Life and career.

Early life and education.

Mosley was born on 16 November 1896 at 47 Hill Street, Mayfair, Westminster. He was the eldest of the three sons of Sir Oswald Mosley, 5th Baronet (1873–1928), and Katharine Maud Edwards-Heathcote (1874–1950), daughter of Captain Justinian H. Edwards-Heathcote of Apedale Hall, Staffordshire. He had two younger brothers: Edward Heathcote Mosley (1899–1980) and John Arthur Noel Mosley (1901–1973).  The family traces its roots to Ernald de Mosley of Bushbury, Staffordshire in the time of King John in the 12th century. The family was prominent in Staffordshire and three baronetcies were created, two of which are now extinct. His five-time great-grandfather John Parker Mosley, a Manchester hatter, was made a baronet in 1781. His branch of the Mosley family was the Anglo-Irish family at its most prosperous, landowners in Staffordshire seated at Rolleston Hall near Burton-upon-Trent. His father was a third cousin to the 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne, father of Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon the wife of Prince Albert, second son of King George V eventually becoming King George VI. Elizabeth reigned as his Queen from 1936 to 1952.  After his parents separated he was brought up by his mother, who went to live at Betton Hall near Market Drayton, and his paternal grandfather, Sir Oswald Mosley, 4th Baronet. Within the family and among intimate friends, he was always called "Tom". He lived for many years at his grandparents' stately home, Apedale Hall, and was educated at West Downs School and Winchester College.  Mosley was a fencing champion in his school days; he won titles in both foil and sabre, and retained an enthusiasm for the sport throughout his life.

Military service.

In January 1914, Mosley entered the Royal Military College, Sandhurst but was expelled in June for a "riotous act of retaliation" against a fellow student. During the First World War he was commissioned into the British cavalry unit the 16th The Queen's Lancers and fought in France on the Western Front. He transferred to the Royal Flying Corps as an observer, but while demonstrating in front of his mother and sister he crashed, which left him with a permanent limp, as well as a reputation for being brave and somewhat reckless. He returned to the trenches before the injury had fully healed and at the Battle of Loos (1915) passed out at his post from pain. He spent the remainder of the war at desk jobs in the Ministry of Munitions and in the Foreign Office.

Marriage to Lady Cynthia Curzon.

On 11 May 1920, he married Lady Cynthia "Cimmie" Curzon (1898–1933), second daughter of the 1st Earl Curzon of Kedleston, (1859–1925), Viceroy of India, 1899–1905, Foreign Secretary, 1919–1924, and Lord Curzon's first wife, the U.S. mercantile heiress, the former Mary Leiter.  Lord Curzon had to be persuaded that Mosley was a suitable husband, as he suspected Mosley was largely motivated by social advancement in Conservative Party politics and Cynthia's inheritance. The 1920 wedding took place in the Chapel Royal in St James's Palace in London – arguably the social event of the year. The hundreds of guests included King George V and Queen Mary, as well as foreign royalty such as the Duke and Duchess of Brabant (later King Leopold III and Queen Astrid of Belgium).  During this marriage, he began an extended affair with his wife's younger sister, Lady Alexandra Metcalfe, and with their stepmother, Grace Curzon, Marchioness Curzon of Kedleston, the American-born second wife and widow of Lord Curzon of Kedleston. He succeeded to the Baronetcy of Ancoats upon his father's death in 1928, which entitles the current holder to the prefix style "Sir".

India and Gandhi.

Among his many travels, Mosley travelled to India accompanied by Lady Cynthia in 1924. His father-in-law's past as Viceroy of the British Raj allowed for the acquaintance of various personalities along the journey. They travelled by ship and stopped briefly in Cairo.  Having initially arrived in Ceylon (present day Sri Lanka), the journey then continued through mainland India. They spent these initial days in the government house of Ceylon, followed by Madras and then Calcutta, where the Governor at the time was Lord Lytton.  Mosley met Gandhi through C.F. Andrews, a clergyman and an intimate friend of the "Indian Saint", as Mosley described him. They met in Kadda, where Gandhi was quick to invite him to a private conference in which Gandhi was chairman. They enjoyed each other's company for the short time they were together. Mosley later further described Gandhi as a "sympathetic personality of subtle intelligence".

Marriage to Diana Mitford.

Cynthia died of peritonitis in 1933, after which Mosley married his mistress Diana Guinness, "née" Mitford (1910–2003). They married in secret in Germany on 6 October 1936 in the Berlin home of Germany's Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda Joseph Goebbels. Adolf Hitler was their guest of honour.  Mosley spent large amounts of his private fortune on the British Union of Fascists (BUF) and tried to establish it on a firm financial footing by various means including an attempt to negotiate, through Diana, with Adolf Hitler for permission to broadcast commercial radio to Britain from Germany. Mosley reportedly made a deal in 1937 with Francis Beaumont, heir to the Seigneurage of Sark, to set up a privately owned radio station on Sark.

Member of Parliament.

By the end of the First World War, Mosley had decided to go into politics as a Conservative Member of Parliament, as he had no university education or practical experience due to the war. He was 21 years old and had not fully developed his own political views. He was driven by, and in Parliament spoke of, a passionate conviction to avoid any future war, and this seemingly motivated his career. Largely because of his family background and war service, local Conservative and Labour Associations preferred Mosley in several constituencies—a vacancy near the family estates seemed to be the best prospect. He was unexpectedly selected for Harrow first. In the general election of 1918 he faced no serious opposition and was elected easily. He was the youngest member of the House of Commons to take his seat, though Joseph Sweeney, an abstentionist Sinn Féin member, was younger. He soon distinguished himself as an orator and political player, one marked by extreme self-confidence, and he made a point of speaking in the House of Commons without notes.

Crossing the floor.

Mosley was at this time falling out with the Conservatives over Irish policy, and he condemned the operations of the Black and Tans in Ireland against civilians. Eventually, he crossed the floor to sit as an Independent Member on the opposition side of the House of Commons. Having built up a following in his constituency, he retained it against a Conservative challenge in the 1922 and 1923 general elections.  The Liberal "Westminster Gazette" wrote that Mosley was:  By 1924, he was growing increasingly attracted to the Labour Party, which had just formed a government, and in March he joined it. He immediately joined the Independent Labour Party (ILP) as well and allied himself with the left.  When the government fell in October, Mosley had to choose a new seat, as he believed that Harrow would not re-elect him as a Labour candidate. He therefore decided to oppose Neville Chamberlain in Birmingham Ladywood. Mosley campaigned aggressively in Ladywood, and accused Chamberlain of being a "landlords' hireling". The outraged Chamberlain demanded that Mosley retract the claim "as a gentleman". Mosley, whom Stanley Baldwin described as "a cad and a wrong 'un", refused to retract the allegation. It took several re-counts before Chamberlain was declared the winner by 77 votes and Mosley blamed poor weather for the result. His period outside Parliament was used to develop a new economic policy for the ILP, which eventually became known as the Birmingham Proposals; they continued to form the basis of Mosley's economics until the end of his political career.  In 1926, the Labour-held seat of Smethwick fell vacant, and Mosley returned to Parliament after winning the resulting by-election on 21 December. Mosley felt the campaign was dominated by Conservative attacks on him for being too rich, including claims that he was covering up his wealth.  Mosley and his wife Cynthia were committed Fabians in the 1920s and at the start of the 1930s. Mosley appears in a list of names of Fabians from "Fabian News" and the "Fabian Society Annual Report 1929–31". He was Kingsway Hall lecturer in 1924 and Livingstone Hall lecturer in 1931.

Office.

Mosley then made a bold bid for political advancement within the Labour Party. He was close to Ramsay MacDonald and hoped for one of the great offices of state, but when Labour won the 1929 general election he was appointed only to the post of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, a position without Portfolio and outside the Cabinet. He was given responsibility for solving the unemployment problem, but found that his radical proposals were blocked either by his superior James Henry Thomas or by the Cabinet.  Mosley realising the economic uncertainty that was facing the nation due to the death of her domestic industry, eventually put forward a whole scheme in the "Mosley Memorandum", which called for high tariffs to protect British industries from international finance, for state nationalisation of main industries, and for a programme of public works to solve unemployment. Furthermore, within the memorandum, it laid out the foundations of the corporate state which intended to combine businesses, workers and the Government into one body as a way to "Obliterate class conflict and make the British economy healthy again". Mosley published this memorandum due to his dissatisfaction of the laissez-faire attitude that both Labour and the Conservative party held and how passive it was to the ever increasing globalisation of the world and thus looked to a modern solution to fix a modern problem. However, it was rejected by the Cabinet, and in May 1930 Mosley resigned from his ministerial position. At the time, the weekly Liberal-leaning paper "The Nation" described his move: "The resignation of Sir Oswald Mosley is an event of capital importance in domestic politics... We feel that Sir Oswald has acted rightly — as he has certainly acted courageously — in declining to share any longer in the responsibility for inertia." In October he attempted to persuade the Labour Party Conference to accept the Memorandum, but was defeated again. Thirty years later, in 1961, Richard Crossman described the memorandum: "... this brilliant memorandum was a whole generation ahead of Labour thinking." As his book 'The Greater Britain' focused on the issues of free trade, the criticisms against globalisation that he formulated can be found through the critiques of contemporary globalisation. He warns nations that buying cheaper goods from other nations may sound appealing but ultimately ravage your domestic industry and lead to large unemployment as seen in the 30s. Mosley in regards to free trade argues that they are trying to "challenge the 50-year-old system of free trade which exposes industry in the home market to the chaos of world conditions, such as price fluctuation, dumping, and the competition of sweated labour, which result in the lowering of wages and industrial decay.”

New Party.

Dissatisfied with the Labour Party, Mosley founded the New Party. Its early parliamentary contests, in the 1931 Ashton-under-Lyne by-election and subsequent by-elections, arguably had a spoiler effect in splitting the left-wing vote and allowing Conservative candidates to win. Despite this, the organisation gained support among many Labour and Conservative politicians who agreed with his corporatist economic policy, and among these were Aneurin Bevan and Harold Macmillan. It also gained the endorsement of the "Daily Mail" newspaper, headed at the time by Harold Harmsworth (later created 1st Viscount Rothermere).  The New Party increasingly inclined to fascist policies, but Mosley was denied the opportunity to get his party established when during the Great Depression the 1931 General Election was suddenly called—the party's candidates, including Mosley himself running in Stoke which had been held by his wife, lost the seats they held and won none. As the New Party gradually became more radical and authoritarian, and as critics of the fascists in the Spanish Civil War emerged in the press, art and literature, many previous supporters defected from it. Shortly after the 1931 election, Mosley was described by "The" "Manchester Guardian":  When Sir Oswald Mosley sat down after his Free Trade Hall speech in Manchester and the audience, stirred as an audience rarely is, rose and swept a storm of applause towards the platform—who could doubt that here was one of those root-and-branch men who have been thrown up from time to time in the religious, political and business story of England. First that gripping audience is arrested, then stirred and finally, as we have said, swept off its feet by a tornado of peroration yelled at the defiant high pitch of a tremendous voice.

Fascism.

After his election failure in 1931, Mosley went on a study tour of the "new movements" of Italy's Benito Mussolini and other fascists, and returned convinced that it was the way forward for Britain. He was determined to unite the existing fascist movements and created the British Union of Fascists (BUF) in 1932. The BUF was protectionist, strongly anti-communist and nationalistic to the point of advocating authoritarianism. It claimed membership as high as 50,000, and had the "Daily Mail" and "Daily Mirror" among its earliest (though short-lived) supporters. The "Mirror" piece was a guest article by "Daily Mail" owner Viscount Rothermere and an apparent one-off; despite these briefly warm words for the BUF, the paper was so vitriolic in its condemnation of European fascism that Nazi Germany added the paper's directors to a hit list in the event of a successful Operation Sea Lion. The "Mail" continued to support the BUF until the Olympia rally in June 1934.  John Gunther described Mosley in 1940 as "strikingly handsome. He is probably the best orator in England. His personal magnetism is very great". Among Mosley's supporters at this time included John Strachey, the novelist Henry Williamson, military theorist J. F. C. Fuller, and the future "Lord Haw Haw", William Joyce.  Mosley had found problems with disruption of New Party meetings, and instituted a corps of black-uniformed paramilitary stewards, the Fascist Defence Force, nicknamed "blackshirts". The party was frequently involved in violent confrontations and riots, particularly with Communist and Jewish groups and especially in London. At a large Mosley rally at Olympia on 7 June 1934, his bodyguards' violence caused bad publicity. This and the Night of the Long Knives in Germany led to the loss of most of the BUF's mass support. Nevertheless, Mosley continued espousing anti-Semitism. At one of his New Party meetings in Leicester in April 1935, he stated, "For the first time I openly and publicly challenge the Jewish interests of this country, commanding commerce, commanding the Press, commanding the cinema, dominating the City of London, killing industry with their sweat-shops. These great interests are not intimidating, and will not intimidate, the Fascist movement of the modern age." The party was unable to fight the 1935 general election.  In October 1936, Mosley and the BUF attempted to march through an area with a high proportion of Jewish residents. Violence, since called the Battle of Cable Street, resulted between protesters trying to block the march and police trying to force it through. At length Sir Philip Game, the Police Commissioner, disallowed the march from going ahead and the BUF abandoned it.  Mosley continued to organise marches policed by the Blackshirts, and the government was sufficiently concerned to pass the Public Order Act 1936, which, amongst other things, banned political uniforms and quasi-military style organisations and came into effect on 1 January 1937. In the London County Council elections in 1937, the BUF stood in three wards in East London (some former New Party seats), its strongest areas, polling up to a quarter of the vote. Mosley made most of the Blackshirt employees redundant, some of whom then defected from the party with William Joyce. As the European situation moved towards war, the BUF began to nominate Parliamentary by-election candidates and launched campaigns on the theme of "Mind Britain's Business". Mosley remained popular as late as summer 1939. His Britain First rally at the Earls Court Exhibition Hall on 16 July 1939 was the biggest indoor political rally in British history, with a reported 30,000 attendees.  After the outbreak of war, Mosley led the campaign for a negotiated peace, but after the Fall of France and the commencement of aerial bombardment (see the Blitz) overall public opinion of him turned to hostility. In mid-May 1940, Mosley was nearly wounded by assault.

Internment.

Unbeknownst to Mosley, the British Security Service and Special Branch had deeply penetrated the BUF and were also monitoring him through listening devices. Beginning in 1934, they were increasingly worried that Mosley's noted oratory skills would convince the public to provide financial support to the BUF, enabling it to challenge the political establishment. His agitation was officially tolerated until the events of the Battle of France in May 1940 made the government consider him too dangerous. Mosley, who at that time was focused on pleading for the British to accept Hitler's peace offer of March, was detained on 23 May 1940, less than a fortnight after Winston Churchill became Prime Minister. Mosley was interrogated for 16 hours by Lord Birkett but never formally charged with a crime, and was instead interned under Defence Regulation 18B. The same fate met the other most active fascists in Britain, resulting in the BUF's practical removal at an organized level from the United Kingdom's political stage. Mosley's wife, Diana, was also interned in June, shortly after the birth of their son (Max Mosley); the Mosleys lived together for most of the war in a house in the grounds of Holloway prison. The BUF was proscribed by the British Government later that year.  Mosley used the time in confinement to read extensively in Classics, particularly regarding politics and war, with a focus upon key historical figures. He refused visits from most BUF members, but on 18 March 1943, Dudley and Norah Elam (who had been released by then) accompanied Unity Mitford to see her sister Diana. Mosley agreed to be present because he mistakenly believed that it was Lady Redesdale, Diana and Unity's mother, who was accompanying Unity. The internment, particularly that of Lady Mosley, resulted in significant public debate in the press, although most of the public supported the Government's actions. Others demanded a trial, either in the hope it would end the detention or in the hope of a conviction.  In November 1943, Home Secretary Herbert Morrison ordered the release of the Mosleys. After a fierce debate in the House of Commons, Morrison's action was upheld by a vote of 327–26. Mosley, who was suffering with phlebitis, spent the rest of the war confined under house arrest and police supervision. On his release from prison, he first stayed with his sister-in-law Pamela Mitford, followed shortly by a stay at the Shaven Crown Hotel in Shipton-under-Wychwood. He then purchased Crux Easton House, near Newbury, with Diana. He and his wife remained the subject of much press attention. The war ended what remained of Mosley's political reputation.

Post-war politics.

After the war, Mosley was contacted by his former supporters and persuaded to return to participation in politics. He formed the Union Movement, which called for a single nation-state to cover the continent of Europe (known as Europe a Nation) and later attempted to launch a National Party of Europe to this end. The Union Movement's meetings were often physically disrupted, as Mosley's meetings had been before the war, and largely by the same opponents. This led to Mosley's decision, in 1951, to leave Britain and live in Ireland. He later moved to Paris. Of his decision to leave, he said, "You don't clear up a dungheap from underneath it."  Shortly after the 1958 Notting Hill race riots, Mosley briefly returned to Britain to stand in the 1959 general election at Kensington North. Mosley led his campaign stridently on an anti-immigration platform, calling for forced repatriation of Caribbean immigrants as well as a prohibition upon mixed marriages. Mosley's final share of the vote was 7.6%.  In 1961, he took part in a debate at University College London about Commonwealth immigration, seconded by a young David Irving. He returned to politics one last time, contesting the 1966 general election at Shoreditch and Finsbury, and received 4.6% of the vote. After this, Mosley retired and moved back to France, where he wrote his autobiography, "My Life" (1968).  In 1977, by which time he was suffering from Parkinson's disease, he was nominated as a candidate for Rector of the University of Glasgow in which election he polled over 100 votes but finished bottom of the poll.

Personal life.

Mosley had three children with his first wife Lady Cynthia Curzon. In 1924, Lady Cynthia Curzon joined the Labour Party, and was elected as the Labour MP for Stoke-on-Trent in 1929. She later joined Oswald's New Party and lost the 1931 election in Stoke. She died in 1933 at 34 after an operation for peritonitis following acute appendicitis, in London.  Mosley had two children with his second wife, Diana Mitford (1910–2003):

Death.

Oswald Mosley died on 3 December 1980 at Orsay outside Paris, France. His body was cremated in a ceremony held at the Père Lachaise Cemetery, and his ashes were scattered on the pond at Orsay. His son Alexander stated that they had received many messages of condolence but no abusive words. "All that was a very long time ago," he said.

Archive.

Mosley's personal papers are held at the University of Birmingham's Special Collections Archive.

Sir Oswald Ernald Mosley, 6th Baronet (16 November 1896 – 3 December 1980) was a British politician who rose to fame in the 1920s as a Member of Parliament and later in the 1930s became leader of the British Union of Fascists (BUF). Mosley inherited the title 'Sir' by virtue of his baronetcy; he was the sixth baronet of a title that had been in his family for centuries.

Sir Oswald Mosley (16. listopadu 1896 - 3. prosince 1980) byl anglický šlechtic a politik, známý zejména jako vůdce britského fašismu.


Early life.

Valderrama was born in Miami, Florida, the son of Sobeida and Balbino A. Valderrama, who owned a farm equipment rental company. When he was three, they moved to Venezuela and also lived in Colombia. Later when he was 14 years old moved back to the United States. His father is Venezuelan and his mother is Colombian.

Career.

Television and film career.

Valderrama got his start performing in numerous plays, including "A Midsummer Night's Dream" and "Rumors". He made his professional debut in a Spanish-language Pacific Bell commercial. At his drama teacher's suggestion, he got an agent and was cast in the CBS miniseries "Four Corners" and in "Omba Mokomba" on the Disney Channel. He made his big screen debut in the film "Summer Catch".  Valderrama played Fez on "That '70s Show" from 1998–2006; he was a senior in high school when the pilot episode was filmed. He played DJ Keoki in the 2003 film "Party Monster". He produced and hosted the MTV series "Yo Momma" from 2006 to 2007, and appeared three times on "Punk'd", hosted by fellow "That '70s Show" alumnus Ashton Kutcher.  In April and May 2003, Valderrama appeared in the "Los Angeles Times" critic's choice play "Blackout", an adaptation of the feature film "Drunks", and on April 4, 2004, starred in the Actors' Fund of America one-performance only reading of "Sunset Boulevard". He filmed the short film "La torcedura" in which he played the lead, and appeared in "The Darwin Awards", an independent film directed by Finn Taylor.  In animation work, Valderrama voiced Rodrigo in "Clifford's Really Big Movie". He also voices the main character, Manny, in Disney Channel's "Handy Manny" series for preschoolers. He had a starring role in "El Muerto", an indie film directed by Brian Cox and based on the comic book created by Javier Hernandez. In January 2007, Valderrama launched his own men's fashion label called "Calavena".  In 2010, Valderrama guest-starred on Disney Channel's series "Wizards of Waverly Place" playing the role of Theresa Russo's brother, Ernesto. In 2011, he appeared in three episodes of USA Network's "Royal Pains" as Eric Kassabian, an art dealer.  In 2012, Valderrama co-hosted "Premios Juventud" as a superhero on July 19, 2012. In August 2012, he appeared in house music group Nomads' music video of "Addicted to Love".  On September 27, 2013, Valderrama won an ALMA Award for Outstanding Social Activism. By late November 2013, Valderrama had joined the cast of "".  On June 16, 2016, Valderrama joined "NCIS" in its fourteenth season. He is a series regular as NCIS Special Agent Nicholas Torres.  Wilmar also voiced Gaxton in the 2020 Disney movie Onward.

Music career.

On May 11, 2011, Valderrama released the song "The Way I Fiesta", which he performed as his alter ego Eduardo Fresco. The video was directed by Akiva Schaffer from the group The Lonely Island. Danny Masterson, Valderrama's co-star from "That '70s Show", has a cameo appearance in the video. Valderrama appeared in the 2009 music video for Wisin & Yandel's song "Imagínate". He also appeared in and produced the 2011 video for LMFAO's song "Sexy and I Know It". At the Billboard Latin Music Awards, he said that he is making music which he will release in Spanish and English. On July 27, 2012, he had an interview with Latina and said that he is recording tracks and is working with great artists/producers from both the English and the Spanish side. He said he was hoping to release more music in 2013. On March 10, 2014, Valderrama revealed that a "Salud Part 2" is in the works and that he has his own music coming out towards the end of the summer of 2014.  Valderrama states music as his first passion on DJ Vice's Electric Taco.

Personal life.

Valderrama dated actress Lindsay Lohan in 2004 and Demi Lovato from 2010–2016. In January 2020, Valderrama got engaged to Amanda Pacheco. Previous to that he had dated Mandy Moore and Ashlee Simpson.

Wilmer Eduardo Valderrama (; ; born January 30, 1980) is an American actor, producer, singer and television personality. He is best known for the role of Fez in the sitcom "That '70s Show" (1998–2006) and as Carlos Madrigal in "" (2014–16). He was also host of the MTV series "Yo Momma" (2006–07), the voice of Manny in the children's show "Handy Manny" (2006–13) and has had recurring roles on "Grey's Anatomy" as well as "The Ranch" (both in 2016). He is currently part of the main cast of "NCIS", portraying Special Agent Nick Torres.

Wilmer Eduardo Valderrama (* 30. ledna 1980) je americký herec, zpěvák, tanečník, producent a televizní osobnost. Je známý především díky své roli Feze v seriálu Zlatá Sedmdesátá (1998 - 2006).


Early life and career.

Gagulia was born on 4 January 1948 in the Gudauta district of the Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. He graduated from the Civil Engineering Department of the Belarusian Polytechnic Institute in 1972 and worked at Stroymaster as the chief engineer and the head of the construction site from 1973-1977. He spent the following 15 years as a Deputy Director of Catering at Lake Rizal and as Chairman of the Gudauta district consumer cooperatives.

Political career.

In the year after the Republic of Abkhazia was founded, he worked at the State Committee for Foreign Economic Relations of the Council of Ministers of the republic, before eventually serving as Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers of Abkhazia from 1992-1995. During the Georgian-Abkhaz War, Gagulia was a member of the Abkhazian Defense Committee, which was responsible for the distribution of food for the Abkhaz Armed Forces.

First Term as Prime Minister (1995–1997).

Gagulia became the first Prime Minister of Abkhazia in 1995 following the adoption of the 1994 Constitution of Abkhazia. As prime minister Gagulia had a reputation for being the most pro-Russian of Abkhazia's prime ministers. He steadfastly opposed both reunification with Georgia and the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Georgian-Abkhaz border. He also alluded to the possibility of Abkhazia unifying with Russia. While in this role, he met with a number of foreign leaders, including Russian President Vladimir Putin and Georgian President Eduard Shevardnadze. In 1997, Gagulia resigned from the prime ministership, citing health reasons.

Career (1997–2002).

In between his first two terms as prime minister, Gagulia served as the chair of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Abkhazia. He was also deputy prime minister under Anri Jergenia.

Second Term as Prime Minister (2002–2003).

When Jergenia was fired on 29 November 2002, Gagulia was appointed as prime minister for the second time. He only served for only 5 months until Gagulia's government filed for resignation on 7 April 2003. Earlier that day, nine Abkhazian prisoners had escaped, four of which had been sentenced to death due to their involvement in the 2001 Kodori crisis. President Ardzinba initially refused to accept Gagulia's resignation, but was forced to agree on 8 April. Vice President Valery Arshba denied on 8 April that the government's resignation was due to the prison escape, and stated that instead it was caused by the opposition's plans to hold protest rallies on 10 April.

Career after his Second Term (2003–2018).

On 15 December 2003, Gagulia was appointed head of the Presidential administration, succeeding Miron Agrba. On 18 June 2004, Gagulia resigned from his post, stating "There is a certain scenario to the presidential elections in Abkhazia. I don't match this scenario and thus I prefer to step down."  It had been suggested that Ardzinba may have also favoured Gagulia to replace him as President, but Ardzinba instead decided to back then-Prime Minister Raul Khajimba.  On 24 June 2004, Gagulia was again appointed head of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Abkhazia, succeeding Yuri Aqaba. Gagulia remained in that position until April 2018.

Third Term as Prime Minister (2018).

Gagulia was reappointed Prime Minister of Abkhazia in April 2018 by President Raul Khajimba, replacing Beslan Bartsits.

Death.

Gagulia was killed in a car accident outside the village of Myussera, Gudauta District on 8 September 2018. He was returning from Sochi International Airport following a 3-day visit with Khajimba to Syria, which was one of the few countries that recognized Abkhazia's independence, and where a large Circassian and Abkhaz minority lives. He also met Bashar al-Assad there. A car collided with the convoy, and the impact forced Gagulia's car into the ditch. The car was driven by a 22-year-old Abkhaz man, who was, according to local authorities, "under the influence of narcotics". He died on the spot. Two others, Gagulia's bodyguard and a driver, were injured in the crash.  Khajimba, who was travelling in the same convoy and witnessed the crash, suggested it was not an assassination attempt or terrorism, but rather an accident.

Gennadi Leonidipa Gagulia (, ; 4 January 1948 – 8 September 2018) was an Abkhazian politician who was three-time Prime Minister of Abkhazia and the head of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry. He served as the first prime minister of Abkhazia after the post was established by the constitution in 1995, holding it until 1997. He returned to the post in 2002 and remained for several months into 2003, and held it for a final time in 2018 until he was killed in a car crash.

Gennadij Gagulija (plným jménem Gennadij Leonid-ipa Gagulija, abchazsky: Геннадии Леонид-иҧа Гагәлиа, gruzínsky: გენადი გაგულია; – ) byl abchazský politik a premiér Abcházie. V této funkci působil třikrát, poprvé to bylo v letech 1995 až 1997, podruhé byl předsedou vlády jen zhruba na půl roku v letech 2002 až 2003. Naposledy působil jako premiér v roce 2018, než tragicky zemřel při autonehodě. Byl též dlouholetým ředitelem abchazské obchodní komory.


Design.

Due to their short length, V6 engines are often used as the larger engine option for vehicles which are otherwise produced with inline-four engines, especially in transverse engine vehicles. A downside for luxury cars is that V6 engines produce more vibrations than straight-six engines. Some sports cars use flat-six engines instead of V6 engines, due to their lower centre of gravity (which improves the handling).  The displacement of modern V6 engines is typically between, though larger and smaller examples have been produced, such as the V6 engines used in the 1991-1998 Mazda MX3, and the 1999-2005 Rover 45.

Balance and smoothness.

All V6 engines— regardless of the V-angle between the cylinder banks— are subject to a primary imbalance caused by each bank consisting of an inline-three engine, due to the odd number of cylinders in each bank. Straight-six engines and flat-six engines do not experience this imbalance. To reduce the vibrations caused by this imbalance, some V6 engines use counterweights on the crankshaft and/or a counter-rotating balance shaft.  Six-cylinder designs have less pulsation in the power delivery than four-cylinder engines, due to the overlap in the power strokes of the six-cylinder engine. In a four-cylinder engine, only one piston is on a power stroke at any given time. Each piston comes to a complete stop and reverses direction before the next one starts its power stroke, which results in a gap between power strokes and annoying harshness, especially at lower engine speeds (RPM). In a six-cylinder engine with an even firing interval, the next piston starts its power stroke 60° before the previous one finishes, which results in smoother delivery of power to the flywheel.  Comparing engines on a dynamometer, a V6 engine shows instantaneous torque peaks of 150% above mean torque and valleys of 125% below mean torque, with a small amount of negative torque (engine torque reversals) between power strokes. In the case of a four-cylinder engine, the peaks are nearly 300% above mean torque and valleys of 200% below mean torque, with 100% negative torque being delivered between strokes. However, a V6 with an uneven firing interval shows large torque variations of 200% above and 175% below mean torque.

Cylinder bank angles.

10 to 15 degrees.

From 1991-present, Volkswagen has produced narrow angle "VR6" engines with V-angles of 10.5 and 15 degrees. These engines use a single cylinder head shared by both banks of cylinders, in a design similar to the 1922-1976 Lancia V4 engine. The VR6 engines were used in transverse engine front-wheel drive cars which were originally designed for inline-four engines. Due to the minimal extra length and width of the VR6 engine, it could be fitted to the engine compartments relatively easily, in order to provide a displacement increase of 50 percent.  Since there is no room in the V between the cylinder banks for an intake system, all the intakes are on one side of the engine, and all the exhausts are on the other side. It uses a firing order of 1-5-3-6-2-4 (which is the firing order used by most straight-six engines), rather than the common V6 firing order of 1-2-3-4-5-6 or 1-6-5-4-3-2.

60 degrees.

A V-angle of 60 degrees is the optimal configuration for V6 engines regarding engine balance. When individual crank pins are used for each cylinder (i.e. using a six-throw crankshaft), an even firing interval of 120 degrees can be used. This firing interval is a multiple of the 60 degree V-angle, therefore the combustion forces can be balanced through use of the appropriate firing order.  The inline-three engine that forms each cylinder bank, however, produces unbalanced rotating and reciprocal forces. These forces remain unbalanced in all V6 engines, often leading to the use of a balance shaft to reduce the vibration.  The 1950 Lancia V6 engine was pioneering in its use of a six-throw crankshaft in order to reduce vibration. More recent designs often use a three-throw crankshaft with 'flying arms' between the crankpins. The flying arms allow an even firing interval of 120 degrees to be achieved, and also used as balancing masses for the crankshaft. Combined with a pair of heavy counterweights on the crankshaft ends, flying arms can eliminate the primary imbalance and reduce the vibration from the secondary imbalance to acceptable levels. The engine mounts can be designed to absorb these remaining vibrations.  A 60 degree V-angle results in a narrower engine overall than V6 engines with larger V-angles. This angle often results in the overall engine size being a cube shape, making the engine easier to fit either longitudinally or transversely in the engine compartment.

90 degrees.

Many manufacturers, particularly American ones, built V6 engines with a V-angle of 90 degrees based on their existing 90-degree V8 engines. Such configurations were easy to design by removing two cylinders and replacing the V8 engine's four-throw crankshaft with a three-throw crankshaft. This reduced design costs, allowed the new V6 to share components with the V8 engine, and sometimes allowed manufacturers to build the V6 and V8 engines on the same production line.  The downsides of a 90 degree design are a wider engine which is more vibration-prone than a 60 degree V6. The initial 90 degree V6 engines (such as the Buick Fireball V6 engine) had three shared crankpins arranged at 120 degrees from each other, due to their origins from the V8 engines. This resulted in an uneven firing order, with half of the cylinders using a firing interval of 90 degrees and other half using an interval of 150 degrees. The uneven firing intervals resulted in rough-running engines with unpleasant harmonic vibrations at certain engine speeds.  Several modern 90 degree V6 engines reduce the vibrations using split crankpins offset by 30 degrees between piston pairs, which creates an even firing interval of 120 degrees for all cylinders. For example, the 1977 Buick 231 "even-fire" V6 engine was an upgraded version of the Buick Fireball engine with a split-pin crankshaft to reduce vibration by achieving an even firing order. Such a'split' crankpin is weaker than a straight one, but modern metallurgical techniques can produce a crankshaft that is adequately strong.  A balance shaft and/or crankshaft counterweights can be used to reduce vibrations in 90 degree V6 engines.

120 degrees.

At first glance, 120 degrees might seem to be the optimal V-angle for a V6 engine, since pairs of pistons in alternate banks can share crank pins in a three-throw crankshaft and the combustion forces are balanced by the firing interval being equal to the angle between the cylinder banks. A 120 degree configuration, unlike the 60 degree or 90 degree configurations, would not require crankshafts with flying arms, split crankpins, or seven main bearings to be even-firing. However, the primary imbalance caused by odd number of cylinders in each bank still remains in a 120 degree V6 engine. This differs from the perfect balance achieved by a 90 degree V8 engine with a commonly used crossplane crankshaft, because the inline-four engine in each bank of the V8 engine does not have this primary imbalance.  A 120 degree design also results in a large width for the engine, being only slightly narrower than a flat-six engine (which does not have the balance problems of the V6 engine). Therefore the flat-six engine has been used in various automobiles, whereas use of the 120 degree V6 engine has been limited to a few truck and racing car engines.

Other angles.

Other angle V6 engines are possible but can suffer from severe vibration problems unless very carefully designed. Notable V-angles include:

Use in automobiles.

In 1906, a few years after V4 engines and V8 engines had come into existence, the first known V6 engine was built. This V6 engine was a single prototype automotive engine built by Marmon Motor Car Company in the United States. The engine did not reach production. Similarly, a single prototype engine was produced by Buick in 1918.  The first V6 engine to reach production was built from 1908 to 1913 by the Deutz Gasmotoren Fabrik in Germany. These V6 engines were used as the generator for gasoline-electric railway engines.  The Lancia V6 engine was the first series production V6 automobile engine, when it was introduced in the 1950 Lancia Aurelia. Lancia had been producing V4 engines for approximately 30 years, and one of the key goals was to reduce the vibrations compared with the V4 engine. The V6 engine used a 60 degree V-angle and six crankpins, resulting in an evenly-spaced firing order to reduce vibrations.  Other manufacturers took note and soon other V6 engines were designed. In 1959, the GMC V6 engine was introduced in the form of a 60-degree petrol engine used in pickup trucks and carryalls. The Buick V6 engine was introduced in 1962 and was based on Buick's contemporary V8 engine. It therefore used a 90-degree V-angle and uneven firing order, resulting in high vibrations.  Ford introduced its European road car engines in 1965 with the German division's Cologne V6, and the Ford Essex V6 engine, introduced by Ford's United Kingdom division in 1966; both engines used a 60-degree V-angle. The 1967 Dino 206 GT was Ferrari's first V6 road car, which had a 65-degree V-angle.  The 1979-2005 Alfa Romeo V6 engine was introduced in the Alfa Romeo Alfa 6 luxury sedan and later used in many other Alfa Romeo models. This engine used a 60 degree V-angle, an all-aluminium construction and two calves per cylinder. A turbocharged version was introduced in 1991 and a four valve per cylinder version was introduced in 1997. Also in 1970, the Citroën SM grand tourer was introduced, powered by a 90-degree V6 built by Maserati. The General Motors 90° V6 engine was introduced in 1978 and produced for 36 years.  The first mass-produced Japanese V6 engine was the Nissan VG engine, a 60-degree design which was produced from 1983-2004. The Honda C engine was introduced in 1985, followed by the Mitsubishi 6G7 engine in 1986, the Toyota VZ engine in 1988 and the Mazda K engine in 1991.  German luxury car manufacturers were relatively slow to adopt V6 engines, with the first being the 90-degree SOHC engine introduced in the 1990 Audi 100 (C4).  By the mid-1990s, the V6 layout was the most common configuration for six-cylinder automotive engines, with V6 engines having replaced most of the straight-six engines.

Motor racing.

The Lancia Aurelia (the first series production car with a V6 engine) was also successful in motor racing. Four of the "Aurelia B20 Coupes" were entered in the 1951 Mille Miglia with the best placed cars finishing second and fourth. A tuned version of the Lancia V6 engine producing was used in the Lancia D24. The D24 competed in sports car racing and won the 1953 Carrera Panamericana with Juan Manuel Fangio at the wheel.  The initial version of the Ferrari Dino engine was a racing engine used in Formula Two racing in the 1957 season. It had a V-angle of 65 degrees and dual overhead camshafts. The Dino V6 underwent several evolutions, including a version used in the 1958 Ferrari 246 Formula One racing car. A few years later, the 1961-1964 Ferrari 156 Formula One car used a new V6 engine with a V-angle of 120 degrees and a displacement of. This engine was shorter and lighter than the Ferrari Dino engine, and the simplicity and low center of gravity of the engine was an advantage in racing. It won a large number of races between and. However, Ferrari's founder had a personal dislike of the 120 degree layout, preferring a 65 degree layout, and after that time it was replaced by other engines. The Dino engine was also used in the Lancia Stratos, which was a highly successful rally car that won the World Rally Championship in 1974, 1975 and 1976.  A notable racing use of the Alfa Romeo V6 engine was the Alfa Romeo 155 V6 TI, designed for the 1993 DTM season and equipped with a engine making a peak power of at 11,900 rpm.  The "Renault-Gordini CH1" was a 90 degree V6 engine with an iron block. It was introduced in the 1973 "Alpine -Renault A440" sportscar racing car. This engine won the European 2 L prototype championship in 1974 and several European Formula Two Championships. A turbocharged version was used in the Renault Alpine A442, which won the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1978.  A turbocharged version of the "Renault-Gordini CH1" engine was introduced in the 1977 Renault RS01 Formula One car. Renault struggled with reliability issues in 1977 and 1978, however the 1979 season saw some good results at a few races. In 1981, the Ferrari 126C Formula One car used a turbocharged V6 engine. Ferrari won the Formula One constructors' championship with turbocharged V6 engines in 1982 and 1983. Initial versions used a 120 degree V-angle, before switching to a 90 degree V-angle for the 1987 Ferrari F1/87 racing car. Other successful turbocharged V6 Formula One cars in the era of 1982-1988 were the McLaren MP4/2, McLaren MP4/3, McLaren MP4/4, Williams FW10, Williams FW11, Lotus 95T, Lotus 98T, Lotus 99T and Lotus 100T.  The Nissan GTP ZX-Turbo and Nissan NPT-90 competed in the IMSA sports car prototype category from 1985-1994 and used a turbocharged V6 engine loosely based on the Nissan VG30ET production car engine. The Nissan 300ZX used a similar engine to compete in the 1996-1997 All Japan Grand Touring Car Championship (now known as the 'Super GT' championship).  Downsizing to V6 engines in open-wheeler racing became more common since the early 2010s:

Use in marine vessels.

V6 engines are popular powerplants in medium to large outboard motors.

Use in motorcycles.

The Laverda V6 was a racing motorcycle which was unveiled at the 1977 Milan show. It entered the 1978 Bol d'Or 24 hour endurance race, however it retired with mechanical issues after approximately 8 hours.  Horex has produced road motorcycles with VR6 engines since 2012.

A V6 engine is a six-cylinder piston engine where the cylinders share a common crankshaft and are arranged in a V configuration.

Šestiválcový vidlicový motor (také šestiválcový V-motor, V6, vidlicový šestiválec, šestiválcový motor/šestiválec do V, šestiválcový motor/šestiválec s válci do V/s uspořádáním válců do V/s uspořádáním do V) je vidlicový motor, který se skládá ze šesti válců rozdělených do dvou řad.


Biography.

After a childhood fever, he suffered from very sensitive eyes, and believed that he would soon go blind. For fear of losing his ability to read, he devoured any book available and trained his memory. He thus immersed himself in Greek and Latin literature, acquired the ability to recall entire pages verbatim weeks after reading them, became fluent in Italian, English and German and even wrote an unpublished "Règle ou méthode facile pour apprendre la langue anglaise" (Easy rule or method for learning English).  Delambre's quickly achieved success in his career in astronomy, such that in 1788, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1790, to establish a universally accepted foundation for the definition of measures, the National Constituent Assembly asked the French Academy of Sciences to introduce a new unit of measurement. The academics decided on the metre, defined as 1 / 10,000,000 of the distance from the North Pole to the equator, and prepared to organise an expedition to measure the length of the meridian arc between Dunkirk and Barcelona. This portion of the meridian, which also passes through Paris, was to serve as the basis for the length of the quarter meridian, connecting the North Pole with the Equator. In April 1791, the academy's Metric Commission confided this mission to Jean-Dominique de Cassini, Adrien-Marie Legendre and Pierre Méchain. Cassini was chosen to head the northern expedition but, as a royalist, he refused to serve under the revolutionary government after the arrest of King Louis XVI on his Flight to Varennes. On 15 February 1792, Delambre was elected unanimously a member of the French Academy of Sciences and in May 1792, after Cassini's final refusal, was placed in charge of the northern expedition, measuring the meridian from Dunkirk to Rodez in the south of France. Pierre Méchain headed the southern expedition, measuring from Barcelona to Rodez. The measurements were finished in 1798. The gathered data were presented to an international conference of savants in Paris the following year.  In 1801, First Consul Napoléon Bonaparte took the presidency of the French Academy of Sciences and appointed Delambre its Permanent Secretary for the Mathematical Sciences, a post he held until his death.  After Méchain's death in 1804, he was appointed director of the Paris Observatory. He was also professor of Astronomy at the Collège de France. The same year he married Elisabeth-Aglaée Leblanc de Pommard, a widow with whom he had lived already for a long time. Her son, Achille-César-Charles de Pommard (1781–1807) assisted Delambre on several occasions in his astronomical and geodetical surveys, notably the measuring of the baselines for the meridian survey, and the latitude definition for Paris in December 1799 which was presented to the Conference of Savants.  Delambre was one of the first astronomers to derive astronomical equations from analytical formulas, was the author of Delambre's Analogies and, after the age of 70, also the author of works on the history of astronomy like the "Histoire de l'astronomie". He was a knight ("chevalier") of the Order of Saint Michael and of the Légion d'honneur. His name is also one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel tower. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822.  Delambre died in 1822 and was interred in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. The crater Delambre on the Moon is named after him.  Delambre was an atheist.

Jean Baptiste Joseph, chevalier Delambre (19 September 1749 – 19 August 1822) was a French mathematician and astronomer. He was also director of the Paris Observatory, and author of well-known books on the history of astronomy from ancient times to the 18th century.

Jean-Baptiste Joseph Delambre ["žán batist žozef delámbr"] (19. září 1749, Amiens – 19. srpna 1822, Paříž) byl francouzský astronom. Významně se podílel na stanovení metru jako základní jednotky délky a vypočetl dráhu planety Uran.


Taxonomy.

Research history.

The first remains, OH 3 (a baby canine and large molar tooth), were unearthed in 1955 in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. By this time, palaeoanthropologists Louis and Mary Leakey had spent 24 years excavating the area for early hominin remains, but had instead recovered mainly other animal remains as well as the Oldowan stone tool industry. On July 17, 1959, Mary had discovered the skull, OH 5 (the holotype), and Louis described it on August 15. Because the skull was associated with the tools and processed animal bones, they presumed OH 5 was the toolmaker. Attribution of the tools was promptly switched to the bigger-brained "H. habilis" upon its description in 1964. OH 5 was clearly not in the genus "Homo", and so was classified as an australopithecine. In 1965, the skull was dated to 1.75 million years ago based on potassium-argon dating of anortoclase crystals from an overlying tuff (volcanic ash) bed.  When OH 5 was discovered, the only australopithecine genera described were "Australopithecus" by Raymond Dart and "Paranthropus" (the South African "P. robustus") by Robert Broom, and there were arguments that "Paranthropus" was synonymous with "Australopithecus". Louis believed the skull had a mix of traits from both genera, briefly listing 20 differences, and so placed it into a new genus as ""Zinjanthropus boisei"". The genus derives from the medieval term for East Africa, "Zanj", and the species name was in honour of Charles Watson Boise, the Leakeys' benefactor. Soon after OH 5's discovery, Louis presented ""Z. boisei"" to the 4th Pan-African Congress on Prehistory in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 1960, American anthropologist John Talbot Robinson pointed out that the supposed differences are due to OH 5 being slightly larger than "P. robustus", and so recommended the species be reclassified as "P. boisei". Louis rejected Robinson's argument. Following this, it was debated if "P. boisei" was simply an East African variant of "P. robustus" until 1967 when South African palaeoanthropologist Phillip V. Tobias gave a far more detailed description of OH 5 in a monograph (edited by Louis). However, they still retained "Zinjanthropus" and recommended demoting it to subgenus level as "Australopithecus (Zinjanthropus) boisei", considering "Paranthropus" to be synonymous with "Australopithecus". The first jawbone, Peninj 1, was discovered Lake Natron just north of Olduvai Gorge in 1964. Especially from 1966–1975, several more specimens revealing facial elements were reported from the Shungura Formation, Ethiopia; Koobi Fora and Chesowanja, Kenya; and Omo and Konso, Ethiopia. In 1997, the first specimen with associated skull and jawbone (and also one of the largest specimens), KGA10-525, was discovered in Konso. In 1999, a jawbone was recovered from Malema, Malawi, extending the species' southernmost range over from Olduvai Gorge. The first definitive bodily elements of "P. boisei" associated with facial elements, OH 80 (isolated teeth with an arm and a leg), were discovered in 2013. Previously, body remains lacking unambiguous diagnostic skull elements had been dubiously assigned to the species, namely the partial skeleton KNM-ER 1500 associated with a small jawbone fragment. In 2015, based on OH 80, American palaeoanthropologist Michael Lague recommended assigning the isolated humerus specimens KNM-ER 739, 1504, 6020, and 1591 from Koobi Fora to "P. boisei".

Classification.

The genus "Paranthropus" (otherwise known as "robust australopithecines") typically includes "P. boisei", "P. aethiopicus", and "P. robustus". It is also debated if "Paranthropus" is a valid natural grouping (monophyletic) or an invalid grouping of similar-looking hominins (paraphyletic). Because skeletal elements are so limited in these species, their affinities with each other and to other australopithecines is difficult to gauge with accuracy. The jaws are the main argument for monophyly, but such anatomy is strongly influenced by diet and environment, and could in all likelihood have evolved independently in "P. boisei" and "P. robustus". Proponents of monophyly consider "P. aethiopicus" to be ancestral to the other two species, or closely related to the ancestor. Proponents of paraphyly allocate these three species to the genus "Australopithecus" as "A. boisei", "A. aethiopicus", and "A. robustus".  Because "P. boisei" and "P. aethiopicus" are both known from East Africa and "P. aethiopicus" is only confidently identified from the skull KNM WT 17000 and a few jaws and isolated teeth, it is debated if "P. aethiopicus" should be subsumed under "P. boisei" or if the differences stemming from archaicness justifies species distinction. The terms "P. boisei" sensu lato ("in the broad sense") and "P. boisei" sensu stricto ("in the strict sense") can be used to respectively include and exclude "P. aethiopicus" from "P. boisei" when discussing the lineage as a whole. "P. boisei" is the most robust of the robust australopithecines, whereas the South African "P. robustus" is smaller with comparatively more gracile features, and some Kenyan skulls are seemingly some intermediate morph. "P. aethiopicus" is the earliest member of the genus, with the oldest remains, from the Ethiopian Omo Kibish Formation, dated to 2.6 million years ago (mya) at the end of the Pliocene. It is possible that "P. aethiopicus" evolved even earlier, up to 3.3 mya, on the expansive Kenyan floodplains of the time. The oldest "P. boisei" remains date to about 2.3 mya from Malema. The youngest record of "P. boisei" comes Olduvai Gorge (OH 80) about 1.34 mya; however, due a large gap in the hominin fossil record, "P. boisei" may have persisted until 1 mya. "P. boisei" changed remarkably little over its nearly 1 million year existence.

Anatomy.

The "P. boisei" skull is heavily built, and features a sloping brow ridge, rounded bottom margins of the eye sockets, inflated and concave cheek bones, a thick palate, and a robust and deep jawbone. This is generally interpreted as having allowed "P. boisei" to resist high stresses while chewing, though the thick palate could instead be a byproduct of facial lengthening. The skull also has pronounced sagittal (on the midline) and temporonuchal (on the back) crests, as well as large rough patches (rugosities) on the cheek and jawbones, which indicate a massive masseter muscle, used in biting down, placed near the front of the head (increasing mechanical advantage). This is typically considered to be evidence of a high bite force. The enormous cheek teeth (postcanine megadontia) would have increased the pressure felt by food. The chewing surface of "P. boisei" molars averages ; in comparison, it is in modern human molars. The molars are bunodont, featuring low and rounded cusps. The premolars resemble molars (are molarised), which may indicate "P. boisei" required an extended chewing surface for processing a lot of food at the same time. The enamel on the cheek teeth are among the thickest of any known ape, which would help resist high stresses while biting. The incisors and canines are reduced, which would hinder biting off chunks of large food pieces.  In a sample of 10 "P. boisei" specimens, brain size varied from with an average of. However, the lower-end specimen, Omo L338‐y6, is a juvenile, and many skull specimens have a highly damaged or missing frontal bone which can alter brain volume estimates. The brain volume of australopithecines generally ranged from, and for contemporary "Homo".  The wide range of size variation in skull specimens seems to indicate a great degree of sexual dimorphism with males notably bigger than females. However, it is difficult to predict with accuracy the true dimensions of living males and females due to the lack of definitive "P. boisei" skeletal remains, save for the presumed male OH 80. Based on an approximation of for the femur before it was broken and using modern humanlike proportions (which is probably an unsafe assumption), OH 80 was about tall in life. The femoral head, the best proxy for estimating body mass, is missing, but using the shaft, OH 80 weighed about assuming humanlike proportions, and using the proportions of a non-human ape. The ambiguously attributed, presumed female femur KNM-ER 1500 is estimated to have been about tall which would be consistent with the argument of sexual dimorphism, but if the specimen does indeed belong to "P. boisei", it would show a limb anatomy quite similar to that of the contemporary "H. habilis". For height comparison, modern human men and women in the year 1900 averaged and respectively. Instead, the OH 80 femur, more like "H. erectus" femora, is quite thick, features a laterally flattened shaft, and indicates similarly arranged gluteal, pectineal, and intertrochanteric lines around the hip joint. Nonetheless, the intertrochanteric line is much more defined in OH 80, the gluteal tuberosity is more towards the midline of the femur, and the mid-shaft in side-view is straighter, which likely reflect some difference in load-bearing capabilities of the leg. Unlike "P. robustus", the arm bones of OH 80 are heavily built, and the elbow joint shows similarities to that of modern gibbons and orangutans. This indicates suspensory behaviour in "P. boisei". Though hand anatomy is unknown, the OH 80 radius (in the forearm) is inconsistent with precision grip required in manipulating small objects and tool manufacturing.

Palaeobiology.

In 1954, Robinson suggested that the heavily built skull of "Paranthropus" (at the time only including "P. robustus") was indicative of a specialist diet specifically adapted for processing a narrow band of foods. Because of this, the predominant model of "Paranthropus" extinction for the latter half of the 20th century was that it was unable to adapt to the volatile climate of the Pleistocene, unlike the much more adaptable "Homo". It was also once thought "P. boisei" cracked open nuts and similar hard foods with its powerful teeth, giving OH 5 the nickname "Nutcracker Man".  However, in 1981, English anthropologist Alan Walker found that the microwearing patterns on the molars were inconsistent with a diet high in hard foods, and were effectively indistinguishable from the pattern seen in the molars of fruit-eating (frugivorous) mandrills, chimps, and orangutans. The microwearing on "P. boisei" molars is different than that on "P. robustus" molars, and indicates that "P. boisei", unlike "P. robustus", very rarely ever ate hard foods. Carbon isotope analysis reports a diet of predominantly C4 plants, such as low quality and abrasive grasses and sedges. Thick enamel is consistent with grinding abrasive foods. The microwear patterns in "P. robustus" have been thoroughly examined, and suggest that the heavy build of the skull was only relevant when eating less desirable fallback foods. A similar scheme may have been in use by "P. boisei". Such a strategy is similar to that used by modern gorillas, which can sustain themselves entirely on lower quality fallback foods year-round, as opposed to lighter built chimps (and presumably gracile australopithecines) which require steady access to high quality foods.  In 1980, anthropologists Tom Hatley and John Kappelman suggested that early hominins (convergently with bears and pigs) adapted to eating abrasive and calorie-rich underground storage organs (USOs), such as roots and tubers. Since then, hominin exploitation of USOs has gained more support. In 2005, biological anthropologists Greg Laden and Richard Wrangham that "Paranthropus" relied on USOs as a fallback or possibly primary food source, and noted that there may be a correlation between high USO abundance and hominin occupation. In this model, "P. boisei" may have been a generalist feeder with a predilection for USOs, and may have gone extinct due to an aridity trend and a resultant decline in USOs in tandem with increasing competition with baboons and "Homo".  Like modern forest chimps and baboons, australopithecines likely foraged for food in the cooler morning and evening instead of in the heat of the day.

Palaeoecology.

"P. boisei" seems to have resided predominantly in wet, wooded environments, such as wetlands along lakes and rivers, wooded or arid shrublands, and semiarid woodlands, but its presence in the savanna-dominated Malawian Chiwondo Beds implies it could tolerate a range of habitats. During the Pleistocene, there seems to have been coastal and montane forests in Eastern Africa. More expansive river valleys–namely the Omo River Valley–may have served as important refuges for forest-dwelling creatures. Being cut off from the forests of Central Africa by a savanna corridor, these East African forests would have promoted high rates of endemism, especially during times of climatic volatility. Australopithecines and early "Homo" likely preferred cooler conditions than later "Homo", as there are no australopithecine sites that were below in elevation at the time of deposition. This would mean that, like chimps, they often inhabited areas with an average diurnal temperature of, dropping to at night.  "P. boisei" coexisted with "H. habilis", "H. rudolfensis", "H. ergaster", and "H. erectus", but it is unclear how they interacted. To explain why "P. boisei" was associated with Oldowan tools despite not being the knapper, Louis Leakey and colleagues, when describing "H. habilis", suggested that one possibility was "P. boisei" was killed by "H. habilis", perhaps as food. However, when describing "P. boisei" 5 years earlier, he said, "There is no reason whatever, in this case, to believe that the skull [OH 5] represents the victim of a cannibalistic feast by some hypothetical more advanced type of man." A left foot from Olduvai Gorge assigned to "P. boisei" seems to have been bitten off by a crocodile, possibly "Crocodylus anthropophagus", and another's leg shows evidence of leopard predation. Other likely Olduvan predators of great apes include the hunting hyaena "Chasmaporthetes nitidula", and the sabertoothed cats "Dinofelis" and "Megantereon".

Paranthropus boisei is a species of australopithecine from the Early Pleistocene of East Africa about 2.3 to 1.34 or 1 million years ago. The holotype specimen, OH 5, was discovered by palaeoanthropologist Mary Leakey in 1959, and described by her husband Louis a month later. It was originally placed into its own genus as "Zinjanthropus boisei", but is now relegated to "Paranthropus" along with other robust australopithecines. However, it is argued that "Paranthropus" is an invalid grouping and synonymous with "Australopithecus", so the species is also often classified as Australopithecus boisei.

Paranthropus boisei (česky též "Australopiték východoafrický") je druh vyhynulého hominida, žijící ve starším pleistocénu, před 2,3 – 1,3 miliony let ve východní Africe, na území dnešní Etiopie, Keni, Tanzanie a Malawi. Je nejmladším, posledním zástupcem australopitéků, přičemž patří ke skupině robustních druhů, řazených často do samostatného rodu "Paranthropus". Žil již současně se zástupci rodu Homo ("Homo habilis", "Homo erectus").


Biography.

Early life.

Fabares was born in Santa Monica, California. She is the niece of actress Nanette Fabray.

Early TV appearances.

Fabares's acting debut was at the age of 3. At the age of 10, she made her first appearance on television in an episode of "Letter to Loretta", "The Clara Schuman Story" (1954).  Early TV appearances included the "Producers' Showcase" adaptation of "Our Town" starring Frank Sinatra and Paul Newman. She was Young Cathy in a "Matinee Theatre" adaptation of "Wuthering Heights".  Fabares had small parts in "The Girl Rush" (1955), "Never Say Goodbye" (1956), "The Bad Seed" (1956), "Rock, Pretty Baby!" (1956), "Jeanne Eagels" (1957), "Marjorie Morningstar" (1958), and "Summer Love" (1958).  On TV she was in "Captain Midnight", "Annie Oakley", "Fury", and "Colgate Theatre".  She had a semi regular role on the short lived series "Annette" (1958) starring Annette Funicello.  She guest starred on "Mr. Novak", "The Eleventh Hour", "Arrest and Trial", and "The Twilight Zone" ("Black Leather Jackets").

"The Donna Reed Show".

In 1958, Fabares landed the role of Mary Stone in the long-running family sitcom "The Donna Reed Show". This ran until 1966. Fabares quickly established herself as a favorite with teen audiences.  "Donna Reed was simply an extraordinary woman, a woman of great strength, kindness, integrity and compassion," said Fabares later of her television mother.

Singer.

Fabares' national popularity led to a recording contract and two "Top 40" hits, including "Johnny Angel," which went to number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in April 1962, and peaked at number 41 in the UK. It sold over one million copies and was certified gold. She released an album, "Shelley!". "I was stunned about that, to put it mildly," she later said. "After all, I never could sing."  This was followed by a second album, "The Things We Did Last Summer (album)", which included two hit songs "Johnny Loves Me" (no. 21) and "The Things We Did Last Summer" (no. 46).  Fabares left "The Donna Reed Show" in 1963 (she would return periodically until its end in 1966) to pursue other acting opportunities. She released a third album, "Teenage Triangle" in 1963.

Film career.

Fabares was one of the female leads in the surf film "Ride the Wild Surf" (1964). She was Elvis Presley's leading lady in "Girl Happy" (1965) for MGM and played the love interest of Peter Noone of Herman's Hermits in "Hold On!" at the same studio.  MGM made a pilot for a TV series based on "Meet Me in St. Louis" with Fabares in the lead but no network was receptive to it.  She was reunited with Elvis for "Spinout" (1966) at MGM and "Clambake" (1967), at United Artists.  Sam Katzman cast her as the love interest of a young Hank Williams Jr. in "A Time to Sing" (1968).

TV guest spots.

Film roles dried up in the late 1960s and Fabares went back to guest starring on shows like "The Ghost & Mrs. Muir", "Daniel Boone", "Medical Center", "Lancer", "Bracken's World", and "The Interns".  Fabares said she went through a period where she struggled to find work. "I went to bed on Tuesday having worked since I was 3. I got up Wednesday morning and didn't work for four years, went to bed Wednesday night after four years, got up and interviewed for a "Mannix" episode and started working again. I think this business is very cyclical. You go through busy times and you go through dead times."  After "Mannix", she was in "Longstreet", "Owen Marshall, Counselor at Law", "Love, American Style", "McCloud" and "Cade's County".  "I wasn't a big risk-taker," she said later. "I should have been more aggressive. I was nervous and scared to try something really different."  Fabares had support roles in TV movies like "Brian's Song" (1971) (playing the wife of Brian Piccolo, played by James Caan), and "Two for the Money" (1972). Her performance in "Brian's Song" earned her a Golden Globe nomination.

"The Brian Keith Show", "The Practice".

Fabares had a regular role on "The Brian Keith Show" (1972–74) which lasted for 47 episodes.  When the show ended she resumed guest shots: "Police Story", "Ironside", "The Rockford Files", "The Rookies", "Matt Helm", "Medical Story", "Marcus Welby, M.D.", "Barnaby Jones", and "Spencer's Pilots".  She had a role in the TV movie "Sky Heist" (1975) and from 1976-77 Fabares had a regular part on "The Practice" with Danny Thomas.

"Forever Fernwood", "One Day at a Time" and "Highcliffe Manor".

She then had a regular role on "Forever Fernwood".  In 1978, Fabares played Francine Webster on the CBS sitcom "One Day at a Time", a role she reprised for the last three years of the show. "I was Francine, a rather villainous character," she said later. "She was wonderful. She saw the world only through her eyes, and it never occurred to her that her people didn't."  She was also in episodes of "Lucan", "Vega$", "The Incredible Hulk", "Hello, Larry", and "Fantasy Island".  Fabares was in the TV movies "Pleasure Cove" (1979), "Donovan's Kid" (1979), "Friendships, Secrets and Lies" (1979) and "Gridlock" (1980).  She had the starring role in the TV series "Highcliffe Manor" (1979) but it only lasted six episodes.

1980s.

In the 1980s Fabares could be seen on "Mork & Mindy", "Matt Houston", "The Love Boat", "Newhart", and "Murder, She Wrote".  She did a TV movie "Memorial Day" (1983) with Mike Farrell who became her husband, as well as movies "Suburban Beat" (1985), "The Canterville Ghost" (1985), "Hot Pursuit" (1987), and "Run Till You Fall" (1988).

"Coach".

In 1989, she won the role of Christine Armstrong Fox on the ABC sitcom "Coach". "Here was an intelligent, funny, well-written series," Fabares said "And the people putting it on wanted me to play a very successful, ambitious woman in it."  The series originally struggled in the ratings until it shifted to play after "Roseanne". It was a hit and played until 1997.  For her work, Fabares was nominated twice for a Primetime Emmy Award, and, in 1994, she was honored by the Young Artist Foundation with its Former Child Star "Lifetime Achievement" Award for her role as Mary Stone on "The Donna Reed Show".  During the series' run Fabares appeared on "Love or Money" (1990), "Deadly Relations" (1993), "The Great Mom Swap" (1995), and "A Nightmare Come True" (1997).

Later career.

After "Coach" ended in 1997, Fabares voiced the role of Martha "Ma" Kent on "". She reprised the role twice, once for a 2003 episode of "Justice League" and again for the direct-to-video film "" (2006).  She was in "" (1998).  From 2004-2011 she produced the Screen Actors Guild Awards.

Personal life.

Fabares was a lifelong friend of Annette Funicello, whom she met in the seventh grade.

Marriages.

Fabares married record and movie producer Lou Adler in June 1964, separated in 1966, and was divorced in 1980. In 1984, she married actor Mike Farrell. She is stepmother to his two children, Erin and Michael.

Health issues.

In October 2000, Fabares received a life-saving liver transplant after being diagnosed with autoimmune hepatitis.

References.

Time Magazine article.

Michele Ann Marie "Shelley" Fabares (; born January 19, 1944) is an American actress and singer. She is best known for her roles as Donna Reed's daughter Mary Stone on "The Donna Reed Show" (1958–63) and as Hayden Fox's love interest (and eventual wife) Christine Armstrong on the sitcom "Coach" (1989–97). She was Elvis Presley's co-star in three films. In 1962, her recording of "Johnny Angel" reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart.

Shelley Fabaresová, celým jménem "Michele Ann Marie Fabaresová" (* 19. ledna 1944 Santa Monica) je americká herečka a zpěvačka. Je neteří populární herečky a zpěvačky Nanette Fabrayové, od tří let působila jako dětská herečka a modelka. Ve čtrnácti letech dostala jednu z hlavních rolí v úspěšném komediálním televizním seriálu "The Donna Reed Show": hrála Mary, dceru hlavní hrdinky, kterou ztvárnila Donna Reedová. Ve třech filmech byla partnerkou Elvise Presleyho: "Girl Happy" (1965), "Spinout" (1966) a "Mejdan" ("Clambake", 1967). Výrazné role vytvořila také v televizním filmu ze sportovního prostředí "Brianova píseň" (1971), teenagerské komedii "Horké pronásledování" (1987) a seriálu "Coach" (1989).


History.

The orchestra has had several names over its history:  The orchestra was founded as the "Orchestre national" by decree on 18 February 1934, by the French minister of Posts Jean Mistler, as an ensemble of 80 musicians, with Désiré-Emile Inghelbrecht as musical director. The orchestra musicians were under exclusive engagements, prohibiting them to play with other orchestras as the orchestra of the Opera. Their first concert occurred at the Conservatoire de Paris on 13 March 1934. The main conductors in the orchestra's early years were Inghelbrecht, Roger Désormière and Eugène Bigot, as well as Inghelrecht's assistant conductor at the time, Manuel Rosenthal.  In 1939, half of the musicians were mobilized in the French army. The other half of the orchestra settled in Rennes between 26 October 1939 and 16 June 1940, when bombings on the city forced the orchestra to be disbanded. The Vichy government then recreated the orchestra in March 1941. The orchestra was based in Marseilles, without Jewish musicians, who were excluded (among them Clara Haskil's sister, the violinist Jeanne Haskil). The orchestra returned to Paris on 1 March 1943. Since 1944, the orchestra has been based in the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris, where it occasionally plays in the pit for opera productions.  After the Liberation of France, after examination of his role under the occupation, Inghelbrecht was replaced by Manuel Rosenthal as principal conductor. The orchestra is reorganized and placed under the responsibility of the national radio, the "Radiodiffusion Nationale", which became "Radiodiffusion Française" on 23 March 1945. Further modifications to the French national radio organisation name were Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française (RTF) on 9 February 1949, then "Office de radiodiffusion-télévision française" on 27 June 1964, and finally Radio France on 1 January 1975. The name of the orchestra was progressively modified in accordance with these changes in organization.  Rosenthal reinstated contemporary and French music banned under the German occupation on orchestra programmes. The orchestra also starts to serve as a cultural ambassador for France, with tours in Berlin and London in 1946 and in North America in 1948, the last with Charles Munch as conductor. The first official recordings of the orchestra, with conductor Paul Kletzki, appeared in 1947 ("Pictures at an Exhibition" by Modest Mussorgsky, in the arrangement by Ravel, and the "Boléro" by the latter). In contemporary music, the orchestra premiered Pierre Boulez' "Le Soleil des eaux" in 1950 (with the French premiere of Béla Bartók "Divertimento" in the same concert), and a few days later the first European performance of Messiaen's "Turangalîla-Symphonie", in Aix-en-Provence. The orchestra premiered Henri Dutilleux's Symphony No 1 in 1951. Other major pieces were played for the first time in France by the Orchestre national, and among them "Wozzeck" by Alban Berg (under Jascha Horenstein), and several of Anton Bruckner's and Gustav Mahler's symphonies.  In 1952, then-principal conductor Roger Désormière suffered a stroke that left him paralyzed, and was forced to retire. The orchestra did not have a principal conductor for the next 8 years, but regular guest conductors included André Cluytens. Cluytens was noted for his performances of the German repertoire with the orchestra, and led it during tours in the USSR (1959), at the Salzburg Festival (1959) and in the Middle East (1960). Other work in contemporary music included the 2 December 1954 premiere of "Déserts" by Edgar Varèse, under the direction of Hermann Scherchen. During the 1950s, the orchestra also recorded numerous compositions by Heitor Villa-Lobos under his direction, for EMI.  Maurice Le Roux became music director in 1960, the first conductor to hold that title with the orchestra. The "Maison de la Radio" was opened during this time, but the orchestra continued to perform in the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées. In the context of competition with the newly founded Orchestre de Paris in 1967, Jean Martinon became music director of the Orchestre national in 1968. His commercial recordings with the orchestra included the complete orchestral works by Claude Debussy, and the symphonies by Camille Saint-Saëns. In 1973, Sergiu Celibidache was recruited as "premier chef invité" (principal guest conductor), but he ended his contract in 1975, as a result of a conflict with some of the musicians.  In January 1975, the creation of Radio France led to the renaming of the ensemble as the Orchestre National de France, the title the ensemble holds today. An additional new permanent orchestra, the Orchestre Philharmonique de Radio France, was also created in 1976, by merging several smaller ensembles. This allowed the Orchestre National de France to concentrate on obtaining international prestige, without a music director, but with noted guest conductors such as Leonard Bernstein, Wolfgang Sawallisch and Seiji Ozawa. In 1977, Lorin Maazel became principal guest conductor ("premier chef invité"), and he officially became music director in 1988, holding the title until 1991.  Charles Dutoit became the ONF's music director in 1991. Kurt Masur succeeded Dutoit as ONF music director, from 2002 to 2008. Masur conducted the ONF's debut appearance at The Proms in August 2006. Daniele Gatti was music director from 2008 to 2016. In June 2016, Radio France announced the appointment of Emmanuel Krivine as the ONF's next music director, effective with the 2017–2018 season, with an initial contract of 3 years. He held the title of music director-designate ("directeur musical désigné") for the 2016–2017 season. Krivine had been scheduled to stand down as ONF music director at the close of the 2020-2021 season. However, in May 2020, Krivine resigned from his ONF post with immediate effect, one year ahead of his originally scheduled departure.  In September 2018, Cristian Măcelaru first guest-conducted the ONF, and returned for a second guest-conducting appearance in the summer of 2019. On the basis of these appearances, in November 2019, the ONF announced the appointment of Măcelaru as its next music director, effective 1 September 2021, with an initial contract of 4 years.  In addition to commercial recordings for EMI Records during the years 1960–1980, in the French repertoire, other recordings from the orchestra have been issued by Radio France itself, associated with Naïve Records.

The Orchestre national de France (ONF; literal translation, National Orchestra of France) is a French symphony orchestra based in Paris, founded in 1934. Placed under the administration of the French national radio (named Radio France since 1975), the ONF performs mainly in the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées from where all its concerts are broadcast. Some concerts are also held in the "Salle Olivier Messiaen" in the Maison de Radio France (formerly known as Maison de la Radio).

Francouzský národní orchestr (: ) je symfonický orchestr se sídlem v Paříži. Od svého založení v roce 1934 se stal jedním z nejvýznamnějších těles svého druhu ve Francii. Jako stálí nebo hostující dirigenti jej vedli nejvýznamnější francouzští umělci své doby, mimo jiné Désiré-Émile Inghelbrecht, Manuel Rosenthal, Roger Désormière, André Cluytens, Jean Martinon a Charles Munch, i vynikající zahraniční dirigenti, například Otto Klemperer, Carl Schuricht, Sergiu Celibidache, Leonard Bernstein, Lorin Maazel, Kurt Masur a další.


Geography.

Made up of mostly limestone, the reef-fringed island of Gonâve is long and wide and covers an area of. The island is mostly barren and hilly with the highest point reaching. The island receives between to of rain a year, higher elevations representing the latter figure.  The barren, dry nature of the soil has long prevented agricultural development on the island and kept the population lower than it otherwise might have been. During the colonial period, the island was uninhabited by colonists, which led the indigenous Taínos to seek refuge there after early battles with the Spanish. Runaway slaves in the French period, too, sometimes sought out the island for a place to hide from their owners on the mainland. Overgrazing and over-exploitation of water resources affect the island's current residents.

Administrative division.

La Gonâve arrondissement is divided into two communes: Anse-à-Galets and Pointe-à-Raquette. These are further subdivided into eleven sections and two towns (villes). The towns are Anse-à-Galets and Pointe-à-Raquette, named after their respective communes. Anse-à-Galets is the largest settlement on the island with an estimated 2015 population of 52,662 of the island's total population of 87,077.

Water scarcity.

In 2005, following a particularly drastic drought, the Mayor of Anse-à-Galets formed the Water Platform, composed of service groups working on the island. Current participants include the Mayors of Anse-à-Galets and Pointes a Racquette, the Deputy, Justice of the Peace, World Vision, Concern WorldWide, Sevis Kretyen, the Matènwa Community Learning Center, the Alleghany Weslyen Church, the Methodist Church, Haiti Outreach and many others. The Water Platform acts as a focal point for activities on the island, providing a coordination point for the multitude of groups working on La Gonâve.

Assistance efforts.

The members of the Water Platform have been working to address the water needs of the island by capping springs, building rainwater catchment cisterns, building water systems and drilling wells. Dozens of rainwater catchment cisterns and wells have been drilled on the island as an effort to bring water relief to the residents of the island.  2002–2004 Guts Church funded construction of a school providing first through sixth grade education and construction of a medical clinic providing free medical, dental and vision services for Haitians , there were two non-profit groups actively drilling water wells on the island: Haiti Outreach, which has financed and drilled water wells in 25 communities; and Guts Church in Tulsa, Oklahoma. The Tougher Than Hell Motorcycle Rally, organized by Guts Church, has sponsored 10 water wells drilled on the island.  In 2010 Coordinated relief efforts after the 12 January earthquake. $250,000 was raised for this relief project. Medical supplies, building supplies, 150 tons of rice and beans and a backhoe were purchased. Aid was shipped to La Gonâve via a leased vessel and delivered directly to La Gonâve in early March 2010. The aid shipment fed 50,000 people for one month.  The drilling of more wells on the island has been planned for the near future.  Since 2007, the Washington D.C.-based nonprofit Roots of Development and its La Gonâve-based Haitian sister organization Rasin Devlopman have been providing leadership and capacity-building programs to community leaders and locally elected officials on the island. The two organizations provide leaders access to professional facilitators, workshops and trainings, and material and financial resources, to help them strengthen local capacity and improve quality of life on the island. Founded in 2014, the Australian-based non-profit organisation For You Haiti began coordinating surgeries for children from la Gonâve island. The children receive medical treatment on the mainland of Haiti and in the United States. For You Haiti has a mentoring program for men and women to start small businesses in Haiti, with the goal of empowering communities to break the cycle of poverty. In 2016, For You Haiti started the Hungry Tummies Project at Complexe Scolaire Amis des Enfants and began growing their own food in the region of Palma, in the hope of making lasting change for the la Gonâvian people.

History.

In 1926, U.S. Marine Corps Sergeant Faustin E. Wirkus (1896–1945) was proclaimed by the residents of the island as King Faustin II. His reign lasted until 1929, when he returned to the United States.  In the mid-1980s, British singer Cliff Richard recorded a song "La Gonave" for relief aid for the people of the island.  The docks of the island were damaged by the 2010 Haiti earthquake of 12 January 2010. In the wake of the damage, supplies have been airlifted in to the 1,800-foot dirt strip.

"Fierté gonavienne" disaster.

On 8 September 1997, a ferry from La Gonâve to the Montrouis on the Haitian mainland sank with hundreds of passengers aboard. It is considered the worst disaster in Haitian maritime history since the "Neptune" accident in 1993.  http://www.radiotelesdzetwafm.com/

Gonâve Island (, ; also "La Gonâve") is an island of Haiti located west-northwest of Port-au-Prince in the Gulf of Gonâve. It is the largest of the Hispaniolan satellite islands. The island is an arrondissement ("Arrondissement de La Gonâve") in the Ouest and includes the communes of Anse-à-Galets and Pointe-à-Raquette. The indigenous Taínos called the island "Guanabo."

La Gonâve je ostrov v Gonâvském zálivu u západního pobřeží Haiti. Je po hlavním ostrově Hispaniola největším ostrovem země, má rozlohu 743 km2. Žije na něm okolo sto třiceti tisíc obyvatel, z toho asi polovina v největším městě Anse-à-Galets na severovýchodním pobřeží. Tvoří samostatný arrondissement v rámci Západního departementu Haiti.


Biography.

Born in Iraq, in a relatively wealthy older aristocratic Shiite family of this country, Fadelle fled the country with his wife and children because of the fatwa after his conversion to Christianity. His conversion took place after a conversation with a Christian during his military service in 1987, and a dream and a strict reading of the Koran and the Bible. Joseph Fadelle went through a phase of atheism. He also had a dream that led him to embrace the Christian faith. He lived his conversion secret for many months, including with his wife and two children, and was discovered by his wife, who followed in his approach, then his family, some of whom wanted to kill him. Tortured by the political regime of Saddam Hussein for several months at the request of an uncle, Fadelle was released only after his uncle died. He had to wait long to be baptized, as the Catholic authorities sought to avoid violating an Iraqi law banning proselytizing. Fadelle fled Iraq through Jordan, narrowly escaping an assassination attempt organised by his own brothers, and where a Muslim official of UNHCR (UN High Commissioner for Refugees) falsely accused Fadelle before Western authorities of complicity in the gas attack on Kurds which left 5,000 dead. Fadelle has lived in France since 2001 and has since obtained French citizenship.  In his autobiography, The Price to Pay, he describes his conversion, and refers to Muhammad as a political strategist, and not a religious man, and that Islam as a prison from which his conversion liberated him.  When traveling in public, Fadelle is escorted by police because of death threats.  In 2014, Fadelle prefaced "Interroger l'Islam : 1235 questions à poser aux Musulmans!", authored by Guy Pagès.

Joseph Fadelle (born Mohammed al-Sayyid al-Moussawi - Arabic: محمد السيد الموسوي), is a Roman Catholic convert from Islam and a writer born in 1964 in Iraq in a Muslim Shiite family.

Joseph Fadelle (rodným jménem Mohamed al-Saíd al-Músáví, * 1964) je francouzský spisovatel iráckého původu, autor bestselleru "Cena, kterou zaplatíš ("francouzsky "Le prix" à "payer)", v němž popisuje svoji konverzi od šíitismu ke katolicismu a následný útěk před vlastními příbuznými na Západ. V roce 2015 byla kniha přeložena do češtiny, která se tak stala 11 jazykem, do nějž byla přeložena. Na konci téhož roku s velkým náskokem zvítězila v anketě „Kniha roku“ Katolického týdeníku.


History.

Most terrier breeds were refined from the older purpose-bred dogs.  The gameness of the early hunting terriers was exploited by using them in sporting contests. Initially, terriers competed in events such as clearing a pit of rats. The dog that was fastest in killing all the rats won. In the eighteenth century some terriers were crossed with hounds to improve their hunting, and some with fighting dog breeds to "intensify tenacity and increase courage". Some of the crosses with fighting dogs, bull and terrier crosses, were used in the blood sport of dog-fighting. Modern pet breeds such as the Miniature Bull Terrier are listed by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) under Bull type terriers.  Today, most terriers are kept as companion dogs and family pets. They are generally loyal and affectionate to their owners.

Terrier types and groups.

In the 18th century in Britain, only two types of terriers were recognized, long- and short-legged. Today, terriers are often informally categorized by size or by function.  Hunting-types are still used to find, track, or trail quarry, especially underground, and sometimes to bolt the quarry. Modern examples include the Jack Russell Terrier, the Rat Terrier and the Patterdale Terrier. There are also the short-legged terriers such as the Cairn Terrier, the Scottish Terrier, and the West Highland White Terrier, which were also used to kill small vermin.  The original hunting terriers include the Fell Terrier (developed in northern England to assist in the killing of foxes) and the Hunt Terrier (developed in southern England to locate, kill or bolt foxes during a traditional mounted fox hunt).  The various combinations of bulldog and terrier that were used for bull-baiting and dog-fighting in the late 19th century were later refined into separate breeds that combined both terrier and bulldog qualities. Except for the Boston Terrier, they are generally included in kennel clubs' Terrier Group. Breeders have bred modern bull-type terrier breeds, such as the Bull Terrier and Staffordshire Bull Terrier, into suitable family dogs and show terriers.  Toy terriers have been bred from larger terriers and are shown in the Toy or Companion group. Included among these breeds are the English Toy Terrier and the Yorkshire Terrier. While small, they retain true terrier character and are not submissive "lap dogs".  Other descendants of the bull and terrier types, such as the Asian Gull Terrier, are among the dogs still raised for illegal dog-fighting.

Appearance.

Terriers range greatly in appearance from very small, light bodied, smooth coated dogs such as the English Toy Terrier (Black and Tan), which weighs as little as, to the very large rough-coated Airedale Terriers, which can be up to or more. As of 2004, the United Kennel Club recognized a new hairless breed of terrier derived from the Rat Terrier called the American Hairless Terrier.

Kennel club classification.

When competing in conformation shows, most kennel clubs including the Fédération Cynologique Internationale group pedigree terrier breeds together in their own terrier group.

Terrier (from Latin "terra", meaning "earth" or "soil") is a type of dog originally bred to hunt vermin. A terrier is a dog of any one of many breeds or landraces of the terrier type group, which are typically small, wiry, game and fearless. Terrier breeds vary greatly in size from just to over and are usually categorized by size or function. There are five different groups of Terrier, with each group having different shapes and sizes.

Teriéři jsou skupina psů dle FCI s pořadovým číslem tři. Má celkem čtyři sekce: "Velcí a střední teriéři, Malí teriéři, Teriéři typu bull" a "Toy teriéři". Je to nesourodá skupina psů různých velikostí a barevných rázů, z nichž nejrozšířenější jsou malí teriéři, jako je jack Russell teriér nebo jorkšírský teriér. V této skupině má svého zástupce i Česká republika a je to český teriér, zařazený v sekci "Malí teriéři". Český teriér je jedním ze dvou uznaných českých plemen. Většina teriérů byla vyšlechtěna pro lov krys a jiných hlodavců, zbytek jsou společníci. Speciální sekcí jsou i "Teriéři typu bull", kteří byli vyšlechtěni v Anglii a Americe pro psí zápasy.


History.

Born in Pisa, Giovanni Pisano was the son of the famous sculptor Nicola Pisano. He received his training in the workshop of his father and in 1265–1268 he worked with his father on the pulpit in Siena Cathedral. His next major work with his father was the fountain "Fontana Maggiore" in Perugia (completed 1278). Nicola Pisano is thought to have died either around 1278 or in 1284 when Giovanni took up residence in Siena. These first works were made in Nicola's style and it is difficult to separate the contributions of the two artists. However the "Madonna with Child" can be attributed with certainty to Giovanni, showing a new style with a certain familiarity between Mother and Child. Giovanni's next work was at Pisa Cathedral, sculpting the statues in the two rows of traceried gables at the exterior of the Baptistry (1277–1284). The vivacity of these statues is a new confirmation that he had left the serene style of his father behind. Between 1287 and 1296 he was appointed chief architect of Siena Cathedral. The architectural design and elegant sculptures for the facade of the cathedral in Siena show his tendencies to blend Gothic art with reminders of Roman art. The work was continued after his death, with still greater Gothic elaboration, by Memmo di Filippuccio.  In 1296 he returned to Pisa to begin work on the Church of San Giovanni. In 1301 he continued his work on the Pulpit of Sant' Andrea, Pistoia which he had already started in 1297. The pulpit has five reliefs: the Annunciation and Nativity; the Adoration, the Dream of the Magi and the Angel warning Joseph; the Massacre of the Innocents; the Crucifixion; and the Last Judgement.  Giovanni's work between 1302 and 1310 at the new pulpit for the Cathedral of Pisa shows his distinct preference for animation in his characters, and moved even further away his father's style. This pulpit with its dramatic scenes has become his masterwork. It shows nine scenes from the New Testament, carved in white marble with a chiaroscuro effect. It contains even a bold, naturalistic depiction of a naked Hercules. His figure "Prudence" in the pulpit may have been an inspiration for the "Eve" in the painting "The Expulsion from the Garden of Eden "by Masaccio. After the fire of 1595 it was packed away during the redecoration and was not rediscovered and re-erected until 1926.  The church of San Nicola in Pisa was enlarged between 1297 and 1313 by the Augustinians, perhaps by the design of Giovanni Pisano. He was also responsible of the façade of San Paolo a Ripa d'Arno. His last major work dates probably from 1313 when he made a monument in memory of Margaret of Brabant (who died in 1311) at the request of her husband emperor Henry VII.

Legacy.

One of his pupils was Giovanni di Balduccio, who also became a famous sculptor, and the architect and sculptor Agostino da Siena. He also had an influence on the painter Pietro Lorenzetti. Giorgio Vasari included a biography of Pisano in his book "Le vite dei più eccellenti pittori, scultori, e architetti"  The asteroid "7313 Pisano" was named to honour Nicola and Giovanni Pisano.

Giovanni Pisano (c. 1250 – c. 1315) was an Italian sculptor, painter and architect, who worked in the cities of Pisa, Siena and Pistoia. He is best known for his sculpture which shows the influence of both the French Gothic and the Ancient Roman art. Henry Moore, referring to his statues for the facade of Siena Cathedral, called him "the first modern sculptor".

Giovanni Pisano ["džovanny pizáno"] (asi 1250, Pisa – asi 1315, Pisa) byl italský gotický sochař a architekt, podle některých jediný skutečně gotický sochař v Itálii.