased air traffic from carriers such as JetBlue and Southwest Airlines.  Maine has very few large companies that maintain headquarters in the state, and that number has fallen due to consolidations and mergers, particularly in the pulp and paper industry. Some of the larger companies that do maintain headquarters in Maine include Fairchild Semiconductor in South Portland; IDEXX Laboratories, in Westbrook; Hannaford Bros. Co. in Scarborough; TD Bank in Portland; L.L.Bean in Freeport; and Cole Haan in Yarmouth. Maine is also the home of the Jackson Laboratory, the world's largest non-profit mammalian genetic research facility and the world's largest supplier of genetically purebred mice.

Transportation.

Airports.

Maine receives passenger jet service at its two largest airports, the Portland International Jetport in Portland, and the Bangor International Airport in Bangor. Both are served daily by many major airlines to destinations such as New York, Atlanta, and Orlando. Essential Air Service also subsidizes service to a number of smaller airports in Maine, bringing small turboprop aircraft

Highways.

Interstate 95 (I-95) travels through Maine, as well as its easterly branch I-295 and spurs I-195, I-395 and the unsigned I-495 (the Falmouth Spur). In addition, U.S. Route 1 (US 1) starts in Fort Kent and travels to Florida. The eastern terminus of the eastern section of US 2 starts in Houlton,

Rail.

Passenger.

The "Downeaster" passenger train, operated by Amtrak, provides passenger service between Brunswick and

Freight.

Freight service throughout the state is provided by a handful of regional and shortline carriers: Pan Am Railways (formerly known as Guilford Rail System), which operates the former Boston & Maine and Maine Central railroads; St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad; Maine Eastern Railroad; Central Maine and Quebec Railway; and New Brunswick Southern Railway.

Law and government.

The Maine Constitution structures Maine's state government, composed of three co-equal branches—the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The state of Maine also has three Constitutional Officers (the Secretary of State, the State Treasurer, and the State Attorney General) and one Statutory Officer (the State Auditor).  The legislative branch is the Maine Legislature, a bicameral body composed of the Maine House of Representatives, with 151 members, and the Maine Senate, with 35 members. The Legislature is charged with introducing and passing laws.  The executive branch is responsible for the execution of the laws created by the Legislature and is headed by the Governor of Maine (currently Janet Mills). The Governor is elected every four years; no individual may serve more than two consecutive terms in this office. The current attorney general of Maine is Aaron Frey. As with other state legislatures, the Maine Legislature can by a two-thirds majority vote from both the House and Senate override a gubernatorial veto. Maine is one of seven states that do not have a lieutenant governor.  The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting state laws. The highest court of the state is the Maine Supreme Judicial Court. The lower courts are the District Court, Superior Court and Probate Court. All judges except for probate judges serve full-time, are nominated by the Governor and confirmed by the Legislature for terms of seven years. Probate judges serve part-time and are elected by the voters of each county for four-year terms.

Counties.

Maine is divided into political jurisdictions designated as counties. Since

State and local politics.

In state general elections, Maine voters tend to accept independent and third-party candidates more frequently than most states. Maine has had two independent governors recently (James B. Longley, 1975–1979 and current U.S. Senator Angus King, 1995–2003). Maine state politicians, Democrats and Republicans alike, are noted for

Federal politics.

In the 1930s, Maine was one of very few states which retained Republican sentiments. In the 1936 presidential election, Franklin D. Roosevelt received the electoral votes of every state other than Maine and Vermont; these were the only two states in the nation that never voted for Roosevelt in any of his presidential campaigns, though Maine was closely fought in 1940 and 1944. In the 1960s, Maine began to lean toward the Democrats, especially in presidential elections. In 1968, Hubert Humphrey became just the second Democrat in half a century to carry Maine, perhaps because of the presence of his running mate, Maine Senator Edmund Muskie, although the state voted Republican in every presidential election in the 1970s and 1980s. Since 1969, two of Maine's four electoral votes have been awarded based on the winner of the statewide election; the other two go to the highest vote-getter in each of the state's two congressional districts. Every other state except Nebraska gives all its electoral votes to the candidate who wins the popular vote in the state at large, without regard to performance within districts. Maine split its electoral vote for the first

Municipalities.

Organized municipalities.

An organized municipality has a form of elected local government which administers and provides local services, keeps records, collects licensing fees, and can pass locally binding ordinances, among other responsibilities of self-government. The governmental format of most organized towns

Unorganized territory.

Unorganized territory (UT) has no local government. Administration, services, licensing, and ordinances are handled by the state government as well as by respective county governments who have townships within each county's bounds. The unorganized territory of Maine consists of more than 400 townships (towns are incorporated, townships are unincorporated), plus many coastal islands that do not

Most populous cities and towns.

QuickFacts U.S. Census Maine Portland:  Throughout Maine, many municipalities, although each separate governmental entities, nevertheless form portions

Education.

There are thirty institutions of higher learning in Maine. These institutions include the University of Maine, which is the oldest, largest and only research university in the state. UMaine was founded in 1865 and is the state's only land grant and sea grant college. The University of Maine is located in the town of Orono and is the flagship of Maine. There are also branch campuses in Augusta, Farmington, Fort Kent, Machias, and Presque Isle.  Bowdoin College is a liberal arts college founded in 1794 in Brunswick, making it the oldest institution of higher learning in the state. Colby College in Waterville was founded in 1813 making it the second oldest college in Maine.

Culture.

Agriculture.

Maine was a center of agriculture before it achieved statehood. Prior to colonization, Wabanaki nations farmed large crops of corn and other produce in southern Maine. The state is a major producer of potatoes, wild blueberries, apples, maple syrup and sweet corn. Dairy products and chicken's eggs are other major industries.  Maine has many

Food.

Since the 1980s, the state has gotten a reputation for its local food and restaurant meals.

State symbols.

Adapted from

Notable people.

A citizen of Maine is known as a "Mainer", though the term is often reserved for those whose roots in Maine go back at least three generations. The term "Downeaster" may

External links.

State government  U.S. government  Information

Maine () is the northernmost state in the northeastern United States. Maine is the 12th smallest by area, the 9th least populous, and the 13th least densely populated of the 50 U.S. states. Located in New England, it is bordered by New Hampshire to the west, the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Québec to the northeast and northwest, respectively. Maine is the only state to border exactly one other state, is the easternmost among the contiguous United States, and is the northernmost state east of the Great Lakes.

Maine (anglická výslovnost, oficiálně ) je stát nacházející se na východním pobřeží Spojených států amerických, v oblasti Nové Anglie severovýchodního regionu USA. Maine, nejvýchodnější stát kontinentálních USA, hraničí na západě s New Hampshire, na severozápadě s kanadskou provincií Québec a na severu a východě s kanadskou provincií Nový Brunšvik; jihovýchodní ohraničení státu tvoří Atlantský oceán.


Geography.

The landscape of the Province of Teramo is dominated almost entirely on the east by a large body of water with the beaches of the Adriatic sea and by the Apennine Mountains which his highest peak of Gran Sasso d'Italia westside. The province is indeed divided latitudinally by the characteristic hills and valleys rich in vineyards and olive groves that begin in the Apennines and run almost to the coast. Colline Teramane (Teramo Hills) has become a trademark and are one of the most significant areas where extra virgin olive oil and Abruzzo wines are produced. Unique of the province of Teramo is the short distance between the beaches of the Adriatic sea and the snowcapped Gran Sasso peaks. They can be reached within an hour from one point to the other. The peaks of the Gran Sasso rise to the west of the Province of Teramo while those of the Monti della Laga dominate its northern border. These two ridges are among the most distinctive and the most relevant of the entire Apennine Mountain range. The majestic Gran Sasso rises at its peak, the Corno Grande, to an elevation of and is characterized by steep, and in places virtually inaccessible, gorges with nature reserves and protected living species. A good part of Gran Sasso and Monti della Laga National Park is nestled in the province. Calderone, the southernmost glacier in Continental European, is found nearby. In contrast to the rugged and isolated Gran Sasso area, the Monti della Laga are characterised by thick forests, shallow gorges, rolling slopes and valleys, and several spectacular waterfalls. In addition to the provincial capital, the most populous and important commercial centers include Roseto degli Abruzzi and Giulianova with populations of 25,000 and 24,000 inhabitants respectively. On the eastern portion of the province are the so-called "seven sister" beaches directly adjacent to the Adriatic Sea. These resorts are noted for one the highest blue flag beaches density, very fine white sand and their mild and wholesome Mediterranean climates which support a rich flora of palm, pine and oleander trees. Much of the province is hilly and very few large flat plains are to be found. Running from the west to the east are a number of valley streams and rivers which eventually empty into the Adriatic Sea. The province of Teramo can easily be reached by car or bus from Rome via the A24 highway and it is also connected to the A14 highway.

Culture.

Towns in the Province of Teramo include Civitella del Tronto and Atri. The first stood as the northernmost protective point of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. In Atri there is a Roman Catholic cathedral and a theatre. The provincial capital of Teramo hosts a large cathedral and has for centuries served all of Abruzzo as a main administrative and economic center.  On 15 September 2005 the President of Italy, Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, went to Teramo to make a special presentation in honour of the resistance movement that arose in this town against the Nazi forces during the Second World War. A special note was made of the young Italian partisans who gathered in the village of Bosco Martese. There they risked deportation, severe reprisals, and other barbarous acts.

Tourism.

Main tourist attractions include:  From north to south, the province of Teramo boasts several blue flag beaches on the Adriatric Seacoast, called the seven sisters, are the following:

Transportation.

Major highways.

The Province of Teramo can be reached from the north and the south by the main highway, the A14, that runs along the Adriatic Coast. It can be reached from the west by the A24 coming from Rome via L'Aquila.

Railroad lines.

The central railroad station of the province is located in Giulianova. From here is it possible to follow the coastline to the north and south or to travel in a westerly direction towards the provincial capital.

Seaports.

The port of Giulianova is the maritime terminal of the Province of Teramo.

Administration.

Since 2009, the president of the province has been Valter Catarra of the centre-right political party.

Major "comuni".

The main "comuni" and towns by population as of 2005 are:  Teramo (52,794), Roseto degli Abruzzi (23,669), Giulianova (21,875), Silvi Marina (15,247), Martinsicuro (15,047), Pineto (13,763), Atri (11,269), Alba Adriatica (11,219), Sant'Egidio alla Vibrata (9,177), Mosciano Sant'Angelo (8,559), Tortoreto (8,536), Montorio al Vomano (8,072), Campli (7,598), Bellante (7,208).

The Province of Teramo (; Abruzzese: "") is a province in the Abruzzo region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Teramo. The province has an area of, a population of 313,029 (2012), and is subdivided into 47 comunes (), see Comunes of the Province of Teramo. The Province of Teramo shares its northern border with the Province of Ascoli Piceno in the Marche Region, southern and southwestern borders with the Province of L'Aquila in the Abruzzo Region, and a western border with the Province of Rieti in the Region of Lazio. To the south is the Abruzzo Province of Pescara and to the east is the Adriatic Sea.

Teramo ("Provincia di Teramo") je provincie v oblasti Abruzzo. Sousedí na severu s Ascoli Piceno, na jihu s provincií Pescara, na jihozápadě s provincií L'Aquila a na západě s provincií Rieti. Na východě její břehy omývá Jaderské moře.


Name.

The name "Sør-Trøndelag" was created in 1919. It means '(the) southern (part of) Trøndelag'.  Until 1919 the name of the county was "Søndre Trondhjems amt". The meaning of this name was '(the) southern (part of) Trondhjems amt'. (The old "Trondhjems amt", created in 1662, was divided in 1804. "Trondhjem" is the old form of Trondheim.)  See also Nord-Trøndelag

Coat of arms.

The coat of arms was from modern times (1983) - but it had old roots: it was the seal of, archbishop of Trondheim 1475–1510.

Geography.

Sør-Trøndelag consisted of 25 municipalities and had a total area of. Trondheim is the largest city and the county's administrative center.  The broad and long Trondheimsfjord is at the center of this county, although the coastal areas stretch somewhat further north. The mountain ranges Dovrefjell and Trollheimen are located in the south, while the Fosen peninsula is located north of the fjord. The highest mountain is the tall Storskrymten, which is located in the county border between Møre og Romsdal, Oppland, and Trondelag. Its longest river is Orkla which runs through Trøndelag and Hedmark.  Several of the best salmon rivers in Europe are located in the county, the largest and most famous being Gaula and Orklaelva. Dovrefjell–Sunndalsfjella National Park, Forollhogna National Park, Skarvan and Roltdalen National Park and Femundsmarka National Park are located, or partly located, in the county.

History.

People have lived in this region for thousands of years (see Rock carvings in Central Norway, Nøstvet and Lihult cultures and Corded Ware culture). The fertile lowland bordering the Trondheimsfjord was probably the most important power centre in the Viking Age. Oretinget was an assembly hall located alongside the Nid River in Trondheim that served as the coronation place for Viking kings such as Harald Fairhair (865 to 933 AD) and his son Haakon I the Good. Nidaros (the former name of Trondheim) served as Norway's capital during the Viking era up until the early part of the 13th century.  Trondheim was the seat of the archbishop for several centuries, and an important pilgrimage destination following the death of St Olav in 1030.  Røros, in the southeastern part of the county, is a well-preserved mining town on a mountain plateau, and is a Unesco World Heritage Site.

Economy.

Mining in Røros and Løkken in Meldal lasted for about 300 years, and Thamshavnbanen, the old electric railway from Orkdal to Løkken, is still usable. The constant fires used to crack the rock in the mines demanded vast amounts of firewood; the montane forests on the mountain plateau near Røros still have not fully recovered. Along the coast, fishing has always been important. Farming was and still is important in the whole county, with the most economical important agriculture taking place in the fertile lowland valleys, such as in Melhus, Orkdal, Skaun, Midtre Gauldal, Malvik and Trondheim, but also near the outer seaboard, such as in Ørland and Rissa. The city of Trondheim has always been at the centre of this area, with administrative functions, as well as industry based on agricultural produce, and more recently education, high-tech business and healthcare.

Transportation.

Sør-Trøndelag is connected to the other counties by the European Route 6 (E6) which passes by Trondheim and connects Oslo in the south and runs north along the coast and terminates just east of Kirkenes in Finnmark. European route E39 connects Sør-Trøndelag to Møre og Romsdal.  There are two airports in Sør-Trøndelag: Røros airport and Ørland airport. Trondheim's airport, Værnes, is actually located in Stjørdal in Nord-Trøndelag.  There are local trains that connect several municipalities; there are also trains that connect Trondheim to Oslo, Bodø, Røros, and Steinkjer in Norway, as well as Storlien in Sweden.  Hurtigruten's coastal liner has daily, early- to mid-morning stops in Trondheim on both north- and south-bound trips. There are also frequent commuter boats that connect smaller communities including some that connect Trondheim to Vanviken as well as other ports of call including: Brekstad; Kjørsvikbugen; Volden, Hitra; and Kristiansund.  Additionally, during the summer months larger cruise ships stop in Trondheim.

Climate.

The weather is very much decided by the direction of the wind; southerlies and easterlies bring sunny weather, while westerlies bring precipitation with mild weather in winter and cool rainy weather in summer. Northwesterlies bring the worst weather with snow in winter (often sleet or rain on the coast). Average yearly precipitation varies from 2,000 mm in some areas of Fosen, to 850 mm in Trondheim and only 500 mm in Oppdal. The interior areas at somewhat higher elevations have cold winters with reliable snow cover, while the coastal areas have a maritime climate with mild and more windy winters. Sula in Frøya municipality has an average of 1.5 °C (34 °F) in the coldest month. Røros, at an altitude of 628 m (2,000 ft), has a January average of -11.2 °C (12 °F; Summer temperatures do not differ that much; sheltered lowlands a bit inland will have the warmest summers. "Base period 1961-1990."

Sør-Trøndelag was a county comprising the southern portion of the present-day Trøndelag county in Norway. It bordered the old Nord-Trøndelag county as well as the counties of Møre og Romsdal, Oppland, and Hedmark. To the west is the Norwegian Sea (Atlantic Ocean), and to the east is Jämtland in Sweden. The county was separated into a northern and southern part by the Trondheimsfjord. Slightly over 200,000 of the county's population (or around 55%) lives in the city of Trondheim and its suburbs. The Norwegian dialect of the region is Trøndersk.

Fylke Sør-Trøndelag byl územněsprávní jednotkou ve středním Norsku. Správním centrem území bylo město Trondheim. Správcem kraje byl "Fylkesmann i Sør-Trøndelag". Počet obyvatel dosáhl roku 2015 čísla 310 047. Rozloha kraje byla 18 839 km2.


Geography.

Perm Krai is located in the east of the East European Plain and the western slope of the Middle Ural Mountains. 99.8% of its area is in Europe, 0.2% in Asia.  The krai borders the Komi Republic in the north, Kirov Oblast in the northwest, the Udmurt Republic in the southwest, the Republic of Bashkortostan in the south, and Sverdlovsk Oblast in the east.  The krai borders stretch for over. The highest point is Mount Tulymsky Kamen at.

Rivers.

Rivers of Perm Krai belong to the Kama River Basin, the largest tributary of Volga River. There are more than 29,000 rivers in Perm Krai. The total length of all rivers is more than.  Only two rivers in Perm Krai have lengths exceeding. They are the Kama River at and the Chusovaya River,.  There are about 40 rivers with lengths from. The longest of them are:  There are also many small rivers, but some of them have historical significance, for example Yegoshikha River, in mouth of which city Perm was founded.

Climate.

Perm krai has a continental climate. Winters are long and snowy, with average temperatures in January varying from in the northeast part of krai to in southwest part. The record lowest recorded temperature was (in the north).

Minerals.

Perm Krai has an abundance of minerals. Oil, natural gas, gold, diamonds, chromites, peat, limestone and building materials are among the many natural resources extracted.  Oil in its area was first discovered in 1929 near settlement Verhnechusovskie Gorodki. Currently there are known more than 180 oil and gas fields. Among them are developed: 89 oil, 2 gas and 18 both oil and gas fields. Most of them are small and extracted in central and southern districts of krai. The northern fields are less developed because the oil lies deep under salt layers.  Coal has been mined in Perm Krai for more than 200 years. For a long time it played an important role in the fuel and energy balance in the region. Maximum mining was in 1960 and reached 12 million tonnes, after it mining decrease and there are no exploration of new fields.  The Verkhnekamskoye deposit of potassium salts is one of the largest in the world. Its is approx. 1,800 km2, and the thickness of the salt layers reaches 514 m.

Flora and fauna.

Forests cover about 71% of Perm krai's area. Coniferous forests predominate, with deciduous forests more common in the south. There are 62 species of mammals, more than 270 species of birds, 39 species of fishes, 6 species of reptile and 9 species of amphibians.  Three nature reserves are located in Perm Krai: Basegi, Vishera, Preduralie.

Politics.

During the Soviet period, the high authority in the oblast was shared between three persons: The first secretary of the Perm CPSU Committee (who in reality had the greatest authority), the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power), and the Chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament.  The Charter of Perm Krai is the fundamental law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Perm Krai is the province's standing legislative (representative) body. The Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body is the Oblast Government, which includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day to day matters of the province. The Oblast administration supports the activities of the Governor who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the oblast Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia.

Administrative divisions.

Administratively, the krai is divided into thirty-three districts, fourteen cities of krai significance, and one closed administrative-territorial formation. Six administrative districts are grouped into Komi-Permyak Okrug, which is an administrative unit with special status formed within Perm Krai as a result of the 2005 merger of Perm Oblast and Komi-Permyak Autonomous Okrug, both of which used to be the federal subjects.  Municipally, the territories of all administrative districts and those of nine cities of krai significance are incorporated as municipal districts. The remaining five cities are incorporated as urban okrugs.

Law enforcement.

The Directorate of the Ministry for Internal Affairs in Perm Krai (ГУ МВД России по Пермскому краю) or the Police of Perm (Полиция Перми) is the main law enforcement agency of the government of Perm Krai, Russia. It is answerable to the regional MVD and the governor of Perm Krai. The chief of police is Yuri Valyaev.

Economy.

Nonferrous metallurgy is based on ore processing Verkhnekamskoye potash deposit containing magnesium and rare metals. The factories are located in Berezniki (Titanium Magnesium Plant Corporation VSMPO) and Solikamsk (JSC Solikamsk magnesium plant).  In engineering plays an important role military production. The largest center of engineering is Perm; manufactured aircraft and rocket engines, oil field and mining equipment, Petrol motive-powered saws, communication equipment, vessels, cable and other products. The largest enterprises are Motovilikha Plants and Perm Motors. Timber Complex edge based on the use of the richest forest resources of Prikamye. Logging facilities are located mainly in the north of the region.

Demographics.

According to the 2010 Census, the population of Perm Krai is 2,635,276; down from 2,819,421 recorded in the 2002 Census, and further down from 3,099,994 recorded in the 1989 Census.  Ethnic groups, as of the 2010 Census, are: Russians (87.1%), Komi-Permyaks (3.2%), Tatars (4.6%), Bashkirs (1,3%), Ukrainians (0,6%), Udmurts (0,8%), Belarusians (0,3%), Germans (0,3%) and others. Additionally, 119,538 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group.  There are about 40,740 Bashkirs is Perm Krai, according to the 2002 Census. Most of them live in Bardymsky District, in basin of Tulva River and belong to the Gaina tribe.  Tatars live in almost all settlements of Perm Krai. There are several different ethnographical groups of Tatar people. In this territory there were longtime active contacts between Tatars and Bashkirs, so in some cases it is difficult to delineate the ethnic groups, especially in such areas as Kuyedinsky District and Tulva River basin.

Settlements.

Vital Statistics for 2007: Source  Death rates in some of the remote and rural areas in Perm Krai are very high, never seen before during times other than major wars or natural calamities. Just five districts out of a total of 47 have a surplus of births over death in Perm Krai. The birth rate in Perm Krai is much higher compared to other European regions. For example, the birth rate for Germany was 8.3 per 1000 in 2007. Perm as a whole is having 50% higher birth rate, and even the district with the lowest birth rate is having 20% higher BR compared to Germany. In 2008, the birth rate in Perm Krai was 8% higher than that of 2007. Close to 35.5 thousand births were recorded with the heaviest increases in City of Perm (+11%) and Komi-Permyak Autonomous Okrug (+18%). Among the districts, Kudymkar City recorded a 46% rise in birth rates for 2008 compared to 2007, while Usolsky recorded a 31% rise and Kyshertsky recorded a 29% rise. In 13 of the districts, there were more births than deaths, among them Ordynsky, Karagaysky, Kudimkar, Chernushynsky, Chaykovsky & Permsky.  Total fertility rate: 1995 - 1,31 | 2000 - 1,26 | 2005 - 1,34 | 2006 - 1,34 | 2007 - 1,47 | 2008 - 1,57 | 2009 - 1,61 | 2010 - 1,77 | 2011 - 1,78 | 2012 - 1,91 | 2013 - 1,93 | 2014 - 1,98 | 2015 - 2,02 | 2016 - 1,99(e)

Religion.

As of a 2012 survey 43% of the population of Perm Krai adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 5% declares to be generically unaffiliated Christian, 4% are Muslims, 2% are Rodnovers (Slavic folk religion), 1% are Old Believers, 1% Orthodox Christian believers who don't belong to churches or are members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 8% follows other religion or did not give an answer to the survey. In addition, 24% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious" and 14% to be either atheist or not religious.

Major attractions.

Perm Krai is home of several museums: Numerous architectural monuments are located in the small town of Usolye, in north of Perm Krai. Particularly important are the Saviour Cathedral, with a separate bell tower, and House of Stroganov.  There are many theaters in Perm, including the Perm Opera and Ballet Theater, the Perm Academic Theater, the Puppet Theater, the Theater for Young Spectators, the Theater "Near Bridge", and others.  There are many temples and convents in Perm Krai. The most significant of them are: Belogorsky Convent located in 85 km from Perm, Sludskaya Church, Fedosievskaya Church, Perm Mosque and others.  Ordinsky is home to the Orda underwater caves. Located near Orda village in Perm region, Ural, Orda Cave is also the biggest underwater gypsum crystal cave in the world.

Perm Krai () is a federal subject of Russia (a krai) that came into existence on December 1, 2005 as a result of the 2004 referendum on the merger of Perm Oblast and Komi-Permyak Autonomous Okrug. The city of Perm is the administrative center. The population of the krai was 2,635,276 according to the (2010 Census).

Permský kraj (rusky "Пермский край") je kraj na východě evropské části Ruské federace. Kraj vznikl 1. prosince 2005 na základě výsledku referenda konaného roku 2004 sloučením Permské oblasti a Komi-Permjackého autonomního okruhu. Jeho administrativním centrem je město Perm.