Structure and reactivity.

The carbamate functional group in methiocarb can be cleaved by cholinesterase to result in the carbamate, which binds to the cholinesterase, and the aromatic alcohol.

Synthesis.

Methiocarb (3) is synthesised by Bayer from 4-methylthio-3,5-xylenol (1) and methyl isocyanate (2). The xylenol (1) will act as the nucleophile in this reaction attacking the partially positively charged carbon in the isocyanate (2).

Mechanism of action.

The product of the cleavage of the carbamate group of methiocarb is methylcarbamic acid which is bound to cholinesterase after the reaction. The normal function of choline esterase is to cleave the acetyl-choline bond which results in the binding of acetic acid to choline sterase which is a fast reversible reaction. The carbamic acid also reversibly binds but the hydrolysis of the bond is slower and therefore the acid inhibits the function of choline sterase which results in elevated choline esterase levels. In comparison: organophosphates inhibit irreversibly and will therefore inhibit the acetylcholinesterase even more.  In addition to its cholinergic effects, methiocarb has been found to be an endocrine disruptor, acting as an estrogen, antiandrogen, and aromatase inhibitor.

Metabolism.

Methiocarb is biotransformed in the liver mainly by sulfoxidation. This can happen to methiocarb itself but also to the phenol group which is cleaved from methiocarb by choline-esterase. In some cases this same sulfur can be oxidised once more to give the sulfone. A minor pathway that occurs is the hydroxylation of the N-methyl.

Absorption.

Methiocarb can be taken up through different routes. The most common for humans is up take through the skin or as an aerosol, because of its use as a pesticide in agriculture. For insects and birds this would be by the oral route. The NOAEL's of these routes have been determined as follows: For the oral route, the NOAEL is set to 3.3 mg/kg per day for rats, based on a 2-year study. For absorption through the skin the NOAEL is set to 150 mg/kg per day for rabbits, based on the reduction of food consumption.  When methiocarb is fed to rats at a dose of 50 ppm, it gives a reduction of brain cholinesterase by 14% and 5% in males and females respectively. When methiocarb is administered as an aerosol to rats, the highest concentration (96 mg/m3 in solvent) showed signs of involuntary muscle contraction (tremors). These signs weren't observed in the other groups. The brain acetylcholine esterase is reduced in comparison to the solvent controls, to 61% and 74% for males and females respectively. There were no changes in organ weight. The NOAEL was determined to be 6 mg/m3 based on the reduction of brain acetylcholine esterase activity.

Distribution.

To determine the distribution of methiocarb through the body carbon-14 ([C]) labeled methiocarb studies have been performed on rats. About 8 hours after IP injection of [C]methiocarb more than 20 is present in the kidneys, 14 in the lungs, 14 in the heart, 6 in the body fat and 26 in the red blood cells. All the numbers are a measure of the radioactivity in dpm x 103/g of dried tissue. 30 Minutes after treatment gave, for all tissues except bodyfat, much higher values indicating that elimination takes place shortly after injection. Also, an increase in all tissues except the red blood cells has been observed between 2 and 4 hours after injection. This indicates that after two hours redistribution takes place shortly followed by elimination. This radioactivity study only measured the [C] so the compound could already be metabolized to different compounds with different toxicities, which is not indicated in this study.

Toxicity.

Short term toxicity.

In rats the cholinesterase activity fell down to 50 percent of the control values in 27 days where the dose applied in their diet was 2 mg/ kg bw in the first three days and 4 mg/kg bw for the next 24 days. No abnormal clinical signs were observed. In rabbits methiocarb was applied to the skin to a group of ten at doses of 0, 60, 150 or 375 mg/kg bw per day for 6 h/day. Two out of ten rabbits with the low dose did not survive and with the high dose had a reduced food consumption. Cholinesterase activity was reduced in males with a high dose at 14 and 21 days of treatment. There were no intergroup differences observed in cholinesterase activity among females. The erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase activity is apparently not inhibited in a dose-related fashion. The duration of the study was 24 days.

Long term toxicity.

In mice, a one-year study of 50 males and 50 females was performed. The mice received diets containing methiocarb at doses of 0, 15, 43 and 130 mg/kg bw per day in males and 0, 20, 57, and 170 mg/kg bw per day in females. Food consumption, behaviour and mortality rate were not affected at any dose. At one month the decrease in plasma acetylcholinesterase activity was the highest and the smallest reductions were observed at 24 months. Brain acetylcholinesterase activity was also lowered, more in males than in females. In rats a two-year study of 60 rats was performed. The rats received diets containing 0, 3.3, 9.3 and 29 mg/kg bw per day for males and 0, 5, 14, and 42 mg/kg bw per day for females. Food consumption, behaviour and mortality rate were not affected at any dose. The total protein concentrations were raised at higher doses of methiocarb. The plasma acetylcholinesterase activity was lowered at the high dose at day one and from eight weeks onwards in males and at day one and 1, 2, 4 and 13 weeks in females. No brain acetylcholinesterase activity was observed.

Environmental toxicity.

Because methiocarb is widely used as an insecticide on crops, environmental risks were also studied to establish safety risks for human health. The metabolism of methiocarb in plants, soil and water have been proposed from radiolabeled [C]methiocarb studies. In plants, the major metabolites were methiocarb sulfoxide and methiocarb sulfoxide phenol. Environmental fate in water and soil has been determined from the metabolites formed by (an)aerobic degradation, photolysis, adsorption and leaching of methiocarb. In soil the half life of methiocarb sulfone phenol is 20 days, methiocarb sulfoxide phenol is 2 days, methiocarb 1.5 days and methiocarb sulfoxide 6 days. Methiocarb is mainly metabolized to methiocarb phenol and minor to methiocarb sulfoxide and methiocarb sulfoxide phenol. Also after 217 days no methiocarb or metabolites are present anymore in the soil. This is because a lot of gets metabolized to CO. In water, no methiocarb was present already after 32 days. The half life of methiocarb in water is strongly pH dependent but at pH 7 the half life is about 28 days.

Efficacy.

Methiocarb is used as toxin for different purposes. It ranges from snails, insects, rodents and even as a bird repellent. As an insecticide it is effective for thrips and has a low dose that is lethal for these animals. The LC for suspension concentrate is 0.34 g/L and for the wettable powder it is 2.30, which is a bit too much for effective use.10  For the use as a molluscicide methiocarb is effective, but at a high dose. In a research with E. vermiculata, methiocarb showed to be the most effective as topical applicant (although DMSO was used as a solvent). The LD is 414 μg per snail and the LD is roughly estimated 1400 μg per snail for methiocarb. In comparison to methomyl which was more effective, with its LD was 90 μg per snail. Which is a lot lower than the LD of methiocarb.  As snail bait methiocarb has the same effectiveness as methomyl for 1% (mass percent) and 2%. but the LC of methiocarb is higher than the one of methomyl. 0.93:0.31. They both reached an average mortality of 85%, by the use of 2% methiocarb/methomyl bait.  In another comparison study (with M. obstructa) between methiocarb and methomyl. Methomyl showed again to be more effective. The LD in this study were 12 μg per snail for methomyl and 27 μg per snail for methiocarb. These compound were topically applied on the snails and these compounds were first dissolved in 95% ethanol and diluted with water to make the concentrations.  As an avian repelled to protect fruit, methiocarb was in one research not effective. The birds still damaged the figs. This happened because the methiocarb was sprayed on the fruit. The birds pinched the fruits or peeled the skin of the fruit and ate the meat of the figs. In that manner these birds are very little or not exposed to the repellent.  In another study with quelea, it was investigated if methiocarb had an adverse effect on the food choice. It showed that when quelea ate seeds with methiocarb, the next time they would choose some other food. This shows that methiocarb can be effective as a bird repellent.  In one study methiocarb is shown to be not very effective against mice as a rodenticide. In the first field trial, snail pellets of methiocarb were spread across the land and killed almost 23% of the initial mice population in one night, but the population did not decrease (probably because of reinvasion of the neighbouring land). There hasn't been searched for carcasses after that, but birds were seen scavenging on carcasses. In the second field trial, grain was covered in methiocarb and strychnine and it showed a mortality rate of 40% for methiocarb and 90% for strychnine. Although methiocarb seems to be effective at first. Mice develop an aversion for the methiocarb, which makes it not very effective as rodenticide.

Suicidal poisoning.

Methiocarb is a plant protection agent and while suicide with these type of toxins is rare, there is one case reported of a suicide with methiocarb. An 80-year-old woman in Germany killed herself by drinking a bottle of Mesurol. The red/pink fluid was on her clothes, face, and hands (probably because of the vomiting) and in the gastrointestinal tract as in the respiratory tract. The toxicological examination showed that the methiocarb uptake wasn't completed and the concentration of methiocarb and its metabolite in the urine was low. This is due to the short duration of exposure. Elevated concentration of methiocarb may be the result of post-mortem uptake, but it could also be the post-mortem redistribution of methiocarb and metabolites from the gastrointestinal tract. The conclusion of the toxicological examination was death by acute poisoning of methiocarb.  The amount of methiocarb in the stomach is calculated to compare it with the LD of rats. The amount of methiocarb is estimated to have been 6.1 gram (by a stomach volume of 1L). The weight of this woman was 53 kg. That would make 115 mg/kg bw. When compared to the LD for rats, which is 30 mg/kg, it is reasonable to say that this woman died of poisoning from methiocarb. Bear in mind that this is only the amount of methiocarb found in the stomach and that the rest was already methiocarb distributed through the body. †Semiquantitative analysis was performed by the approximation of similar extinction coefficients of mercaptodimethur and its metabolite descarbamoylmercaptodimethur at wavelength 200 nm.

Methiocarb is a carbamate pesticide which is used as a bird repellent, insecticide, acaricide and molluscicide since the 1960s. Carbamates are widely used in agriculture as insecticides and herbicides. They are preferred instead of organochlorines because organochlorines are long lasting persistent in crops. Methiocarb has contact and stomach action on mites and neurotoxic effects on molluscs. Seeds treated with methiocarb also affects birds. Other names for methiocarb are mesurol and mercaptodimethur.

Methiokarb (systematický název 3,5-dimethyl-4-(methylsulfanyl)fenyl-"N"-methylkarbamát) je organická sloučenina ze skupiny karbamátů. Používá se hlavně jako repelent proti ptákům, jako insekticid a moluskocid. Je toxický pro člověka, není uváděn jako karcinogen, ale je toxický pro reprodukci a působí neurotoxicky. Má kumulativní účinky – může způsobit akutní otravu i při dlouhodobé expozici nižším dávkám. Je též toxický pro vodní organismy.


Production and syntheses.

The largest scale production of nickel chloride involves the extraction with hydrochloric acid of nickel matte and residues obtained from roasting refining nickel-containing ores.  Nickel chloride is not usually prepared in the laboratory because it is inexpensive and has a long shelf-life. Heating the hexahydrate in the range 66-133.°C gives the yellowish dihydrate, NiCl·2HO. The hydrates convert to the anhydrous form upon heating in thionyl chloride or by heating under a stream of HCl gas. Simply heating the hydrates does not afford the anhydrous dichloride.  The dehydration is accompanied by a color change from green to yellow.  In case one needs a pure compound without presence of cobalt, nickel chloride can be obtained cautiously heating hexaamminenickel chloride:

Structure of NiCl and its hydrates.

NiCl adopts the CdCl structure. In this motif, each Ni center is coordinated to six Cl centers, and each chloride is bonded to three Ni(II) centers. In NiCl the Ni-Cl bonds have "ionic character". Yellow NiBr and black NiI adopt similar structures, but with a different packing of the halides, adopting the CdI motif.  In contrast, NiCl·6HO consists of separated "trans"-[NiCl(HO)] molecules linked more weakly to adjacent water molecules. Only four of the six water molecules in the formula is bound to the nickel, and the remaining two are water of crystallization. Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate has a similar structure. The hexahydrate occurs in nature as the very rare mineral nickelbischofite.  The dihydrate NiCl·2HO adopts a structure intermediate between the hexahydrate and the anhydrous forms. It consists of infinite chains of NiCl, wherein both chloride centers are bridging ligands. The trans sites on the octahedral centers occupied by aquo ligands. A tetrahydrate NiCl·4HO is also known.

Reactions.

Nickel(II) chloride solutions are acidic, with a pH of around 4 due to the hydrolysis of the Ni ion.

Coordination complexes.

Most of the reactions ascribed to "nickel chloride" involve the hexahydrate, although specialized reactions require the anhydrous form.  Reactions starting from NiCl·6HO can be used to form a variety of nickel coordination complexes because the HO ligands are rapidly displaced by ammonia, amines, thioethers, thiolates, and organophosphines. In some derivatives, the chloride remains within the coordination sphere, whereas chloride is displaced with highly basic ligands. Illustrative complexes include: Some nickel chloride complexes exist as an equilibrium mixture of two geometries; these examples are some of the most dramatic illustrations of structural isomerism for a given coordination number. For example, NiCl(PPh), containing four-coordinate Ni(II), exists in solution as a mixture of both the diamagnetic square planar and the paramagnetic tetrahedral isomers. Square planar complexes of nickel can often form five-coordinate adducts.  NiCl is the precursor to acetylacetonate complexes Ni(acac)(HO) and the benzene-soluble (Ni(acac)), which is a precursor to Ni(1,5-cyclooctadiene), an important reagent in organonickel chemistry.  In the presence of water scavengers, hydrated nickel(II) chloride reacts with dimethoxyethane (dme) to form the molecular complex NiCl(dme). The dme ligands in this complex are labile. For example, this complex reacts with sodium cyclopentadienide to give the sandwich compound nickelocene.  Hexammine nickel chloride complex is soluble when respective cobalt complex is not, which allows for easy separating of these close-related metals in laboratory conditions.

Applications in organic synthesis.

NiCl and its hydrate are occasionally useful in organic synthesis.  NiCl-dme (or NiCl-glyme) is used due to its increased solubility in comparison to the hexahydrate.

Other uses.

Nickel chloride solutions are used for electroplating nickel onto other metal items.

Safety.

Nickel(II) chloride is irritating upon ingestion, inhalation, skin contact, and eye contact. Prolonged inhalation exposure to nickel and its compounds has been linked to increased cancer risk to the lungs and nasal passages.

Nickel(II) chloride (or just nickel chloride), is the chemical compound NiCl. The anhydrous salt is yellow, but the more familiar hydrate NiCl·6HO is green. Nickel(II) chloride, in various forms, is the most important source of nickel for chemical synthesis. The nickel chlorides are deliquescent, absorbing moisture from the air to form a solution. Nickel salts have been shown to be carcinogenic to the lungs and nasal passages in cases of long-term inhalation exposure.

Chlorid nikelnatý (chemický vzorec NiCl) je v bezvodém stavu zlatožlutá hygroskopická práškovitá látka a v závislosti na hydrataci se mění jeho barva, je dobře rozpustný ve vodě a také methanolu, ethanolu, glycerolu a diethyletheru. Dihydrát tvoří hnědožluté, tetrahydrát žlutozelené a hexahydrát sytě zelené krystaly. V přírodě se vzácně vyskytuje v podobě hexahydrátu jako minerál niklbischofit. Chlorid nikelnatý je výchozí sloučeninou pro další nikelnaté sloučeniny i chemické syntézy. Stejně jako další sloučeniny niklu je karcinogenní.


Startup actions.

Startups typically begin by a founder (solo-founder) or co-founders who have a way to solve a problem. The founder of a startup will begin market validation by problem interview, solution interview, and building a minimum viable product (MVP), i.e. a prototype, to develop and validate their business models. The startup process can take a long period of time (by some estimates, three years or longer), and hence sustaining effort is required. Sustaining effort over the long term is especially challenging, because of the high failure rates and uncertain outcomes.

Design principles.

Models behind startups presenting as ventures are usually associated with design science. Design science uses design principles considered to be a coherent set of normative ideas and propositions to design and construct the company backbone. For example, one of the initial design principles in effectuate is "affordable loss".  It's better to first make a must-have for a small number of users (early adopters) than a nice-to-have for a large number of users. It is much easier to get more users than to go from nice-to-have to must-have.

Heuristics and biases in startup actions.

Because of the lack of information, high uncertainty, the need to make decisions quickly, founders of startups use lots of heuristics and exhibit biases in their startup actions. Biases and heuristics are parts of our cognitive toolboxes in the decision making process, and they help us to take a decision as quick as possible under uncertainty, but sometimes become erroneous and fallacious.  Entrepreneurs often become not only overconfident about their startups but also about their personal influence on an outcome (case of "the illusion of control"). Entrepreneurs tend to believe they have more degree of control over events, discounting the role of luck. Below are some of the most important decision biases of entrepreneurs to start up a new business.  Startups use a number of action principles (lean startup) to generate evidence as quickly as possible to reduce the downside effect of decision biases such as an escalation of commitment, overconfidence, and the illusion of control.

Mentoring.

Many entrepreneurs seek feedback from mentors in creating their startups. Mentors guide founders and impart entrepreneurial skills and may increase self-efficacy of the nascent entrepreneurs. Mentoring offers direction for entrepreneurs for the purpose of enhancing their knowledge on how to sustain their asset relating to their status and identity, along with the enhancement of their real-time skills.

Startup principles.

There are many principles in creating a startup.

Lean startup.

Lean startup is a popular set of principles to create and design startups under limited resources and tremendous uncertainty to build their ventures more flexibly and at lower cost. It is based on the idea that entrepreneurs can make their implicit assumptions about how their venture works explicit and empirically testing it. The empirical test is to de/validate these assumptions and to get an engaged understanding of the business model of the new ventures, and in doing so, the new ventures are created iteratively in a build–measure–learn loop. Hence, lean startup is a set of principles for entrepreneurial learning and business model design. More precisely, it is a set of design principles aimed for iteratively experiential learning under uncertainty in an engaged empirical manner. Typically, lean startup focuses on a few lean principles:

Market validation.

A key principle of startup is to validate the market need before providing a customer-centric product or service to avoid business ideas with weak demand. Market validation can be done in a number of ways, including surveys, cold calling, email responses, word of mouth or through sample research.

Design thinking.

Design thinking is used to understand the customers' need in an engaged manner. Design thinking and customer development can be biased because they do not remove the risk of bias because the same biases will manifest themselves in the sources of information, the type of information sought, and the interpretation of that information. Encouraging people to “consider the opposite” of whatever decision they are about to make tends to reduce biases such as overconfidence, the hindsight bias, and anchoring (Larrick, 2004; Mussweiler, Strack, & Pfeiffer, 2000).

Decision-making under uncertainty.

In startups, many decisions are made under uncertainty, and hence a key principle for startups is to be agile and flexible. Founders can embed options to design startups in flexible manners, so that the startups can change easily in future.  Uncertainty can vary within-person (I feel more uncertain this year than last year) and between-person (he feels more uncertain than she does). A study found that when entrepreneurs feel more uncertain, they identify more opportunities (within-person difference), but entrepreneurs who perceive more uncertainties than others do not identify more opportunities than others do (no between-person difference).

Partnering.

Startups may form partnerships with other firms to enable their business model to operate. To become attractive to other businesses, startups need to align their internal features, such as management style and products with the market situation. In their 2013 study, Kask and Linton develop two ideal profiles, or also known as configurations or archetypes, for startups that are commercializing inventions. The "inheritor" profile calls for a management style that is not too entrepreneurial (more conservative) and the startup should have an incremental invention (building on a previous standard). This profile is set out to be more successful (in finding a business partner) in a market that has a dominant design (a clear standard is applied in this market). In contrast to this profile is the "originator" which has a management style that is highly entrepreneurial and in which a radical invention or a disruptive innovation (totally new standard) is being developed. This profile is set out to be more successful (in finding a business partner) in a market that does not have a dominant design (established standard). New startups should align themselves to one of the profiles when commercializing an invention to be able to find and be attractive to a business partner. By finding a business partner, a startup has greater chances of becoming successful.  Startups usually need many different partners to realize their business idea. The commercialization process is often a bumpy road with iterations and new insights during the process. Hasche and Linton (2018) argue that startups can learn from their relationships with other firms, and even if the relationship ends, the startup can have gained valuable knowledge about how it should move on. When a relationship is failing for a startup it needs to make changes. Three types of changes can be identified according to Hasche and Linton (2018):

Entrepreneurial learning.

Startups need to learn at a huge speed before running out of resources. Proactive actions (experimentation, searching, etc.) enhance a founder's learning to start a company. To learn effectively, founders often formulate falsifiable hypotheses, build a minimum viable product (MVP), and conduct A/B testing.

Business Model Design.

With the key learnings from market validation, design thinking, and lean startup, founders can design a business model. However it's important not to dive into business models too early before there is sufficient learning on market validation. Paul Graham said "What I tell founders is not to sweat the business model too much at first. The most important task at first is to build something people want. If you don’t do that, it won’t matter how clever your business model is."

Founders/entrepreneurs.

Founders or co-founders are people involved in the initial launch of startup companies. Anyone can be a co-founder, and an existing company can also be a co-founder, but the most common co-founders are founder-CEOs, engineers, hackers, web developers, web designers and others involved in the ground level of a new, often venture. The founder that is responsible for the overall strategy of the startup plays the role of founder-CEOs, much like CEOs in established firms.  The language of securities regulation in the United States considers co-founders to be "promoters" under Regulation D. The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission definition of "Promoter" includes: (i) Any person who, acting alone or in conjunction with one or more other persons, directly or indirectly takes initiative in founding and organizing the business or enterprise of an issuer; However, not every promoter is a co-founder. In fact, there is no formal, legal definition of what makes somebody a co-founder. The right to call oneself a co-founder can be established through an agreement with one's fellow co-founders or with permission of the board of directors, investors, or shareholders of a startup company. When there is no definitive agreement (like shareholders' agreement), disputes about who the co-founders are can arise.

Self-efficacy.

Self-efficacy refers to the confidence an individual has to create a new business or startup. It has a strong relation with startup actions. Entrepreneurs' sense of self-efficacy can play a major role in how they approach goals, tasks, and challenges. Entrepreneurs with high self-efficacy—that is, those who believe they can perform well—are more likely to view difficult tasks as something to be mastered rather than something to be avoided.

Stress.

Entrepreneurs often feel stressed. They have internal and external pressures. Internally, they need to meet deadlines to develop the prototypes and get the product or service ready for market. Externally they are expected to meet milestones of investors and other stakeholders to ensure continued resources from them on the startups. Coping with stress is critical to entrepreneurs because of the stressful nature of start up a new firm under uncertainty. Coping with stress unsuccessfully could lead to emotional exhaustion, and the founders may close or exit the startups.

Emotional exhaustion.

Sustaining effort is required as the startup process can take a long period of time, by one estimate, three years or longer (Carter et al., 1996; Reynolds & Miller, 1992). Sustaining effort over the long term is especially challenging because of the high failure rates and uncertain outcomes.

Founder identity and culture.

Some startup founders have a more casual or offbeat attitude in their dress, office space and marketing, as compared to executives in established corporations. For example, startup founders in the 2010s may wear hoodies, sneakers and other casual clothes to business meetings. Their offices may have recreational facilities in them, such as pool tables, ping pong tables, football tables and pinball machines, which are used to create a fun work environment, stimulate team development and team spirit, and encourage creativity. Some of the casual approaches, such as the use of "flat" organizational structures, in which regular employees can talk with the founders and chief executive officers informally, are done to promote efficiency in the workplace, which is needed to get their business off the ground. In a 1960 study, Douglas McGregor stressed that punishments and rewards for uniformity in the workplace are not necessary because some people are born with the motivation to work without incentives. Some startups do not use a strict command and control hierarchical structure, with executives, managers, supervisors and employees. Some startups offer employees incentives such as stock options, to increase their "buy in" from the start up (as these employees stand to gain if the company does well). This removal of stressors allows the workers and researchers in the startup to focus less on the work environment around them, and more on achieving the task at hand, giving them the potential to achieve something great for both themselves and their company.

Failure.

The failure rate of startup companies is very high. A 2014 article in "Fortune" estimated that 90% of startups ultimately fail. In a sample of 101 unsuccessful start ups, the top five factors in failure were lack of consumer interest in the product or service (42% of failures); funding or cash problems (29%); personnel or staffing problems (23%); competition from rival companies (19%); and problems with pricing of the product or service (18%); more than one factor can be cited as a cause for failure so these numbers add up to more than 100%. In cases of funding problems it can leave employees without paychecks. Sometimes these companies are purchased by other companies if they are deemed to be viable, but oftentimes they leave employees with very little recourse to recoup lost income for worked time.

Re-starters.

Failed entrepreneurs, or restarters, who after some time restart in the same sector with more or less the same activities, have an increased chance of becoming a better entrepreneur. However, some studies indicate that restarters are more heavily discouraged in Europe than in the US.

Startup training.

Many institutions and universities provide training on startups. In the context of universities, some of the courses are entrepreneurship courses that also deal with the topic of startups, while other courses are specifically dedicated to startups. Startup courses are found both in traditional economic or business disciplines as well as the side of information technology disciplines. As startups are often focused on software, they are also occasionally taught while focusing on software development alongside the business aspects of a startup.  "“The best way of learning about anything is by doing.” – Richard Branson"  Founders go through a lot to set up a startup. A startup requires patience and resilience, and training programs need to have both the business components and the psychological components. Entrepreneurship education is effective in increasing the entrepreneurial attitudes and perceived behavioral control, helping people and their businesses grow. Most of startup training falls into the mode of experiential learning (Cooper et al., 2004; Pittaway and Cope, 2007), in which students are exposed to a large extent to a real-life entrepreneurship context as new venture teams (Wu et al., 2009). An example of group-based experiential startup training is the Lean LaunchPad initiative that applies the principles of customer development (Blank and Dorf, 2012) and Lean Startup (Ries, 2011) to technology-based startup projects.  As startups are typically thought to operate under a notable lack of resources, have little or no operating history, and to consist of individuals with little practical experience, it is possible to simulate startups in a classroom setting with reasonable accuracy. In fact, it is not uncommon for students to actually participate in real startups during and after their studies. Similarly, university courses teaching software startup themes often have students found mock-up startups during the courses and encourage them to make them into real startups should they wish to do so. Such mock-up startups, however, may not be enough to accurately simulate real-world startup practice if the challenges typically faced by startups (e.g. lack of funding to keep operating) are not present in the course setting.  To date, much of the entrepreneurship training is yet personalized to match the participants and the training.

Startup ecosystem.

The size and maturity of the startup ecosystem is where a startup is launched and where it grows to have an effect on the volume and success of the startups. The startup ecosystem consists of the individuals (entrepreneurs, venture capitalists, angel investors, mentors, advisors); institutions and organizations (top research universities and institutes, business schools and entrepreneurship programs and centres operated by universities and colleges, non-profit entrepreneurship support organizations, government entrepreneurship programs and services, Chambers of commerce) business incubators and business accelerators and top-performing entrepreneurial firms and startups. A region with all of these elements is considered to be a "strong" startup ecosystem. One of the most famous startup ecosystems is Silicon Valley in California, where major computer and internet firms and top universities such as Stanford University create a stimulating startup environment, Boston (where Massachusetts Institute of Technology is located) and Berlin, home of WISTA (a top research area), numerous creative industries, leading entrepreneurs and startup firms.  Although there are startups created in all types of businesses, and all over the world, some locations and business sectors are particularly associated with startup companies. The internet bubble of the late 1990s was associated with huge numbers of internet startup companies, some selling the technology to provide internet access, others using the internet to provide services. Most of this startup activity was located in the most well-known startup ecosystem - Silicon Valley, an area of northern California renowned for the high level of startup company activity:  Startup advocates are also trying to build a community of tech startups in New York City with organizations like NY Tech Meet Up and Built in NYC. In the early 2000s, the patent assets of failed startup companies were being purchased by people known as patent trolls, who assert those patents against companies that might be infringing the technology covered by the patents.

Startup investing.

Startup investing is the action of making an investment in an early-stage company. Beyond founders' own contributions, some startups raise additional investment at some or several stages of their growth. Not all startups trying to raise investments are successful in their fundraising.  In the United States, the solicitation of funds became easier for startups as result of the JOBS Act. Prior to the advent of equity crowdfunding, a form of online investing that has been legalized in several nations, startups did not advertise themselves to the general public as investment opportunities until and unless they first obtained approval from regulators for an initial public offering (IPO) that typically involved a listing of the startup's securities on a stock exchange. Today, there are many alternative forms of IPO commonly employed by startups and startup promoters that do not include an exchange listing, so they may avoid certain regulatory compliance obligations, including mandatory periodic disclosures of financial information and factual discussion of business conditions by management that investors and potential investors routinely receive from registered public companies.  Investors are generally most attracted to those new companies distinguished by their strong co-founding team, a balanced "risk/reward" profile (in which high risk due to the untested, disruptive innovations is balanced out by high potential returns) and "scalability" (the likelihood that a startup can expand its operations by serving more markets or more customers). Attractive startups generally have lower "bootstrapping" (self-funding of startups by the founders) costs, higher risk, and higher potential return on investment. Successful startups are typically more scalable than an established business, in the sense that the startup has the potential to grow rapidly with a limited investment of capital, labor or land. Timing has often been the single most important factor for biggest startup successes, while at the same time it's identified to be one of the hardest things to master by many serial entrepreneurs and investors.  Startups have several options for funding. Revenue-based financing lenders can help startup companies by providing non-dilutive growth capital in exchange for a percentage of monthly revenue. Venture capital firms and angel investors may help startup companies begin operations, exchanging seed money for an equity stake in the firm. Venture capitalists and angel investors provide financing to a range of startups (a portfolio), with the expectation that a very small number of the startups will become viable and make money. In practice though, many startups are initially funded by the founders themselves using "bootstrapping", in which loans or monetary gifts from friends and family are combined with savings and credit card debt to finance the venture. Factoring is another option, though it is not unique to startups. Other funding opportunities include various forms of crowdfunding, for example equity crowdfunding, in which the startup seeks funding from a large number of individuals, typically by pitching their idea on the Internet.

Necessity of funding.

While some (would-be) entrepreneurs believe that they can't start a company without funding from VC, Angel, etc. That is not the case.

Startup valuations.

If a company's value is based on its technology, it is often equally important for the business owners to obtain intellectual property protection for their idea. The newsmagazine "The Economist" estimated that up to 75% of the value of US public companies is now based on their intellectual property (up from 40% in 1980). Often, 100% of a small startup company's value is based on its intellectual property. As such, it is important for technology-oriented startup companies to develop a sound strategy for protecting their intellectual capital as early as possible. Startup companies, particularly those associated with new technology, sometimes produce huge returns to their creators and investors—a recent example of such is Google, whose creators became billionaires through their stock ownership and options.

Investing rounds.

When investing in a startup, there are different types of stages in which the investor can participate. The first round is called seed round. The seed round generally is when the startup is still in the very early phase of execution when their product is still in the prototype phase. At this level angel investors will be the ones participating. The next round is called Series A. At this point the company already has traction and may be making revenue. In Series A rounds venture capital firms will be participating alongside angels or super angel investors. The next rounds are Series B, C, and D. These three rounds are the ones leading towards the IPO. Venture capital firms and private equity firms will be participating.

History of startup investing.

After the Great Depression, which was blamed in part on a rise in speculative investments in unregulated small companies, startup investing was primarily a word of mouth activity reserved for the friends and family of a startup's co-founders, business angels, and Venture Capital funds. In the United States, this has been the case ever since the implementation of the Securities Act of 1933. Many nations implemented similar legislation to prohibit general solicitation and general advertising of unregistered securities, including shares offered by startup companies. In 2005, a new Accelerator investment model was introduced by Y Combinator that combined fixed terms investment model with fixed period intense bootcamp style training program, to streamline the seed/early-stage investment process with training to be more systematic.  Following Y Combinator, many accelerators with similar models have emerged around the world. The accelerator model has since become very common and widely spread and they are key organizations of any Startup ecosystem. Title II of the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act (JOBS Act), first implemented on September 23, 2013, granted startups in and startup co-founders or promoters in US. the right to generally solicit and advertise publicly using any method of communication on the condition that only accredited investors are allowed to purchase the securities. However the regulations affecting equity crowdfunding in different countries vary a lot with different levels and models of freedom and restrictions. In many countries there are no limitations restricting general public from investing to startups, while there can still be other types of restrictions in place, like limiting the amount that companies can seek from investors. Due to positive development and growth of crowdfunding, many countries are actively updating their regulation in regards to crowdfunding.

Investing online.

The first known investment-based crowdfunding platform for startups was launched in Feb. 2010 by Grow VC, followed by the first US. based company ProFounder launching model for startups to raise investments directly on the site, but ProFounder later decided to shut down its business due regulatory reasons preventing them from continuing, having launched their model for US. markets prior to JOBS Act. With the positive progress of the JOBS Act for crowd investing in US., equity crowdfunding platforms like SeedInvest and CircleUp started to emerge in 2011 and platforms such as investiere, Companisto and Seedrs in Europe and OurCrowd in Israel. The idea of these platforms is to streamline the process and resolve the two main points that were taking place in the market. The first problem was for startups to be able to access capital and to decrease the amount of time that it takes to close a round of financing. The second problem was intended to increase the amount of deal flow for the investor and to also centralize the process.

Internal startups.

Internal startups are a form of corporate entrepreneurship. Large or well-established companies often try to promote innovation by setting up "internal startups", new business divisions that operate at arm's length from the rest of the company. Examples include Bell Labs, a research unit within Bell Corporation and Target Corporation (which began as an internal startup of the Dayton's department store chain) and threedegrees, a product developed by an internal startup of Microsoft. To accommodate startups internally, companies, such as Google has made strides to make purchased startups and their workers feel at home in their offices, even letting them bring their dogs to work.

Unicorns.

Some startups become big and they become unicorns, i.e. privately held startup companies valued at over US$1 billion. The term was coined in 2013 by venture capitalist Aileen Lee, choosing the mythical animal to represent the statistical rarity of such successful ventures. According to "TechCrunch", there were 279 unicorns as of March 2018, and most of the unicorns are in China, followed by the USA. The unicorns are concentrated in a few countries: China (131), US (76), India (14), UK (7), Indonesia (4), Argentina (4), Singapore (3), Switzerland (2), South Korea (2), Hong Kong (2), and 13 countries (1 each). The largest unicorns included Ant Financial, ByteDance, DiDi, Uber, Xiaomi, and Airbnb.

A startup or start-up is a company or project initiated by an entrepreneur to seek, effectively develop, and validate a scalable business model. While entrepreneurship refers to all new businesses, including self-employment and businesses that never intend to become registered, startups refer to the new businesses that intend to grow large beyond the solo founder. Startups face high uncertainty and have high rates of failure, but a minority of them do go on to be successful and influential. Some startups become unicorns, i.e. privately held startup companies valued at over US$1 billion.

Startup nebo také start-up je podnikatelský subjekt, typicky popsaný jako nově založená či začínající společnost, která se na základě inovativní podnikatelské koncepce za použití vyspělých technologií rychle vyvíjí a má velký potenciál hospodářského růstu. V současné době však neexistuje jedna ucelená, mezinárodně uznávaná definice startupu.


Early and personal life.

Born in Portsmouth, Hampshire, Oxlade-Chamberlain is the son of former Stoke City, Portsmouth and England international player Mark Chamberlain. His uncle, Neville Chamberlain, was also a professional footballer, as is his younger brother, Christian, who plays for Notts County. Oxlade-Chamberlain attended the independent St John's College in Southsea, Portsmouth. He grew up as an Arsenal supporter. He played rugby union as a scrum half or full back and nearly chose that sport over football when he was offered a trial at London Irish. He also played cricket as a wicketkeeper, bowler and opening batsman with south east Hampshire. He was offered trials as a wicketkeeper batsman with Hampshire, but declined because it conflicted with his youth footballing duties.  In February 2017, Oxlade-Chamberlain was confirmed to be dating singer Perrie Edwards of the girl group Little Mix.

Club career.

Southampton.

Oxlade-Chamberlain joined the Southampton Academy at the age of seven. On 2 March 2010, he made his first-team debut for Southampton, at 16 years 199 days, coming off the bench in a 5–0 victory over Huddersfield Town and became the club's second youngest ever appearance maker behind Theo Walcott. Oxlade-Chamberlain appeared as an 82nd-minute substitute for Jason Puncheon on 8 May 2010 in the final match of the season against Southend United. At the beginning of the 2010–11 season, Oxlade-Chamberlain made his first competitive start on 10 August against AFC Bournemouth in the first round of the League Cup. During the match, he scored the second goal of Southampton's 2–0 victory, his first senior goal.  On 20 August 2010, shortly after his 17th birthday, Oxlade-Chamberlain signed his first professional contract lasting for three years. His first league start came in a 2–0 loss at home to Rochdale on 4 September 2010. His first league goal came in a 2–1 victory over Oldham Athletic on 23 October 2010, which proved to be the match winner. He scored two more goals and also got an assist in a 4–0 win over Dagenham & Redbridge on 2 November 2010, when he was voted Man of the Match in a league match for the first time.  Oxlade-Chamberlain finished the season with nine goals as Southampton were promoted to the Championship; he was named in the PFA League One Team of the Year for the 2010–11 season. He was subsequently the subject of transfer speculation and in June his father, Mark Chamberlain, stated he was eager for his son to join Arsenal "as soon as possible" to "continue his development".

Arsenal.

2011–12 season.

On 8 August 2011, Oxlade-Chamberlain signed for Premier League club Arsenal. Although neither club involved revealed details of the contractual arrangements, press sources indicated that the fee was a £12 million initial payment which could rise to £15 million with "add-ons".  On 28 August 2011, he made his Arsenal debut in the 8–2 defeat away to Manchester United, as a 62nd-minute substitute for Francis Coquelin, thus becoming the 150th player to represent Arsenal in the Premier League. On 20 September 2011, he scored his first goal for Arsenal in the 58th minute of a League Cup match against Shrewsbury Town, with a drive from 25 yards. Arsenal won 3–1.  On 28 September 2011, Oxlade-Chamberlain scored the opening goal in the eighth minute of his UEFA Champions League debut against Greek team Olympiacos, running diagonally onto an Alex Song long pass and past several defenders before finishing into the corner of the goal. In so doing, he became the youngest Englishman to score in the Champions League, surpassing teammate Theo Walcott's record.  Oxlade-Chamberlain started his first Premier League match for Arsenal in a 2–1 defeat to Manchester United at the Emirates Stadium on 22 January 2012, contributing an assist to a Robin van Persie goal. Arsène Wenger replaced him with Andrey Arshavin in the 78th minute, with the score at 1–1. Not only did Arsenal fans boo the decision to take Oxlade-Chamberlain off, Van Persie also remonstrated with the manager. On 4 February 2012, Oxlade-Chamberlain celebrated his first two Premier League goals in a home match against Blackburn Rovers which finished in a 7–1 victory to Arsenal. Following this match, Wenger praised Oxlade-Chamberlain for his fast development.  After the second leg of the Champions League second round against Milan, Oxlade-Chamberlain earned many plaudits for his impressive run of form, and for his display against strong European opposition; he was described by Marco van Basten as a "gem", while then-Arsenal captain Robin van Persie stated Oxlade-Chamberlain was the future of both Arsenal and England.  At the end of his first season in the Premier League, Oxlade-Chamberlain was nominated for PFA Young Player of the Year; he was the youngest player on the shortlist and he eventually lost out to Tottenham Hotspur's Kyle Walker, three years his senior.

2012–13 season.

Oxlade-Chamberlain scored his first goal of the 2012–13 season from 25 yards out in a 6–1 home victory over Coventry City in the League Cup.  On 19 December 2012, it was announced that Oxlade-Chamberlain, along with teammates Aaron Ramsey, Kieran Gibbs, Jack Wilshere and Carl Jenkinson, signed a new long-term contract with Arsenal. Oxlade-Chamberlain scored his only Premier League goal of the 2012–13 season in a 7–3 home win against Newcastle United.

2013–14 season.

On the opening day of the 2013–14 season, Oxlade-Chamberlain assisted Olivier Giroud's goal in a 3–1 defeat at home to Aston Villa, however he came off injured and it was later revealed he would be out for between six weeks and three months, missing England's remaining World Cup qualifiers against Poland and Montenegro.  Despite not playing for Arsenal since picking up the injury, Oxlade-Chamberlain was still nominated for the Golden Boy Award 2013 in recognition of his performances earlier in the year for England and Arsenal.  On 2 February, Oxlade-Chamberlain scored his first two goals of the season in Arsenal's 2–0 win over Crystal Palace. Oxlade-Chamberlain missed the last few weeks of the season, including the 2014 FA Cup Final, after picking up a groin injury.

2014–15 season.

Oxlade-Chamberlain began the season by winning the 2014 FA Community Shield with Arsenal beating Manchester City 3–0 at Wembley Stadium. On 27 September, he scored in the North London derby in a 1–1 draw against Tottenham. On 4 November, he scored to put Arsenal 3–0 up against RSC Anderlecht in the UEFA Champions League, although the match eventually finished 3–3. He also scored in the round of 16 match against Monaco in February. Two matches later, he was injured in a 2–1 win against Manchester United in the FA Cup and had to be withdrawn just after half-time. It was later confirmed that he would be out for three to four weeks due to the hamstring injury. On 30 May 2015, Oxlade-Chamberlain came on as a substitute in the 2015 FA Cup Final and set up Olivier Giroud to make it 4–0; the final score against Aston Villa at Wembley Stadium.

2015–16 season.

On 2 August 2015, Oxlade-Chamberlain scored the only goal in a 1–0 victory over Chelsea in the Community Shield. His only league goal that season came away to Bournemouth, the first goal he scored for Arsenal in a league match away from home.  On 23 February 2016, he suffered a serious knee injury in a 2–0 home defeat by Barcelona in the Champions League, which was initially expected to prevent him playing for up to eight weeks. A further injury in May during training prevented his return for the rest of the season, including the summer UEFA Euro 2016 tournament.

2016–17 season.

Oxlade-Chamberlain started on the bench for Arsenal's opening day defeat to Liverpool, however Oxlade-Chamberlain replaced the injured Alex Iwobi to score Arsenal's second goal in a 3–4 defeat. Oxlade-Chamberlain also created an assist for Olivier Giroud's last minute equaliser at Old Trafford as Arsenal sealed a 1–1 draw with Manchester United. Oxlade-Chamberlain also scored a goal against West Ham United and created an assist for a goal from Alexis Sánchez in Arsenal's first away match at the London Stadium, where they won 5–1. He scored three times in Arsenal's 2016–17 EFL Cup campaign where they reached the quarter-finals of the tournament.  On 23 April, Oxlade-Chamberlain won the man of the Match Award in the FA Cup semi-final against Manchester City, having provided an assist for Nacho Monreal to score an equaliser. This was his second match in a new wing-back role. He also provided assists for both goals in a 2–0 win in the home fixture against Manchester United on 7 May.

Liverpool.

2017–18 season.

On 31 August 2017, Oxlade-Chamberlain signed a five-year contract with Arsenal's Premier League rivals Liverpool for a £35 million fee. On 9 September 2017, Oxlade-Chamberlain made his debut for Liverpool, coming on as a substitute in a 5–0 loss to Manchester City. He scored his first goal for the club on 17 October, coming off the bench to score in a 7–0 Champions League win over Maribor, a result which was the joint-largest ever away win in the competition, and the largest away win by an English club. On 4 November 2017, he scored his first league goal for Liverpool in a 4–1 victory over West Ham. On 14 January 2018, he scored the first goal in his side's 4–3 victory over Manchester City, ending their unbeaten run in the Premier League that season.  On 25 April 2018, Oxlade-Chamberlain suffered a serious injury to his knee in the 15th minute of the Champions League semi-final first leg 5–2 victory against Roma, which prevented him playing further during the season, or participating in the World Cup finals.

2018–19 season.

On 18 July, Liverpool confirmed that Oxlade-Chamberlain will miss the majority of the 2018–19 season, with Klopp stating: "It feels like now is an appropriate time to tell people that for Ox this coming season will be about focusing on recovery and rehab".  On 28 December, Klopp stated that Oxlade-Chamberlain's rehabilitation was going "ahead of schedule" and that "if he makes further steps like he did in the last few weeks then he can play Premier League football this season, which is nice to know". On 26 April 2019, 366 days after his injury, Oxlade-Chamberlain made his return as a substitute in Liverpool's 5–0 league win over Huddersfield. He was an unused substitute for the 2019 UEFA Champions League final against Tottenham Hotspur.

2019–20 season.

On 22 August, Chamberlain signed an extension to his contract until 2024. Back to fitness following the extensive rehabilitation, in late October and early November, Oxlade-Chamberlain scored three Champions League goals in the space of two weeks against Genk, as well as a long-range effort against former club Arsenal in the League Cup on 30 October. He scored his first league goal of the season the following month, slotting home a ball from Jordan Henderson to provide the first in a 3–0 away win over Bournemouth, on 7 December. Exactly two weeks later, on 21 December, Chamberlain started for Liverpool in the FIFA Club World Cup final against Flamengo, playing 75 minutes until he was forced off due to an injury after "falling awkwardly on his ankle"; Klopp later confirmed how Chamberlain will miss the remaining two games of 2019, as he sustained "damage to his ankle ligament".

International career.

Youth teams.

Oxlade-Chamberlain was called up to the England Under-18 squad for the match against Poland which took place on 16 November 2010 at Adams Park. England won the match 3–0 and Oxlade-Chamberlain played the first 45 minutes before he was substituted.

Under-21 team.

He was called up to the England Under-19 squad to face Germany on 8 February 2011, but on 2 February he was promoted into the England under-21 team for a friendly match away to Italy on 8 February. In the match, he came on as a 60th-minute substitute, replacing Henri Lansbury. England lost the match 1–0 with the Italians scoring from a penalty two minutes from time.  Oxlade-Chamberlain made his first start for the Under-21s against Azerbaijan on 1 September 2011 and claimed two assists during the game. He also made a brief appearance against Israel on 5 September, coming on in the second half to claim three assists (including winning a penalty) to push England from a 1–0 deficit to a 4–1 comeback victory. A month later, he scored a hat-trick against Iceland as England won 3–0 in Reykjavík. On 10 November 2011, Oxlade-Chamberlain played in 5–0 win for the under-21s against Iceland, to remain top of Group 8. On 29 February 2012, he netted a late penalty as England made certain of at least a play-off spot for the 2013 UEFA European Under-21 Championship with a 4–0 victory over Belgium.

Senior team.

Euro 2012.

On 16 May 2012, Oxlade-Chamberlain was called up to the 23-man senior England squad for UEFA Euro 2012, to be held in Poland and Ukraine. He made his debut for the senior England team on 26 May 2012 in a 1–0 win against Norway in a warm-up match, coming on as a substitute for Ashley Young in the second half. He made his first senior start for England on 2 June playing 66 minutes before being replaced by Theo Walcott in a 1–0 win against Belgium at Wembley Stadium, another warm-up match, and England's final match before the tournament. On 11 June, he made his major international tournament debut when he started in England's opening match of the Euro 2012 tournament against France.

World Cup 2014 qualifiers.

On 12 October 2012, Oxlade-Chamberlain scored his first senior international goal, in a 5–0 victory over San Marino. He scored again in the return match against San Marino on 22 March 2013, which England won 8–0.  On 2 June 2013, he scored against Brazil in the official opening of the refurbished Maracanã Stadium, with the match finishing 2–2. He came on as a second-half substitute and scored on a half-volley to bring the score to 1–1.  On 16 May 2018, due to injury he was left out of Gareth Southgate's 23-man England national team squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup.

Honours.

Southampton  Arsenal  Liverpool  Individual

Alexander Mark David Oxlade-Chamberlain (born 15 August 1993) is an English professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for club Liverpool and the England national team.

Alexander Mark David "Alex" Oxlade-Chamberlain (* 15. srpna 1993, Portsmouth, Spojené království) je anglický fotbalista a reprezentant, který v současné době hraje jako krajní ofenzivní záložník v anglické Premier League za Liverpool FC.


Sovereignty.

The School of Salamanca distinguished two realms of power, the natural or civil realm and the realm of the supernatural, which were often conflated in the Middle Ages through granting royal control of investiture of bishops, or the temporal powers of the pope. One direct consequence of the separation of realms of power is that the king or emperor does not legitimately have jurisdiction over souls, nor does the pope have legitimate temporal power. This included the proposal that there are limits on the legitimate powers of government. Thus, according to Luis de Molina a nation is analogous to a mercantile society (the antecedent of a modern corporation) in that those who govern are holders of power (effectively sovereigns) but a collective power, to which they are subject, derives from them jointly. Nonetheless, in de Molina's view, the power of society over the individual is greater than that of a mercantile society over its members, because the power of the government of a nation emanates from God's divine power (as against merely from the power of individuals sovereign over themselves in their business dealings).  At this time, the monarchy of England was extending the theory of the divine right of kings—under which the monarch is the unique legitimate recipient of the emanation of God's power—asserting that subjects must follow the monarch's orders, in order not to contravene said design. Counter to this, several adherents of the School sustained that the "people" are the vehicle of divine sovereignty, which they, in turn, pass to a prince under various conditions. Possibly the one who went furthest in this direction was Francisco Suárez, whose work "Defensio Fidei Catholicae adversus Anglicanae sectae errores" ("The Defense of the Catholic Faith against the errors of the Anglican sect" 1613) was the strongest defense in this period of popular sovereignty. Men are born free by their nature and not as slaves of another man, and can disobey even to the point of deposing an unjust government. As with de Molina, he affirms that political power does not reside in any one concrete person, but he differs subtly in that he considers that the recipient of that power is the people as a whole, not a collection of sovereign individuals—in the same way, Jean-Jacques Rousseau's theory of popular sovereignty would consider the people as a collective group superior to the sum that composes it.  Gabriel Vázquez (1549–1604) held that natural law is not limited to the individual, but obliges societies to act in accord and be treated with justice.  For Suárez, the political power of society is contractual in origin because the community forms by consensus of free wills. The consequence of this contractualist theory is that the natural form of government is either a democracy or a republic, while oligarchy or monarchy arise as secondary institutions, whose claim to justice is based on being forms chosen (or at least consented to) by the people.

The law of peoples and international law.

Francisco de Vitoria played an important role in the early modern comprehension of "ius gentium" (the rights of nations). He extrapolated his ideas of legitimate sovereign power to society at the international level, concluding that this scope as well ought to be ruled by just forms respecting the rights of all. The common good of the world is of a category superior to the good of each state. This meant that relations between states ought to pass from being justified by force to being justified by law and justice.  Francisco Suárez subdivided the concept of "ius gentium". Working with already well-formed categories, he carefully distinguished "ius inter gentes" from "ius intra gentes". Ius inter gentes (which corresponds to modern international law) was something common to the majority of countries, although being positive law, not natural law, was not necessarily universal. On the other hand, "ius intra gentes", or civil law, is specific to each nation.  Some scholars have disputed the standard account of the origins of modern International law which emphasises the seminal text "De iure belli ac pacis" by Grotius. They have argued for the importance of Vitoria and Suárez as the forerunners and founders of the field. Others, such as Koskenniemi, have argued that none of these humanist and scholastic thinkers can be understood to have founded international law in the modern sense, instead placing its origins in the post-1870 period.

Just war.

Given that war is one of the worst evils suffered by mankind, the adherents of the School reasoned that it ought to be resorted to only when it was necessary in order to prevent an even "greater" evil. A diplomatic agreement is preferable, even for the more powerful party, before a war is started. Examples of "just war" are:  A war is not legitimate or illegitimate simply based on its original motivation: it must comply with a series of additional requirements:  Under this doctrine, expansionist wars, wars of pillage, wars to convert infidels or pagans, and wars for glory are all inherently unjust.

The conquest of America.

In this period, in which European colonialism began, Spain was the only western European nation in which a group of intellectuals questioned the legitimacy of conquest rather than simply trying to justify it by traditional means.  Francisco de Vitoria began his analysis of conquest by rejecting "illegitimate titles". He was the first to dare to question whether the bulls of Alexander VI known collectively as the "Bulls of Donation" were a valid title of dominion over the newly discovered territories. In this matter he did not accept the universal primacy of the emperor, the authority of the pope (because the pope, according to him, lacked temporal power), nor the claim of voluntary submission or conversion of the Native Americans. One could not consider them sinners or lacking in intelligence: they were free people by nature, with legitimate property rights. When the Spanish arrived in America they brought no legitimate title to occupy those lands and become their master.  Vitoria also analyzed whether there were legitimate claims of title over discovered lands. He elaborated up to eight legitimate titles of dominion. The first and perhaps most fundamental relates to communication between people, who jointly constitute a universal society. "Ius peregrinandi et degendi" is the right of every human being to travel and do commerce in all parts of the earth, independently of who governs or what is the religion of the territory. For him, if the "Indians" of the Americas would not permit free transit, the aggrieved parties had the right to defend themselves and to remain in land obtained in such a war of self-defense.  The second form of legitimate title over discovered lands also referred back to a human right whose obstruction is a cause for a just war. The Indians could voluntarily refuse conversion, but could not impede the right of the Spanish to preach, in which case the matter would be analogous to the first case. Nonetheless, Vitoria noted that although this can be grounds for a just war, it is not necessarily appropriate to make such a war, because of the resulting death and destruction.  The other cases of this casuistry are:  This doctrine of "legitimate" and "illegitimate" titles was not agreeable to Emperor Charles V, then ruler of Spain, in that they meant that Spain had no special right; he tried without success to stop these theologians from expressing their opinions in these matters.

Economics.

The School of Salamanca has been described as the "first economic tradition" in the field of economics. Much attention has been drawn to the economic thought of the School of Salamanca by Joseph Schumpeter's "History of Economic Analysis" (1954). It did not coin, but certainly consolidated, the use of the term School of Salamanca in economics. Schumpeter studied scholastic doctrine in general and Spanish scholastic doctrine in particular, and praised the high level of economic science in Spain in the 16th century. He argued that the School of Salamanca most deserves to be considered the founders of economics as a science. The School did not elaborate a complete doctrine of economics, but they established the first modern economic theories to address the new economic problems that had arisen with the end of the medieval order. Unfortunately, there was no continuation of their work until the end of the 17th century and many of their contributions were forgotten, only to be rediscovered later by others.  The English historian of economic thought Marjorie Grice-Hutchinson has published numerous articles and monographs on the School of Salamanca.  Although there does not appear to be any direct influence, the economic thought of the School of Salamanca is in many ways similar to that of the Austrian School. Murray Rothbard referred to them as "proto-Austrians".

Antecedents.

In 1517, de Vitoria, then at the Sorbonne, was consulted by Spanish merchants based in Antwerp about the moral legitimacy of engaging in commerce to increase one's personal wealth. From today's point of view, one would say they were asking for a consultation about the entrepreneurial spirit. Beginning at that time, Vitoria and other theologians looked at economic matters. They moved away from views that they found to be obsolete, adopting instead new ideas based on principles of natural law.  According to these views, the natural order is based in the "freedom of circulation" of people, goods, and ideas, allowing people to know one another and increase their sentiments of brotherhood. This implies that merchantry is not merely not reprehensible, but that it actually serves the general good.

Private property.

The adherents of the School of Valencia all agreed that property has the beneficial effect of stimulating economic activity, which, in turn, contributed to the general well being. Diego de Covarubias y Leyva (1512–1577) considered that people had not only the right to own property but—again, a specifically modern idea—they had the exclusive right to the benefit from that property, although the community might also benefit. Nonetheless, in times of great necessity, there, all goods become a commons.  Luis de Molina argued that individual owners take better care of their goods than is taken of common property, a form of the tragedy of the commons.

Money, value, and price.

The most complete and methodical developments of a Salamancan theory of value were by Martín de Azpilcueta (1493–1586) and Luis de Molina. Interested in the effect of precious metals arriving from the Americas, de Azpilcueta proved that in the countries where precious metals were scarce, prices for them were higher than in those where they were abundant. Precious metals, like any other mercantile good, gained at least some of their value from their scarcity. This scarcity theory of value was a precursor of the quantitative theory of money put forward slightly later by Jean Bodin (1530–1596).  Up until that time, the predominant theory of value had been the medieval theory based on the cost of production as the sole determinant of a just price (a variant of the cost-of-production theory of value, most recently manifested in the labor theory of value). Diego de Covarrubias and Luis de Molina developed a subjective theory of value and prices, which asserted that the usefulness of a good varied from person to person, so just prices would arise from mutual decisions in free commerce, barring the distorting effects of monopoly, fraud, or government intervention. Expressing this in today's terms, the adherents of the School defended the free market, where the fair price of a good would be determined by supply and demand.  On this Luis Saravia de la Calle wrote in 1544:  Those who measure the just price by the labour, costs, and risk incurred by the person who deals in the merchandise or produces it, or by the cost of transport or the expense of traveling...or by what he has to pay the factors for their industry, risk, and labour, are greatly in error... For the just price arises from the abundance or scarcity of goods, merchants, and money...and not from costs, labour, and risk... Why should a bale of linen brought overland from Brittany at great expense be worth more than one which is transported cheaply by sea?... Why should a book written out by hand be worth more than one which is printed, when the latter is better though it costs less to produce?... The just price is found not by counting the cost but by the common estimation.  However the school rarely followed this idea through systematically, and, as Friedrich Hayek has written, "never to the point of realizing that what was relevant was not merely man's relation to a particular thing or a class of things but the position of the thing in the whole...scheme by which men decide how to allocate the resources at their disposal among their different endeavors."

Interest on money.

Usury (which in that period meant "any" charging of interest on a loan) has always been viewed negatively by the Catholic Church. The Third Lateran Council condemned any repayment of a debt with more money than was originally loaned; the Council of Vienne explicitly prohibited usury and declared any legislation tolerant of usury to be heretical; the first scholastics reproved the charging of interest. In the medieval economy, loans were entirely a consequence of necessity (bad harvests, fire in a workplace) and, under those conditions, it was considered morally reproachable to charge interest.  In the Renaissance era, greater mobility of people facilitated an increase in commerce and the appearance of appropriate conditions for entrepreneurs to start new, lucrative businesses. Given that borrowed money was no longer strictly for consumption but for production as well, it could not be viewed in the same manner. The School of Salamanca elaborated various reasons that justified the charging of interest. The person who received a loan benefited; one could consider interest as a premium paid for the risk taken by the loaning party. There was also the question of opportunity cost, in that the loaning party lost other possibilities of utilizing the loaned money. Finally, and perhaps most originally, was the consideration of "money itself" as a merchandise, and the use of one's money as something for which one should receive a benefit in the form of interest.  Martín de Azpilcueta also considered the effect of time, formulating the time value of money. All things being equal, one would prefer to receive a given good now rather than in the future. This preference indicates greater value. Interest, under this theory, is the payment for the time the loaning individual is deprived of the money.

Theology.

In the Renaissance era, theology was generally declining in the face of the rise of humanism, with scholasticism becoming nothing more than an empty and routine methodology. Under Francisco de Vitoria, the University of Salamanca led a period of intense activity in theology, especially a renaissance of Thomism, whose influence extended to European culture in general, but especially to other European universities. Perhaps the fundamental contribution of the School of Salamanca to theology is the study of problems much closer to humanity, which had previously been ignored, and the opening of questions that had previously not been posed. The term "positive theology" is sometimes used to distinguish this new, more practical, theology from the earlier "scholastic theology".

Morality.

In an era when religion permeated everything, to analyze the morality of the acts was considered the most practical and useful study one could undertake to serve society. The novel contributions of the School in law and economics were rooted in concrete challenges and moral problems which confronted society under new conditions. Over the years a casuistry, a fixed set of answers to moral dilemmas, had been developed. However, by its nature, a casuistry can never be complete, leading to a search for more general rules or principles. From this developed Probabilism, where the ultimate criterion was not truth, but the certainty of not choosing evil. Developed principally by Bartolomé de Medina and continued by Gabriel Vázquez and Francisco Suárez, Probabilism became the most important school of moral thought in the coming centuries.

The polemic "De auxiliis".

The polemic "De auxiliis" was a dispute between Jesuits and Dominicans which occurred at the end of the 16th century. The topic of the controversy was grace and predestination, that is to say how one could reconcile the liberty or free will of humans with divine omniscience. In 1582 the Jesuit Prudencio Montemayor and Fray Luis de León spoke publicly about human liberty. Domingo Báñez considered that they gave free will too great a weight and that they used terminology that sounded heretical; he denounced them to the Spanish Inquisition, accusing them of Pelagianism, a belief in human free will to the detriment of the doctrine of original sin and the grace granted by God. Montemayor and de León were banned from teaching and prohibited from defending such ideas.  Báñez was then denounced to the Holy Office by Leon, who accused him of "committing the error of Lutheranism", that is of following the doctrines of Martin Luther. According to Lutheran doctrine, man is "dead in his trespasses" (Ephesians 2:1) as a consequence of original sin and cannot save himself by his own merit; only God can save man, "For by grace you have been saved through faith. And this is not your own doing; it is the gift of God, not a result of works, so that no one may boast." (Ephesians 2:8-9) Báñez was acquitted.  Nonetheless, this did not end the dispute, which Luis de Molina continued with his "Concordia liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis" (1588). This is considered the best expression of the Jesuit position. The polemic continued over the course of years, including an attempt by the Dominicans to get Pope Clement VIII to condemn the "Concordia" of de Molina. Finally Paul V in 1607 recognized the liberty of Dominicans and Jesuits to defend their ideas, prohibiting that either side of this disagreement be characterized as heresy.

The existence of evil in the world.

The existence of evil in a world created and ruled by an infinitely good and powerful God has long been viewed as paradoxical. (See Problem of evil). Vitoria reconciled the paradox by arguing first that free will is a gift from God to each person. It is impossible that each person will always freely choose only the good. Thus, evil results as a necessary consequence of human free will.

The School of Salamanca () is the Renaissance of thought in diverse intellectual areas by Spanish theologians, rooted in the intellectual and pedagogical work of Francisco de Vitoria. From the beginning of the 16th century the traditional Catholic conception of man and of his relation to God and to the world had been assaulted by the rise of humanism, by the Protestant Reformation and by the new geographical discoveries and their consequences. These new problems were addressed by the School of Salamanca. The name refers to the University of Salamanca, where de Vitoria and other members of the school were based.

Salamanská škola (španělsky "Escuela de Salamanca") označuje španělskou filosofickou a teologickou školu 16. století, která navázala na vrcholnou scholastiku Tomáše Akvinského a rozvíjela ji ve změněných poměrech raného novověku. Věnovala velkou pozornost otázkám právní, politické a ekonomické teorie, a to i ve vztahu k mimoevropským národům. Založil ji španělský dominikán Francisco de Vitoria (1483–1546) na univerzitě v Salamance. Salamanská škola a její pokračovatelé se někdy označují jako druhá scholastika, třebaže tento pojem je širší a zahrnuje i mnoho post-středověkých myslitelů, kteří nejsou přímo spjati se Salamankou a navazují i na jiné vrcholně scholastické autory jako je Duns Scotus. Její univerzalismus a některé myšlenky v oblasti práva a ekonomie se těší velké pozornosti i dnes a mnozí ji považují za předchůdce Rakouské školy.


Career.

Starting as an ice hockey player, Horský played in many teams in Bratislava and Prague from 1942 to 1958. He played for ŠK Brezno, VŠ Bratislava, HC Slovan Bratislava, ATK Praha, and Tankista Praha before retiring in 1958. In 1947, Horský took a break from playing hockey to do an education at the Comenius University. He studied physical education and geography. Horský played hockey while studying at a university before playing in the Prague Army Sports Club (ATK) while serving a military service. After he finished his studies at the Comenius University, Horský worked as a teacher in 1952 at Telč Institute and later served as a head of the Physical Education and Sports Department at the University of Economics in Bratislava starting in 1956. After leaving the army, Horský rejoined Slovan Bratislava but was forced to retire in 1958 after getting hit by a puck. Later he became a coach of different teams in Czechoslovak and German leagues.  He also coached and had different positions in Czechoslovak national senior and junior teams. While he was coaching for many years in the Czechoslovak league, he helped lead HC Slovan Bratislava to their first Czechoslovak title in 1978-1979. Horský was offered a position in North America in 1982 at the University of Wisconsin but died a year later. Before his death, however, he published many books about theoretical and methodical aspects of hockey and lectured internationally in Canada, the United States, and the former Soviet Union.  In 2004, Horský was inducted posthumously into the IIHF Hall of Fame as a builder.

Ladislav Horský (born 18 September 1927 in Valaská – 24 September 1983 in Brno) was a Slovak ice hockey player and coach. As a coach, he helped lead HC Slovan Bratislava to their first Czechoslovak title in 1978-1979 and was inducted posthumously into the IIHF Hall of Fame in 2004.

Ladislav Horský (18. září 1927, Valaská – 24. září 1983, Brno) byl československý lední hokejista, trenér, teoretik, funkcionář a vysokoškolský profesor.


Components.

Two major species of rose are cultivated for the production of rose oil: The most common chemical compounds present in rose oil are:  The key flavor compounds that contribute to the distinctive scent of rose oil, however, are beta-damascenone, beta-damascone, beta-ionone, and rose oxide. Beta-damascenone's presence and quantity is considered as the marker for the quality of rose oil. Even though these compounds exist in less than 1% quantity of rose oil, they make up for slightly more than 90% of the odor content due to their low odor detection thresholds. The price per sample container varies anywhere from USD$1,740 - USD$2,550

Production.

Due to the labor-intensive production process and the low content of oil in the rose blooms, rose oil commands a very high price. Harvesting of flowers is done by hand in the morning before sunrise and material is distilled the same day.  There are three main methods of extracting the oil from the plant material:

Distillation.

In the first part of the two-stage process of distillation, large stills - traditionally of copper - are filled with roses and water. The still is fired for 60–105 minutes. The vaporized water and rose oil exit the still and enter a condensing apparatus and are then collected in a flask. This distillation yields a very concentrated oil, direct oil, which makes up about 20% of the final product of the whole process. The water which condenses along with the oil is drained off and redistilled, cohobation, in order to obtain the water-soluble fractions of the rose oil such as phenethyl alcohol which are a vital component of the aroma and which make up the large bulk, 80%, of the oil. The two oils are combined and make the final rose attar.  Rose attar is mobile in room temperature and is usually clear, light yellow in color. It will form white crystals at normal room temperature which disappear when the oil is gently warmed. It will tend to become more viscous at lower temperatures due to this crystallization of some of its components.  The essence has a very strong odor, but is pleasant when diluted and used for perfume. Attar of roses was once made in India, Persia, Syria, and the Ottoman Empire. The Rose Valley in Bulgaria, near the town of Kazanlak, is among the major producers of attar of roses in the world. In India, Kannauj is an important city of fabrication of rose attar, Kannauj is nicknamed "The Grasse of the East" or "The Grasse of the Orient". Grasse (in France) is an important city of fabrication of rose fragance.  Due to the heat required for distillation, some of the compounds extracted from the rose denature or break down chemically. As such, rose attar does not smell very similar to "fresh" roses.  The hydrosol portion of the distillate is known as "rosewater". This inexpensive by-product is used widely as a food flavoring as well as in skin care.

Solvent extraction.

In the solvent extraction method, the flowers are agitated in a vat with a solvent such as hexane, which draws out the aroma compounds as well as other soluble substances such as wax and pigments. The extract is subjected to vacuum processing which removes the solvent for re-use. The remaining waxy mass is known as a "concrete". The concrete is then mixed with alcohol which dissolves the aromatic constituents, leaving behind the wax and other substances. The alcohol is low-pressure evaporated, leaving behind the finished absolute. The absolute may be further processed to remove any impurities that are still present from the solvent extraction.  Rose absolute is a deep reddish brown with no crystals. Due to the low temperatures in this process, the absolute may be more faithful to the scent of the fresh rose than the otto.

Carbon dioxide extraction.

A third process, supercritical carbon dioxide extraction, combines the best aspects of the other two methods. When carbon dioxide is put under at least of pressure and at a temperature of at least (the critical point), it becomes a supercritical fluid with the permeation properties of a gas and the solvation properties of a liquid. (Under normal pressure CO changes directly from a solid to a gas in a process known as sublimation.) The supercritical fluid CO extracts the aromatics from the plant material.  Like solvent extraction, the CO extraction takes place at a low temperature, extracts a wide range of compounds rendering an essence more faithful to the original, and leaves the aromatics unaltered by heat. Because CO is gas at normal atmospheric pressure, it leaves no trace of itself in the final product. The equipment for CO extraction is expensive, which is reflected in the price of the essential oils obtained from the process.

Adulteration.

It takes a large amount of rose petals to distill a small amount of essential oil. Depending on extraction method and plant species, the typical yield can be approximately 1:3,000. To mitigate the cost, some dishonest dealers will dilute rose oil with geranium ("Pelargonium graveolens") or palmarosa ("Cymbopogon martinii") essential oils, both of which are rich in geraniol, the main constituent of rose oil. Some of these "rose oils" are up to 90% geranium or palmarosa to 10% rose. This is referred to as "extending" the rose fragrance. This may be done to compensate for chemotype, e.g. Bulgarian distilled rose oil is naturally low in phenylethanol, and Ukrainian or Russian rose oil is naturally high in phenylethanol. Pure rose oil should not be used directly on the skin, as it can cause allergic reactions such as red skin and spots.

Rose oil (rose otto, attar of rose, attar of roses or rose essence) is the essential oil extracted from the petals of various types of rose. "Rose ottos" are extracted through steam distillation, while "rose absolutes" are obtained through solvent extraction, the absolute being used more commonly in perfumery. Even with their high price and the advent of organic synthesis, rose oils are still perhaps the most widely used essential oil in perfumery.

Růžový olej je kosmetická a farmaceutická surovina, esenciální olej. Jde o přírodní biologický extrakt vyrobený z korunních plátků dvou druhů růžíː růže damašské, pěstované zejména v Bulharsku, a růže stolisté, která se pěstuje zejména v jižní Francii. V růžovém oleji bylo izolováno přibližně 300 různých chemických látek. Jedná se o jeden z nejluxusnějších a nejdražších přírodních olejů používaných v kosmetice, neboť k jeho výrobě je potřebí velké množství biomasy – ze tří tun okvětních lístků lze vyrobit přibližně jeden kilogram růžového oleje (poměr tedy činí přibližně 3 000:1).


Biography.

Akiba Kiwelowicz Rubinstein was born on 12 October 1882 in Stawiski, Congress Poland to a Jewish family. He had several siblings, but only one sister survived to adulthood. Rubinstein learned to play chess at the relatively late age of 14, and his family had planned for him to become a rabbi. He trained with and played against the strong master Gersz Salwe in Łódź and in 1903, after finishing fifth in a tournament in Kiev, Rubinstein decided to abandon his rabbinical studies and devote himself entirely to chess.  Between 1907 and 1912, Rubinstein established himself as one of the strongest players in the world. In 1907, he won the Carlsbad tournament and shared first at St. Petersburg. In 1912 he had a record string of wins, finishing first in five consecutive major tournaments: San Sebastian, Pistyan, Breslau, Warsaw and Vilnius, although none of these events included Lasker or Capablanca. Some sources believe that he was stronger than World Champion Emanuel Lasker at this time. Ratings from Chessmetrics support this conclusion, placing him as world No. 1 between mid-1912 and mid-1914.  During the first decade of the 20th century, the playing field for competitive chess was relatively thin. Wilhelm Steinitz, the first universally recognized world champion, died in 1900 after having been largely retired from chess for several years, Russian master Mikhail Chigorin was nearing the end of his life, while American master Frank Marshall lived on the other side of the Atlantic far from the center of chess activity in Europe. Another promising American master, Harry Nelson Pillsbury, had died in 1906 at just 33. In the pre-FIDE era, the reigning world champion handpicked his challenger, and Emanuel Lasker demanded a high sum of money that Rubinstein could not produce. In the St. Petersburg tournament in 1909, he had tied with Lasker and won his individual encounter with him. However, he had a poor showing at the 1914 St. Petersburg tournament, not placing in the top five. A match with Lasker was arranged for October 1914, but it did not take place because of the outbreak of World War I.  Rubinstein's peak as a player is generally considered to have been between 1907 and 1914. During World War I, he was confined to Poland, although he played in a few organized chess events there, and traveled to Berlin in early 1918 for a tournament. His playing after the war never regained the same consistency as it had pre-1914, although he remained quite strong through the 1920s. He and his family moved to Sweden following the Armistice in November 1918, where they stayed until 1922, and then moved to Germany. Rubinstein won at Vienna in 1922, ahead of future World Champion Alexander Alekhine, and was the leader of the Polish team that won the 1930 Chess Olympiad at Hamburg with a record of thirteen wins and four draws. He also he won an Olympic silver at the 1931 Chess Olympiad, again leading the Polish team.  Rubinstein came in fourth place in the London 1922 tournament, after which new world champion Jose Raul Capablanca offered to play him in a match if he could raise the money, which once again he was unable to do. At Hastings 1922, he came in second place, followed by a fifth-place finish at Teplitz-Schönau late in the year, and then won in Vienna brilliantly. This triumph however was soured when Austrian border guards impounded most of the prize money he had won. Rubinstein closed out 1922 with another appearance at Hastings, which he won, but his tournament record during 1923 was disappointing as he came in just twelfth place at Carlsbad and tenth at Maehrisch-Ostrau.  His first tournament of 1924, at Meran, saw him come in third. He attempted to participate in the New York tournament that spring, but was excluded from the event due to a limited number of available slots, all of which were filled, and in any case former world champion Lasker dominated the event by a large margin. Rubinstein's 1925 tournament record was reasonably good, but his year-end appearance in Moscow saw him come in 14th. His record in 1926 was fair but not outstanding. That year, the Rubinstein family moved to Belgium permanently.  In 1927, Rubinstein visited his birthplace in Poland, where he won the Polish Championship in Lodz. He embarked on an exhibition tour of the United States in early 1928; although a match with reigning US chess champion Frank Marshall was proposed along with an international tournament, it never materialized. He tied third with Max Euwe at Bad Kissingen and then delivered a poor performance in Berlin. Rubinstein had his best post-WWI showing during 1929, when he dominated the Ramsgate tournament in Britain and had excellent showings at Carlsbad and Budapest. He won Rogaška-Slatina.  As the 1930s started, Rubinstein contested the San Remo tournament, coming in fourth. He played well in a few Belgian events that year, and then third place at Scarborough. His performance at Liege was weak, possibly due to exhaustion. He skipped Bled 1931 despite an invitation, played well at Antwerp, but came in dead last at Rotterdam. This was the last major chess event he participated in.  After 1932 he withdrew from tournament play as his noted anthropophobia showed traces of schizophrenia during a mental breakdown. In one period, after making a chess move he would go and hide in the corner of the tournament hall while awaiting his opponent's reply. Regardless, his former strength was recognized by FIDE when he was one of 27 players awarded the inaugural Grandmaster title in 1950. Unlike many other grandmasters, he left behind no literary legacy, which may be attributed to his mental problems. He spent the last 29 years of his life suffering from severe mental illness, living at various times at home with his family and in a sanatorium. It is not clear how the Jewish grandmaster survived World War II in German-occupied Belgium.

Legacy.

He was one of the earliest chess players to take the endgame into account when choosing and playing the opening. He was exceptionally talented in the endgame, particularly in rook endings, where he broke new ground in knowledge. Jeremy Silman ranked him as one of the five best endgame players of all time, and a master of rook endgames.  He originated the Rubinstein System against the Tarrasch Defense variation of the Queen's Gambit Declined: 1.d4 d5 2.Nf3 c5 3.c4 e6 4.cxd5 exd5 5.Nc3 Nc6 6.g3 Nf6 7.Bg2 (Rubinstein–Tarrasch, 1912). He is also credited with inventing the Meran Variation, which stems from the Queen's Gambit Declined but reaches a position of the Queen's Gambit Accepted with an extra move for Black.  Many opening variations are named for him. According to Grandmaster Boris Gelfand, "Most of the modern openings are based on Rubinstein." The "Rubinstein Attack" often refers to 1.d4 d5 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Nf6 4.Bg5 Be7 5.e3 0-0 6.Nf3 Nbd7 7.Qc2. The Rubinstein Variation of the French Defence arises after 1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 (or 3.Nd2) dxe4 4.Nxe4. Apart from 4.Qc2, the Rubinstein Variation of the Nimzo-Indian: 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4 4.e3. There are also the Rubinstein Variation of the Four Knights Game, which arises after 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Nc3 Nf6 4.Bb5 Nd4, and the Rubinstein Variation of the Symmetrical English, 1.c4 c5 2.Nc3 Nf6 3.g3 d5 4.cxd5 Nxd5 5.Bg2 Nc7, a complex system that is very popular at the grandmaster level.  The Rubinstein Trap, an opening trap in the Queen's Gambit Declined that loses at least a pawn for Black, is named for him because he fell into it twice. One version of it runs 1.d4 d5 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Nf6 4.cxd5 exd5 5.Bg5 Be7 6.e3 0-0 7.Nf3 Nbd7 8.Bd3 c6 10.0-0 Re8 11.Rc1 h6 12. Bf4 Nh5? 13. Nxd5! Now 13...cxd5?? is met by 14.Bc7, winning the queen, while 13...Nxf4 14.Nxf4 leaves White a pawn ahead.  The Rubinstein Memorial tournament in his honor has been held annually since 1963 in Polanica Zdrój, with a glittering list of top-flight winners. Boris Gelfand has named Rubinstein as his favourite player, and once said, "what I like in chess... comes from Akiba."

Personal life.

In 1917, Rubinstein married Eugénie Lew. They had two sons, Jonas in 1918 and Sammy in 1927. For a time, they lived above the restaurant that Eugénie operated. After she died in 1954, Rubinstein lived in an old-people's home until his death in 1961 at the age of 80. He reportedly still followed chess in his final years; his sons recalled going over the games of the 1954 Botvinnik–Smyslov world championship match with him.

Akiba Kiwelowicz Rubinstein (12 October 1882 – 14 March 1961) was a Polish chess grandmaster who is considered to have been one of the strongest players never to have become World Chess Champion.

Akiba Kiwelowicz Rubinstein (1. prosince 1880, Stawiski – 15. března 1961, Antverpy, jako den narození se udává i 12. říjen 1882 či 12. prosinec 1882) byl polský šachový velmistr.