Club career.

Early career.

Born in Manchester, son of former Manchester City goalkeeper Roy Dixon, Lee was a boyhood Manchester City supporter. He began his professional playing career in the lower divisions. On leaving school in 1980, he joined Burnley as an apprentice in 1980, turning professional in 1982, then signed for Chester City (where he experienced finishing bottom of the whole Football League in 1983–84), Bury and later Stoke City. At the Victoria Ground Dixon made a fine impression with some fine performances from right back as he played in 50 matches in 1986–87 scoring three goals. In 1987–88 Dixon made 38 appearances scoring twice. He joined First Division Arsenal in January 1988 for a fee of £375,000 and was later joined at Highbury by Stoke teammate Steve Bould.

Arsenal.

Dixon was signed by Arsenal boss George Graham in January 1988 following the departure of England right back, Viv Anderson, to Manchester United. This was the first time that Dixon had played in the First Division.  It took a while for Dixon to be given a first team role at Highbury. With England international Kenny Sansom at left back, the equally left-sided Nigel Winterburn had been a guarded success in the unfamiliar right back role, though Dixon did make his debut against Luton Town in February 1988 and played six times in total before the season ended. Dixon was cup-tied in his first season which limited his appearances, and also meant he was unable to take part in the 1988 League Cup Final. In the new season, Winterburn moved across to left back, allowing Dixon to take over the No.2 shirt, which he duly did for well over ten years. Displaced Sansom left Arsenal the following winter.  Dixon later wrote in his column in "The Independent" of the defence that he played in at Arsenal, "I was fortunate to play in an Arsenal back line that earned itself a reputation as being OK. I'm not trying to be overly modest in saying that, as individuals, we weren't the best players in the world. But certainly all my weaknesses were compensated for by Tony Adams, Nigel Winterburn, Martin Keown and Steve Bould, and vice versa. If one of us wasn't playing well, the others picked up the slack."  Dixon and Winterburn made the full back positions their own for the next decade or so, while captain Tony Adams and the long-serving David O'Leary operated in the middle. Later in 1988 they were joined by Steve Bould who, like Dixon before him, had been spotted by Graham playing for Stoke City. These five defenders, often playing as a back five together (rather than the conventional back four) were the linchpin of an Arsenal side who became serious challengers for the First Division title the 1988–89 season, an honour which they had not won since 1971 but had looked more and more like winning since Graham's appointment as Arsenal manager in May 1986.  Dixon was a marauding right back, ever willing to support his winger David Rocastle and his attacking skills were still noted even though his main job (and the main priority of the side as a whole) was to defend. He also had a short spell during this period as the club's penalty taker. Arsenal took the chase for the League championship to the last day of the season when they faced Liverpool at Anfield. With Arsenal needing to win by two goals, the game stood at 1–0 as the clock showed the 90 minutes were up. Dixon received a ball in his own half and looked to mount a final attack. Spotting the run of centre forward Alan Smith towards the right channel, Dixon delivered a long ball on to his chest. Smith's run had forced a Liverpool defender across with him and Arsenal midfielder Michael Thomas made a charge into the gap, took Smith's sideways pass in his stride and slipped the ball past Bruce Grobbelaar. There was barely time for Liverpool to restart and Arsenal took the title, the first of many honours Dixon would win.  Arsenal struggled to hold on to the title the following year (and were unable to take part in the European Cup because the ban on English clubs after Heysel was still ongoing). In the 1990–91 season, Arsenal's defence (now with David Seaman playing behind them in goal) grew even meaner, with just one defeat all season as they won the League championship again. After the 1992 summer, a fit-again Dixon was also defending the League title within the familiar Arsenal defence. With O'Leary's retirement imminent, Graham had provided extra cover in the centre of defence by signing Martin Keown from Everton – ironically the player who'd ended up playing at right back in Euro 92 after both Dixon and Stevens became unavailable. O'Leary ended up in Dixon's place at right back for the 1993 League Cup final against Sheffield Wednesday – Dixon was suspended, having been sent off in Arsenal's FA Cup semi-final victory over Spurs. Arsenal won 2–1. Dixon was back when the sides met again for the FA Cup final which Arsenal won by the same scoreline in a replay, after the initial game had ended in a 1–1 draw.  In 1994, Dixon won a European medal to complement his domestic collection as Dixon, Winterburn, Bould and Adams suppressed the efforts of Tomas Brolin, Gianfranco Zola and Faustino Asprilla of Italian side Parma. Arsenal scored an early goal in the European Cup Winners Cup final in Copenhagen and this was enough, winning 1–0. Dixon was again in his No.2 shirt as Arsenal slumped domestically in 1995 but reached the final of the Cup Winners Cup again. Though the defence in Paris was breached by Real Zaragoza, Arsenal equalised and took the game to extra time. A lob from 40 yards in the final minute from Nayim (an ex-Spurs player) over David Seaman prised the trophy from the Gunners.  At the end of 1996, Arsène Wenger arrived at Highbury and started to introduce lifestyle policies to the Arsenal squad, changing their life's outlook, self-awareness and diet. Wenger later admitted that he expected to replace each defender he inherited fairly quickly, but just as quickly realised he didn't need to. Dixon and his defensive colleagues recognised Wenger for giving them extra years at the helm of the game. Arsenal won the second "double" of the club's history in 1998 and Dixon received a testimonial the following year as he entered his tenth full season at Arsenal.  Dixon played in a UEFA Cup campaign in 2000 which saw Arsenal reach the final in the same Copenhagen stadium where they had won the Cup Winners Cup six years earlier. This time they were beaten on penalties by Galatasaray of Turkey. Earlier in that season he had missed a penalty in a shootout as Arsenal crashed out of the 1999/2000 FA Cup to Leicester City. The following year Arsenal reached the FA Cup final but lost 2–1 to Liverpool at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff – the 37-year-old Dixon being outpaced by the 21-year-old Michael Owen for the winning goal. Dixon played on for one more season helping Arsenal to win another historic "double", the third in the club's history and second under manager Arsène Wenger, clinching the league title over rivals Manchester United at their home ground Old Trafford. This made him one of the few men to have won league titles in three different decades (1980s, 1990s and 2000s).  Dixon retired from playing after winning that double in 2002 at the age of 38, with Adams quitting at the same time. Only Seaman and Keown then remained at the club from the defensive group Dixon had become associated with at Arsenal (after O'Leary's retirement in 1993, Bould had been the next to go in 1999 and then Winterburn followed him out of Highbury a year later). Dixon made 458 appearances in the League, scoring 25 goals.

International career.

Dixon made his England début in April 1990 in a World Cup warm-up game against Czechoslovakia. He played well, but there was little hope of him being in the squad for the tournament as he was at least third in the pecking order behind Gary Stevens and Paul Parker. Only injury to one of these two would have opened a door for Dixon to go to Italy and that didn't happen as the pair stayed fully fit for the length of the tournament. After the World Cup, new manager Graham Taylor instantly replaced Stevens and Parker with Dixon, who scored a goal at Wembley in his sixth international in an important Euro 92 qualifier against the Republic of Ireland. The game ended 1–1.  By the end of 1991, Dixon had played in eleven internationals, including all of the Euro 92 qualifiers, through which England qualified for the finals in Sweden. As the finals approached, Dixon suffered an injury, allowing Stevens a route back into the side as the deadline for squad announcement approached. Taylor duly named Dixon instead of Stevens in his provisional squad, but ultimately neither went to the tournament. Dixon pulled out through an injury suffered in an accident at home so Stevens was recalled, only for the Rangers full back also to withdraw through injury. England ended up with no recognised right back in their squad and didn't get past the group stages.  1993 did not go well internationally, with England failing to qualify for the 1994 World Cup in the United States. Dixon's 21st cap, in a 7–1 win over San Marino in the final qualifier (a result which was immaterial) seemed to be his last as Taylor quit as manager and Terry Venables took over, experimenting with other right backs until installing Gary Neville in the spot in 1995, a role he maintained until 2006.  In late January 1999, caretaker England manager Howard Wilkinson recalled Dixon to the England squad more than five years after his last appearance, and he took to the field on 10 February in a 2–0 defeat by France. His international career ended with 22 caps in total but he did not play in a major tournament.

After football.

In retirement, Dixon has concentrated on several business interests including the Riverside Brasserie in Bray, Berkshire, originally with his friend Heston Blumenthal. He also worked as a regular pundit for the BBC on "Match of the Day 2" as well as appearing on "Score", and "Football Focus" before leaving the BBC to join ITV Sport in July 2012. At ITV he teamed up with pundit and former player Roy Keane.  In 2010, he became "completely hooked" on cycling, and goes riding two or three times a week, after Lawrence Dallaglio persuaded him to take part in the 'Dallaglio Cycle Slam' during the Six Nations Championship in February that year, raising money for Sport Relief. They raised over £986,000 for the charity.  From 2013, he has been the co-lead commentator with Graeme Le Saux for the Premier League on NBC Sports, working alongside Arlo White. He has also contributed to the network's "Premier League Download" program.  In 2018, he co-commentated UEFA Champions League matches in the video game by EA Sports, "FIFA 19" alongside Derek Rae. This partnership continued in the 2019 game, FIFA 20 with inclusion of him also commentating some 'default' games (kick off, tournament, career and Ultimate Team modes) alongside Derek Rae once again.

Career statistics.

Club.

Source:

International.

Source:

Honours.

Arsenal

Lee Michael Dixon (born 17 March 1964) is an English retired professional footballer who played as a right-back for Arsenal, Burnley, Bury, Chester City and Stoke City. Dixon was also capped 22 times for England, scoring once.

Lee Michael Dixon (* 17. března 1964 v Manchesteru) je bývalý anglický fotbalista, který strávil většinu své kariéry v londýnském Arsenalu, za který odehrál 458 ligových utkání. Za reprezentaci Anglie odehrál mezi roky 1990 až 1999 22 mezistátních utkání.


Geology.

The mountain is composed of very hard pale grey precambrian quartzite, which underlies all of the Chimanimani Plateau, giving it a desolate rocky appearance. The north-south trending quartzite bedding is upturned near the summit to an angle of about 40 degrees and dips to the east, the foot of the mountain and the Turret Towers range immediately to the south lying on a thrust fault. Consequently, the eastern approach is more gradual, while the western face is steep to sheer in places. The northern face is cut off by a fault and is sheer near the top, changing to a vertical cliff lower down. Approaching from the west, from the Bundi River Valley, there is an ill-defined trail which branches off from the main smugglers trail to Skeleton Pass.

Climbing.

The climb is arduous and takes about the best part of a day. There are a number of false summits en route. The best path, marked with cairns, climbs southeast then eastward up from the Bundi valley, then swings north-east below the mountain until, at Binga's northern shoulder, swings south-east, climbs the mountain's western face, and, reaching the ridge, swings into a northward scramble up to the beacon: about three hours from the Bundi valley.  There is little if any water on the approach from the west, nor at the top, but small puddles of water seep from the peat and collect in hollows not far off the summit on the gentler eastern slope. There are no well marked trails from Binga to the east and one must make one's own way, taking care when crossing the steep ravines that lead eastwards.

Summit.

At the top the mountain curves into a dome-like prominence. The appearance of the mountain top is bleak and rocky, with an extremely shallow peaty soil supporting only tussocky grass and moss between the lichen-covered hard rock outcrops.  The views over the Mozambique plain are spectacular. Theoretically, with a telescope it should just be possible to see the Indian Ocean from the peak of Binga on a very clear day looking along an easterly bearing, at a range of 190 kilometres. The mountain is remote from settlements.

Monte Binga is the highest mountain in Mozambique and the second highest mountain in Zimbabwe. It is located in the Chimanimani Mountains, on the border between Zimbabwe and Mozambique in the Chimanimani Transfrontier Park in Manica Province. Its height is 8004 feet (2440m) above sea level

Monte Binga (2436 m n. m.) je hora v pohoří Chimanimani v jihovýchodní Africe. Leží v západním Mosambiku v provincii Manica nedaleko zimbabwských hranic. Jedná se o nejvyšší horu Mosambiku. Hora se nachází na území národního parku Chimanimani.


History.

Grandselve was founded as a hermitage under the Benedictine rule in 1114 by Gerald of Sales, who placed it under the supervision of Cadouin Abbey. In 1117 Bishop Amelius Raymond du Puy of Toulouse recognized it as a monastery. He authorized the monks to build a church, gave them the lands, and required them to follow the rule as practiced at Cîteaux Abbey. Over time, the monks began to detach themselves from their connection to Cadouin, and in 1135 Bishop Amelius, at the request of Pope Innocent II, reminded them of their required obedience. Grandselve joined the Cistercian movement as a daughter house of Clairvaux Abbey in 1145. The church was dedicated in 1253.  The land was cultivated, mills were established on the rivers and vineyards were planted. By the fourteenth century, the abbey owned two wine cellars in Bordeaux. It became one of the most flourishing and famous abbeys of the south. Grandselve founded the College of St. Bernard in Toulouse to teach theology.  William VI and William VII, counts of Montpellier, were buried at Grandselve, where William VII's son, Raimond de Montpellier was a monk. In 1231 Bishop of Toulouse Folquet de Marselha was buried, beside the tomb of William VII of Montpellier, at the abbey of Grandselves, near Toulouse, where his sons, Ildefonsus and Petrus had been abbots.  The abbey properties suffered during the Hundred Years' War such that John II of France temporarily exempted the abbey from taxes. By the late fifteenth century, commendatory abbots further depleted the abbey's resources while neglecting maintenance and repair. By 1790 there were only fourteen religious left.  The abbey was suppressed during the French Revolution. It was sold in 1791 to private owners who sold the walls for construction material.

Grandselve Abbey () was a Cistercian monastery in south-west France, at Bouillac, Tarn-et-Garonne. It was one of the most important Cistercian abbeys in the south of France.

Klášter Grandselve (latinsky "Grandis silva") je bývalé cisterciácké opatství ve Francii v obci Bouillac v departementu Tarn-et-Garonne. Leží severozápadně od města Toulouse.


Early life.

Martin was born at Hôtel-Dieu of St. Joseph Hospital in Windsor, Ontario. His father, Paul Martin Sr., a Franco-Ontarian of Irish and French descent, served 33 years as a member of the House of Commons of Canada, and was a Cabinet minister in the Liberal governments of Prime Ministers W. L. Mackenzie King, Louis St. Laurent, Lester B. Pearson, and Pierre E. Trudeau. His mother, Eleanor "Nelly" Alice (née Adams), was of Scottish and Irish descent. He had one sister, Mary-Anne Bellamy, who was diagnosed with Crohn's disease at a young age. She died on July 20, 2011. Martin

Business career.

Board of directors.

In 1969, Power Corporation took a controlling share in Canada Steamship Lines. On December 2, 1970, Paul Martin, the 32-year-old executive assistant

Presidency.

CSL suffered losses in 1972 when forced to cover unexpected cost overruns in the construction of three 80,000-ton ocean-going tankers at Davie Shipbuilding. On November 22, 1973, Paul Martin was appointed President and CEO

Public office.

In November 1993, the newly reelected Paul Martin was appointed to the cabinet and named Minister of Finance. On February 1, 1994, he placed his shares in CSL Group Inc. under a "Supervisory Agreement" to be managed by lawyers and financial advisers, although he would be allowed to intervene in company decision-making should events warrant.

Political career.

Candidacy for the Liberal Party leadership.

In 1984, the Liberal Party was defeated under the leadership of John Turner, falling to just 40 seats. Many Liberals looked to replace Turner with a political newcomer. A group of young Liberals approached Martin as a possible candidate, and while he did not take part in an attempt to overthrow Turner, he did prepare to succeed him in the leadership should the position open. Martin was considered by many to be Turner's ideological successor, as Jean Chrétien was to Pierre Trudeau.  In 1988, Martin was elected as the Member of Parliament for the Western Montreal riding of LaSalle-Émard. He was re-elected at every election since then without much difficulty.  He was a candidate at the 1990 Liberal Party of Canada leadership election, losing to Jean Chrétien in a bitter race that resulted in lasting animosity

Finance Minister.

After the Liberals formed the government, Martin was chosen as Minister of Finance by Prime Minister Chrétien, and appointed by Governor General Ray Hnatyshyn. At the time, Canada had one of the highest annual deficits of the G7 countries. Standard & Poor's had lowered its rating on Canada's foreign-denominated government debt from AAA to AA-plus in 1992 and in 1994, Moody's lowered its rating on Canada's foreign currency debt from Aaa to Aa1, partly due to Canada's growing public debt. In his debut

Becoming prime minister.

Chrétien and Martin frequently clashed while in office. It was reported that Chrétien privately often condemned Martin in bitter terms and had never forgiven Martin for running against him in the Liberal leadership convention of 1990. During that bitter contest, Martin had forced Chrétien to declare his opposition to the Meech Lake Accord and, as a result, Chrétien was generally unpopular in his home province for the next decade.  Even before the Liberals' second electoral victory in the 1997 election, there was

Prime minister (2003–2006).

On December 12, 2003, Martin was appointed by then Governor General Adrienne Clarkson as the 21st Prime Minister of Canada. When sworn in as prime minister, Martin held the flag that flew on Parliament Hill when the elder Martin died. Both father and son had served as Cabinet ministers and contested the Liberal leadership on multiple occasions; their attempts from 1948 to 1990 were unsuccessful. Martin's election as leader and becoming prime minister was described as fulfilling a family dream. Both also earned the honorific prefix "The Right Honourable". One difference between them was that Paul Sr. was one of the most left-wing members of the party, while Paul Jr. is considered on the right-wing.  When he was sworn in, Martin's new cabinet retained only half the ministers from Chrétien's government, a noteworthy break in tradition from previous instances where a retiring prime minister handed over power to his successor as party leader. Martin and his supporters exercised control over the riding nomination process, breaking with the precedent to automatically sign the nomination papers of backbenchers and former ministers who wanted to run for reelection. While these were signs of open party infighting, this had little impact on Martin's record popularity, with several pundits suggesting that the cabinet change was meant to present a new government different from Chrétien's ten-year tenure.  Martin and the Liberals were adversely affected by a report from Auditor General Sheila Fraser on February 9, 2004, indicating that sponsorship contracts designed to increase the federal government's status in Quebec resulted in little to no work done. Many of the agencies had Liberal ties, and roughly $100 million of the $250 million in program spending went missing. The scandal hurt Martin's popularity, especially in Quebec, where Bloc Québécois leader Gilles Duceppe even accused Martin of planning to widen the St. Lawrence seaway to benefit his own Canada Steamship Lines. The scandal also cast skepticism on Martin's recommendations for Cabinet appointments, prompting speculation Martin was simply ridding the government of Chrétien's supporters to distance the Liberals from the scandal. Martin acknowledged that there was political direction but denied involvement in, or knowledge of, the sponsorship contracts. He had a judicial inquiry called to investigate what came to be known as the Sponsorship Scandal, and nominated John Gomery to head it.

2004 election.

The Liberals were facing a new united Conservative Party led by Stephen Harper, while the Bloc Québécois and NDP were also buoyed by the Sponsorship Scandal. Martin advised Governor General Adrienne Clarkson to call an election for June 28, 2004.  The Liberals were also hampered by their inability to raise campaign money competitively after Chrétien passed a bill in 2003 that banned corporate donations, even though the Liberals had enjoyed by far the lion's share of this funding due to the then-divided opposition parties. It has been suggested that

Minority government.

The Martin government faced combined challenges from Quebec separatism and general hostility arising from the Sponsorship Scandal. The first test of the Liberal minority came following the Speech from the throne on October 5, 2004. The Conservatives announced plans to move an amendment to the speech. In this they were supported by the separatist Bloc Québécois and the New Democratic Party. The fall of the government was averted only after agreement on a watered-down version of the amendment.  At the First Ministers' Meeting of September 13–15, 2004, Martin and the provincial premiers reached an agreement on

2005 budget.

The 2005 federal budget was presented in the House of Commons on February 23, 2005. The budget included an array of new spending for the Armed Forces, the environment and a national child-care program.  Public hearings of the Gomery Commission inquiry into the sponsorship scandal involving alleged kickbacks and "donations" from Quebec advertising agencies and corporations to Liberal Party operatives led to a drop in the Liberal Party's popularity. The security of the minority government came under fire as the Conservatives threatened to force an election by use of their "opposition day," when they get to set the Parliament's agenda. The Conservatives would use this time to hold a vote of no confidence in order to topple Martin's government. To avoid this, Martin removed all opposition days from the schedule and made a televised appearance on April 21, 2005, to attempt to gain support from the Canadian people to let the inquiry run its course before an election was called. In the rebuttal speeches by the opposition party leaders, Layton offered his party's support provided that they were given major concessions in the budget such as canceling the proposed corporate

Foreign relations.

On February 24, 2005, Foreign Affairs Minister Pierre Pettigrew told the House of Commons that Canada would not participate in the American National Missile Defense Program, and that he expected to be consulted in the case of a missile being launched over Canadian airspace. Martin's decision met with much praise, but others saw that the government was distancing itself from the U.S. His government continued to cooperate with the United States on border control, refugee claimants, and defense, and he appointed seasoned Liberal politician

Appointment of Governor General.

On August 4, 2005, the government announced that Martin had advised Queen Elizabeth II to appoint Michaëlle Jean as governor general. The reception to the appointment was mixed: some,

Fall of government.

The first volume of the Gomery Report, released on November 1, 2005, cleared Martin of any wrongdoing while placing some blame for the scandal on Chrétien for lack of oversight, although it acknowledged that Chrétien had no knowledge of the scandal. On June 26, 2008, Chrétien was cleared of all allegations of involvement in the scandal.  A Canadian judge issued a gag order that barred Canadian media from covering the hearings of the Gomery Inquiry. Despite this, leaked information circulated after being published in an American blog "Captain's Quarters".

2006 federal election.

Martin campaigned on a vision of Canada different from that of the Conservatives, centering on issues of health care, daycare, tax cutting, and national autonomy. But for much of the campaign the Liberals were on the defensive due to corruption within the party, as a result of revelations of details of the Sponsorship Scandal.  Martin became involved in a diplomatic row with the United States administration after accusing, with Bill Clinton, the US of not listening to global environmental concerns. Martin rejected US Ambassador David Wilkins's rebuke and said he was standing up for Canada's interests over softwood and other issues.

Supreme Court appointments.

Martin chose the following jurists to be appointed

After the 2006 election.

Shortly after midnight on January 24, 2006, after it became clear that the Conservatives were on their way to a plurality, Martin conceded defeat. (Near the end of the 2004 election, Martin and Harper both pledged that they would not form a government unless they won a plurality of seats.) Martin surprised many by announcing his resignation as party leader, saying "I will continue to represent with pride the people of LaSalle—Émard, but I will not take our party into another election as leader."  The next day, Martin officially informed Governor General Michaëlle Jean of his intention to resign as prime minister. Jean asked Harper to form a government later that day. Martin remained as prime minister until the Harper minority government was sworn in February 6, 2006.  Choosing not to take on the office of Leader of the Opposition, Martin stepped down as parliamentary leader of his party on February 1, and the Liberal caucus appointed Bill Graham, MP for Toronto Centre and outgoing Defence Minister, as his interim successor.  Martin temporarily remained nominal Liberal party leader until March 18, 2006, when he submitted his resignation to party executives, who handed that post to Graham for the interim until that next leadership convention could be held. At the same meeting Martin tendered his resignation, the date for the leadership convention to select his successor was set for the weekend of December 2–3, 2006. According to media reports, Martin decided to move up the date of his resignation to end speculation that he might lead the Liberals into another election if Stephen Harper's minority government were to fall prior to the Liberal leadership convention. This began a trend of high turnover among permanent Liberal leaders, in contrast to their predecessors who usually served over two or more elections, including Pierre Trudeau and Jean Chrétien who each led for over a decade.  At the Liberal convention in Montreal, Martin was officially neutral in the contest. The party's tribute to Martin was hosted by former Olympian Mark Tewksbury. Martin's press secretary denied that the tribute was low key due to the Sponsorship Scandal and lingering bitterness inside the party, saying that the former prime minister wanted a simple evening. In his farewell speech, Martin paid homage to Chrétien, though the latter was not present for the event, and urged the Liberals to emerge united from the convention. Stéphane Dion was elected Liberal leader from a field of eight candidates.  For his last years of public office after resigning as Prime Minister, Martin was a backbencher, devoting his time to projects related to improving educational opportunities for Aboriginals (The Martin Aboriginal Education Initiative www.maei-ieam.ca) and protecting the Congo Basin rain forest. In the 2008 federal campaign, Martin did not run for re-election to Parliament.

Retirement.

CTV in November 2008 reported that Martin would be a member of a four-person council of economic advisers to a hypothetical coalition government formed by the Liberals and the NDP if they succeed in toppling the Harper government. However, the proposed coalition dissolved as outgoing Liberal leader Stéphane Dion was immediately forced out and replaced by Michael Ignatieff, who quickly distanced the party from the coalition.  Martin published

Paul Edgar Philippe Martin (born August 28, 1938), also known as Paul Martin Jr., is a Canadian politician who served as the 21st prime minister of Canada from December 12, 2003, to February 6, 2006.

Paul Edgar Philippe Martin (* 28. srpna 1938) je kanadský politik, představitel Liberální strany Kanady, jejímž předsedou byl v letech 2003–2006. Byl premiérem Kanady v letech 2003–2006, ministr financí v letech 1993–2002 a ministrem pro Québec v letech 1993–1996.


Biography.

Cartwright was born in Fairfax County, Virginia, to Mr. and Mrs. John S. Cartwright. Prior to 1812, he began his medical training as an apprentice to abolitionist Dr. John Brewer. Thereafter, he was apprenticed to Dr. Benjamin Rush of Philadelphia. He also attended the University of Pennsylvania Medical School. Cartwright was at one time a surgeon under General (later U.S. President) Andrew Jackson.  He practiced medicine in Huntsville, Alabama (Madison County), then Natchez, Mississippi (Adams County), and finally New Orleans, where he relocated in 1858.  Dr. Cartwright married the former Mary Wren in 1825, and they had at least one child. He died in Jackson, the Mississippi state capital, two months before the surrender of Vicksburg to the forces of General Ulysses S. Grant.

Slavery.

In the antebellum period, Southerners, along with many Northerners, generally considered blacks to be racially inferior to whites. They sought "scientific proof" for their argument to counter the "human rights" claims of the abolitionists. The Medical Association of Louisiana charged Cartwright with investigating "the diseases and physical peculiarities of the negro race". His report was delivered as a speech at its annual meeting on March 12, 1851, and published in its journal. The most sensationalistic portions of it, on drapetomania and dysaesthesia aethiopica, were reprinted in "DeBow's Review". He subsequently prepared an abbreviated version, with sources cited, for "Southern Medical Reports".  Cartwright is most remembered for inventing, in this report, a condition he called drapetomania, or the desire to flee from servitude. According to him, drapetomania is a mental disorder akin to alienation (madness). He said that slaves should be kept in a submissive state and treated like children, with "care, kindness, attention, and humanity to prevent and cure them from running away." If they nonetheless became dissatisfied with their condition, they should be whipped to prevent them from running away. In describing his theory and cure for drapetomania, Cartwright relied on passages of Christian scripture dealing with slavery.  Cartwright also invented another 'disorder', "dysaesthesia aethiopica", a disease "affecting both mind and body." Cartwright used his theory to explain the perceived lack of work ethic among slaves. Dysaesthesia aethiopica, "called by overseers 'rascality'," was characterized by partial insensitivity of the skin and "so great a hebetude of the intellectual faculties, as to be like a person half asleep." Other symptoms included "lesions of the body discoverable to the medical observer, which are always present and sufficient to account for the symptoms."  According to Cartwright, dysaesthesia aethiopica was "much more prevalent among free negroes living in clusters by themselves, than among slaves on our plantations, and attacks only such slaves as live like free negroes in regard to diet, drinks, exercise, etc." — indeed, according to Cartwright, "nearly all [free negroes] are more or less afflicted with it, that have not got some white person to direct and to take care of them."  Cartwright's Report was in line with the views of such pro-slavery defenders as Thomas Roderick Dew, of the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, and James D.B. DeBow, a Southern magazine publisher. Cartwright contributed some fourteen articles to "DeBow's Review" between 1851 and 1862, primarily on sanitary conditions.

Samuel Adolphus Cartwright (November 3, 1793 – May 2, 1863) was a physician who practiced in Mississippi and Louisiana in the antebellum United States. Cartwright is best known as the inventor of the'mental illness' of drapetomania, the desire of a slave for freedom, and an outspoken critic of germ theory. During the American Civil War he joined the Confederate States of America and was assigned the responsibility of improving sanitary conditions in the camps about Vicksburg, Mississippi, and Port Hudson, Louisiana.

Samuel Adolphus Cartwright (3. listopadu 1793 Fairfax County, Virginie – 2. května 1863 Jackson, Mississippi) byl americký lékař a spisovatel. Před americkou občanskou válkou působil jako lékař v Mississippi a Louisianě. Během války se přidal na stranu Konfederovaných států amerických a byla mu přidělena zodpovědnost za zlepšení hygienických podmínek v táborech Vicksburg a Port Hudson. Byl vyznamenán za výzkum žluté zimnice a asijské cholery. V předválečné době byl Cartwright považovaný za odborníka na černošské nemoci, ale v tomto ohledu byl zdiskreditován.


Recording and production.

In February 1977 after attending a Ramones concert in Los Angeles, music producer Phil Spector offered to assist in making "Rocket to Russia". The band declined his offer, feeling as though the album would not be the same without Tommy Ramone and Tony Bongiovi producing the album. While the band refused his initial offer, their management later asked Spector to help with the album because of their lack of popularity and sales. "End of the Century" would be the first album released without former drummer and producer Tommy. Spector had become famous through his work with The Ronettes, The Righteous Brothers, Ike and Tina Turner, The Beatles and John Lennon, among others. With these releases, Spector defined what would become known as the "Wall of Sound", which is a dense, layered, and reverberant sound that came across well on AM radio and jukeboxes. These standards are created through instruments performing identical parts in unison, using high-quality overdubbing and echo chambers to aid in the production value. The producer was convinced that the Ramones had talent with lyrics and musical structure, so he intended to promote the band through more advanced methods of sound output.  Recording sessions for the album began on May 1, 1979 at Gold Star Studios in Hollywood, Los Angeles. Gold Star Studios had become famous through its history with artists like Eddie Cochran and the Beach Boys. At the Ramones' request, Ed Stasium helped with the album's engineering. During the studio work, Spector's recording methods were different from those the Ramones were accustomed to from their four previous studio albums. The band recorded their earlier compositions in the shortest time possible for the lowest feasible budget, with a relatively low production value. With "End of the Century", the band experienced Spector's infamous perfectionism, and a budget of $200,000 to fully record and produce the album. This is significant because the band's debut album cost $6,400 total, and their second album cost $10,000. "End of the Century" is the most expensive album in the Ramones' career.

Conflict.

This method of recording caused conflicts to arise. Bassist Dee Dee Ramone wrote of Spector's obsessive techniques: "Phil would sit in the control room and would listen through the headphones to Marky hit one note on the drum, hour after hour, after hour, after hour." During the recording of "Rock 'n' Roll High School", Johnny was forced by Spector to repeat his part hundreds of times over the course of several hours. Sire Records owner Seymour Stein relates: "To Johnny, this must have been like the Chinese water torture." "I understood [Spector's] attitude," said Marky. "He was from The Bronx, I was from Brooklyn. We got along very well and had a nice rapport... But he had his way of working that was very slow, and the Ramones had their way of working which was very fast. So that would sometimes irk everybody, and led to animosity with Johnny and Dee Dee."  Early in the sessions, Spector reportedly held the Ramones hostage at gunpoint. According to Dee Dee, when Spector took Joey away for a three-hour private meeting somewhere in his mansion where the album was to be recorded, Dee Dee went looking for them. "The next thing I knew Phil appeared at the top of the staircase, shouting and waving a pistol." Johnny gave a similar account in a 1986 interview: However, in 2008, Marky Ramone gave a different account of the story:  Dee Dee claimed to have left the sessions without recording anything. "We had been working for at least fourteen or fifteen hours a day for thirteen days straight and we still hadn't recorded one note of music," he wrote in his autobiography. After supposedly hearing that Johnny had returned to New York, Dee Dee wrote that he and Marky Ramone booked a flight and returned home as well. "To this day, I still have no idea how they made the album "End of the Century", or who actually played bass on it." Dee Dee's account contradicts much of the band's collective account from the 1982 "Trouser Press" interview, where the band stated that the only track that Johnny, Dee Dee and Marky did not play on was the cover of "Baby, I Love You"; as the band, save for Joey, had gone home after cutting basic tracks for the rest of the album.

Compositions.

"End of the Century" was described by the band as an album written solely to gain popularity, resulting in more of a pop punk sound. Joey failed to contribute to the best of his abilities on the album and recalled: "I think that some of the worst crap I ever wrote went on the album. That was me at my worst." Johnny also felt that the album was far from the band's prime.  The album opens with "Do You Remember Rock 'n' Roll Radio?", a throwback to the rock music of the 1950s to late 1960s. The lyrics name several famous musicians of this era, including Jerry Lee Lewis, John Lennon, and T. Rex, and also cite "The Ed Sullivan Show". Many instruments that were previously rarely—if ever—used in punk rock were featured in the song's score, including the saxophone and electronic organ. The lyrics, written by Dee Dee, depict his childhood in Germany where he would secretly listen to rock radio stations at night.  Johnny's part is not heard on the next track, "I'm Affected", as reported by Johnny himself. Joey admitted that he did not favor the song, recalling: "I couldn't believe how awful it sounded. It was horrible." "Danny Says", the third track, was a lyrical depiction of what the band constantly went through while touring—soundchecks, autograph sessions, interviews, etc. The title "Danny Says" refers to the band's tour manager Danny Fields giving the members instructions, schedules, and demands. According to Joey, the ballad was inspired by Lou Reed, who had released the songs "Candy Says" and "Caroline Says". Joey's brother Mickey Leigh called the song a "masterpiece" and said it "remains one of the most captivatingly beautiful songs I've ever heard."  Dee Dee wrote the next piece, "Chinese Rock", in 1976, and Johnny Thunders later revised it. Dee Dee wrote the piece in response to Lou Reed's "Heroin", and attempted to concoct better lyrics on the same subject of drug use and heroin addiction. After Johnny vetoed the song, it was recorded by Thunder's band The Heartbreakers before the Ramones, though the bands use slightly different words. The lyrics deal with the daily life of a heroin addict, and the term "Chinese Rock" is a euphemism for the drug. "The Return of Jackie and Judy" is a continuation to one of the band's earlier songs, "Judy is a Punk", which was released on their debut album "Ramones". There were numerous studio guests involved in the album's recording, including producer/musicians, Dan Kessel and David Kessel, and California disc jockey Rodney Bingenheimer.  Side B begins with "Baby, I Love You". Johnny constantly claims in his book "Commando" that he hated the song and the band didn't even play on it, only Joey and some studio musicians. Joey exclaimed that he "hated" the song, despite it obtaining a level of popularity in Europe. The song is a cover version of the original by The Ronettes, and contained a string section arrangement that Leigh deemed "gooey" and that it "sounded right out of Redbone's 'Come and Get Your Love.'" He also confessed that the song "almost made [him] embarrassed." "Rock 'n' Roll High School" originally appeared on the soundtrack to "Rock 'n' Roll High School", a film directed by Allan Arkush. The movie depicts a story line in which the Ramones are obsessed over by female high school student Riff Randell along with other pupils attending the school. The album concludes with "High Risk Insurance", which is a reaction to politics of that era.

Critical reception.

The album received generally positive reviews from critics, yet not as favorable for many of the band's previous records. Stephen Thomas Erlewine, senior editor for AllMusic, noted that the Ramones desired mainstream success much more and were recording music in such a fashion as to expand their fan-base. Another AllMusic editor, T. Donald Guarisco, noted that the "entire album is pretty controversial in the world of Ramones fandom." Music critic Robert Christgau called the album "sad", noting that his favorite songs were "I'm Affected", "Baby, I Love You", and "Danny Says". He also pointed out that Spector's production failed to make much of a difference in the band's overall sound, saying "his guitar overdubs are worse than his orchestrations, and they're not uncute."  Kurt Loder, reviewing the album for "Rolling Stone", called it "Phil Spector's finest and most mature effort in years", and said that his production created a "rich and vibrant and surging with power" setting. He noted that the Ramones are still "spotlighted", rather than their producer. Author Richard Williams exclaimed that to "old fans the Ramones' version of 'Baby, I Love You' went too far, desecrating the memory of the original despite Joey's evident devotion to the task of emulating Ronnie's lead vocal." Williams also said that "Do You Remember Rock 'n' Roll Radio" and "Chinese Rock" maintained the principles of the Ramones in their earlier days.

Commercial performance.

"End of the Century" is the Ramones' highest-peaking album on the US "Billboard" 200 (having reached No. 44 during a fourteen-week chart stay), as well as their most successful on the UK Albums Chart and the Swedish chart Sverigetopplistan. The album became the first—and only—Ramones' album to chart on Norway's VG-lista chart and New Zealand's Recorded Music NZ. It was also the band's first album to chart on the Netherlands' MegaCharts, with their 1987 album "Halfway to Sanity" being their only other release to chart there as well.  Two singles were spawned from "End of the Century": "Baby, I Love You" and "Do You Remember Rock 'n' Roll Radio?", released respectively. The first single charted on Belgium's Ultratop chart as well as reaching number 8 in the UK. "Do You Remember Rock 'n' Roll Radio?" also charted in Europe, peaking and debuting at 54 on the UK Singles Chart.

Personnel.

Ramones  Additional musicians  Production

End of the Century is the fifth studio album by the American punk rock band the Ramones, released on February 4, 1980, through Sire Records. The album was the band's first produced by Phil Spector, though he had offered the band his assistance earlier in their career. With Spector fully producing the album, it was the first release that excluded original member Tommy Ramone, who in 1978 left the band but produced their previous album "Road to Ruin". Spector used more advanced standards of engineering, such as high-quality overdubbing and echo chambers. These methods caused conflict between the band and Spector since much of the recording used techniques that opposed those the Ramones had previously used. Spector emphasized the production value as well, working with a budget of around $200,000.

End of the Century je páté studiové album americké punk rockové skupiny Ramones. Jeho nahrávání probíhalo v květnu 1979 a vyšlo až v únoru 1980. Producentem alba byl Phil Spector a vyšlo u Sire Records. V žebříčku Billboard 200 se umístilo nejlépe na 44. příčce.


Conception.

The writing process for "Pleasant Dreams" began in January 1981. With Sire Records management being insistent on allowing a celebrity record producer to work on the album, they hired Graham Gouldman—songwriter and musician for the British band 10cc—to produce the album. Prior to working with Gouldman, the Ramones had recorded demos for the album with audio engineer Ed Stasium, and while the band had intended for Steve Lillywhite to produce the album, this decision was rejected by Sire. The studio recording process began on March 30, 1981, and initiated several conflicts between band members. This tension was partially due to Dee Dee Ramone's drug addiction, as well as Marky Ramone and Joey Ramone developing problems with alcohol, resulting in the frustration of Johnny Ramone. These conflicts and differences became evident in the songwriting as, for the first time on a Ramones album, each song was now credited to individual members rather than multiple members.  The time period of recording was a high-point in musical style for both Joey and Johnny, though they directed their sound towards different styles of music: Joey's inspiration from pop music became evident in his writing, while Johnny's keenness of hard-rock guitar riffs are apparent in much of his performing on the album. Johnny thought that this did not result well for the band's sound, saying: "I knew going in that this was not going to be the type of album I wanted. It really could have used another two of three punk songs... All I want to do is keep our fans happy and not sell out. I'm fighting within the band. They are trying to go lighter, looking for ways to be more commercial. I'm against the band for doing that." Joey countered by explaining: "By "Road to Ruin" [and] "End of the Century", I was doing the majority of the songwriting. I started feeling that the Ramones were faceless; there were no individual identities in the band." Joey went on to say that, while this method had worked well in the beginning of their career, it began to annoy him, since "everything [he] wrote, the band would take credit for."  During early stages of the album's development, Joey was dating Linda Daniele. After the album was released, however, Daniele left Joey and became Johnny's girlfriend. Ramones' road manager Monte Melnick relates: "Joey was devastated. It affected him deeply. Johnny knew it was bad and kept Linda totally hidden from that point on. She didn't come to many shows and if she did he'd hide her in the back; she wouldn't come backstage. He'd run out to meet her and leave as soon as they were done." While Johnny would eventually marry Linda, Joey held a strong grudge against them both, and, though they continued to perform and tour together, the two rarely talked to each other. Joey explained that Johnny had "crossed the line" once he started dating Daniele, and noted that "he destroyed the relationship and the band right there." Johnny defended himself by stating that had Daniele not left Joey for him, "he wouldn't have even been talking about her and saying how much he loved her because he wouldn't have been obsessed about it."

Composition and lyrics.

The album opens with "We Want the Airwaves," which has instrumentation that strays from traditional punk rock and more towards hard rock. Music journalist Chuck Eddy described the song as "a sort of Black Sabbath punk rock." Though it was long rumored that the album's third track, "The KKK Took My Baby Away," was written about Johnny stealing Joey's girlfriend, the song was reportedly written some time before Joey had found out about this. Joey's brother Mickey Leigh relates: "The fluky connection between Johnny and the KKK raised a specter that keeps friends and fans speculating to this day. At the time, though, it had to be an unusual situation for him being that, as often happens with song lyrics, his words now took on a whole new meaning." The following track, "Don't Go," was described in "Musician, Player, and Listener" as "Spector-ish," likening the song's production values to those of music producer Phil Spector, the infamous producer of the band's previous record, "End of the Century". According to the magazine, the lyrics detail "an archivist's sense of young love by the book and how innocent rock 'n' roll is supposed to sound." Everett True, author of "Hey Ho Let's Go: The Story of the Ramones" (2005), explains that the album's fifth track, Dee Dee's "You Sound Like You're Sick," "returns to the bassist's traditional institutionalised theme." Side A ends with "It's Not My Place (In the 9 to 5 World)," which was described by music critic David Fricke as "driven home" by drummer Marky's "feisty, Bo Diddley-style" drum beat, noting that it borrows the middle eight (of thirty-two-bar form) from the Who song "Whiskey Man." Side B of the album begins with "She's a Sensation," which was said by author Dave Thompson to have a 1960s melody which "melts through the hard rock." The next song, "7-11," deals with dating at a young age, where the couple goes on dates to places like convenience stores and record swaps. The lyrics follow a boy who meets a girl by a Space Invaders arcade machine, who eventually has to let her go after she dies in a car crash. True relates: "You can lose your heart within the singer's torched '7-11'. Joey details in time-honoured girl group fashion the beauty of young love that takes place among the most mundane, humdrum of surroundings." "You Didn't Mean Anything to Me," written by Dee Dee, reflects the desolation and vacillation that the bassist was feeling in his personal life, as well as within the band. This is evident through lines like "Every dinner was crummy/Even the ones for free." The pop-oriented song "Come On Now" was described by True as a "sparkling rush of blood to the head from the 'comic book boy'," with True adding that it was comparable to songs by The Dave Clark Five and 1910 Fruitgum Company. The eleventh track on the album, "This Business Is Killing Me," was written by Joey about how everyone expects him to please others but how he simply cannot please everyone all the time. "Pleasant Dreams" concludes with "Sitting in My Room," which David Fricke quoted in the conclusion of his review of the album, saying: "'It's us against them,' sneers Joey... 'They just wanna worry... /They just wanna be so lame/Maybe they should try and sniff some glue.' Or put "Pleasant Dreams" on the box and crank it up to ten."

Reception.

Released on July 20, 1981, the album was not commercially successful, failing to spawn a single hit. Though Sire Records had merged with Warner Bros. Records, none of the singles from "Pleasant Dreams" were released in the US. Sire had insisted that the album be produced by a celebrity producer, hiring Graham Gouldman to the job expecting this to help expand the band's fan base. Joey relates: "The record company told us the album would bomb if we didn't use Graham Gouldman, so we worked with Graham--and the album bombed anyway." The album would only chart in the US and Sweden, peaking at 58 on the "Billboard" 200 and 35 on the Sverigetopplistan chart, with the singles released from the album failing to chart.  "Pleasant Dreams" received mixed reviews from critics, with many pointing out that the high quality sound production made the band stray from their roots even more so than the change in style. Stephen Thomas Erlewine, senior editor for AllMusic, noted that Gouldman steers the band's style away from "bubblegum, British invasion, and surf fetishes" and toward "acid rock and heavy metal." He went on to say that the sound quality was "too clean to qualify as punk" and that the music on the album had "lost sight of the infectious qualities that made their earlier records such fun."  Music critic Robert Christgau said that the album "comes off corny" compared to the band's first four releases, which he described as "aural rush and conceptual punch." While he felt that the songs featured on the album were better than those on "End of the Century", he claimed the album was "less focused" compared to "Leave Home", but "fun anyway." David Fricke of "Rolling Stone" began his review by writing "Pity the poor Ramones," and went on to give it a mixed review. He deemed the album a "comic relief" and noted its contents of "fortified vocal harmonies, an occasional dash of keyboards, a certain production gimmickry."

Track listing.

Track listing adapted from AllMusic.  All tracks written by Joey Ramone, except where noted.  All tracks written by the Ramones, except where noted.

Personnel.

The following personnel can be verified with AllMusic.  Ramones  Additional musicians  Production

References.

Citations Bibliography

Pleasant Dreams is the sixth studio album by American punk rock band the Ramones, released on July 20, 1981, through Sire Records. While the band members wanted Steve Lillywhite to produce, Sire chose Graham Gouldman in an attempt to gain popularity through a well-known producer. The recording process brought about many conflicts between band members, most notably the strife between Joey Ramone and Johnny Ramone, due to Johnny starting a relationship with Joey's girlfriend. There were also disputes about the overall direction of the album, with Johnny leaning towards hard rock and Joey towards pop music. Ultimately, the album incorporated high production values and varying musical styles, straying from traditional punk rock on songs such as "We Want the Airwaves," "She's a Sensation" and "Come On Now."

Pleasant Dreams je šesté studiové album americké punk rockové skupiny Ramones. Jeho producentem byl Graham Gouldman. Album poprvé vyšlo v červenci 1981 u Sire Records a v žebříčku Billboard 200 se dostalo nejlépe na 58. místo. V srpnu 2002 vyšlo album v reedici u Rhino Records.


Life.

Birth and Name.

Fenenna's parentage is confirmed in the "Genealogia sanctae Hedwigis" (literally: "Genealogy of Saint Hedwig"). The marriage of her parents is placed around the first half of February 1268. If she was the oldest child of the ducal couple, she could have born at the end of that year. She was married in 1290, and in accordance with the Canonical Law of that time, the legal age to celebrate a marriage was 12 years old; but two years later, in 1292, she gave birth her only child, probably at 15 years. Accordingly, her date of birth could be between 1268 and 1277. Among the offspring of Duke Ziemomysł, Fenenna has been placed as the second child, between Euphemia (who died in infancy) and Leszek.  Fenenna's name was chosen from the Bible (later translated by Jakub Wujek), as one of the two wives of Elkanah, father of the Prophet Samuel. This uncommon name was rarely used in Poland, and Fenenna was the only member of the Piast dynasty who bore it.

Queen of Hungary.

"The Genealogy of Saint Hedwig" indicated that Fenenna was betrothed to the Hungarian king. According to Jan Długosz this Hungarian ruler was King Stephen V. Although this assumption was not supported by any sources could not be true because Stephen V died in 1272, it was maintained until the 18th century. Her husband was King Andrew III, as confirmed by the Hungarian sources. From the period of her reign, between 1290–1295, there are several documents issued by the Queen of Hungary, who signed as "Fenena", "Fennena", or in short "Fenenna F". Legends on Hungarian stamps of 1291 certify that Queen Fenenna was Ziemomysł's daughter. Due to her marriage, the Polish Kingdom began to cooperate closely with the Hungarian ruler.  In July 1290 Andrew III was crowned King of Hungary. One of his first actions was the conclusion of an alliance with Poland, in particular with Duke Władysław I the Elbow-high. In September negotiations began and no later than 9 October Fenenna arrived in Hungary as Andrew's bride, escorted by the king's envoy Theodore Tengerdi.. From 1290 three documents were issued describing Fenenna as Andrew III's wife and Queen of Hungary. The marriage of Andrew III and Fenenna took place between September and 24 November 1290. Probably during the wedding ceremony, or shortly after, Fenenna was crowned as Queen of Hungary.  The marriage was pursued by Fenenna's uncle, Władysław I the Elbow-high, who wanted allies for his fight for the Polish throne. The Hungarian-Kuyavian alliance proved beneficial to both parties. The Dukes of Kuyavia helped Andrew III to defeat Charles Martel of Anjou, who claimed the Hungarian throne after the death of his maternal uncle, King Ladislaus IV the Cuman, in 1290. In return, the Hungarians sent provisions and military support to Władysław I during his fight against King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia and Duke Henry III of Głogów. Documents issued by Andrew III from 1293 show that aid was sent to the Dukes of Kuyavia. These documents specify that Andrew recompensed two Hungarian men, Paul and Serafila, for help in winning Prędocin. In 1297 documents record that Władysław, with the help of the Hungarians, invaded Greater Poland and Silesia.  From the surviving contemporary documents, it is known that Fenenna did not play a great role in the Hungarian court. In 1292, Fenenna gave birth her only child, a daughter named Elizabeth.

Death and Aftermaths.

The sources are silent about Fenenna's death. Therefore, the date of her death can be determined only on basis of the negotiations of King Andrew III with the Austrian court for his second marriage with Agnes of Habsburg, and the documents issued by both Fenenna and Agnes. Almost all the known sources place the wedding of King Andrew III with Agnes of Habsburg in Vienna on 13 February 1296. However, although the year is generally accepted, the exact day and months varied in a number of partly independent sources. Documents issued by the Queen of Hungary also contributed to the confusion. The last document issued by Fenenna was dated 8 September 1295, while the first document issued by Agnes was dated 1 May 1295. Since the marriage of Andrew III with the Austrian princess was in 1296, the document probably was incorrectly written and had to be moved back by one year. It is now accepted that Andrew III's wedding with Agnes of Habsburg was held in 1296. In consequence, Fenenna was certainly dead by the end of 1295; the place of her burial is unknown.  After Fenenna's death, Andrew III entered into an agreement with Władysław I's opponent, Wenceslaus II. As a part of this settlement, his daughter Elizabeth was engaged to the son and heir of the Bohemian king, the future Wenceslaus III, in 1298. However, this marriage was never realized. Wenceslaus instead married Viola Elisabeth of Cieszyn, but later he planned to divorce Viola and marry Elizabeth before he was assassinated.  When King Andrew III died in 1301, Elizabeth was taken by her stepmother Agnes to Austria and forced to join the Dominican monastery in Töss, Switzerland, where she died in 1338 as the last representative of the Arpad dynasty.

Fenenna of Kuyavia (also known as of Inowrocław; ; ca. 1276–1295) was a Queen of Hungary by marriage to King Andrew III.

Fenena Kujavská ( "Fenenna kujawska", nebo "inowrocławska", narozena 1268–1277, † 1295) – uherská královna, dcera Siemomysla Kujavského a Salomeny Pomořanské, kněžna z rodu Piastovců.


History.

The historical city centre is on a hill between the Chienti and Potenza rivers. It first consisted of the Picenes city named Ricina (Helvia Recina), then, after its romanization, Recina and Helvia Recina. After the destruction of Helvia Recina by the barbarians, the inhabitants took shelter in the hills and eventually began to rebuild the city, first on the top of the hills, before descending again later and expanding. The newly rebuilt town was Macerata. It became a municipality (or comune in Italian) in August 1138.

20th century.

The "comune" of Urbisaglia was the location of an internment camp for Jews and refugees, and a prisoner-of-war camp (PG53, at Sforzacosta) during World War II.

21st century migration and hate crime.

According to Jason Horowitz of "The New York Times" previously Macerata was welcoming to migrants coming from Africa; in 2013 Macerata, according to Horowitz, "won national recognition for its integration efforts". Horowitz stated that by 2018 Macerata residents had a more negative view of migrants. In February 2018, an Italian woman, Pamela Mastropietro, was found dead in a suitcase in Macerata, with her body in pieces; a Nigerian was arrested and accused of causing the death. This caused an increase in anti-migrant sentiment; later that month, an Italian far-right extremist shot six black people in Macerata and wrapped himself in the Italian flag.

Geography.

Subdivisions.

The town counts several hamlets ("frazioni") and localities: Acquesalate, Acquevive, Botonto San Giacomo, Botonto Sant'Isidoro, Cervare, Cimarella, Cincinelli, Consalvi, Corneto, Helvia Recina, Isola, Madonna del Monte, Montanello, Piediripa, Sforzacosta, Valle, Vallebona, Valteia, Villa Potenza.

Climate.

Typically hilly, the climate is both Mediterranean and continental. The Adriatic Sea, which is approximately away, and particularly the Apennine Mountains influence the weather. The elevation of Macerata is approximately above sea level, so winter is particularly rainy and the snow is not so frequent and plentiful. Balkanic and northwestern perturbations may cause snow. Middle seasons are variable, and late snowfall and frost may occur during April. October is neither warm nor very cold. Summer is rather sunny, and sometimes the thermometer reaches. Garbino is the cause, a hot wind from the hinterland. Summer thunderstorms are frequent in August during the evening, when the weather becomes quite unstable.

Main sights.

In the central Piazza della Libertà is the "Loggia dei Mercanti" with two-tier arcades dating from the Renaissance. There are a number of striking palazzi, mostly along Corso Matteotti, including "Palazzo dei Diamanti". Next to the Loggia dei Mercanti, Corso della Repubblica leads to Piazza Vittorio Veneto where, in the Palazzo Ricci, houses the city's modern art gallery. The nearby "Palazzo Buonaccorsi" houses the main civic art museum, as well as a Carriage Museum. The palace was built in 1700–1720 for Count Raimondo Buonaccorsi and his son Cardinal Simone Buonaccorsi using designs by Giovanni Battista Contini. The piano nobile is known for the "Sala dell'Eneide" (Hall of the Aeneid), decorated with frescoes depicting episodes of the Aeneid depicted by Rambaldi, Dardani, Solimena, and canvases by Garzi and Giovanni Gioseffo dal Sole. Among the museum's masterpieces is the Renaissance work of the "Madonna and Child" by Carlo Crivelli.  The Biblioteca Comunale Mozzi Borgetti, the main civic library of Macerata, founded in the 18th century, is housed in the former Jesuit seminary, located on Piazza Vittorio Veneto.  The University of Macerata was founded in 1290 and has about 13,000 students; Macerata also has an art school, two publishing houses (Liberilibri and Quodlibet), jazz clubs and the like.  Just north of the town, at the Villa Potenza, lie the remains of ancient Helvia Recina, a Roman settlement destroyed by the Visigoths.  Among the churches in the town are:

Macerata Opera Festival.

In July and August the Sferisterio Opera Festival is held in the 2,500 seat Arena Sferisterio. It is a huge neoclassical arena erected in the 1820s as a stadium for a form of handball by the architect Ireneo Aleandri. The orchestra pit is so wide that musicians at each end cannot hear each other.  The first opera performed here was Giuseppe Verdi's "Aida" in 1921. It was promoted by the association "Società Cittadina" led by Count Pieralberto Conti. The arena was transformed into a real outdoor theatre with an enormous parabolic stage. The orchestra was placed immediately behind it and the seats were located around it. In the middle of the front sidewall a large door was built that allowed the entrance of the Egyptian conqueror. Posters were created by Verona's official "Aida" employee Plino Codognato and the painter Emilio Lazzari. The opera and its Triumphal March employed many people (in addition to about one thousand props and also different animals such as horses and camels). Francisca Solari interpreted "Aida" and Alessandro Dolci sang the great tenor role in the robes of Radames. The hospitality of Macerata grew quickly and new ways were developed to induce people to stay longer in the town, so the opera was repeated 17 times with more than seventy thousand attendees. The next year the opera "La Gioconda" was sung. Until 1927 no more shows were performed, at which time the famous tenor Beniamino Gigli sang a unique concert for the invalids of World War I.  From World War II until the 1960s, it was rare to have operas in the local "Bel Canto". In 1967, Carlo Perucci, a native of San Benedetto del Tronto (Marche), established the first stable local band with the song "Circuito lirico delle Marche", so when he was in Macerata he asked the city hall to offer new performances. With enthusiasm the local administrators allowed him to offer new extraordinary contracts: Giuseppe Verdi's "Otello" (with Del Monaco and Protti), and Giacomo Puccini's "Madama Butterfly" (with Antonietta Stella and Nicola Ruggeri). Finally, on 3 August, the musical season began, and continues to today.  Overall the Sferisterio is very relevant, compared sometimes to Italy's famous "Arena di Verona" and "Caracalla" operas. During this period, about 28 years, when Carlo Perucci was artistic director, the "Sferisterio" Arena, because of its perfect acoustics, housed the most important international voices of "bel canto". Ballets with Fracci and Nureyev were performed. The presentations of "Bohème" by Ken Russell in 1984 and Enrico Job's "Don Giovanni" were particularly memorable. Other outstanding shows were "La traviata" and "Lucia di Lammermoor", with stage design by Czech scenographer Josef Svoboda, Hugo De Ana's "Turandot" and De Flò's "Faust" and "Tosca". In the late nineties, led by Orazi as artistic director, the most important singers of the world performed in the Macerata Opera, performing in both the Sferisterio and the Lauro Rossi theaters: Luciano Pavarotti, Plácido Domingo, Montserrat Caballé, Marilyn Horne, Fiorenza Cossotto, Ruggero Raimondi, Mariella Devia, José Carreras, Katia Ricciarelli, Renato Bruson, and Raina Kabaivanska.  Since 1990, some operas have been performed in the 550-seat Teatro Lauro Rossi following extensive renovation, which was completed in 1989. Originally named the Teatro dei Condomini and built by Cosimo Morelli on a project by Antonio Bibiena in 1767, it opened in 1774 with Pasquale Anfossi's "Olimpiade". In 1872, it was renamed after the musician Lauro Rossi who was born in the town.  This positive situation made the Sferisterio Opera a success. By 1992 the organization had won the "Franco Abbiati award of Italian musical Critics" three times. Other prestigious Italian lyric events reproduce the Sferisterio's events: Opera di Roma, Teatro Comunale di Bologna and La Scala di Milano.  2006 was the year of transformation led by the new artistic director Pier Luigi Pizzi. The summer event became a "Festival". He gave all of his 50 years of experience. Pizzi's career as the opera's director, designer, and dresser earned many awards. The season started with a dominant theme that marks all the shows and their sets. The parabolic stage was recovered, reviving the old atmosphere of the Handball Stadium. In that year, Mozart's 250th anniversary, the theme of "initiatory journey" opened with the "Magic Flute" by the Austrian musician. From that moment in every season the choice of operas was marked by a "fil rouge" theme, demonstrating the great intellectual vitality of opera: "il Gioco dei Potenti" in 2007 with "Macbeth", "Maria Stuarda", "Norma" and the gala dance with Roberto Bolle and Alessandra Ferri; "La seduzione" in 2008 when the two-time Oscar-winning citizen of Macerata, Dante Ferretti, was hired as director; "L'inganno" in 2009 with "Don Giovanni" and "Madama Butterfly".

Macerata–Loreto pilgrimage.

From 1978, every first Saturday of June after school ending a 27 km pilgrimage from Macerata to Loreto takes place. It gathers believers from all over the world, but particularly from the near cities and regions. The main purpose is to revive an old tradition of gratitude to Mary, by students for their school ending. It has grown constantly in participants every edition, from just three hundred to sixty thousand pilgrims. Participants are led overnight through the hills along the road that is an old tradition Marian path. Pilgrims are preceded by a rood donated by Pope John Paul II who chaired at the Mass in 1993. The night march is constantly guided and is occupied by the recitation of the Rosary, songs, testimonies, meditation on the Word of God and the teachings of the Pope.

Cousine.

Macerata has a good array of restaurants, trattorias and pizzerias. Local specialities include vincisgrassi alla maceratese, a regional version of lasagna that differs from the usual in that the ragù contains a mix of pork, beef and lamb.

Twin towns - sister cities.

Macerata is twinned with:

External links.

<br

Macerata () is a city and "comune" in central Italy, the county seat of the province of Macerata in the Marche region. It has a population of about 41,564.

Macerata je italské město v oblasti Marche, hlavní město stejnojmenné provincie. K 31. prosinci 2010 zde žilo 43 019 obyvatel.


Ancient fortifications.

A glacis could also appear in ancient fortresses, such as the one the ancient Egyptians built at Semna in Nubia. Here it was used by them to prevent enemy siege engines from weakening defensive walls.  Hillforts in Britain started to incorporate glacis around 350 BC. Those at Maiden Castle, Dorset were high.

Medieval fortifications.

Glacis, also called talus, were incorporated into medieval fortifications to strengthen the walls against undermining, to hamper escalades and so that missiles dropped from the battlements would ricochet off the glacis into attacking forces.  Towards the end of the medieval period some castles were modified to make them defensible against cannons. Glacis consisting of earthen slopes faced with stones were placed in front of the curtain walls and bastions (towers) to absorb the impact of cannon shots or to deflect them. Towers were lowered to the same height as the curtain walls and converted into gun platforms.

Early modern European fortifications.

Early modern European fortresses were so constructed as to keep any potential assailant under the fire of the defenders until the last possible moment. On natural, level ground, troops attacking any high work have a degree of shelter from its fire when close up to it; the glacis consists of a slope with a low grade inclined towards the top of the wall. This gave defenders a direct line of sight into the assaulting force, allowing them to efficiently sweep the field with fire from the parapet. Additionally, but secondarily, the bank of earth would shield the walls from being hit directly by cannon fire.  Though defenders on a high ground already have a direct line of sight, a glacis allows the field of fire to be swept more efficiently by minimizing changes to the angle of their guns while firing. Furthermore, the glacis prevents attacking cannon from having a clear shot at the walls of a fortress, as usually these cannot be seen until the glacis is crossed and the ditch, bounded on either side by the smooth, masoned scarp and counterscarp, is reached.

Armored vehicles.

The term "glacis plate" describes the sloped front-most section of the hull of a tank or other armored fighting vehicle, often composed of upper and lower halves. In a head-on-head armored engagement, the glacis plate is the largest and most obvious target available to an enemy gunner.  Sloped armour has two advantages: many projectiles will deflect rather than penetrate; those that attempt to will have to travel on a longer diagonal route through any given thickness of armor than if it were perpendicular to their trajectory.  Anti-tank mines that employ a tilt-rod fuze are also designed to detonate directly underneath the glacis plate. As a result, it is generally the thickest, most robust armored section of a tank, followed by the turret face and gun mantlet.

A glacis (; ) in military engineering is an artificial slope as part of a medieval castle or in early modern fortresses. They may be constructed of earth as a temporary structure or of stone in more permanent structure.

Glacis ["glassí"] (franc.), česky koliště, je v barokním opevňovacím stavitelství nejvnějšnější část hradeb, plochý val na vnější straně příkopu, který ven do krajiny pozvolna klesá. Účelem bylo, aby střely z hradeb zasáhly i další řady útočících vojáků na této šikmé ploše. Zemina, vykopaná při hloubení příkopu, se také nemusela odvážet daleko. Za valem směrem dovnitř je tzv. krytá cesta. To byl jakýsi ochoz, krytý tímto vnějším valem, který lemoval vnější hranu příkopu a probíhal souběžně s hradbou po celé její délce. Do glacis se někdy zasazovaly kůly, proto se v češtině nazývá koliště.


Formation.

Volcanic.

Volcanic plateaus are produced by volcanic activity. The Columbia Plateau in the northwestern United States is an example. They may be formed by upwelling of volcanic magma or extrusion of lava.  The underlining mechanism in forming plateaus from upwelling starts when magma rises from the mantle, causing the ground to swell upward. In this way, large, flat areas of rock are uplifted to form a plateau. For plateaus formed by extrusion, the rock is built up from lava spreading outward from cracks and weak areas in the crust.

Erosion.

Plateaus can also be formed by the erosional processes of glaciers on mountain ranges, leaving them sitting between the mountain ranges. Water can also erode mountains and other landforms down into plateaus. Dissected plateaus are highly eroded plateaus cut by rivers and broken by deep narrow valleys. Computer modeling studies suggest that high plateaus may also be partially a result from the feedback between tectonic deformation and dry climatic conditions created at the lee side of growing orogens.

Classification.

Plateaus are classified according to their surrounding environment.

Large plateaus.

Asia.

The largest and highest plateau in the world is the Tibetan Plateau, sometimes metaphorically described as the "Roof of the World", which is still being formed by the collisions of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian tectonic plates. The Tibetan plateau covers approximately, at about above sea level. The plateau is sufficiently high to reverse the Hadley cell convection cycles and to drive the monsoons of India towards the south.  The second-highest plateau is the Deosai Plateau of the Deosai National Park (also known as "Deoasai Plains") at an average elevation of. It is located in the Astore and Skardu districts of Gilgit-Baltistan, in northern Pakistan. Deosai means 'the land of giants'. The park protects an area of. It is known for its rich flora and fauna of the Karakoram-West Tibetan Plateau alpine steppe ecoregion. In spring it is covered by sweeps of wildflowers and a wide variety of butterflies. The highest point in Deosai is Deosai Lake, or "Sheosar Lake" from the Shina language meaning "Blind lake" (Sheo – Blind, Sar – lake) near the Chilim Valley. The lake lies at an elevation of, one of the highest lakes in the world, and is long, wide, and deep on average.  Some other major plateaus in Asia are: Najd in the Arabian Peninsula elevation 762 to 1,525 m (2,500 to 5,003 ft), Armenian Highlands (≈, elevation ), Iranian plateau (≈, elevation ), Anatolian Plateau, Mongolian Plateau (≈, elevation ), and the Deccan Plateau (≈, elevation ).

Antarctica.

Another very large plateau is the icy Antarctic Plateau, which is sometimes referred to as the Polar Plateau, home to the geographic South Pole and the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, which covers most of East Antarctica where there are no known mountains but rather high of superficial ice and which spreads very slowly toward the surrounding coastline through enormous glaciers. The polar ice cap is so massive that the echolocation measurements of ice thickness have shown that large areas are below sea level. But as the ice melts the land beneath it will rebound through isostasy and ultimately rise above sea level.

North America.

A large plateau in North America is the Colorado Plateau, which covers about in Colorado, Utah, Arizona and New Mexico.  In northern Arizona and southern Utah the Colorado Plateau is bisected by the Colorado River and the Grand Canyon. How this came to be is that over 10 million years ago, a river was already there, though not necessarily on exactly the same course. Then, subterranean geological forces caused the land in that part of North America to gradually rise by about a centimeter per year for millions of years. An unusual balance occurred: the river that would become the Colorado River was able to erode into the crust of the Earth at a nearly equal rate to the uplift of the plateau. Now, millions of years later, the North Rim of the Grand Canyon is at an elevation of about above sea level, and the South Rim of the Grand Canyon is about above sea level. At its deepest, the Colorado River is about below the level of the North Rim.  Another high altitude plateau in North America is the Mexican Plateau. With an area of and average height of 1,825 m, it is the home of more than 70 million people.

South America.

A tepui (), or tepuy (), is a table-top mountain or mesa found in the Guiana Highlands of South America, especially in Venezuela and western Guyana. The word tepui means "house of the gods" in the native tongue of the Pemon, the indigenous people who inhabit the Gran Sabana.  Tepuis can be considered minute plateaus and tend to be found as isolated entities rather than in connected ranges, which makes them the host of a unique array of endemic plant and animal species. Some of the most outstanding tepuis are Neblina, Autana, Auyan and Mount Roraima. They are typically composed of sheer blocks of Precambrian quartz arenite sandstone that rise abruptly from the jungle, giving rise to spectacular natural scenery. Auyantepui is the source of Angel Falls, the world's tallest waterfall.  The Colombian capital city of Bogota sits on an Andean plateau known as the Altiplano Cundiboyacense roughly the size of Switzerland. Averaging a height of above sea level, this northern Andean plateau is situated in the country's eastern range and is divided into three main flat regions: the Bogotá savanna, the valleys of Ubaté and Chiquinquirá, and the valleys of Duitama and Sogamoso.  The parallel Sierra of Andes delimit one of the world highest plateaux: the Altiplano, (Spanish for "high plain"), Andean Plateau or Bolivian Plateau. It lies in west-central South America, where the Andes are at their widest, is the most extensive area of high plateau on Earth outside of Tibet. The bulk of the Altiplano lies within Bolivian and Peruvian territory while its southern parts lie in Chile. The Altiplano plateau hosts several cities like Puno, Oruro, El Alto and La Paz the administrative seat of Bolivia. Northeastern Altiplano is more humid than the Southwestern, the latter of which hosts several "salares", or salt flats, due to its aridity. At the Bolivia-Peru border lies Lake Titicaca, the largest lake in South America.

Africa.

The highest African plateau is the Ethiopian Highlands which cover the central part of Ethiopia. It forms the largest continuous area of its altitude in the continent, with little of its surface falling below 1500 m (4,921 ft), while the summits reach heights of up to 4550 m (14,928 ft). It is sometimes called the Roof of Africa due to its height and large area.  Another example is the Highveld which is the portion of the South African inland plateau which has an altitude above approximately 1500 m, but below 2100 m, thus excluding the Lesotho mountain regions. It is home to some of largest South-African urban agglomerations.  In Egypt are the Giza Plateau and Galala Mountain, which was once called Gallayat Plateaus, raising 3,300 above sea level.

Oceania.

The Western Plateau, part of the Australian Shield, is an ancient craton covering much of the continent's southwest, an area of some 700,000 square kilometres. It has an average elevation of between 305 and 460 m.  The North Island Volcanic Plateau is an area of high land occupying much of the centre of the North Island of New Zealand, with volcanoes, lava plateaus, and crater lakes, the most notable of which is the country's largest lake, Lake Taupo. The plateau stretches approximately 100 km east to west and 130 km north to south. The majority of the plateau is more than 600 m above sea level.

In geology and physical geography, a plateau (,, or ; ; plural plateaus or plateaux), also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland, usually consisting of relatively flat terrain, that is raised significantly above the surrounding area, often with one or more sides with deep hills. Plateaus can be formed by a number of processes, including upwelling of volcanic magma, extrusion of lava, and erosion by water and glaciers. Plateaus are classified according to their surrounding environment as intermontane, piedmont, or continental. A few plateaus may have a small flat top while others have wide ones.

Náhorní plošina (řidčeji tabule nebo cizojazyčně plateau) je v geologii a vědních disciplínách o Zemi oblast zemského povrchu charakteristická relativně rovným povrchem situovaným do vyšších nadmořských výšek.