Evolution and taxonomy.

Fossil finds of the European mink are very rare, thus indicating the species is either a relative newcomer to Europe, probably having originated in North America, or a recent speciation caused by hybridization. It likely first arose in the Middle Pleistocene, with several fossils in Europe dated to the Late Pleistocene being found in caves and some suggesting early exploitation by humans. Genetic analyses indicate, rather than being closely related to the American mink, the European mink's closest relative is the European polecat (perhaps due to past hybridization) and the Siberian weasel, being intermediate in form between true polecats and other members of the genus. The closeness between the mink and polecat is emphasized by the fact the species can hybridize.

Subspecies.

, seven subspecies are recognised.

Description.

Build.

The European mink is a typical representative of the genus "Mustela", having a greatly elongated body with short limbs. However, compared to its close relative, the Siberian weasel, the mink is more compact and less thinly built, thus approaching ferrets and European polecats in build. The European mink has a large, broad head with short ears. The limbs are short, with relatively well-developed membranes between the digits, particularly on the hind feet. The mink's tail is short, and does not exceed half the animal's body length (constituting about 40% of its length). The European mink's skull is less elongated than the kolonok's, with more widely spaced zygomatic arches and has a less massive facial region. In general characteristics, the skull is intermediate in shape between that of the Siberian weasel and the European polecat. Overall, the skull is less specialized for carnivory than that of polecats and the American mink. Males measure in body length, while females measure. Tail length is in males and. Overall weight is. It is a fast and agile animal, which swims and dives skilfully. It is able to run along stream beds, and stay underwater for one to two minutes. When swimming, it paddles with both its front and back limbs simultaneously.

Fur.

The winter fur of the European mink is very thick and dense, but not long, and quite loosely fitting. The underfur is particularly dense compared with that of more land-based members of the genus "Mustela". The guard hairs are quite coarse and lustrous, with very wide contour hairs which are flat in the middle, as is typical in aquatic mammals. The length of the hairs on the back and belly differ little, a further adaptation to the European mink's semiaquatic way of life. The summer fur is somewhat shorter, coarser and less dense than the winter fur, though the differences are much less than in purely terrestrial mustelids.  In dark coloured individuals, the fur is dark brown or almost blackish-brown, while light individuals are reddish brown. Fur colour is evenly distributed over the whole body, though in a few cases, the belly is a bit lighter than the upper parts. In particularly dark individuals, a dark, broad dorsal belt is present. The limbs and tail are slightly darker than the trunk. The face has no colour pattern, though its upper and lower lips and chin are pure white. White markings may also occur on the lower surface of the neck and chest. Occasionally, colour mutations such as albinos and white spots throughout the pelage occur. The summer fur is somewhat lighter, and dirty in tone, with more reddish highlights.

Differences from American mink.

The European mink is similar to the American mink, but with several important differences. The tail is longer in the American species, almost reaching half its body length. The winter fur of the American mink is denser, longer and more closely fitting than that of the European mink. Unlike the European mink, which has white patches on both upper and lower lips, the American mink almost never has white marks on the upper lip. The European mink's skull is much less specialised than the American species' in the direction of carnivory, bearing more infantile features, such as a weaker dentition and less strongly developed projections. The European mink is reportedly less efficient than the American species underwater.

Behaviour.

Territorial and denning behaviours.

The European mink does not form large territories, possibly due to the abundance of food on the banks of small water bodies. The size of each territory varies according to the availability of food; in areas with water meadows with little food, the home range is, though it is more usual for territories to be. Summer territories are smaller than winter territories. Along shorelines, the length of a home range varies from, with a width of.  The European mink has both a permanent burrow and temporary shelters. The former is used all year except during floods, and is located no more than from the water's edge. The construction of the burrow is not complex, often consisting of one or two passages in diameter and in length, leading to a nest chamber measuring. Nesting chambers are lined with straw, moss, mouse wool and bird feathers. It is more sedentary than the American mink, and will confine itself for long periods in its burrow in very cold weather.

Reproduction and development.

During the mating season, the sexual organs of the female enlarge greatly and become pinkish-lilac in colour, which is in contrast with the female American mink, whose organs do not change. In the Moscow Zoo, estrus was observed on 22–26 April, with copulation lasting from 15 minutes to an hour. The average litter consists of three to seven kits. At birth, kits weigh about, and grow rapidly, trebling their weight 10 days after birth. They are born blind; the eyes open after 30–31 days. The lactation period lasts 2.0 to 2.5 months, though the kits eat solid food after 20–25 days. They accompany the mother on hunting expeditions at the age of 56–70 days, and become independent at the age 70–84 days.

Diet.

The European mink has a diverse diet consisting largely of aquatic and riparian fauna. Differences between its diet and that of the American mink are small. Voles are the most important food source, closely followed by crustaceans, frogs and water insects. Fish are an important food source in floodlands, with cases being known of European minks catching fish weighing. The European mink's daily food requirement is. In times of food abundance, it caches its food.

Range and status.

The European mink is mostly restricted to Europe. Its range was widespread in the 19th century, with a distribution extending from northern Spain in the west to the river Ob (just east of the Urals) in the east, and from the Archangelsk region in the north to the northern Caucasus in the south. Over the last 150 years, though, it has severely declined by more than 90% and been extirpated or greatly reduced over most of its former range. The current range includes an isolated population in northern Spain and western France, which is widely disjunct from the main range in Eastern Europe (Latvia, Estonia, Belarus, Ukraine, central regions of European Russia, the Danube Delta in Romania and northwestern Bulgaria). It occurs from sea level to. In Estonia, efforts have been made to re-establish viable populations on the islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa.

Decline.

The earliest actual records of decreases in European mink numbers occurred in Germany, having already become extinct in several areas by the middle of the 18th century. A similar pattern occurred in Switzerland, with no records of minks being published in the 20th century. Records of minks in Austria stopped by the late 18th century. By the 1930s-1950s, the European mink became extinct in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and possibly Bulgaria. In Finland, the main decline occurred in the 1920s-1950s and the species was thought to be extinct in the 1970s, though a few specimens were reported in the 1990s. In Latvia, the European mink was thought to be extinct for years, until a specimen was captured in 1992. In Lithuania, the last specimens were caught in 1978–79. The decline of the European mink in Estonia and Belarus was rapid during the 1980s, with only a few small, fragmented populations in the northeastern regions of both countries being reported in the 1990s. The decline of European mink numbers in Ukraine began in the late 1950s, with now only a few small and isolated populations being reported in the upper courses of the Ukrainian Carpathian rivers. Their numbers in Moldova began to drop very quickly in the 1930s, with the last known population having been confined to the lower course of the River Prut on the Romanian border by the late 1980s. In Romania, the European mink was very common and widely distributed, with 8000–10,000 being captured in 1960. Currently, Romanian mink populations are confined to the Danube Delta. In European Russia, the European mink was common and widespread in the early 20th century, but began to decline during the 1950s-1970s. The core of their range was in the Tver Region, though they began to decline there by the 1990s, which was worsened by a colonisation of the area by the American mink. Between 1981 and 1989, 388 European minks were introduced to two of the Kurile Islands, though by the 1990s, the population there was found to be lower than that originally released. In France and Spain, an isolated range occurs, extending from Brittany to northern Spain. Data from the 1990s indicate the European mink has disappeared from the northern half of this previous range.

Possible reasons for decline.

Habitat loss.

Habitat-related declines of European mink numbers may have started during the Little Ice Age, which was further aggravated by human activity. As the European mink is more dependent on wetland habitats than the American species, its decline in Central Europe, Estonia, Finland, Russia, Moldova and Ukraine has been linked to the drainage of small rivers. In mid-19th-century Germany, for example, European mink populations declined in a decade due to expanded land drainage. Although land improvement and river dredging certainly resulted in population decreases and fragmentation, in areas which still maintain suitable river ecosystems, such as Poland, Hungary, the former Czechoslovakia, Finland and Russia, the decline preceded the change in wetland habitats, and may have been caused by extensive agricultural development.

Overhunting.

The European mink was historically hunted extensively, particularly in Russia, where in some districts, the decline prompted a temporary ban on mink hunting to let the population recover. In the early 20th century, 40–60,000 European minks were caught annually in the Soviet Union, with a record of 75,000 individuals (an estimate which exceeds the modern global European mink population). In Finland, annual mink catches reached 3000 specimens in the 1920s. In Romania, 10,000 minks were caught annually around 1960. However, this reason alone cannot account for the decline in areas where hunting was less intense, such as in Germany.

Decline of crayfish.

The decline of European crayfish has been proposed as a factor in the drop in mink numbers, as minks are notably absent in the eastern side of the Urals, where crayfish are also absent. The decline in mink numbers has also been linked to the destruction of crayfish in Finland during the 1920s-1940s, when the crustaceans were infected with crayfish plague. The failure of the European mink to expand west to Scandinavia coincides with the gap in crayfish distribution.

Competition with the American Mink and disease.

The American mink was introduced and released in Europe during the 1920s-1930s. The American mink is less dependent on wetland habitats than the European mink and is 20-40% larger. The impact of feral American minks on European mink populations has been explained through the competitive exclusion principle and because the American mink reproduces a month earlier than the European species, and matings between male American minks and female European minks result in the embryos being reabsorbed. Thus, female European minks impregnated by male American minks are unable to reproduce with their conspecifics. Disease spread by the American mink can also account for the decline. Though the presence of the American mink has coincided with the decline of European mink numbers in Belarus and Estonia, the decline of the European mink in some areas preceded the introduction of the American mink by many years, and there are areas in Russia where the American species is absent, though European mink populations in these regions are still declining.  Diseases spread by the American mink can also account for the decline. Twenty-seven helminth species are recorded to infest the European mink, consisting of 14 trematodes, two cestodes and 11 nematodes. The mink is also vulnerable to pulmonary filariasis, krenzomatiasis and skrjabingylosis. In the Leningrad and Pskov Oblasts, 77.1% of European minks were found to be infected with skrjabingylosis.

Hybridisation and competition with the European Polecat.

In the early 20th century, northern Europe underwent a warm climatic period which coincided with an expansion of the range of the European polecat. The European mink possibly was gradually absorbed by the polecat due to hybridisation. Also, competition with the polecat has greatly increased, due to landscape change favouring the polecat. There is one record of a polecat attacking a mink and dragging it to its burrow.  Polecat-mink hybrids are termed "khor'-tumak" by furriers and "khonorik" by fanciers. Such hybridisation is very rare in the wild, and typically only occurs where European minks are declining. A polecat-mink hybrid has a poorly defined facial mask, yellow fur on the ears, grey-yellow underfur and long, dark brown guard hairs. Fairly large, the males attain the peak sizes known for European polecats (weighing and measuring in length), and females are much larger than female European minks (weighing and measuring in length). The majority of polecat-mink hybrids have skulls bearing greater similarities to those of polecats than to minks. Hybrids can swim well like minks and burrow for food like polecats. They are very difficult to tame and breed, as males are sterile, though females are fertile. The first captive polecat-mink hybrid was created in 1978 by Soviet zoologist Dr. Dmitry Ternovsky of Novosibirsk. Originally bred for their fur (which was more valuable than that of either parent species), the breeding of these hybrids declined as European mink populations decreased. Studies on the behavioural ecology of free-ranging polecat-mink hybrids in the upper reaches of the Lovat River indicate the hybrids will stray from aquatic habitats more readily than pure minks, and will tolerate both parent species entering their territories, though the hybrid's larger size (especially the male's) may deter intrusion. During the summer period, the diet of wild polecat-mink hybrids is more similar to that of the mink than to the polecat, as they feed predominantly on frogs. During the winter, their diets overlap more with those of polecats, and will eat a larger proportion of rodents than in the summer, though they still rely heavily on frogs and rarely scavenge ungulate carcasses as the polecat does.

Predation.

Predators of the European mink include the European polecat, the American mink, the golden eagle, large owls and the red fox. Red fox numbers have increased greatly in areas where the wolf and Eurasian lynx have been extirpated, as well as areas where modern forestry is practised. As red foxes are known to prey on mustelids, excessive fox predation on the European mink is a possible factor, though it is improbable to have been a factor in Finland, where fox numbers were low during the early 20th century.

The European mink ("Mustela lutreola"), also known as the Russian mink and Eurasian mink, is a semiaquatic species of mustelid native to Europe.

Norek evropský ("Mustela lutreola") je středně velký zástupce čeledi lasicovitých obývající evropské lesy v části Španělska, Francie, Rumunska, Ukrajiny, Estonska a Ruska. V Česku vyhynul už koncem 19. století.


Early life.

Gay was born in Barnstaple, England, and was educated at the town's grammar school. On leaving school he was apprenticed to a silk mercer in London, but being weary, according to Samuel Johnson, "of either the restraint or the servility of his occupation", he soon returned to Barnstaple, where he was educated by his uncle, the Rev. John Hanmer, the nonconformist minister of the town. He then returned to London.

Early career.

The dedication of his "Rural Sports" (1713) to Alexander Pope was the beginning of a lasting friendship. In 1714, Gay wrote "The Shepherd's Week", a series of six pastorals drawn from English rustic life. Pope had urged him to undertake this task in order to ridicule the Arcadian pastorals of Ambrose Philips, who had been praised by a short-lived contemporary publication "The Guardian", to the neglect of Pope's claims as the first pastoral writer of the age and the true English Theocritus. Gay's pastorals achieved this goal and his ludicrous pictures of the English country lads and their loves were found to be entertaining on their own account.  Gay had just been appointed secretary to the British ambassador to the court of Hanover through the influence of Jonathan Swift when the death of Anne, Queen of Great Britain, three months later put an end to all his hopes of official employment.  In 1715, probably with some help from Pope, he produced "What d'ye call it?", a dramatic skit on contemporary tragedy, with special reference to Thomas Otway's "Venice Preserv'd". It left the public so ignorant of its real meaning that Lewis Theobald and Benjamin Griffin published a "Complete Key to what d'ye call it" to explain it. In 1716 appeared his "Trivia, or the Art of Walking the Streets of London", a poem in three books, for which he acknowledged having received several hints from Swift. It contains graphic and humorous descriptions of the London of that period. What is most interesting about the poem, however, is not that it depicts the city with photographic accuracy, but that it acts as a guide to the upper-, and upper-middle-class walkers of society. In taking a mock-heroic form, Gay's poem was able to poke fun at the notion of complete reformation of street civility, while also proposing an idea of reform in terms of the attitude towards walking. In January 1717 he produced a comedy, "Three Hours After Marriage", which was thought to be grossly indecent (without being amusing) and a failure. He had assistance from Pope and John Arbuthnot, but they allowed it to be assumed that Gay was the sole author.

Patrons.

Gay had numerous patrons, and in 1720 he published "Poems on Several Occasions" by subscription, taking in £1000 or more. In that year James Craggs, the secretary of state, presented him with some South Sea stock. Gay, disregarding the advice of Pope and others of his friends, invested all his money in South Sea stock, and, holding on to the end of the South Sea Bubble, he lost everything. The shock is said to have made him dangerously ill. His friends did not fail him at this juncture. He had patrons in William Pulteney, afterwards Earl of Bath, in the third Earl of Burlington, who constantly entertained him at Chiswick or at Burlington House, and in the Duke and Duchess of Queensberry. He was a frequent visitor with Pope, and received unvarying kindness from William Congreve and John Arbuthnot. In 1727 he wrote for six-year-old Prince William, later the Duke of Cumberland, "Fifty-one Fables in Verse", for which he naturally hoped to gain some preferment, although he has much to say in them of the servility of courtiers and the vanity of court honours. He was offered the situation of gentleman-usher to the Princess Louisa, who was also still a child. He refused this offer, which all his friends seem to have regarded as an indignity. He had never rendered any special services to the court.

"The Beggar's Opera".

He certainly did nothing to conciliate the favour of the government by his next work, "The Beggar's Opera", a ballad opera produced on the 29 January 1728 by John Rich, in which Sir Robert Walpole was caricatured. This famous piece, which was said to have made "Rich gay and Gay rich", was an innovation in many respects. The satire of the play has a double allegory. The character of Peachum was inspired by the thief-taker Jonathan Wild, executed in 1725, and the principal figure of Macheath reflected memories of the French highwayman, Claude Duval, whose execution had created a sensation in London, and who exemplified the flamboyance and gallantry of Gay's literary hero. Gay's decision to launch the work was probably also influenced by the huge interest that Jack Sheppard, a cockney housebreaker, had created in all things relating to Newgate Prison. However, the character of Peachum was also understood to represent Robert Walpole, who, like Wild, was seen as a public but morally dubious character, and whose government had been tolerant of Wild's thievery and the South Sea directors' escape from punishment. Under cover of the thieves and highwaymen who figured in it was disguised a satire on society, for Gay made it plain that in describing the moral code of his characters he had in mind the corruptions of the governing class. Part of the success of "The Beggar's Opera" may have been due to the acting of Lavinia Fenton, afterwards Duchess of Bolton, in the part of Polly Peachum. The play ran for sixty-two nights. Swift is said to have suggested the subject, and Pope and Arbuthnot were constantly consulted while the work was in progress, but Gay must be regarded as the sole author. After seeing an early version of the work, Swift was optimistic of its commercial prospects but famously warned Gay to be cautious with his earnings: "I beg you will be thrifty and learn to value a shilling."

Later career.

He wrote a sequel, "Polly", relating the adventures of Polly Peachum in the West Indies; its production was forbidden by the Lord Chamberlain, no doubt through the influence of Walpole. This act of "oppression" caused no loss to Gay. It proved an excellent advertisement for "Polly", which was published by subscription in 1729, and brought its author several thousand pounds. The Duchess of Queensberry was dismissed from court for enlisting subscribers in the palace. The Duke of Queensberry gave Gay a home, and the duchess continued her affectionate patronage until Gay's death in London on 4 December 1732. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. The epitaph on his tomb is by Pope, and is followed by Gay's own mocking couplet: <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">Life is a jest, and all things show it, I thought so once, but now I know it.</poem>

Works.

Among Gay's works are:

References in other works.

Jake Arnott features John Gay heavily in his 2017 novel "The Fatal Tree".

References.

Notes Sources

John Gay (30 June 1685 – 4 December 1732) was an English poet and dramatist and member of the Scriblerus Club. He is best remembered for "The Beggar's Opera" (1728), a ballad opera. The characters, including Captain Macheath and Polly Peachum, became household names.

John Gay (30. června 1685 Barnstaple, Devon, Anglie – 4. prosince 1732 Londýn) byl anglický básník a dramatik. Jeho nejznámějším dílem je parodická hra Žebrácká opera ("The Beggar’s Opera", 1728), zhudebněná Johannem Christophem Pepuschem, v českém prostředí známá díky adaptacím Bertolda Brechta (s hudbou Kurta Weilla) a Václava Havla a také díky následné filmové adaptaci Jiřího Menzla.


Background.

She was born Christiane Desroches on 17 November 1913, in Paris. In 1922 she was fascinated by Howard Carter’s discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamon, and encouraged by Father Étienne Drioton, she joined the Egyptian Antiquities department at the Louvre. She was the first woman to be a fellow of the French Institute of Oriental Archaeology (IFAO), and was also the first woman to lead an archaeological dig, in 1938.  During World War II she joined the Resistance, and hid the Louvre's Egyptian treasures in free areas of France.  She died on 23 June 2011 at 97.

Aswan Dam project.

The construction of the new Aswan High Dam led to Noblecourt's greatest accomplishment: the preservation of ancient Nubian temples from flooding caused by the dam. The first dam, completed in 1902 with a capacity of a billion cubic meters, had been deemed insufficient and raised in 1912, and again in 1934. The dam's capacity still could not meet the needs of Egypt's ever-growing population, and in 1954 the government of Gamal Abdel Nasser decided to build a new dam with a capacity of 157 billion cubic meters, 500 kilometers long, which would extend into Sudan. It has been described as a project worthy of the pharaohs.  The monuments of ancient Nubia would have been flooded and lost forever if the project had gone ahead as planned, among them the temples of Abu Simbel. In the words of writer Pierre Loti, who visited the area shortly after the first dam was completed: “The greater part of the ancient temples of Nubia will be underwater...but the cotton fields will be so productive!” UNESCO immediately asked Noblecourt, who was then curator of Egyptian antiquities at the Louvre, to create an inventory of all the threatened historical sites. It then undertook the colossal task of finding the funding necessary to save them.

UNESCO's Campaign to ٍSave the Temples.

On March 8, 1960, Christiane Desroches Noblecourt, along with Sarwat Okasha, the Egyptian Minister of Culture, made a formal appeal for international support. Not only would more than fourteen temples have to be moved, but urgent excavations would need to take place at sites that would soon be under several dozen meters of water.  André Malraux, then the French Minister of Cultural Affairs, added his voice to the appeal: “The power that created the colossal monuments threatened today... speaks to us in a voice as exalted as that of the architects of Chartres, as that of Rembrandt... Your appeal is historic, not because it proposes to save the temples of Nubia, but because through it the first global civilization publicly claims the world's art as its indivisible heritage... There is only one action over which the indifference of stars and the eternal murmuring of rivers have no sway— it is the act by which man snatches something from death.”  Fifty countries contributed funds to save the monuments now considered part of the heritage of all humanity. Philae, Kalabsha, Wadi al-Sabua, Dakka, Derr and other sites were moved, with the temples of Abu Simbel receiving the most media attention. The temple of Amada was a difficult case, because of its small, beautifully painted reliefs. Chopping it into blocks, as was being done with the other temples, was not an option; the paintings would not have survived. Seeing that all seemed resigned to see the temple flooded by the silty waters of Lake Nasser, Christiane Desroches Noblecourt announced that France would save it. She asked two architects to propose a method for moving the temple in one piece. Their idea was to put the temple on rails and transport it hydraulically to a site a few kilometers away that was more than 60 meters higher.  More funds were needed for this ambitious project. To this end Christiane Desroches Noblecourt requested an interview with Charles de Gaulle, who had no idea of the commitment she had made in the name of her country. Reportedly on learning of it, he demanded, “Madame, how dare you say that France will save the temple, without authorization from my government?” Noblecourt replied, “General, how dare you make an appeal on the radio without authorization from Pétain?” De Gaulle agreed to honour Noblecourt's promise.  Ultimately the rescue project, including the transportation and reconstruction of the temples on their new sites, took twenty years.

Aftermath.

The preservation of the Nubian monuments was to have unexpected consequences. The first was an improvement in Franco-Egyptian relations, which had been poor since the Suez Canal crisis of 1956. This in turn led to the organization of a Tutankhamon exhibition at the Louvre in 1967, which attracted a record number of visitors, followed by the exhibitions of Ramses II in 1976, and Amenophis III in 1993. In recognition of France's contributions to the preservation of the Nubian temples, the government of Anwar Sadat donated to the Louvre the bust of Amenhotep IV, better known as Akhenaton.

Awards.

In 1975 Christiane Desroches Noblecourt received the prestigious gold medal of the French National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS). In January 2008, she was awarded the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur, the highest decoration in France.

Christiane Desroches Noblecourt (; 17 November 1913 – 23 June 2011) was a French Egyptologist. She was the author of many books on Egyptian art and history and was also known for her role in the preservation of the Nubian temples from flooding caused by the Aswan Dam.

Christiane Desroches Noblecourt (17. listopadu 1913 Paříž – 23. června 2011 Sézanne) byla francouzská egyptoložka. Jako autorka literatury faktu byla významnou popularizátorkou egyptologie a starověkého Egypta. Významným způsobem přispěla k záchraně chrámů Ramesse II. v Abú Simbelu a dalších historicky cenných staveb, jimž hrozilo zatopení v souvislostí s vybudováním Vysoké Asuánské přehrady. Zprostředkovala také výzkum a ošetření Ramesseho mumie v pařížském Antropologickém muzeu mezi roky 1976 a 1977, které zabránilo jejímu hrozícímu nenávratnému poškození.


Site.

The Minaret of Jam is probably located at the site of the Ghurid Dynasty's capital, Firozkoh.  The circular minaret rests on an octagonal base; it had 2 wooden balconies and was topped by a lantern. Its formal presentation has a striking similarity to the Ghazni minarets built by Masud III. It is thought to have been a direct inspiration for the Qutub Minar in Delhi, India.  The Minaret of Jam belongs to a group of around 60 minarets and towers built between the 11th and the 13th centuries in Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan, including the Kutlug Timur Minaret in Old Urgench (long considered the tallest of these still in existence). The minarets are thought to have been built as symbols of Islam's victory, while other towers were simply landmarks or watchtowers.  The archaeological landscape around Jam includes the ruins of a 'palace', fortifications, a pottery kiln and a Jewish cemetery, and has been suggested to be the remains of the lost city of Turquoise Mountain. Analysis of the "robber holes" around the site, high-resolution satellite images and data from Google Maps has led to an estimate that the Ghūrid summer capital around the minaret was about 19.5 hectares in size.  The archaeological site of Jam was successfully nominated as Afghanistan's first World Heritage site in 2002. It was also inscribed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage in Danger, due to the precarious state of preservation of the minaret, and the results of looting at the site.

History.

During the 12th and 13th century, the Ghurids controlled what is now Afghanistan, but also parts of eastern Iran, Central Asia, Northern India and parts of Pakistan.  The Arabic inscription dating the minaret is unclear – it could read 1193/4 or 1174/5. It could thus commemorate the victory of the Ghurid sultan Ghiyas ud-Din over the Ghaznevids in 1186 in Lahore. However, Dr. Ralph Pinder-Wilson, a British Archeologist and Director of the British Institute of Afghan Studies in the 1970s, wrote a major study of the Minarets of Jam and Ghazni in which he expressed his belief that the minaret was built to commemorate the victory of Mu'izz ad-Din, Ghiyath ud-Din's brother, over Prithviraj Chauhan. This victory allowed Islam to spread into the northern Indian subcontinent. Pinder-Wilson believed that the minaret was built in the style of the time, which included a tradition of early Islamic victory towers proclaiming the conquering power of Islam.  It is assumed that the Minaret was attached to the Friday Mosque of Firozkoh, which the Ghurid chronicler Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani states was washed away in a flash flood, some time before the Mongol sieges in the early 13th century. Work at Jam by the Minaret of Jam Archaeological Project has found evidence of a large courtyard building beside the minaret, and evidence of river sediments on top of the baked-brick paving.  The Ghurid Empire's glory waned after the death of Ghiyath ud-Din in 1202, as it was forced to cede territory to the Khwarezm Empire. Juzjani states that Firuzkuh was destroyed by the Mongols in 1222.  The Minaret was little known outside of Afghanistan until Sir Thomas Holdich reported it in 1886 while working for the Afghan Boundary Commission. It did not come to world attention, however, until 1957 through the work of the French archaeologists André Maricq and Gaston Wiet. Later, Werner Herberg conducted limited surveys around the site in the 1970s, and Ralph Pinder-Wilson completed his major study of the site in the same decade, before the Soviet invasion of 1979 once again cut off outside access.

Threats.

The Minaret of Jam is threatened by erosion, water infiltration and floods, due to its proximity to the Hari and Jam rivers. Another threat is the earthquakes that happen frequently in the region. The tower has been tilting, and stabilisation work has been carried out at various times.  Following his 2002 visit, British explorer and future Member of Parliament Rory Stewart reported that looters and illegal excavations have also damaged the archaeological site surrounding the minaret.  On 21 July 2018 Pajhwok News reported Taliban clashes with local forces at checkpoints near the Minaret of Jam in a 6-hour long skirmish. The militants set the forests surrounding the historic district on fire, subsequently damaging a mosque in the process.  Ghor Director of Culture and Information Fakhruddin Ariapoor expressed concern at the instability in the area, stating that some parts of the green area were damaged; and although the minaret remained intact, warned that if the central government did not pay due attention to the security of the site, the militants would destroy it.

Conservation.

The minaret was largely rediscovered in 1958 by French explorers. From its finding to the early 1970s, there were active restoration efforts and scientific studies conducted in order to slow the decay process. However, after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, no efforts were made.  UNESCO has tried to launch assessment programs. In 2012 UNESCO outlined plans for 3D scanning, hydraulic measurements, and strengthening of support beams and walls to maintain the Minaret, and photos of the external structure have been taken to provide models for future reconstruction. Although the 3D modelling of the minaret was finally carried out for UNESCO by Iconem, political instability has led to a lack of funding and no maintenance efforts have been conducted. Furthermore, the surrounding terrain has made it difficult to make any progress of the structure as it impedes access. However, these assessments have provided a strong basis for future maintenance. While fieldwork remains difficult, archaeologists have analyzed satellite images and data from Google Maps to make new discoveries about the minaret and the surrounding site.  Much can be and needs to be done to aid in the conservation of the Minaret. Security should be one of the primary focuses as looting is a commonplace of the archeological site. Likewise, it is important that the people of Afghanistan get involved in that their interest and engagement in the site will hopefully fund future efforts for preservation.

The Minaret of Jam is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in western Afghanistan. It is located in a remote and nearly inaccessible region of the Shahrak District, Ghor Province, next to the Hari River. The or high minaret was built around 1190 entirely of baked bricks and is famous for its intricate brick, stucco and glazed tile decoration, which consists of alternating bands of kufic and naskhi calligraphy, geometric patterns, and verses from the Qur'an. Since 2002, the minaret has remained on the list of World Heritage in Danger, under serious threat of erosion, and has not been actively preserved. In 2014, the BBC reported that the tower was in imminent danger of collapse.

Minaret Jam (منار جام) se nachází v údolí řeky Hari Rud, persky: هری رود "Harī Rūd", angl: Tejen, Tedzhen (někdy také: Rudkhaneh-ye Hari Rud. V Turkmenistánu se řeka jmenuje Tedžen. Minaret je 65 metrů vysoký a obklopují jej hory dosahující výšky až 2 400 m. Celý je postaven z pálených cihel


Prehistoric carvings.

The rock carvings and petroglyphs at the site display mesmerizing images of prehistoric life in the Caucasus. The well-preserved sketches display ancient populations travelling on reed boats; men hunting antelope and wild bulls, and women dancing. The famed Norwegian anthropologist Thor Heyerdahl returned many times to Azerbaijan between 1961 and his death in 2002 to study the site in his "Search for Odin".  The language of the ancient population of Gobustan is disputed, but the petroglyphs still give information about the lives of prehistoric people who lived there. More than 4,000 pictures of animals, humans, natural life experiences, hunting, and dancing were carved over a span of thousands of years. Most of the petroglyphs are on large cliffs, divided among multiple ancient residences, and in some cases they have been carved over older images. The first carvings depicted natural human and animal figures, often irregularly, but over time they began to more closely resemble the measurements and proportions of their subjects, including such details as the foot muscles of people in hunting scenes. The heads of the human figures tend to be small and carved without noses, mouths, eyes, or ears. However, experts do not interpret this lack of facial features as an indication that the Gobustan artists lacked technical skill, since some of the carvings demonstrate a higher degree of complexity and detail. Many scenes from tribal life are depicted among the petroglyphs, and images from the Seven Beauties cave suggest that women may have participated in hunting.

Mud volcanoes.

It's estimated that 300 of the planet's estimated 700 mud volcanoes sit in Gobustan, Azerbaijan and the Caspian Sea. Many geologists as well as locals and international mud tourists trek to such places as the Firuz Crater, Gobustan, Salyan and end up happily covered in mud which is thought to have medicinal qualities.

Flora and fauna.

The nature of Gobustan is much more suitable than other regions of Azerbaijan. However, the natural conditions of these places were completely different in 20-25 thousand years ago. From the drawings of animals and human figures on the Gobustan, rocks seem to have been under warm climate from 10 to 12 thousand years. People were wearing gentle clothes, men tightened their paws, and women were wearing short leather dresses. Because of the permanent hot weather, greenery and abundant water, these places were the habitats of wild animals: bulls, horses, deer, goats, and other animals lived in Gobustan. From the rock drawings and the archeological findings, wolves, tigers, foxes, jackals and other wild animals have been found in this place in ancient times. In 1968 while cutting off depth stone layer near Atbulakh, accidentally the large bones of an unknown animal were cut off. The workers informed the Ministry of Culture of the Azerbaijan SSR, not knowing what those bones were. After the investigation of the discovered bones, it was determined that these bones were the VI bone of the neck of the southern elephant, which lived in Gobustan.

Gaval Dash.

The Gaval Dash is a natural musical stone which can only be found in Gobustan, Azerbaijan. Among the "stone books" there are a big flat stone formed out of 3 supports. Suffice it to touch the object with a small stone, musical sounds come from it. The stone is called "Gaval Dash", the sound can be compared with a tambourine. The Gaval Dash have been formed due the combination of unique climate, oil and gas which can be found in the region of Azerbaijan.

Gobustan State Reserve located west of the settlement of Gobustan, about southwest of the centre of Baku was established in 1966 when the region was declared as a national historical landmark of Azerbaijan in an attempt to preserve the ancient carvings, mud volcanoes and gas-stones in the region.

Qobustanská archeologická rezervace (ázerbájdžánsky "Qobustan dövlət tarixi-bədii qoruğu", v překladu "Qobustánská státní historicko-umělecká rezervace") se nachází v ázerbájdžánském Qobustanu. Zdejší skalní kresby jsou staré až 4000 let. Skály zde ukrývají sbírku až šesti tisíc skalních kreseb. Nacházejí se zde také zbytky osídlení a pohřebišť starých obyvatel od konce doby ledové až do středověku.


Name.

The medieval and modern French masculine given name Denis derives from the Latin and Greek name Dionysius. This saint is sometimes distinguished as His name is also sometimes spelled Dennis and Denys.

Life.

Gregory of Tours states that Denis was bishop of the Parisii and was martyred by being beheaded by a sword. The earliest document giving an account of his life and martyrdom, the ""Passio SS. Dionysii Rustici et Eleutherii"" dates from c. 600, is mistakenly attributed to the poet Venantius Fortunatus, and is legendary. Nevertheless, it appears from the "Passio" that Denis was sent from Italy to convert Gaul in the third century, forging a link with the ""apostles to the Gauls"" reputed to have been sent out with six other missionary bishops under the direction of Pope Fabian. There Denis was appointed first Bishop of Paris. The persecutions under Emperor Decius had all but dissolved the small Christian community at Lutetia (Paris). Denis, with his inseparable companions Rusticus and Eleutherius, who were martyred with him, settled on the Île de la Cité in the River Seine. Roman Paris lay on the higher ground of the Left Bank, away from the river.

Martyrdom.

Denis and his companions were so effective in converting people that the non-Christian priests became alarmed over their loss of followers. At their instigation, Roman Governor arrested the missionaries. After a long imprisonment, Denis and two of his clergy were executed by beheading on the highest hill in Paris (now Montmartre), which was likely to have been a druidic holy place. The martyrdom of Denis and his companions is popularly believed to have given the site its current name, derived from the Latin "Mons Martyrum" ""The Martyrs' Mountain"", although the name is possibly derived from "Mons Mercurii et Mons Martis", "Hill of Mercury and Mars". After his head was cut off, Denis is said to have picked it up and walked several miles from the summit of the hill, preaching a sermon the entire way, making him one of many cephalophores in hagiology. Of the many accounts of this martyrdom, this is noted in detail in the "Golden Legend" and in Butler's "Lives Of The Saints". The site where he stopped preaching and actually died was marked by a small shrine that developed into the Saint Denis Basilica, which became the burial place for the kings of France. Another account has his corpse being thrown into the Seine, but recovered and buried later that night by his converts.

Veneration.

Veneration of Saint Denis began soon after his death. The bodies of Denis, Eleutherius, and Rusticus were buried on the spot of their martyrdom, where the construction of the eponymous basilica was begun by Genevieve, assisted by the people of Paris. Her "Vita Sanctae Genovefae" attests the presence of a shrine near the present basilica by the close of the fifth century.  Dagobert I, great-grandson of Chlothar I had the first Royal Basilica built. The Merovingian tradition was originally to bury kings as Clovis and Chlothildis in Paris, Abbey St-Genevieve/Genovefa as Clovis had ordered its construction in 502 AD. Yet Chilperic I had his own mother Dowager Queen Aregunda buried at Saint Denis. His grandson was clearly following a family tradition. Aregunda's (death about 580 AD) tomb was discovered in 1959 and her burial items can be seen at Saint-Germain-en-Laye museum. A successor church was erected by Fulrad, who became abbot in 749/50 and was closely linked with the accession of the Carolingians to the Merovingian throne.  In time, StDenis came to be regarded as the patron saint of the French people, with StLouis the patron of the monarchy and royal dynasties. "Saint Denis" or "Montjoie! Saint Denis!" became the typical war-cry of the French armies. The oriflamme, which became the standard of France, was the banner consecrated upon his tomb. His veneration spread beyond France when, in 754, Pope Stephen II brought veneration of Saint Denis to Rome. Soon his "cultus" was prevalent throughout Europe. Abbot Suger removed the relics of Denis, and those associated with Rustique and Eleuthére, from the crypt to reside under the high altar of the Saint-Denis he rebuilt, 1140-44.  In traditional Catholic practice, Saint Denis is honoured as one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers. Specifically, Denis is invoked against diabolical possession and headaches and with Sainte Geneviève is one of the patron saints of Paris.

Feast.

October 9 is celebrated as the feast of Saint Denis and companions, a priest named Rusticus and a deacon, Eleutherius, who were martyred alongside him and buried with him. The names Rusticus and Eleutherius are non-historical. The feast of Saint Denis was added to the Roman Calendar in the year 1568 by Pope Pius V, although it had been celebrated since at least the year 800.  Saint Denis is also a commemoration in many Anglican Provinces, including the Church of England and the Anglican Church of Canada, on October 9.

Confusion with Dionysius the Areopagite.

Since at least the ninth century, the legends of Dionysius the Areopagite and Denis of Paris have often been confused. Around 814, Louis the Pious brought certain writings attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite to France, and since then it became common among the French legendary writers to argue that Denis of Paris was the same Dionysius who was a famous convert and disciple of Saint Paul. The confusion of the personalities of Saint Denis, Dionysius the Areopagite, and pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, the author of the writings ascribed to Dionysius brought to France by Louis, was initiated through an "Areopagitica" written in 836 by Hilduin, Abbot of Saint-Denis, at the request of Louis the Pious. "Hilduin was anxious to promote the dignity of his church, and it is to him that the quite unfounded identification of the patron saint with Dionysius the Areopagite and his consequent connexion with the apostolic age are due." Hilduin's attribution had been supported for centuries by the monastic community at Abbey of Saint-Denis and one of origins of their pride. In "Historia calamitatum", Pierre Abelard gives a short account of the strength of this belief and the monastery's harsh opposition to challenges to their claim. Abelard jokingly pointed out a possibility that the founder of the Abbey could have been another Dionysius, who is mentioned as Dionysius of Corinth by Eusebius. This irritated the community so much that eventually Abelard left in bitterness. As late as the sixteenth century, scholars might still argue for an Eastern origin of the Basilica of Saint-Denis: one was Godefroi Tillman, in a long preface to a paraphrase of the "Letters" of the Areopagite, printed in Paris in 1538 by Charlotte Guillard. Most historiographers agree that this conflated legend is completely erroneous.

Depiction in art.

Denis' headless walk has led to his being depicted in art decapitated and dressed as a bishop, holding his own (often mitred) head in his hands. Handling the halo in this circumstance poses a unique challenge for the artist. Some put the halo where the head used to be; others have Saint Denis carrying the halo along with the head. Even more problematic than the halo was the issue of how much of his head Denis should be shown carrying.  Throughout much of the Middle Ages, the Abbey of St Denis and the canons of Notre-Dame Cathedral were in dispute over ownership of the saint's head. The Abbey claimed that they had the entire body, whilst the Cathedral claimed to possess the top of his head which, they claimed, had been severed by the executioner's first blow. Thus while most depictions of St Denis show him holding his entire head, in others, the patrons have shown their support for the Cathedral's claim by depicting him carrying just the crown of his skull, as, for example in the mid 13th century window showing the story at Le Mans Cathedral (Bay 111).  A 1317 illustrated manuscript depicting "The Life of Saint Denis", once owned by King Philip V of France is preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. It was given to the king by his chaplain Gilles, the abbot of Saint Denis, having been commissioned by Jean de Pontoise, the previous Abbot of Saint Denis. The manuscript contains seventy-seven miniatures illustrating the life and martyrdom of Saint Denis.

Denis was a 3rd-century Christian martyr and saint. According to his hagiographies, he was bishop of Paris in the third century and, together with his companions Rusticus and Eleutherius, was martyred for his faith by decapitation. Some accounts placed this during Domitian's persecution and identified StDenis of Paris with the Areopagite who was converted by Paul the Apostle and who served as the first bishop of Athens. Assuming Denis's historicity, it is now considered more likely that he suffered under the persecution of the emperor Decius shortly after 250.

Svatý Diviš (fr. "Saint Denis", lat. "Sanctus / Beatus Dionysius") byl misionář a pařížský biskup žijící ve 3. století našeho letopočtu, patří mezi křesťanské mučedníky a světce. Je jedním z tzv. Čtrnácti svatých pomocníků, vyzývaným zejména proti bolestem hlavy. Je rovněž patronem města Paříže i celé Francie. Ve středověku bylo jeho jméno bojovým pokřikem vojsk francouzské monarchie ("Montjoie Saint Denis!"). Památka svatého Diviše se připomíná 9. října.


Career.

Helders has said that he ended up playing drums as "that was the only thing left. When we started the band none of us played anything. We just put it together. They all had guitars and I bought a drum kit after a bit." However, Helders has mentioned the influence rap music has had on the band, saying "We were rap fans at school more than now... it still influences us in some ways; like for me, it's the drummin'. The groove element, like foon-keh music." In addition, Helders cites seeing Queens of the Stone Age as the biggest influence on his development as a drummer, saying "the one thing that changed me the most was seeing Queens of the Stone Age live at a festival... as soon as they came off I was like – 'Fuck, I need to start hitting harder.'" Helders also explained the band's insistence on singing in their native Sheffield accent, saying, "when you talk between the songs at a gig and you're speakin' English in our normal accent, it seems a bit strange when you burst into song like you're from California or something... it looks a bit daft."  In a similar fashion to other members of the band, Helders has remained true to his hometown roots, suggesting that seeing places all over the world makes him more appreciative of Sheffield, which still provides the basis for the band's lyrics. "And all around you, there's still plenty of things to write about. Touring lets you see a lot of places that you realise you wouldn't want to live in... and when you come home, it's pretty easy to slip into your old ways, to all the places you've always gone." Helders also points out that despite the fame of the band, he can still avoid being mobbed in the street – "If we all go out together at night clubbing, it's difficult, but alone you don't get recognised much."  The most comprehensive backing vocalist of the group, his vocals have been featured on many of the band's songs. He often sings in response to or in harmony with lead singer Alex Turner, and sings lead vocals on "D Is for Dangerous", "Brick by Brick", and "I.D.S.T.", as well as on parts of "You Probably Couldn't See for the Lights but You Were Staring Straight at Me", "Who the Fuck Are Arctic Monkeys?" and "Teddy Picker". Also, during two shows of the North American leg of the band's "Humbug" Tour, he sang an interpretation of Wham!'s "Last Christmas" during an encore performance of "Fluorescent Adolescent". Before a live performance of "Brick by Brick", Turner introduced Helders as "That young man over there on the drumkit, Mr. Matthew J. Helders the third everyone! As if he hasn't done enough for you all already, he's gonna sing this next tune."  Helders prefers playing the drums wearing a comfortable pair of 'joggers' instead of jeans "due to movement and sweat." Helders says "You don't want to sweat in your jeans and wear them the next day. Some people will call that rock and roll. I just call it unhygienic."

Outside Arctic Monkeys.

In 2008, Helders remixed "T.H.E.H.I.V.E.S", the Hives's fourth single from "The Black and White Album", and "Skin Divers", Duran Duran's second single from "Red Carpet massacre". He played a few TV shows with We Are Scientists in the UK as well as remixing their second single "Chick Lit" as a B-side for the vinyl release. He is featured on Toddla T's album "Skanky Skanky". He remixed "Again & Again" for Roots Manuva, which gained airplay from Zane Lowe on BBC Radio 1.  In August 2008, it was announced that Helders would compile the latest release in the LateNightTales DJ mix CD series. The set, entitled "", was released on 27 October 2008 and included a spoken work track performed and written by bandmate Alex Turner.  Helders recorded the drum tracks on "Post Pop Depression", written by Iggy Pop and Josh Homme, which was released on 18 March 2016. Helders toured with them to support the album.  Helders played on American singer Lady Gaga's 2016 album "Joanne".  In 2018, Helders produced for Milburn frontman Joe Carnall on his new project, released under the moniker Good Cop Bad Cop, with an eponymous album being released on 29 March 2019, and a tour following, although Helders himself wasn't present at any of the gigs.

Clothing line.

Helders released his own clothing line, consisting of a jacket, a zip hood and three T-shirts. The garments went on sale in May 2007 with sales accompanied by a CD featuring an Arctic Monkeys remix by Helders and Supremebeing designer Skuff. One pound from each sale was to go to the Arthur Rank Hospice.

Personal life.

Helders dated model Breana McDow from 2011. The couple became engaged in 2013 and married in 2016. In 2015, the couple had a daughter, Amelia Darling Helders. Helders lives in Los Angeles. In early 2019, he filed for divorce.

Matthew Helders (born 7 May 1986) is an English drummer, vocalist and songwriter. He is best known as a founding member of the indie rock band Arctic Monkeys, with whom he has recorded six studio albums.

Matt Helders (* 7. května 1986, Sheffield) je anglický bubeník a hlavní back vokalista v britské kapele Arctic Monkeys. Během studií se věnoval rapu. Jeho profesi ovlivnila kapela Queens Of The Stone Age, kterou poslouchal.


Etymology.

The Bengali name "Sundarban" means "beautiful forest." It may have been derived from the word "Sundari" or "Sundri", the local

History.

The history of the area can be traced back to 200–300 AD. A ruin of a city built by Chand Sadagar has been found in the Baghmara Forest Block. During the Mughal period, the Mughal Kings leased the forests of the Sundarbans to nearby residents. Many criminals took refuge in the Sundarbans from the advancing armies of Emperor Akbar. Many have been known to be attacked by tigers. Many of the buildings which were built by them later fell to hands of Portuguese pirates, salt smugglers and dacoits in the 17th century. Evidence of the fact can be traced from the ruins at Netidhopani and other places scattered all over Sundarbans. The legal status of the forests underwent a series of changes, including the distinction of being the first mangrove forest in the world to be brought under scientific management. The area was mapped first in Persian, by the Surveyor General as early as 1769 following soon after proprietary rights were obtained from the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II by the British East India Company in 1757. Systematic management of this forest tract

Geography.

The Sundarban forest lies in the vast delta on the Bay of Bengal formed by the super confluence of the Ganges, Hooghly, Padma, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers across southern Bangladesh. The seasonally flooded Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lie inland from the mangrove forests on the coastal fringe. The forest covers of which about are in Bangladesh. It became inscribed as a UNESCO world heritage site in [1987]. The Indian part of Sundarbans is estimated to be about, of which about is occupied by water bodies in the forms of river, canals and creeks of width varying from a few metres to

Physiography.

The mangrove-dominated Ganges Delta – the Sundarbans – is a complex ecosystem comprising one of the three largest single tracts of mangrove forests of the world. Larger part is situated in Bangladesh, a smaller portion of it lies in India. The Indian part of the forest is estimated to be about 40 percent, while the Bangladeshi part is 60 percent. To the south the forest meets the Bay of Bengal; to the east it is bordered by the Baleswar River and to the north there is a sharp interface with intensively cultivated land. The natural drainage in the upstream areas, other than the main river channels, is everywhere impeded by extensive embankments and polders. The Sundarbans was originally measured (about 200 years ago) to be of about. Now it has dwindled into about 1/3 of the original size. The total land area today is, including exposed sandbars with a total area of ; the remaining water area of encompasses rivers, small streams and canals. Rivers in the Sundarbans are meeting places of salt water and freshwater. Thus, it is a region of transition between the freshwater of

Ecoregions.

Sundarbans features two ecoregions — "Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests" (IM0162) and "Sundarbans mangroves" (IM1406).

Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests.

The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests are a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion of Bangladesh. It represents the brackish swamp forests that lie behind the "Sundarbans Mangroves", where the salinity is more pronounced. The freshwater ecoregion is an area where the water is only slightly brackish and becomes quite fresh during the rainy season, when the freshwater plumes from the Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers push the intruding salt water out and bring a deposit of silt. It covers of the vast Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta, extending from the northern part of Khulna District and finishing at the mouth of the Bay of Bengal with scattered portions extending into India's West Bengal

Sundarbans Mangroves.

The Sundarbans Mangroves ecoregion on the coast forms the seaward fringe of the delta and is the world's largest mangrove ecosystem, with of an area covered. The dominant mangrove species "Heritiera fomes" is locally known as "sundri" or "sundari". Mangrove forests are not home to a great variety of plants. They have a thick canopy, and the undergrowth is mostly seedlings of the mangrove trees. Besides the "sundari",

Ecological succession.

Ecological succession is generally defined as the successive occupation of a site by different plant communities. In an accreting mudflats the outer community along the sequence represents the pioneer community which is gradually replaced by the next community representing the seral stages and finally by a climax community typical of the climatic zone. Robert Scott

Flora.

A total 245 genera and 334 plant species were recorded by David Prain in 1903. While most of the mangroves in other parts of the world are characterised by members of the Rhizophoraceae, Avicenneaceae or Combretaceae, the mangroves of Bangladesh are dominated by the Malvaceae and Euphorbiaceae.  The Sundarbans flora is characterised by the abundance of sundari ("Heritiera fomes"), gewa ("Excoecaria agallocha"), goran ("Ceriops decandra") and keora ("Sonneratia apetala") all of which occur prominently throughout the area. The characteristic tree of the forest is the "sundari" ("Heritiera littoralis"), from which the name of the forest had probably been derived. It yields a hard wood, used for building houses and making boats, furniture and other things. New forest accretions is often conspicuously dominated by keora ("Sonneratia apetala") and tidal forests. It is an indicator species for newly accreted mudbanks and is an important species for wildlife,

Fauna.

The Sundarbans provides a unique ecosystem and a rich wildlife habitat. According to the 2015 tiger census in Bangladesh, and the 2011 tiger census in India, the Sundarbans have about 180 tigers (106 in Bangladesh and 74 in India). Earlier estimates, based on counting unique pugmarks, were much higher. The more recent counts have used camera traps, an improved methodology that yields more accurate results. Tiger attacks are frequent in the Sundarbans, with up to 50 people being killed each year.  Most importantly, mangroves are a transition from the marine to freshwater and terrestrial systems, and provide critical habitat for numerous species of small fish, crabs, shrimps and other crustaceans that adapt to feed and shelter, and reproduce among the tangled mass of roots, known as pneumatophores, which grow upward from the anaerobic mud to get the supply of oxygen. A 1991 study has revealed that the Indian part of the Sundarbans supports diverse biological resources including at least 150 species of commercially important fish, 270 species of birds, 42 species of mammals, 35 reptiles and 8 amphibian species, although new ones are being discovered. This represents a significant proportion of the species present in Bangladesh (i.e. about 30% of the reptiles, 37% the birds and 34% of the mammals) and includes many species which are now extinct elsewhere in the country. Two amphibians, 14 reptiles, 25 aves and five mammals are endangered. The Sundarbans is an important wintering area for migrant water birds and is an area suitable for watching and studying avifauna.  The management of wildlife is restricted to, firstly, the protection of fauna from poaching, and, secondly, designation of some areas as wildlife sanctuaries where no extraction of forest produce is allowed and where the wildlife face few disturbances. Although the fauna of Bangladesh have diminished in recent times and the Sundarbans has not been spared from this decline, the mangrove forest retains several good wildlife habitats and their associated fauna. Of these, the tiger and dolphin are target species for planning wildlife management and tourism development. There are high profile and vulnerable mammals living in two contrasting environments, and their statuses and management are strong indicators of the general condition and management of wildlife. Some species are protected by legislation, notably by the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973).

Mammals.

The Sundarbans are an important habitat for the Bengal tiger ("Panthera tigris tigris"). The forest also provides habitat for small wild cats such as the jungle cat ("Felis chaus"), fishing cat ("Prionailurus viverrinus"), and leopard cat ("P. bengalensis").  Several predators dwell in the labyrinth of channels, branches and roots that poke up into the air. This is the

Avifauna.

The forest is also rich in bird life, with 286 species including the endemic brown-winged kingfishers ("Pelargopsis amauroptera") and the globally threatened lesser adjutants ("Leptoptilos javanicus") and masked finfoots ("Heliopais personata") and birds of prey such as the ospreys ("Pandion haliaetus"), white-bellied sea eagles ("Haliaeetus leucogaster") and grey-headed fish eagles ("Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus"). Some more popular birds found

Aquafauna.

The Sundarbans National Park is home to olive ridley turtle, hawksbill turtle, green turtle, sea snake, dog-faced water snake, estuarine crocodile, chameleon, king cobra, Russell's viper, house gecko, monitor lizard, pythons, common krait, green vine snake, checkered keelback and rat snake. The river terrapin, Indian flap-shelled turtle ("Lissemys

Endangered and extinct species.

Forest inventories reveal a decline in standing volume of the two main commercial mangrove species – sundari ("Heritiera" spp.) and gewa ("Excoecaria agallocha") — by 40% and 45% respectively between 1959 and 1983. Despite a total ban on all killing or capture of wildlife other than fish and some invertebrates, it appears that there is a consistent pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species (notably at least six mammals and one important reptile) in the 20th century, and that the "ecological quality of the original mangrove forest is

Climate change impact.

The physical development processes along the coast are influenced by a multitude of factors, comprising wave motions, micro and macro-tidal cycles and long shore currents typical to the coastal tract. The shore currents vary greatly along with the monsoon. These are also affected by cyclonic action. Erosion and accretion through these forces maintains varying levels, as yet not properly measured, of physiographic change whilst the mangrove vegetation itself provides a remarkable stability to the entire system. During each monsoon season almost all the Bengal Delta is submerged, much of it for half a year. The sediment of the lower delta plain is primarily advected inland by monsoonal coastal setup and cyclonic events. One of the greatest challenges people living on the Ganges Delta may face in coming years is the threat of rising sea levels caused mostly by subsidence in the region and partly by climate change.  In many of the Bangladesh's mangrove wetlands, freshwater reaching the mangroves was considerably reduced from the 1970s because of diversion of freshwater in the upstream area by neighbouring India through the use of the Farakka Barrage bordering Rajshahi, Bangladesh. Also, the Bengal Basin is slowly tilting towards the east because of neo-tectonic movement, forcing greater freshwater input to the Bangladesh Sundarbans. As a result, the salinity of the Bangladesh Sundarbans is much lower than that of the Indian side. A 1990 study noted that there "is

Hazards.

Natural hazards.

According to a report created by UNESCO, the

Man made hazards.

In August 2010, a "Memorandum of Understanding" was signed between Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) and India's state-owned National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) where they designated to implement the coal-fired Rampal power station by 2016. The proposed project, on an area of over 1,834 acres of land, is situated north of the Sundarbans. This project violates the environmental impact assessment guidelines for coal-based thermal power plants. Environmental activists contend that the proposed location of the Rampal Station would violate provisions of the Ramsar Convention. The government of Bangladesh rejected the allegations that the coal-based power plant would adversely affect the

Economy.

The Sundarbans plays an important role in the economy of the southwestern region of Bangladesh as well as in the national economy. It is the single largest source of forest produce in the country. The forest provides raw materials for wood-based industries. In addition to traditional forest produce like timber, fuelwood, pulpwood etc., large-scale harvest of non-wood forest products such as thatching materials, honey, beeswax, fish, crustacean and mollusc resources of the forest takes place regularly. The vegetated tidal lands of the Sundarbans function as an essential habitat, produces nutrients and purifies water. The forest also traps nutrient and sediment, acts as a storm barrier, shore stabiliser and energy storage unit. Last but not the least, the Sunderbans provides an aesthetic attraction for local and foreign tourists.  The forest has immense protective and productive functions. Constituting 51% of the total reserved forest estate of Bangladesh, it contributes about 41% of total forest revenue and accounts for about 45% of all timber and fuel wood output of the country. A number of industries (e.g., newsprint mill, match factory, hardboard, boat building, furniture making) are based on raw materials obtained from the Sundarbans ecosystem. Non-timber forest products and plantations help generate considerable employment and income opportunities for at least half a million poor coastal people. It provides natural protection to life and properties of the coastal population in cyclone-prone Bangladesh.

Agriculture.

Part of the Sundarbans is shielded from tidal inflow by leaves and there one finds villages and agriculture. During the monsoon season, the low lying agricultural lands are waterlogged and the summer crop

Habitation.

The Sundarbans has a population of over 4 million but much of it is mostly free of permanent human habitation. Despite human habitations and

Administration.

The Sundarbans area is one of the most densely populated areas in the world, and the population is increasing. As a result, half of this ecoregion's mangrove forests have been cut down to supply fuelwood and other natural resources. Despite the intense and large-scale exploitation, this still is one of the largest contiguous areas of mangroves in the world. Another threat comes from deforestation and water diversion from the rivers inland, which causes far more silt to be brought to the estuary, clogging up the waterways.  The Directorate of Forest is responsible for the administration and management of Sundarban National Park in West Bengal. The Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (PCCF), Wildlife & Bio-Diversity & ex-officio Chief Wildlife Warden, West Bengal is the senior most executive officer looking over the administration of the park. The Chief Conservator of Forests (South) & Director, Sundarban

Protected areas.

The Bangladesh part of the forest lies under two forest divisions, and four administrative ranges viz Chandpai (Khulna District), Sarankhola (Khulna), and Burigoalini (Satkhira District) and has sixteen forest stations. It is further divided into fifty-five compartments and nine blocks. There are three wildlife sanctuaries established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). The West Bengal part of the forest lies under the district of South & North 24 Parganas.  Protected areas cover 15% of the Sundarbans mangroves including Sundarbans National Park and Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary, in West Bengal, Sundarbans East, Sundarbans South and Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuaries in Bangladesh.  In May 2019, the local authorities in Bangladesh killed 4 tiger poachers in a shootout in the Sunderbans mangrove area where currently 114 tigers dwell.

Sundarban National Park.

The Sundarban National Park is a National Park, Tiger Reserve, and a Biosphere Reserve in West Bengal, India. It is part of the Sundarbans on the Ganges Delta, and adjacent to the Sundarbans Reserve Forest in Bangladesh. The delta is densely covered

Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary.

Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The region supports mangroves, including: sparse stands of Gewa ("Excoecaria agallocha") and dense stands of Goran ("Ceriops tagal"), with discontinuous patches of Hantal palm ("Phoenix paludosa") on drier ground, river banks and levees. The fauna of the sanctuary is

Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary.

Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary extends over an area of. Sundari trees ("Heritiera fomes") dominate the flora, interspersed with Gewa ("Excoecaria agallocha") and Passur ("Xylocarpus mekongensis") with Kankra ("Bruguiera gymnorhiza")

Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary.

Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary extends over an area of. There is evidently the greatest seasonal variation in salinity levels and possibly represents an area of relatively longer duration of moderate salinity where

Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary.

Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary is a area in the northern part of the Sundarbans delta in South 24 Parganas district, West Bengal, India. It is mainly mangrove scrub, forest and swamp. It was

In popular culture.

The Sundarbans is celebrated through numerous Bengali folk songs and dances, often centred around the folk heroes, gods and goddesses specific to the Sunderbans (like Bonbibi and Dakshin Rai) and to the Lower Gangetic Delta (like Manasa and Chand Sadagar). The Bengali folk epic Manasamangal mentions "Netidhopani" and has some passages set in the Sundarbans during the heroine Behula's quest to bring her husband "Lakhindar" back to life.  The area provides the setting for several novels by Emilio Salgari, (e.g. "The Mystery of the Black Jungle"). "Sundarbaney Arjan Sardar", a novel by Shibshankar Mitra, and "Padma Nadir Majhi", a novel by Manik Bandopadhyay, are based on the rigors of lives of villagers and fishermen living in the Sunderbans region, and are woven into the Bengali psyche to a great extent. Part of the plot of Salman Rushdie's Booker Prize winning novel, "Midnight's Children" is set in the Sundarbans. This forest is adopted as the setting of Kunal Basu's short story "The Japanese Wife" and the subsequent film adaptation. Most of the plot of an internationally acclaimed novelist, Amitav Ghosh's 2004 novel, "The Hungry Tide", is set in the Sundarbans. The plot centres on a headstrong American cetologist who arrives to study a rare species of river dolphin, enlisting a local fisherman and translator to aid her. The book also mentions two accounts of the Bonbibi story of "Dukhey's Redemption". Manik Bandopadhyay's "Padma Nadir Majhi" was made into a movie by Goutam Ghose.  The Sunderbans has been the subject of a detailed and well-researched scholarly work on Bonbibi (a 'forest goddess' venerated by Hindus), on the relation between the islanders and tigers and on conservation and how it is perceived by the inhabitants of the Sundarbans, as well as numerous non-fiction books, including "The Man-Eating Tigers of Sundarbans" by Sy Montegomery for a young audience, which was shortlisted for the Dorothy Canfield Fisher Children's Book Award. In "Up The Country", Emily Eden discusses her travels through the Sunderbans. Numerous documentary movies have been made about the Sunderbans, including the 2003 IMAX production "Shining Bright" about the Bengal tiger. The acclaimed BBC TV series "Ganges" documents the lives of villagers, especially honey collectors, in the Sundarbans.

The Sundarbans is a mangrove area in the delta formed by the confluence of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna Rivers in the Bay of Bengal. It spans from the Hooghly River in India's state of West Bengal to the Baleswar River in Bangladesh. It comprises closed and open mangrove forests, agriculturally used land, mudflats and barren land, and is intersected by multiple tidal streams and channels. Four protected areas in the Sundarbans are enlisted as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, viz Sundarbans National Park, Sundarbans West, Sundarbans South and Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuaries. The Sundarbans mangrove forest covers an area of about, of which forests in Bangladesh's Khulna Division extend over and in West Bengal, they extend over across the South 24 Parganas and North 24 Parganas districts. The most abundant tree species are sundri ("Heritiera fomes") and gewa ("Excoecaria agallocha"). The forests provide habitat to 453 faunal wildlife, including 290 bird, 120 fish, 42 mammal, 35 reptile and eight amphibian species.

Sundarbans (bengálsky সুন্দরবন [šundorbon]) je les na hranicích Bangladéše, kde se rozkládají největší mangrovy na světě. Les pokrývá plochu okolo 10 000 km2, přičemž větší část se rozprostírá na území Bangladéše.


Etymology.

Most of the town territory used to belong to the village of Vrbica, today its suburb. Since prince Miloš Obrenović often resided in the Bukovička Banja, he decided to build a church in Vrbica in 1858 (one of his "repentance churches"), and dedicated it to St. Archangel Gabriel.  By the prince's decree, the growing community surrounding the church was proclaimed the town of Aranđelovac ("The town of Archangel (Angel)") in 1859, occupying major parts of territories of villages Vrbica and Bukovik. By the same decree, the prince ordered establishment of the spa of Bukovička Banja.

History.

Prehistory.

Though the town itself is a 19th-century settlement, the area has been inhabited for a long time. The Paleolithic site of Risovača Cave is located at the entrance of the town. On the eastern slope of the Venčac mountain there is a locality of Dizljak, which belongs to the Neolithic Vinča culture.

Roman period.

The remains from the Roman period were discovered on the Mali Venčac peak. They included ceramics, glass cups and dishes, jugs, jewelry (earrings, ornamental pearls, fibulas), cloths (belts, buckles) and coins. As the area is made of limestone, artifacts corroded significantly, except for the glass remains which are exceptionally preserved. The jewelry is made of copper and silver.  In the summer of 2017, further Roman remains were unearthed on the Great Venčac, the highest peak of the mountain, some away from the Little Venčac. The remains included graves, bones, glass and ceramics. The necropolis is dated between the 4th and the 6th century and by August 2018, 23 graves were discovered, including one of a child. Four skeletons were placed in the east-west direction and the others in the northwest-southeast one. The graves are spreading in the direction of the highest peak itself, but there are no sufficient funding to explore the top of the mountain itself.  It was previously believed that this was a military outpost, but with the new discoveries, it is now believed that this was a fully developed and systematically built settlement. In the late 20th century, the probing of the terrain indicated that the dwelling units are located below the ground. The anthropological survey of the bones is planned in order to confirm that the civilians also lived in the settlement. One of the problems is the local quarry as archaeologists believe that the decades-old digging on the mountain destroyed most of the remains.

Middle Ages.

In the 2010s, the remains of the 14th-century church in the Dvorine locality were discovered, while in the 16th the area was a domain of Pavle Bakić, the last Despot of Serbia.

Climate.

Aranđelovac has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: "Dfb"), that's very close to an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: "Cfb").

Settlements.

Aside from the town of Aranđelovac, the municipality comprises the following settlements:

Demographics.

According to the 2011 census results, the municipality of Aranđelovac has a population of 46,225 inhabitants.

Ethnic groups.

The ethnic composition of the municipality:

Economy.

Being a spa resort, tourism and hospitality industry is one of the main economy activity in the town. Arandjelovac has number of hotels, including "", "Šumadija", and "Izvor", as well as many smaller boutique hotels, and guest houses. In addition the streets of town are littered with many cafés, bars, restaurants and shops. Rural and eco-tourism is also popular in the villages around the town.  The most known company hailing from Aranđelovac is Knjaz Miloš, which produces the widely popular mineral water, as well as juices, pop, and energy drinks. The naturally carbonised mineral water is extracted from the wells over deep, lying under famous white marble of the Vencac mountain. Marble is exploited by "Venčac" company. This quality material from Venčac is used to build many statues displayed in the town sprawling central park built by number of international sculptors. Company "Šamot" produces high temperature materials from the local deposits of aluminosilicates, while "Elektroporcelan" produces electrical and thermal insulation ceramics. Company "Peštan" specializes in PVC products. "Kubršnica" is the well known brick and building material factory.  The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):

Tourism.

Bukovička Banja.

Aranđelovac is well known for the springs of remedial sparkling mineral water. Dositej Obradović, author, educator and a leader of the Serbian Enlightenment movement, brought the springs to the public spotlight by frequenting the spa in the late 18th and early 19th century. In 1809 he wrote that "he sleeps good when he drinks the Bukovik mineral water". Folklorist Vuk Stefanović Karadžić mentioned two sources of "sour (or acid) water" (which is a Serbian name for carbonated mineral water) in Serbia: "one sour at Asan-paša Palanka" and one "sour again, in Bukovik".  By personal request of prince Miloš Obrenović, the water from Bukovik mineral springs was transported and used at his court, so the villagers began to transport the water to Belgrade by the bullock carts. The caravan travelled 9 hours to Kragujevac and 13 hours to Belgrade. After the railroad was constructed through Belgrade in 1884, the water was shipped to Budapest, Vienna, London, etc. Hand-bottling of the mineral water for commercial use began at the beginning of the 20th century, and through the decades to come to receive the highest international honors for quality, including the fairs in Brussels (1906) and London (1907), when it was declared the mineral water of highest quality. A promotional photo of guys and girls in a boat on the lake of mineral water became famous throughout Europe.

Pavilion of Prince Miloš.

In 1907 the Pavilion of Prince Miloš was built atop one of the oldest discovered springs. The pavilion was projected by architect Branko Tanazević and was the one of the first buildings in Serbia made with reinforced concrete. It was built in the Vienna Secession style and consisted of three sections. The mineral water spring was in the central part, bottling facility was in the northern wing, while there was a pastry shop in the southern wing. The southern wing was originally a veranda with a colonnade. Later, it was walled in order to enlarge the indoors of the building, and to mimic the opposing, northern wing.  In the mid 1960s, the pavilion was adapted into an art gallery. After the pavilion was damaged during the 2014 Southeast Europe floods it was renovated from September 2015 to June 2016. The aim of the project was not just the reconstruction and moist and water protection, but the restoration of the original appearance of the edifice. As no original plans survived, the object was re-measured and the old postcards were used. During the reconstruction of the floor, the original staircase with the ceramic tiles was discovered. It leads to the original bottling location, as all the springs used to be below the surface. Today they are all on the ground level. The old staircase, not being included in the project as no one knew about it, was covered again. The southern wing was restored to the original veranda look, but it was glassed with transparent glass. The mineral water is still available in the central part, only now it is conducted from all neighboring springs. Southern wing still hosts the gallery and a small museum of Bukovička Banja. The reconstruction project was awarded the 2018 Europa Nostra Award, European Union prize for cultural heritage.

Park.

The beautiful park of Bukovička Banja Spa shares the popularity with Aranđelovac mineral water. It encompasses the area of 21.5 ha with the permanent exhibition of marble figures of the most eminent domestic (ex-Yugoslavian) and foreign authors, a product of the 30-year tradition of the festival Mermer i zvuci. All the events take place in the summer open scene in the park, or in the Sala Kneževa, in the Staro Zdanje hotel. This 150-year-old hotel is situated in the park itself, and its original purpose was the summer residence for the Obrenović dynasty. The Pavilion of Prince Miloš and several mineral water springs are also situated in the park. The mineral water is used in the Spa together with clay from the local area in curing diseases of the gastrointestinal system, the liver and the biliary system, respiratory diseases, and locomotor organs. The flag-bearer of the tourism in the town, the luxurious hotel and spa resort Izvor is located adjacent to the park. In addition to accommodation for its guests, the hotel offers congress, SPA & wellness services.

Other.

The Aranđelovac municipality area also bears historical importance. First Serbian Uprising against the Turks in 1804 started in the village of Orašac ( from the town). A complex in Marićevića Jaruga in Orašac memorizes the location where the rebellion started. February 15, the day of uprising, is celebrated as the day the modern Serbian state is founded.

International relations.

Twin towns — sister cities.

Aranđelovac is twinned with:

Aranđelovac (, ) is a town and a municipality located in the Šumadija District of central Serbia., the municipality has a population of 46,225 inhabitants, while the town has 24,797 inhabitants.

Aranđelovac je město v Srbsku v Šumadijském okruhu asi 76 km jižně od Bělehradu. V roce 2002 mělo 24 309 obyvatel, z nichž 96 % tvoří Srbové. Nachází se v místě dvou původních vesnic Vrbica a Bukovik. Roku 1858 kníže Miloš Obrenović, který často pobýval ve zdejších lázních Bukovička Banja, zde nechal vybudovat chrám svatého Archanděla Gabriela a z původních vesnic vytvořil dnešní Aranđelovac. Мěsto je známé především díky léčivé minerální vodě, která se již od počátku 20. století vyváží do širokého okolí.


Recipient.

Not mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles, Saint Titus was noted in Galatians (cf. Gal. 2:1, 3) where Paul wrote of journeying to Jerusalem with Barnabas, accompanied by Titus. He was then dispatched to Corinth, Greece, where he successfully reconciled the Christian community there with Paul, its founder. Titus was later left on the island of Crete to help organize the Church, and later met back with the Apostle Paul in Nicopolis. He soon went to Dalmatia (now Croatia). According to Eusebius of Caesarea in the "Ecclesiastical History", he served as the first bishop of Crete. He was buried in Cortyna (Gortyna), Crete; his head was later removed to Venice during the invasion of Crete by the Saracens in 832 and was enshrined in St Mark's Basilica, Venice, Italy.

Composition.

Opposed to Pauline authenticity.

Titus, along with the two other pastoral epistles (1 Timothy and 2 Timothy), is regarded by the large majority of scholars as being pseudepigraphical. On the basis of the language and content of the pastoral epistles, these scholars reject that they were written by Paul and believe that they were written by an anonymous forger after his death. Critics claim the vocabulary and style of the Pauline letters could not have been written by Paul according to available biographical information and reflect the views of the emerging Church rather than the apostle's. These scholars date the epistle from the 80s AD up to the end of the 2nd century. The Church of England's Common Worship Lectionary Scripture Commentary concurs with this view: "the proportioning of the theological and practical themes is one factor that leads us to think of these writings as coming from the post-Pauline church world of the late first or early second century".  Titus has a very close affinity with 1 Timothy, sharing similar phrases and expressions and similar subject matter. This has led many scholars to believe that it was written by the same forger who wrote 1 and 2 Timothy— this author is sometimes referred to as "the Pastor."

Traditional view: Pauline authenticity.

The minority of scholars who believe Paul wrote "Titus" date its composition from the circumstance that it was written after Paul's visit to Crete (Titus 1:5). That visit could not be the one referred to in the Acts of the Apostles 27:7, when Paul was on his voyage to Rome as a prisoner, and where he continued a prisoner for two years. Thus traditional exegesis supposes that after his release Paul sailed from Rome into Asia, passing Crete by the way, and that there he left Titus "to set in order the things that were wanting." Thence he would have gone to Ephesus, where he left Timothy, and from Ephesus to Macedonia, where he wrote the "First Epistle to Timothy", and thence, according to the subscription of this epistle, to "Nicopolis of Macedonia", from which place he wrote to Titus, about 66 or 67.  Recent scholarship has revived the theory that Paul used an amanuensis, or secretaries, in writing his letters (e.g. Rom 16:22), but possibly Luke for the pastorals This was a common practice in ancient letter writing, even for the biblical writers.

Epimenides paradox.

One of the secular peculiarities of the Epistle to Titus is the reference to the Epimenides paradox: "One of the Cretans, a prophet of their own, said, 'Cretans are always liars'." The statement by a member of a group that all members are liars is a famous logic problem, applicable also to.

False teachers.

In "Titus 1:9" Paul describes some among the Jewish Christians as false teachers. Paul describes the false teachers as rebellious, empty talkers who claim to teach the law "without understanding" and deceivers who deliberately lead the faithful astray. Calvin wrote that vain talking (Greek: mataiologia) is contrasted here with useful doctrine, including any trivial and frivolous doctrines that contribute nothing to piety and fear of God.

External links.

Online translations of the Epistle to Titus:  Exegetical papers on Titus:

The Epistle of Paul to Titus, usually referred to simply as Titus, is one of the three pastoral epistles (along with 1 Timothy and 2 Timothy) in the New Testament, historically attributed to Paul the Apostle. It is addressed to Saint Titus and describes the requirements and duties of elders and bishops.

List Titovi (zkratka Tt nebo Tit) je součást Nového zákona, jeden z tzv. pastorálních listů, připisovaných apoštolu Pavlovi. Byl napsán řecky, snad v letech 63-67 ve vězení v Římě. O autorství listu však mnozí pochybují, hlavně na základě jazykových důvodů. Obecně se však uznává, že 1Tm, 2Tm a Tt mají společného autora.