History and documentation.

The people who speak the Fuyu Kyrgyz language originated in the Yenisei region of Siberia but were relocated into the Dzungar Khanate by the Dzungars, and then the Qing moved them from Dzungaria to northeastern China in 1761, and the name may be due to the survival of a common tribal name. The Yenisei Kirghiz were made to pay tribute in a treaty concluded between the Dzungars and Russians in 1635. Sibe Bannermen were stationed in Dzungaria while Northeastern China (Manchuria) was where some of the remaining Öelet Oirats were deported to. The Nonni basin was where Oirat Öelet deportees were settled. The Yenisei Kirghiz were deported along with the Öelet. Chinese and Oirat replaced Oirat and Kirghiz during Manchukuo as the dual languages of the Nonni-based Yenisei Kirghiz. The present-day Kyrgyz people originally lived in the same area that the speakers of Fuyu Kyrgyz at first dwelled within modern-day Russia. These Kyrgyz were known as the Yenisei Kyrgyz. It is now spoken in northeastern China's Heilongjiang province, in and around Fuyu County, Qiqihar (300 km northwest of Harbin) by a small number of passive speakers who are classified as Kyrgyz nationality.  The first major recordings of the Khakas language originate from the middle of the 19th century. The Finnish linguist Matthias Castrén, who travelled through northern and Central Asia between 1845–1849, wrote a treatise on the Koybal dialect, and recorded an epic. Wilhelm Radloff traveled the southern Siberian region extensively between 1859 and 1870. The result of his research was, among others, published in his four-volume dictionary, and in his ten-volume series of Turkic texts. The second volume contains his Khakas materials, which were provided with a German translation. The ninth volume, provided with a Russian translation, was prepared by Radloff's student Katanov, who was a Sagay himself, and contains further Khakas materials.  The Khakas literary language, which was developed only after the Russian Revolution of 1917, is based on the central dialects Sagay and Kacha; the Beltir dialect has largely been assimilated by Sagay, and the Koybal dialect by Kacha.  In 1924, a Cyrillic alphabet was devised, which was replaced by a Latin alphabet in 1929, and by a new Cyrillic alphabet in 1939.  In 2012, an Enduring Voices expedition documented the Xyzyl (pronounced hizzle) language from the Republic of Khakassia. Officially considered a dialect of Khakas, its speakers regard Xyzyl as a separate language of its own.

Classification.

The Khakas language is part of the Northeastern (Siberian) Turkic languages, which includes Shor, Chulym, Tuvan, Tofa, Sakha (Yakut), and Dolgan. It has also been part of a wider language area covering the Southern Samoyedic languages Kamassian and Mator. A distinctive feature that these languages share with Khakas and Shor is a process of nasal assimilation, whereby a word-initial palatal stop (in all of these languages from an earlier palatal approximant *j) develops into an alveolar nasal or a palatal nasal, when followed by another word-internal nasal consonant.

Orthography.

Latin alphabet:  Cyrillic alphabet:

Khakas (endonym: Хакас тілі, "Xakas tili") is a Turkic language spoken by the Khakas people, who mainly live in the southwestern Siberian Khakas Republic, or Khakassia, in Russia. The Khakas number 73,000, of whom 42,000 speak the Khakas language, most of whom are bilingual in Russian.

Chakaština je turkický jazyk, kterým mluví Chakasové. Ze 78 500 Chakasů jím mluví asi 60 000. Jazyk má mnoho dialektů. Jazyk je rozšířen v Chakasku v Ruské federaci a dříve v Číně, kam přišli Chakasové z Altaje v roce 1761. U čínských Chakasů již chakaština pravděpodobně zanikla a mladí hovoří pouze čínsky.


History.

is part of the X/Open Portability Guide since issue 2 of 1987. It was inherited into the first version of POSIX.1 and the Single Unix Specification. It appeared in Version 1 Unix.  The version of codice_1 bundled in GNU coreutils was written by Joseph Arceneaux, David MacKenzie, and Michael Stone.

Specification.

The Single UNIX Specification (SUS) specifies that codice_1 should list information about accessible users. The XSI extension also specifies that the data of the username, terminal, login time, process ID, and time since last activity occurred on the terminal, furthermore, an alternate system database used for user information can be specified as an optional argument to who.  The command can be invoked with the arguments codice_5 or codice_6 (so it is invoked as codice_7 or codice_8), showing information about the current terminal only (see the command tty and the codice_9 option below, of which this invocation is equivalent).

Usage.

The SUS without extensions only specifies the following codice_9, codice_11, and codice_12 options, all other options are specified in the XSI extension.  Other Unix and Unix-like operating systems may add extra options. GNU who includes a codice_34 option behaving similarly to codice_12 and a codice_36 option displaying whether the user listed accepts messages (the SUS displays this when codice_11 is specified), yet GNU codice_1 and BSD codice_1 both omit a number of the above options (such as codice_13, codice_14, codice_15, and others); GNU codice_1 instead uses codice_16 to perform DNS lookups on hostnames listed.

Output.

The SUS without extensions specifies that the output format is to be "implementation-defined". The XSI extension specifies a format, but notes that it is not fully specified; delimiters and field lengths are not precisely specified. Thus, the format of the output differs considerably among Unix implementations.

The standard Unix command codice_1 displays a list of users who are currently logged into the computer. The codice_1 command is related to the command w, which provides the same information but also displays additional data and statistics.

Standardní příkaz operačních systémů Unix – codice_1 zobrazuje na displeji seznam uživatelů, kteří jsou právě připojeni do systému. Příkaz codice_1 je analogický příkazu codice_3, který poskytuje stejné informace a k tomu přidává další data a statistiku.


Origin and recording.

Written in 1988, "Blew" was first performed live at the Community World Theatre in Tacoma, Washington on March 19, 1988. The song was first recorded in the studio by Jack Endino at Reciprocal Recording Studios in Seattle, Washington in June 1988, during the recording sessions for what became the band's debut single, "Love Buzz." It was re-recorded during the "Bleach" sessions in December 1988 by Endino at Reciprocal.  The "Bleach" version of "Blew" was accidentally recorded one step lower than the band had intended, which contributed to what Nirvana biographer Michael Azerrad called its "extraordinarily heavy sound." Not realizing that they had already tuned to their favored Drop D tuning, the band tuned further down to Drop C on the first day of the sessions and recorded several songs in that tuning. As bassist Krist Novoselic recalled in a 2009 "Seattle Times" article, "we came back the next day and decided the idea wasn’t so hot, and we recorded over most of it with things tuned back up a little. In fact, 'Blew,' with that growly bass, is the only survivor of that experiment."  The "Bleach" version of "Blew" was re-released on the "Blew" EP in December 1989, along with the "Bleach" mix of "Love Buzz" and the previously-unreleased songs "Been a Son" and "Stain," which had been recorded by Steve Fisk at Music Source in Seattle, Washington in September 1989. The band's original plan had been to release an EP to promote their current European tour, but the EP was delayed and released exclusively in the United Kingdom after the tour was over. However, the EP built on the interest the band had generated in the UK with "Bleach", and was promoted by English DJ John Peel, who had also played "Bleach" on his influential show. To the band's surprise, the "Blew" EP eventually peaked at #1 on the Indie chart.  "Blew" remained one of only three songs from "Bleach", along with "About a Girl" and "School," which the band performed until their dissolution in April 1994. It was performed for the final time live at Nirvana's last show, at Terminal Einz in Munich, Germany on March 1, 1994, as the second-to-last song, preceding "Heart-Shaped Box."

Composition and lyrics.

In his 1993 Nirvana biography "", Azerrad described the song as having a "theme of entrapment and control."

Release and reception.

In 2009, Novoselic said that "Blew" was perhaps his favorite song on "Bleach" "because it has a groove, and again, it’s the sole survivor of the Doom Pop experiment."  In 2015, "Rolling Stone's" listed "Blew" at number 22 on their ranking of 102 Nirvana songs.

The Blew EP.

The "Blew" EP was released in December 1989 on Tupelo Records on 12" vinyl and compact disc. With a working title of "Winnebago"., the EP was originally intended to be released to promote an upcoming European tour, but this plan was abandoned, and the maxi-single ended up being released exclusively in the United Kingdom shortly after its completion.  The "Blew" EP was released only in the UK and was difficult to obtain elsewhere. Only 3,000 copies of the maxi-single were pressed on 12" vinyl and CD. Both vinyl and CD counterfeit copies exist, with the vinyl copies varying in color. The official 12" vinyl was pressed only on black vinyl.  "Stain" was re-released by DGC Records in December 1992, on the band's rarities compilation, "Incesticide". The "Blew" version of "Been a Son," hailed by Kurt St. Thomas as the "definitive take" due to its trashy sound and pronounced bass solo, remained a rarity until it was re-released in October 2002 on the band's first best-of compilation, "Nirvana".

Personnel.

Nirvana  Production

"Blew" is a song by the American rock band Nirvana, written by vocalist and guitarist, Kurt Cobain. It is the first song on the band's debut album "Bleach", released in June 1989 by Sub Pop.

Blew je první ze dvou oficiálně vydaných EP Nirvany.. Album bylo vydáno ve stejný rok jako Bleach, první studiové album kapely.


Compass readings.

Compasses are used to determine the direction of true North. However, the compass reading must be corrected for two effects. The first is magnetic declination or variation—the angular difference between "magnetic North" (the local direction of the Earth's magnetic field) and true North. The second is "magnetic deviation"—the angular difference between magnetic North and the compass needle due to nearby sources of interference such as magnetically permeable bodies, or other magnetic fields within the field of influence.

Sources.

Magnetic anomalies.

The Earth's magnetic field is modified by local magnetic anomalies. These include variations of the magnetization in the Earth's crust caused by geomagnetic reversals as well as nearby mountains and iron ore deposits. Generally, these are indicated on maps as part of the declination. Because the Earth's field changes over time, the maps must be kept up to date for accurate navigation. Short term errors in compass readings are also caused by fields generated in the Earth's magnetosphere, particularly during geomagnetic storms.

Internal sources.

In navigation manuals, "magnetic deviation" often refers specifically to compass error caused by magnetized iron within a ship or aircraft. This iron has a mixture of permanent magnetization and an "induced" (temporary) magnetization that is induced by the Earth's magnetic field. Because the latter depends on the orientation of the craft relative to the Earth's field, it can be difficult to analyze and correct for it.  The deviation errors caused by magnetism in the ship's structure are minimised by precisely positioning small magnets and iron compensators close to the compass. To compensate for the induced magnetization, two magnetically soft iron spheres are placed on side arms. However, because the magnetic "signature" of every ship changes slowly with location, and with time, it is necessary to adjust the compensating magnets, periodically, to keep the deviation errors to a practical minimum. Magnetic compass adjustment and correction is one of the subjects in the examination curriculum for a shipmaster's certificate of competency.  The sources of magnetic deviation vary from compass to compass or vehicle to vehicle. However, they are independent of location, and thus the compass can be calibrated to accommodate them.  Non-magnetic methods of taking bearings, such as with gyrocompass, astronomical observations, satellites (as GPS) or radio navigation, are not subject to magnetic deviation. Thus, a comparison of bearings taken with such methods with the bearing given by a compass can be used to compute local magnetic deviation.

History.

Sailing ships generally had two kinds of compasses: "steering compasses", two of which would be mounted in a binnacle in front of the helm for use in maintaining a course; and a "bearing compass" that was used for taking the bearings of celestial objects, landmarks and the ship's wake. The latter could be moved around the ship, and it was soon observed that the bearing could vary from one part of the ship to another. The explorer Joao de Castro was the first to report such an inconsistency, in 1538, and attributed it to the ship's gun. Many other objects were found to be sources of deviation in ships, including iron particles in brass compass bowls; iron nails in a wooden compass box or binnacle; and metal parts of clothing. The two steering compasses themselves could interfere with each other if they were set too close together. The "bearing compass" was eventually sited in a fixed position in a binicale with, as far as possible, an all round view and acquired the name "standard compass" It would nonetheless have a different deviation to the "steering compass" so the compass heading shown on the "steering compass" would be different to the compass heading shown on the "standard compass".  The source of deviation could not always be identified. To reduce this source of error, which was due to induced magnetization in the ship, the surveyor John Churchman proposed a solution known as "swinging the ship" in 1794. This involved measuring the magnetic deviation as the ship was oriented in several compass directions. These measurements could then be used to correct compass readings. This procedure became standard practice in the 19th century as iron became an increasing component of ships.

Compass Deviation.

Compass Deviation is caused by local magnetic effects. On ships and aircraft the difference between North indicated by the compass, "Compass North" and "Magnetic North" (i.e. the direction of the Magnetic North Pole) is called Deviation. Variation is the difference between "Magnetic North" and "True North" and is dealt with elsewhere. The combined result of Deviation and Variation is called Compass Error.

Magnetic deviation is the error induced in a compass by "local" magnetic fields, which must be allowed for, along with magnetic declination, if accurate bearings are to be calculated. (More loosely, "magnetic deviation" is used by some to mean the same as "magnetic declination". This article is about the former meaning.)

Magnetická anomálie je rozdíl mezi skutečnou hodnotou některé z charakteristik magnetického pole Země a normální hodnotou v okolí. Tento rozdíl je způsoben geologickou stavbou povrchových vrstev a jejich feromagnetických vlastností v okolí.


Name.

"Wolfsschanze" is derived from "Wolf", a self-adopted nickname of Hitler. He began using the nickname in the early 1930s and it was often how he was addressed by those in his intimate circle. "Wolf" was used in several titles of Hitler's headquarters throughout occupied Europe, such as "Wolfsschlucht" I and II in Belgium and France and "Werwolf" in Ukraine.  Although the standard translation in English is "Wolf's Lair," a "Schanze" in German denotes a sconce, redoubt or temporary fieldwork.

Layout.

The decision was made in late 1940 to build Wolf's Lair in the middle of a forest, far from major roads and urban areas. The complex was completed by 21 June 1941 and consisted of three concentric security zones. About two thousand people lived and worked at Wolf's Lair at its peak, among them twenty women, some of whom were required to eat Hitler's food to test for poison. The installations were served by a nearby airfield and railway lines. Buildings within the complex were camouflaged with bushes, grass, and artificial trees on the flat roofs; netting was also erected between buildings and the surrounding forest so that the installation looked like unbroken dense woodland from the air.  A facility for Army headquarters was also located near Wolf's lair complex. The FBK and RSD had responsibility for Hitler's personal security within the Wolf's Lair while external protection of the complex was provided by the FBB, which had become a regiment by July 1944. The FBB was equipped with tanks, anti-aircraft guns, and other heavy weapons. Any approaching aircraft could be detected up to from the Wolf's Lair. Additional troops were also stationed about away.

Reinforcements.

Hitler's secretary Traudl Junge recalled that Hitler repeatedly spoke in late 1943 or early 1944 of a possible bomber attack on the "Wolfsschanze" by the Western Allies. She quoted Hitler as saying, "They know "exactly" where we are, and sometime they’re going to destroy everything here with carefully aimed bombs. I expect them to attack any day."  According to Speer, between 28 July 1941 and 20 March 1942, Hitler left Rastenburg only four times for a total of 57 days. Afterwards, Hitler spent the next three months in Obersalzberg before returning to Rastenburg for the next nine months.  Hitler's entourage returned to the "Wolfsschanze" from an extended summer stay at the Berghof in July 1944. The previous small bunkers had been replaced by the Organisation Todt with "heavy, colossal structures" of reinforced concrete as defense against the feared air attack. According to Armaments Minister Albert Speer, "some 36,000,000 marks were spent for bunkers in Rastenburg [Wolf's Lair]." Hitler's bunker had become the largest, "a positive fortress" containing "a maze of passages, rooms and halls." Junge wrote, "We had air-raid warnings every day" in the period between the 20 July assassination attempt and Hitler's final departure from the "Wolfsschanze" in November 1944, "but there was never more than a single aircraft circling over the forest, and no bombs were dropped. All the same, Hitler took the danger very seriously, and thought all these reconnaissance flights were in preparation for the big raid he was expecting."  No air attack ever came. It has never been revealed whether the Western Allies knew of the "Wolfsschanze"s location and importance. The Soviet Union was unaware of both the location and the scale of the complex until it was uncovered by their forces in their advance towards Germany in early 1945.

Hitler's daily routine.

Hitler would begin his day when he was in residence by taking a walk alone with his dog around 9 or 10 am, and at 10:30 am he looked at the mail that had been delivered by air or courier train. A noon situation briefing was convened in Keitel's and Jodl's bunker and frequently ran for two hours. This was followed by lunch at 2 pm in the dining hall. Hitler invariably sat in the same seat between Jodl and Otto Dietrich, while Keitel, Martin Bormann, and Göring's adjutant General Karl Bodenschatz sat opposite him.  After lunch, Hitler dealt with non-military matters for the remainder of the afternoon. Coffee was served around 5 pm, followed by a second military briefing by Jodl at 6 pm. Dinner could also last as long as two hours, beginning at 7:30 pm, after which films were shown in the cinema. Hitler then retired to his private quarters where he gave monologues to his entourage, including the two female secretaries who had accompanied him to the Wolf's Lair. Occasionally, Hitler and his entourage listened to gramophone records of Beethoven symphonies, selections from Wagner or other operas, or German lieder.

Assassination attempt.

In July 1944, an attempt was made to kill Hitler at Wolf's Lair which became known as the 20 July plot. It was organized by a group of acting and retired "Heer" officers and some civilians who wanted to remove Hitler in order to establish a new government in Germany. After several failed attempts to kill him, Wolf's Lair was chosen as a viable location, despite its security. Staff officer Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg would carry a briefcase bomb into a daily conference meeting and place it just a few feet away from Hitler.  The location was changed to a briefing building ("Lagebaracke") on the day of the strategy meeting due to the reconstruction of the Führer Bunker in mid-1944. Stauffenberg's assassination attempt was unsuccessful because of this change in venue, along with several other factors, such as Hitler unexpectedly calling the meeting earlier than anticipated. The bomb exploded at 12:43 pm; the interior of the building was devastated, but Hitler was only slightly injured. Four people died from their wounds, either a few days later or in the months ahead.  Before the bomb detonated, Stauffenberg and his adjutant Lieutenant Werner von Haeften had already begun to leave the "Wolfsschanze" in order to return to Berlin. Their escape involved passing through various security zones that controlled all access around the site. After a short delay at the RSD guard post just outside Sperrkreis 1, they were allowed to leave by vehicle. The two officers were then driven down the southern exit road towards the military airstrip near Rastenburg. The alarm had been raised by the time they reached the guardhouse at the perimeter of Sperrkreis 2. According to the official RSHA report, "at first the guard refused passage until Stauffenberg persuaded him to contact the adjutant to the compound commander who then finally authorized clearance". It was between here and the final checkpoint of Sperrkreis 3 that Haeften tossed another briefcase from the car containing an unused second bomb. The two men reached the outer limit of the "Wolfsschanze" security zones and were allowed to catch their plane back to army general headquarters in Berlin.  The attempted assassination of Hitler at the Wolf's Lair was part of Operation Valkyrie, a covert plan to take control and suppress any revolt in the German Reich following Hitler's death. News arrived from Wolf's Lair that Hitler was still alive, and troops loyal to the Nazi regime quickly re-established control of key government buildings. Von Stauffenberg, his adjutant Werner von Haeften, and several co-conspirators were arrested and shot the same evening outside the Bendlerblock in Berlin.  On 20 August 1944, Hitler personally presented survivors of the bomb blast with a gold "20 July 1944 Wound Badge". Next-of-kin of those killed in the blast were also given this award.

Demise and capture.

The Red Army reached the borders of East Prussia during the Baltic Offensive in October 1944. Hitler departed from the Wolf's Lair for the final time on 20 November when the Soviet advance reached Angerburg (now Węgorzewo), away. Two days later, the order was given to destroy the complex. The demolition took place on the night of 24–25 January 1945, ten days after the start of the Red Army's Vistula–Oder Offensive. Tons of explosives were used; one bunker required an estimated of TNT. Most of the buildings were only partially destroyed due to their immense size and reinforced structures.  The Red Army captured the abandoned remains of the "Wolfsschanze" on 27 January without firing a shot, the same day that Auschwitz was liberated farther south. It took until 1955 to clear over 54,000 land mines that surrounded the installation.

Historical site.

The area was cleared of abandoned ordnance such as land mines following the war, and the entire site was left to decay by Poland's Communist government. The Wolf's Lair has been developed as a tourist attraction since the Fall of Communism in the early 1990s. Visitors can make day trips from Warsaw or Gdańsk. Hotels and restaurants have grown up near the site. Plans have periodically been proposed to restore the area, including the installation of historical exhibits.  As of 2019, the site was drawing almost 300,000 visitors a year. The Srokowo Forest District, which manages the site, announced plans to upgrade the area. These include a new entrance building, a new car park, and new information panels. The District is also considering building a hotel and restaurant, and staging re-enactments with static figures in Nazi uniforms. Critics worried that the planned changes could turn the site into a place for neo-Nazi pilgrimages, although the District's spokesperson said that they would "make every effort" to maintain "due seriousness and respect for historical truth". Pawel Machcewicz, a Polish historian who specializes in World War II, said that "[T]he scars left by the war should be preserved and presented as a lesson, a warning.... Exhibitions should explain the history, contextualise the place, but not completely overshadow it."

The Wolf's Lair (German: "Wolfsschanze"; Polish: "Wilczy Szaniec") was Adolf Hitler's first Eastern Front military headquarters in World War II. The complex, which became one of several "Führerhauptquartiere" (Führer Headquarters) in various parts of Central and Eastern Europe, was built for the start of Operation Barbarossa—the invasion of the Soviet Union—in 1941. It was constructed by Organisation Todt.

Vlčí doupě (německy "Wolfsschanze", polsky "Wilczy szaniec") je kódové označení pro Vůdcův hlavní stan (německy "Führerhauptquartier"), který se nacházel u města Kętrzyn (německy "Rastenburg") ve Východním Prusku (na území dnešního Polska).


Career.

Masseling started making music at the age of 16. Beginning with 4-beat programmed loops and breakbeats, his interest in producing music started to grow. He began his career in 2001 after sending a demo to Mark Vos, also known as DJ Buzz Fuzz, director of BZRK Records. Vos liked the tape and signed Masseling, who then released his first EPs under the names "Menace II Society" and "Angerfist". Masseling soon gained popularity in the "gabber scene" because of the aggressive "nustyle" sound he made. His style is characterized by hard bass drums and vocals sampled from various media, especially films. He already has some hardcore hits to his name, including: "Dance With The Wolves", "Raise Your Fist" and "Riotstarter". His increasing popularity gave him the opportunity to produce the anthem for Masters of Hardcore in 2005, titled "The World Will Shiver".  Angerfist has performed at many well known events such as Sensation Black, Masters of Hardcore, Defqon. 1, Mysteryland and Dominator. He gained the prestigious 39th spot in DJ Mag's Top 100 DJ edition of 2011, dropping to 42nd on the following year and rising to 34th place in 2013, thus being the number 1 hardcore act in the list. As of 2020, his highest ranking on the list was No. 29, which he achieved in 2018. He is currently ranked No. 33 on "DJ Mag" list for 2019.  In July 2013, it was announced that the "Bloodcage" project would feature MC Prozac (in his alias of DJ Bloodcage) as the live face of the project, while still involving both artists (MC Prozac and Angerfist) in its studio output.  During live acts with his MC, they almost always perform wearing specially designed ice hockey masks and black or white hoodies.

Danny Masseling (born 20 June 1981), better known by his stage name Angerfist, is a Dutch hardcore producer and DJ.

Danny Masseling (* 20. června 1981 v Almere, Nizozemsko), známější pod svým pseudonymem Angerfist, je DJ tvořící hudbu ve stylu newstyle hardcore (odnož klasického hardcore).


Redenomination.

A long-running proposal to redenominate the rupiah has yet to receive formal legislative consideration. Since 2010, Bank Indonesia, as the monetary authority of Indonesia, has repeatedly urged the elimination of the final three zeroes of the currency, to facilitate transaction handling, saying the move would not affect its value. In 2015, the government submitted a rupiah redenomination bill to the House of Representatives, but it has not yet been deliberated. In 2017, Bank Indonesia Governor Agus Martowardojo reiterated the call, saying that if redenomination started immediately, the process could be complete by 2024 or 2025.

Current legal tender.

The current rupiah consists of coins from 100 rupiah up to 1000 rupiah (1 rupiah coins are officially legal tender, but are effectively worthless and are not circulated) and banknotes of 1000 rupiah up to 100,000 rupiah. With US$1 worth 14,294.50 rupiah (13 June 2019, 12.00 UTC), the largest Indonesian banknote is therefore worth about US$7.00.

Coins.

Presently, two series of coins are in circulation: aluminium, bronze, and nickel coins dated between 1991 and 2010. These come in denominations of 50, 100, 200, 500, and 1000 rupiah. The older series of coins has been gradually disappearing. Due to the low value and general shortage of small-denomination coins (below 50 rupiah), amounts are commonly rounded up (or down) or sweets are received in lieu of the last few rupiah of change in supermarkets and stores. A new series of coins featuring Indonesia's national heroes was issued in 2016 in denominations of 100, 200, 500, and 1000 rupiah.

Banknotes.

Currently circulating Indonesian banknotes date from 2000 (1,000 rupiah), 2001 (5,000 rupiah), 2004 (20,000 and 100,000 rupiah), 2005 (10,000 and 50,000 rupiah), 2009 (the new denomination of 2,000 rupiah), 2010 (revised version of the 10,000 rupiah), and 2011 (revised versions of the 20,000, 50,000 and 100,000 rupiah). The 1998–1999 notes have not been legal tender since 31 December 2008 (but were exchangeable until 30 December 2018 at Bank Indonesia). Earlier notes are also no longer legal tender, due to the lack of security features and association with the Suharto regime, but could be exchanged in Bank Indonesia offices until 20 August 2010.  As the smallest current note is worth approximately US$0.065, even small transactions such as bus fares are typically conducted with notes, and the 1,000-rupiah coin is far more common than the 1,000-rupiah note. The government initially announced that this would change, with a 2,000-rupiah note to replace the 1,000 rupiah, with that denomination replaced by a coin. After a long delay, this proposal was revised so that the 2,000-rupiah banknotes were launched by Bank Indonesia (BI) on 9 July 2009, with the banknotes circulating as legal tender from 10 July 2009, but without withdrawing the 1,000-rupiah note.  Due to the low value of the (older series) notes below 1000 rupiah, although they are no longer being circulated, some remain in use in increasingly poor condition, as low denomination "uang pasar" (literally "market money"), outside the banking system for use in informal transactions.  Following the issuance of Presidential Decree No. 31 of 5 September 2016, BI introduced seven new banknote designs featuring national heroes:

History.

During colonial times, the currency used in what is now Indonesia was the Netherlands Indies gulden. The country was invaded in 1942 by Japan, which began printing its own version of the gulden, which remained in use until March 1946. The Netherlands authorities and the Indonesian nationalists, who were fighting for independence, both introduced rival currencies in 1946 with the Dutch printing a new gulden, and the Indonesians issuing the first version of the rupiah on 3 October 1946. Between 1946 and 1950 a large number of currencies circulated in Indonesia, with the Japanese gulden still remaining prevalent alongside the two new currencies and various local variants. This situation ended when the federal government, now in complete control following the Dutch recognition of its independence, initiated currency reforms between 1950 and 1951. The rupiah was declared the sole legal currency, with other currencies being exchanged for rupiah at rates which were often unfavourable to the holders.

Exchange rate and inflation.

The rupiah has been subject to high inflation for most of its existence (which as an internationally recognised currency should be dated to 1950). Various attempts have been made to maintain the value of the currency, but all were abandoned.

1946–1949 revolutionary period.

In the period from October 1946 to March 1950, Indonesian currency had no international recognition. Its value was determined on the black market.

1949–1965 foreign exchange restrictions.

The exchange rate determined upon independence in 1949 was 3.8 rupiah to US$1. Lembaga Alat-Alat Pembajaran Luar Negeri Publication No. 26 on 11 March 1950 (effective 13 March 1950) established the Foreign Exchange Certificate System (FECS). By the trade-in certificates an export rate of Rp 7.6 and an import rate of Rp 11.4 was established.  The FECS was scrapped on 4 January 1952, by which time the government had been able to reduce its deficit by 5.3 billion rupiah through the exchange differential. The system was scrapped because domestic prices were being determined by the import rate, which were hurting profits from exports earned at the lower rate. Hence, the effective Rp 7.6/11.4 exchange rate reverted to Rp 3.8.  The ending of what amounted to an export tariff severely damaged government revenues, and as of 4 February 1952, the rupiah was officially devalued to Rp 11.4, with export tariffs of 15–25% on commodities in which Indonesia was strong. Weaker commodities were not subject to tariffs, and from 1955 were actually given a premium of 5–25% to boost their export.  To control foreign exchange, the government brought in a number of measures. About 40% of the foreign-exchange requirements of importers were required to be paid to the government from April 1952, while as from September 1952, the government decided to provide only a limited amount of foreign exchange, made available every four months. These foreign-exchange restrictions, designed to provide the government with much needed reserves, meant that some companies were operating at as low as 20% of capacity, due to lack of needed imported materials.  Further foreign-exchange restrictions were introduced over 1953–1954, with April 1953, the foreign-exchange downpayment was increased to 75%, except for raw materials at 50%. Foreign companies and their workers were placed under restrictions as to the amount of foreign exchange that could be sent home, with the amounts allowed out subject to fees of %. As of November 1954, exporters were required to sell 15% of their foreign exchange earned to the government.  An increasingly complex set of tariffs on imports was unified in September 1955 with a set of extra import duties, requiring down payments to the government of 50, 100, 200, or 400% of the value of the goods.  The official Rp 11.4 rate, which massively overvalued the rupiah, was a major incentive to black-market traders, and also contributed to anti-Java feeling, given that those producing raw materials on the large material-rich outer islands were not receiving fair value from their goods due to the exchange rate, diverting funds to the government in Java. The black-market rate at the end of 1956 was Rp 31 to the US$, falling to Rp 49 at the end of 1957, and Rp 90 by the end of 1958.  In response to Sumatra and Sulawesi refusing to hand over their foreign exchange, in June 1957, a new system for foreign exchange was introduced; exporters received export certificates (BE) representing the foreign currency earned and could sell them to importers on the free market (but subject to a 20% tax). This effectively created a freely floating rupiah. The price of the certificates quickly reached 332% of face value by April 1958, i.e. Rp 38, a rate at which the government chose to end the free market, fixing the price at 332% of face value.  The currency devaluation of large notes in 1959 had the official exchange rate devalued to Rp 45 as of August 1959. Despite this, the fundamental issues with the fixed exchange-rate system and severe import controls (which had cotton mills running at only 11% of capacity due to lack of imported raw materials) were not addressed, and smuggling grew, often backed by the army, while assets were moved offshore by overinvoicing.  The government maintained price controls over goods and raw materials, with the official oil price unchanged 1950–1965.  After the 1959 devaluation, inflation, which had been running at 25% per annum 1953–1959, grew exponentially, with rates over 100% in 1962, 1963, and 1964, and 600% in 1965. Despite the official Rp 45 to US$1 rate, two further export certificate trading systems, of March 1962 – May 1963, and then from April 1964 onwards, showed premiums of 2,678% July 1962 (an effective rate of Rp 1,205), 5,100% August 1965 (Rp 2,295) and 11,100% in November 1965 (Rp 4,995).

1966–1971 stabilisation and growth.

The last demonetisation of rupiah notes occurred in late 1965, when inflation was ravaging the economy: exports had dropped 24% 1959–1965, GDP growth was below population growth, and the foreign exchange reserves had fallen by over 90%. Inflation in 1965 was 635%. In late 1965, the 'new rupiah' was brought in, at 1 new rupiah to 1,000 old rupiah. The official exchange rate was set initially at Rp 0.25 to US$1 as of 13 December 1965, a rate that did not represent reality, as the multiple exchange-rate system remained in place for the time being.  This was followed by the emergence of Suharto, who as of 11 March 1966, acquired executive control of Indonesia.  Suharto quickly made economic changes, establishing his "New Order", with economic policy set by the Berkeley Mafia, his team of US-educated neoclassical economists. The policy began to be set out in November 1966, following the reaching of agreement with Indonesia's creditors in October 1966 on debt relief and loan restructuring. Economic policies were put in place to require adequate bank reserves, ending subsidies on consumer goods, end import restrictions, and to devalue the rupiah.  The 1966–1970 stabilisation program was a great success, resulting in higher economic growth, boosting legal exports (which grew 70% in US$ terms over the period), and increasing output (for instance the price of oil rose 250 times when the 1950 prices were abandoned, incentivising new exploration). By 1971, inflation had fallen to just 2%.  Despite the liberalisation efforts, Indonesia still had multiple exchange rates. A more realistic exchange rate was finally established of 378 (new) rupiah to US$1 as of April 1970. In August 1971, the exchange rate was devalued slightly, to Rp 415 to the US$.

Fixed rate period 1971–1978.

The exchange rate of 415 rupiah to the US dollar, which had been established in August 1971, was maintained by government intervention in the currency market, buying and selling currency as needed.  Despite the fixed exchange rate, the failure of the rice crop in 1972, exacerbated by high world rice prices and underordering by the government rice cartel, along with rising commodity prices, caused inflation to rise above 20% in 1972, peaking at over 40% in 1974. The M1 money supply increased sharply over the period due to lax credit controls, which was channelled towards favoured groups, such as "pribumi", as well as corrupt government-linked businesses.  Despite the high inflation of the period, the exchange rate, which had essentially been preserved using the country's oil exports, was maintained at 415 rupiah until 15 November 1978.

Managed float period 1978–1997.

1978–1986 devaluations.

By 1978, the combination of a fall in oil prices and a decrease in foreign reserves meant that the rupiah was devalued 33% to Rp 625 to US$1 on 16 November 1978 (although prices had increased nearly fourfold over the period).  The government abandoned the fixed exchange rate, and altered economic policy to a form of a managed float. The exchange rate was published each day. At the point of devaluation (November 1978), the trade-weighted real (local price adjusted) effective exchange rate of the rupiah against major world currencies was just over twice as high as it was in 1995 (prior to the Asian economic crisis, and free fall of the rupiah), i.e. the rupiah was highly overvalued at this point. By March 1983, the managed float had brought only an 11% fall in three and a half years to Rp 702.  The continued overvaluation of the rupiah meant that Indonesia was beginning to suffering a trade deficit, as well as falling foreign-exchange reserves. The government responded by devaluing the currency on 30 March by 28% to Rp 970.  At this time, the 1980s oil glut put the Indonesian economy under pressure, with exports uncompetitive as a result of the overvalued currency, and oil contributing less as a result of lower global prices. On 1 June 1983, 'Pakjun 1983' brought deregulation of the banking system, and the end of the meaningless 6% official deposit rate, with a more market-based financial system. Credit ceilings were removed. Interest rates, initially 18%, remained above 15% over the period.  By September 1986, the currency had been allowed to steadily fall to 1,134 rupiah, a rate which had largely maintained purchasing power over the period. Despite this, the currency was devalued 30% on 12 September 1986 to 1,664 rupiah to US$1. As in 1983, this had been intended to boost the balance of trade: oil prices, US$29 in 1983, fell by 50% in 1986 alone, to below US$9 per barrel.  Thus, in the period from 1978 to 1986, the real exchange rate of the Indonesian rupiah fell by more than 50%, providing significant boosts to the competitivity of Indonesia's exports.

October 1986 – June 1997: US$ real exchange parity.

Although the devaluations of 1978, 1983, and 1986 had each successfully boosted the competitiveness of exports, devaluations have a destabilising effect, and the September 1986 devaluation was the last carried out by Indonesia.  According to research, despite an official seven-currency exchange basket, empirical evidence suggests that the rupiah was controlled by BI against the US$ alone, and indeed since the 1986 devaluation, the currency maintained near-constant purchasing power against the dollar until the 1997 crisis, the steady fall of the rupiah against the dollar essentially representing the difference between Indonesian inflation and US inflation; hence, by June 1997, the rupiah had fallen from its post-evaluation rate of Rp 1,664 to Rp 2,350, an annualised decline slightly over 3%.

Asian financial crisis (and response) 1997–1999.

First stage of the crisis – limited initial falls.

The Asian financial crisis of 1997 began in Thailand in May 1997, where the government found it harder to maintain the Thai baht peg at ฿25 to US$1. By 2 July 1997, Thailand abandoned its defence of the baht, allowing it to float freely. Indonesia, which had massive foreign reserves and was seen as having a strong economy, responded on 11 July 1997, by widening its exchange rate band from 8 to 12%. Indonesia had taken similar actions in the years leading up to the crisis, in December 1995 from 2 to 3%, in response to the Mexican financial crisis, and in June and September 1996, from 3 to 5% and then 5 to 8%. These actions had been successful in the past in defending the rupiah, but on this occasion, a more serious crisis of confidence arose.  The rupiah immediately fell 7%, with foreign money quickly leaving the country. The investor confidence in Indonesia was shaken, and due to previous deregulations, much of the Indonesian stock market was owned by foreign investors. Local confidence in the currency was also undermined as the population followed suit, selling rupiah for dollars. The spot rate soon fell below the selling rate (i.e. outside the 12% exchange rate band). BI attempted to intervene, but eventually abandoned the managed float on 14 August 1997, leaving the rupiah to float freely. The rupiah–US dollar rate was at 2,436 rupiah to one dollar on 11 July. It fell to 2,663 by 14 August and 2,955 by 15 August – a 122% fall. Government debt (Bank Indonesia Certificates or SBI) rose from 12% to 30%, and overnight call rates reached 81% (per annum).

Response to the falls – crisis.

At this stage, the crisis was a limited one; while the currency had fallen, the extent of the fall did not appear catastrophic. The government announced its response in September, calling for a restructure of the banking sector, cancellation of government projects, and supporting some banks with its own liquidity. The SBI rate was reduced three times in September to around 20%. As of 24 September, the exchange rate still lingered at 2,990 rupiah per dollar.  The government response to the crisis sent mixed messages, with falling interest rates doing nothing to support confidence in the rupiah, and the rupiah continued to be sold, as companies that had been borrowing heavily in dollars had to meet their obligation. By 4 October, the currency had collapsed a further 19%, falling to 3,690 per dollar. It had now lost a third of its value, and now a full-blown 'crisis' existed in Indonesia.  On 8 October with the rupiah at 3,640 per dollar, the government decided to seek the support of the International Monetary Fund. During the month, the rupiah fluctuated in the 3,300–3,650 range. IMF's response was announced on 1 November 1997. Sixteen small and insolvent banks, holding a market share of 2.5%, would be closed. Private banks would be subject to improved monitoring, and some state banks would be merged. Deposits would be underwritten up to 20 million rupiah (about US$5,500). About 90% of all depositors held less than this amount in their bank accounts.  After this announcement, the rupiah immediately gained almost 10%, to around 3,300 rupiah per dollar. Soon after, however, confidence began to fall. The IMF response had only been published in summary form from the government and BI, the choice of the 16 banks being closed appeared arbitrary, and the details of the 34 others subject to special measures were not announced. The deposit guarantee was seen as inadequate, and funds were moved from private to state banks, exchanged for dollars, or transferred offshore, as confidence in the plan began to evaporate.  The rupiah steadily weakened from the middle of November, standing at 3,700 rupiah per dollar at the end of the month. In December, the crisis turned into a disaster. Much of the Indonesian economy was controlled (indeed, in 2008, much of it still is) by relatives of the President Suharto, and of the 16 banks to be liquidated, 25% of PT Bank Andromeda was owned by Bambang Trihatmodjo, the second son of Suharto, PT Bank Jakarta was part-owned by Probosutedjo, the President's half-brother, and 8% of PT Bank Industri was owned by the President's second daughter, Siti Hediati Prabowo.  The President and his family were opposed to the reforms, with Bambang Trihatmodjo beginning legal action against the government to keep his bank, particularly as directors of the insolvent banks were, if culpable, to be added to a Disgraced Persons List, ineligible to work in the banking sector. Although the bank had violated its BMPK (credit limit), Bambang was given permission by BI to buy Bank Alfa, another bank, seen by many as a reward for withdrawing his lawsuit. In effect, the failed bank was reopened under a different name.  Cronyism and corruption of Indonesia clearly was winning over IMF reforms. The rupiah fell from 4,085 to 5,650 per dollar in the space of a single week. By the middle of the month, 154 banks, comprising half of the banking system, had suffered bank runs. By Christmas Eve, the rupiah stood at 5,915 per dollar, a fall of 60% since July.  The New Year had the rupiah begin at 5,447 per dollar. On 15 January, a second letter of intent was signed with the IMF, agreeing an accelerated reform package in return for $43 billion of aid. The rupiah had strengthened from an all-time low of 9,100 per dollar on 23 January to 7,225 per dollar on 15 January. However, as it became clear Suharto had no intention of fulfilling the agreement, the rupiah plummeted by more than 50%, bottoming out at 14,800 rupiah per dollar on 23 January. By now, the government had issued more than 60 trillion rupiah, causing money supply increases and worsening inflation.  The government announced a rescue package on 26 January, ensuring that it would guarantee all existing deposits. The Indonesian Bank Restructuring Agency was set up with the goal of merging, closing, or recapitalising (before sale) banks. Four state and 50 private banks, representing nearly 40% of the sector, were placed under IBRA supervision in February 1998, resulting in the rupiah strengthening to 7,400 per dollar.  Despite the improvements, political instability quickly increased. The currency fell to around 10,000 per dollar.  Indonesian government began to take more drastic action, doubling its SBI rates to 45% (increasing the cost of its lending), and in April, having signed a third letter of intent with the IMF, the IBRA took over the major private banks, twinning the banks with state banks, and suspending the owners' control. The rupiah, which had strengthened to around Rp 8,000, depreciated in the wake of the Jakarta riots of May 1998, and in particular the run on the Bank Central Asia, Indonesia's largest private bank, that ensued, causing the bank to be taken over by IBRA on 29 May. The SBI rate was increased to 70% in the wake of massive inflation.  The end of Suharto's rule brought a new president, Jusuf Habibie, to power on 21 May 1998. Little action was seen immediately, and by 17 June, the rupiah had bottomed out at 16,800 rupiah per dollar. On 25 June 1998, a fourth letter of intent was signed with the IMF, which was refusing to provide aid due to breaches of its original agreement. The IMF agreed to provide an immediate US$5 billion of aid to cover basic necessities.  Audits of the banks that had been taken over showed massive bad debts, exceeding 55%. Further audits showed that the other banks were also fundamentally weak. Banking reform continued throughout 1999, with the merger of four state banks in July 1999 into Bank Mandiri, the closure of 38 banks, recapitalisation of nine, and takeover of seven more in March 1999. By this point, the total bank capital had reached a negative 245 trillion rupiah. Twenty-three further banks were recapitalised in May, and in October 1999, Bank Mandiri itself was recapitalised. Interest rates fell steadily in 1999, to an SBI of 13.1% in October. The rupiah finished the year at Rp 7,900 to the US dollar.  Despite the fall of the currency of about 70% from June 1997 to December 1998, inflation of 60–70% in 1998 (which caused riots and the end of the Suharto regime after 30 years in power) meant that the real exchange rate fell only slightly.

Rupiah since 1999: relative stability.

The rupiah declined from its relatively strengthened position at the end of the financial crisis, with the rupiah seeing the start of 2000 at Rp 7,050 to the US$, but declining to Rp 9,725 by the end of 2000, and reaching a low of 12,069 on 27 April 2001. The currency strengthened to Rp 8,500 later in 2001, but ended 2001 at Rp 10,505. March 2002 had the currency break below Rp 10,000, from which point the currency maintained a rate in the 8,000s and 9,000s until August 2005, and in the latter half of that year, the trading range extended towards Rp 11,000, but ending the year just below Rp 10,000. In 2006 and 2007, the currency trade was in a relatively narrow range against the US$ (which itself was depreciating against other currencies), of Rp 8,500–9,900. This trend continued into 2008, with the currency trading between Rp 9,000 and 9,500.  The financial crisis of 2007–2008 with the collapse in the commodities market had the US$ gain strongly against currencies backed by weakening commodities exports. With palm oil and rubber prices falling from their peak by more than half, the rupiah came under pressure, Bank Indonesia spent US$7 billion of its $57 billion reserves in October defending the currency. Despite this, the rupiah slipped below Rp 10,000 on 23 October for the first time since 2005, and then below Rp 11,000 on 2 November, a mark last reached in 2001. On 13 November, BI introduced new regulations requiring foreign currency purchases over US$100,000 a month to be backed by documentation of an underlying transaction and a tax number. The rupiah closed below Rp 12,000 for the first time since 1998 on 20 October, with intraday lows below Rp 13,000. Subsequently, however, the cut in the Federal Reserve rate to 0–0.25% and BI support for the currency, had the rupiah strengthen slightly to a range around Rp 11,000.  The catastrophic damage to the rupiah caused in 1997–1998 severely damaged confidence in the currency. Though the rupiah is a freely convertible currency, it is still regarded as a risky currency to hold. As of September 2018, the rupiah had fallen to its weakest position since the 1998 crisis with one US dollar being worth roughly IDR 14,880, peaking at IDR 15,009 on 4 September. It is the fourth-least valued currency unit in the world, after the Iranian rial, Venezuelan bolivar and Vietnamese đồng.

The rupiah (Rp) is the official currency of Indonesia. Issued and controlled by Bank Indonesia, its ISO 4217 currency code for the Indonesian rupiah is IDR. The name "rupiah" is derived from the Sanskrit word for silver, "rupyakam" (). Informally, Indonesians also use the word ""perak"" ("silver" in Indonesian) in referring to rupiah. The rupiah is divided into 100 "sen", although inflation has rendered all coins and banknotes denominated in "sen" obsolete.

Indonéská rupie (oficiální název rupiah) je platidlem Indonésie v jihovýchodní Asii. Její ISO 4217 je IDR. Zkratka pro rupii je "Rp". Jedna setina rupie se nazývá "sen", ale pro jeho nízkou nominální hodnotu neexistují žádné mince nebo bankovky v nominálních hodnotách senu.


Origin and recording.

"On a Plain" was written in 1990. It was first recorded in the studio on January 1, 1991, by Craig Montgomery at Music Source Studios in Seattle, Washington.  The song was recorded for the band's second album, "Nevermind", by Butch Vig in May 1991 at Sound City Studios in Van Nuys, California. Vig later called it "a great pop song," remembering it as "a really new one" that "took a few takes" to record properly. The final lyrics were written at Sound City shortly before the vocals were recorded, which led to the line, "What the hell am I trying to say?" The recording features high harmonies by drummer Dave Grohl. Vig had wanted to end the recording with Grohl's harmonies repeated four times a capella, and originally mixed the song that way, but upon hearing the mix, Cobain decided the song should end after only one pass of the harmonies. Cobain's lead vocals were done in one take.  "On a Plain" was debuted live on May 29, 1991 at Jabberjaw in Los Angeles, California, the show at which Nirvana also debuted the future "Nevermind" single, "Come As You Are," before "an astonished audience," according to author Charles R. Cross. The show was Nirvana's first since completing work on "Nevermind."  Cobain ultimately expressed dissatisfaction with the "Nevermind" recording, telling "Flipside", "That song came out way too clean. I'm not happy with the way that came out at all. It should have been a lot rawer; we play it a lot better live I think."  "On a Plain" was released as a promo single in the summer of 1992, and became a moderate hit.  The song was performed during Nirvana's "MTV Unplugged" appearance at Sony Music Studios in New York City on November 18, 1993. This version featured Pat Smear on second guitar and Lori Goldston on cello.  "On a Plain" was performed for the final time live at Nirvana's last concert, at Terminal Einz in Munich, Germany on March 1, 1994.

Composition and lyrics.

Music.

"On a Plain" was recorded in the key of D Major, with Cobain's guitar tuned to drop D. The song starts with a noise intro played by Cobain, with an audible handclap. After a short pause the main riff comes in with the power chords D5-G5-F5-E5-F5-E5-D5 played twice then followed by the power chords D5-C5-B5-A5 followed by the first progression again. The chord progressions are played twice for all verses followed by the power chords D5-Gsus2-Bbsus2 for all choruses. After the second chorus a bridge is played with the power chords F5-E5-A5-G5. The song then goes onto the third verse followed by a final chorus which is treated as the outro with the words, ""I'm on a plain/I can't complain"" being repeated multiple times until all instruments and main vocals start fading out until the last thing that's heard is the repeating, wordless vocal harmony from the chorus.

Lyrics.

In a 1993 interview with Jon Savage, Cobain said that the song was about "classic alienation, I guess," although he then noted he had to change his explanation every time he was asked about the meaning to his songs, saying that his lyrics were largely taken from "pieces of poetry thrown together," and that his poetry was "not usually thematic at all."  The lyric "Don't quote me on that" was a reference to a running joke at Sound City around the time it was written. As Grohl explained to biographer Michael Azerrad, "Someone would say something like, 'Where's the mayonnaise?' And someone else would answer, 'It's in the fridge, but don't quote me on that.'"  In his 1993 book "", Azerrad wrote that the lyric "My mother died every night" was a reference to an abusive relationship Cobain's mother was in while Cobain was a teenager. Azerrad also suggested that the "black sheep" in the song was a reference to Cobain himself.  The lyric "One more special message to go" referred to the fact that "On a Plain" was the last song on "Nevermind" that Cobain had to complete lyrics for.  Emily Parker of the "NME" described "On a Plain" as "Kurt's most meta moment: a song written about writing a song."

Reception.

In her review of "Nevermind" for "Spin", Lauren Spencer cited the "beautifully harmonic" "On a Plain" as one of the songs "you be humming...for the rest of your life."  "On a Plain" was listed at number 26 on "Rolling Stone's" 2015 ranking of 102 Nirvana songs.  In 2017, to mark what would have been Kurt Cobain's 50th birthday, the Phonographic Performance Limited released a list of the top 20 most played Nirvana songs on the TV and radio in the United Kingdom in which "On a Plain" was ranked at number 10.

"On a Plain" is a song by the American grunge band, Nirvana, written by vocalist and guitarist, Kurt Cobain. It is the 11th track on their second album, "Nevermind", released in September, 1991.

„On a Plain“ je skladba americké grungeové skupiny Nirvana, jejímž autorem je Kurt Cobain. Vyšla v roce 1991 k albu "Nevermind". Cobain ji napsal roku 1990. Skladba se objevila jak na obrazovém videu "Live! Tonight! Sold Out!!", tak na pozdějším akustickém živém albu "MTV Unplugged in New York".


Spanish aircraft carrier Príncipe de Asturias

Design.

The design is basically that of the initial US Navy's Sea Control Ship design of the 1970s, modified with a ski-jump ramp added to better enable V/STOL aircraft takeoff and other modifications to fit Spanish specifications. Constructed by the National Company Bazan (then Empresa Nacional Bazán, now Navantia) in their shipyard at Ferrol, "Príncipe de Asturias" was delivered to the Navy on 30 May 1988. The construction process had begun eleven years previously, on 29 May 1977. The processing of the steel began on 1 March 1978 and the keel was laid on 8 October 1979. On 22 May 1982, in a ceremony presided over by Juan Carlos I of Spain, the launch took place, with Queen Sofía of Spain as the ship's sponsor. The ship made her first sea trials in November 1987.  The Thai warship, delivered in 1997, is based on the Spanish ship's design.

Armament.

The self-defense armament includes four close defense Meroka systems and six chaff decoy launchers. For offensive weapons, the ship relies on the capabilities of her embarked aircraft. For anti-submarine defense, she relies upon the detection capacity and attacks of her ASW helicopters and accompanying frigate battle group.

Aircraft.

The ship supports 12 AV-8B Harrier II Bravo or AV-8B Harrier II Plus aircraft. The Harriers are armed with AIM-9 Sidewinder and AIM-120 AMRAAM air-to-air missiles, AGM-88 HARM anti-radiation missile and AGM-65 Maverick air-to-ground missiles, in addition to GAU-12U cannon. The carrier also has facilities to support helicopters, usually 6 Sikorsky Sea King SH-3H, 4 Agusta-Bell AB-212 and 2 Sikorsky SH-3 AEW (Airborne Early Warning) helicopters.  The ship supports a maximum of 29 fixed wing and rotary wing aircraft with up to 12 on deck and 17 aircraft in the hangar. The hangar which measures 2,398 m is accessed by two flight deck lifts. The flight deck is in length. Operating V/STOL aircraft, the carrier has the characteristic "ski-jump" (12° here), with the runway sightly off the longitudinal axis, tilted portside.

Withdrawal.

In May 2012 rumours emerged that "Príncipe de Asturias" could be withdrawn from active service and placed in a state of "restrictive standby" along with two of the "Santa Maria"-class frigates, due to the financial pressures on the Spanish government. Annual operating costs for the carrier and its air group reached €100 million. Any decision on the fate of the vessel would have to be taken at the highest possible level due to the status of the ship as the flagship of Spanish Navy.  In November 2012, her decommissioning was confirmed. The official decommissioning ceremony was held on 6 February 2013. Aviation capability is being provided by the landing helicopter dock ship. In 2015 it was reported the ship will be sold for scrap the date for which has not been set yet. Reportedly en route to the Leyal scrapyard in Turkey for dismantling from September 2017 onwards.

Príncipe de Asturias, originally named "Almirante Carrero Blanco", was an aircraft carrier and former flagship of the Spanish Navy. She was built in Bazan's Shipyards and delivered to the Spanish Navy on 30 May 1988.

Príncipe de Asturias (R-11) je španělská letadlová loď a zároveň vlajková loď španělského námořnictva. Byla postavena v letech 1979–1988 na základě amerického projektu Sea Control Ship. Tvoří základ Alpha Group, kterou kromě ní tvoří také šest španělských fregat třídy "Santa Maria". Podle upraveného projektu Španělé postavily rovněž thajskou letadlovou loď "Chakri Naruebet". V roce 2010 "Principe de Asturias" doplnila zcela nová letadlová loď "Juan Carlos I", která je výjimečná variabilitou svého využití. Roku 2013 byla loď, kvůli nedostatku financí na její provoz, převedena do rezervy.


Types.

Physical and non-physical.

Physical examples of accidents include unintended motor vehicle collisions or falls, being injured by touching something sharp, hot, dropping a plate, accidentally kicking the leg of a chair while walking, unintentionally biting one's tongue while eating, accidentally tipping over a glass of water, contacting electricity or ingesting poison. Non-physical examples are unintentionally revealing a secret or otherwise saying something incorrectly, accidental deletion of data, forgetting an appointment etc.

Common causes.

Poisons, vehicle collisions and falls are the most common causes of fatal injuries. According to a 2005 survey of injuries sustained at home, which used data from the National Vital Statistics System of the United States National Center for Health Statistics, falls, poisoning, and fire/burn injuries are the most common causes of death.  The United States also collects statistically valid injury data (sampled from 100 hospitals) through the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System administered by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. This program was revised in 2000 to include all injuries rather than just injuries involving products. Data on emergency department visits is also collected through the National Health Interview Survey. In The U.S. the Bureau of Labor Statistics has available on their website extensive statistics on workplace accidents.

Accident models.

Many models to characterize and analyze accidents have been proposed, which can by classified by type. Notable types and models include:  Ishikawa diagrams are sometimes used to illustrate root-cause analysis and five whys discussions.

An accident is an unplanned event that sometimes has inconvenient or undesirable consequences, other times being inconsequential. The occurrance of such an event may or may not have unrecognized or unaddressed risks contributing to its cause. Most scientists who study unintentional injury avoid using the term "accident" and focus on factors that increase risk of severe injury and that reduce injury incidence and severity.

Havárie je mimořádná událost, respektive člověkem zapříčiněná nehoda či katastrofa, jež vedla ke zničení nebo poškození nějakého stroje, důležitého přístroje, budovy, technologického celku, lidského zdraví či života, k rozsáhlým ekologickým nebo hospodářským škodám apod.


History.

In 1967, after over twelve years in mothballs in the United States, "Cabot" was loaned to Spain. The loan was converted to a sale in 1972. "Dédalo" initially deployed with the Spanish Navy as a helicopter-only antisubmarine warfare carrier operating the SH-3D Sea King and other helicopters from 1967 to 1976.  On 8 November 1972, a Harrier was successfully tested on the Dédalo deck, a first in the history of the plane. It was decided to order and deploy short-take-off-and-vertical-landing (STOVL) AV-8S Matadors (AV-8A Harrier) when "Dédalo" was overhauled. Since the Harriers' downdraft on vertical landing would have damaged the wooden deck, protective metal sheathing was installed on the rear area of the flight deck. The first batch of six AV-8S single seat and two TAV-8S two seat aircraft were delivered to the "Armada Española" throughout 1976. A second batch of four AV-8S aircraft was delivered in 1980. Unlike some carriers used for Harrier operations, a ski-jump to assist STOVL takeoff was never installed on "Dédalo", limiting the maximum takeoff weight of the Harriers.  She then typically carried an air group of eight AV-8S fighters, four Sea King antisubmarine warfare helicopters and four AB 212ASW Twin Hueys although Sikorsky S-55/CH-19s, AH-1 Cobras, and other specialized helicopters from the Spanish army, air force, and navy flew from her flight deck.  During her Spanish service, "Dédalo" logged 1,650 days steaming, covering, registering 30,000 landings and takeoffs, losing an AV-8A and three AB 212ASW helicopters to accidents.

Disposal.

Replaced by the Spanish-built S/VTOL carrier "Príncipe de Asturias" in 1988, the "Dédalo" was struck by the Spanish Navy in August 1989, and she was given to a private organization in the U.S. for use as a museum ship. However, that private organization was unable to pay its creditors, and on 10 September 1999, the ship was auctioned off by the United States Marshals Service to Sabe Marine Salvage of Rockport, Texas. The scrapping of the hulk was completed in 2002.

Dédalo (Spanish for "Daedalus") was the first Spanish aircraft carrier and the second aviation ship in the Spanish Navy (after the seaplane tender and balloon ship "Dédalo" that took part in the landings at Al Hoceima in 1925). She remained the fleet's flagship until "Príncipe de Asturias" replaced her. "Dédalo" was formerly the World War II-era light aircraft carrier USS "Cabot", which was acquired from the United States in the 1960s.

Dedalo (R01) byla španělská letadlová loď. Byl to druhý nosič letadel ve španělském námořnictvu. První lodí byl nosič hydroplánů Dedalo, který sloužil od 20. let.


Gameplay.

The board is a map of southern Germany and nearby parts of other countries; it is marked into nine provinces, most of which are grouped into five regions. The map shows 22 cities and a network of roads connecting them. Each player has a supply of 20 markers (houses) to place on the cities. Each city may be marked once by each player and the markers remain in place.  Each turn the players draw one or more cards representing cities, then play one or more cards, forming or extending a route through successive cities along a sequence of roads. The route may be extended at either end but cannot include the same city twice. After reaching a certain length, a route may be closed and scored. The player then puts markers on some of the cities on the route that he or she has not marked already — either choosing one city in each province traversed by the route, or choosing one province and marking all of its cities that are on the route.  Points are awarded for the length of the route, for marking all cities in any of the different regions, for marking a city in every province, and for completing routes at least as long as a succession of target lengths that rise as the game progresses. Play ends after each player has had an equal number of turns and at least one player has either run out of markers or completed the sequence of target lengths; the first player to satisfy either condition also receives a bonus point. In most cases, each successive instance of scoring points for the same thing is worth less; for example, the first player to dominate the region of Baden scores 3 points, the second scores 2, and the third only 1.

Expansions and spinoffs.

Three expansions have been released for "Thurn and Taxis". The first, "Der Kurier der Fürstin", was a small expansion released in the October 2005 issue of Spielbox magazine which adds letter tokens and a messenger to the game.  The second "expansion", "Thurn and Taxis: Power and Glory" (German, in an apparent allusion to Gloria, princess of Thurn and Taxis, "Glanz und Gloria", lit. "Splendour and Glory"), is really more of a distinct game, using new region and carriage cards, a new map, and significantly changed route-building rules.  The third expansion "Alle Wege führen nach Rom" (English: All Roads Lead to Rome) can only be played with the base game, and consists of two small expansions, "The Audience" and "Offices of Honor". While the first two boards show somewhat realistic representations of Southern and Northern Germany, the Rome expansion makes no reference to Italian geography.

Reception.

Ed Greenwood comments: ""Thurn and Taxis" is one of those rare games that isn't blood-and-guts, doesn't take forever to play, boasts remarkably effective and simple rules, and can be enjoyed over and over by both novice players aged 10 and up and hardcore strategists of considerably more years. Its somewhat obscure theme is even presented in a way that's appealing to those of us without doctorates in European history."  The editors of "Computer Games Magazine" presented "Thurn and Taxis" with their 2006 "Best Boardgame" award.

Thurn and Taxis is a board game designed by Karen and Andreas Seyfarth and published in 2006 by Hans im Glück in German (as "Thurn und Taxis") and by Rio Grande Games in English. In the game, players seek to build postal networks and post offices in Bavaria and surrounding areas, as did the house of Thurn und Taxis in the 16th century. The game won the prestigious 2006 Spiel des Jahres award.

Poštovní kurýr (v originále Thurn und Taxis) je úspěšná desková hra pro 2 až 4 hráče vytvořená manžely Karen a Andreasem Seyfarthovými a vydaná v roce 2006 firmou Hans im Glück v němčině a firmou Rio Grande Games v angličtině. V Česku lze hru koupit v českém překladu a dováží ji firma MindOK. Hráči ve hře vytvářejí poštovní cesty a stavějí poštovní stanice v Bavorsku a okolí přibližně v 16. století tak, aby za ně získali co nejvíce bodů.


History.

Gun were renamed in 1967 from The Knack, formed by guitarist/vocalist Paul Gurvitz (born Paul Anthony Gurvitz, 6 July 1944, High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire - he was known by the surname Curtis until the early 1970s after which he returned to his original name Gurvitz). The Knack changed their name in the spring/summer of 1966, and the setup was Paul Curtis (Gurvitz) on guitar and vocals, Louie Farrell (born Brian John Farrell, 8 December 1947, Goodmayes, Essex) (who had joined The Knack in mid 1966) on drums, Gearie Kenworthy on bass guitar (born 17 October 1946), Tim Mycroft organ (born 1948 died 2010), and later for a short while, Jon Anderson of Yes. Gun performed at the UFO Club, supporting bands such as Pink Floyd, Arthur Brown and Tomorrow. Recording sessions at Olympic Studios produced the unreleased single "Lights on the Wall", while in November 1967 they recorded for the BBC alternative music radio programme "Top Gear" and twice played on air. In early 1968 the band changed its line-up to a trio, with Paul Curtis (Gurvitz) on bass, Louie Farrell on drums and Adrian Curtis (Gurvitz) on guitar.  After being signed to CBS Records in early 1968, the band scored a hit with the opening track from their eponymous album (1968), "Race with the Devil". Issued as a single in October 1968, it reached the top 10 in the UK Singles Chart, number 35 on the Australian Singles Chart and number 1 in many UK territories in March 1969. Jimi Hendrix quoted the song's riff during his song "Machine Gun" at the Isle of Wight Festival in 1970, as did Status Quo on their song "Forty Five Hundred Times" during a stage show at Apollo Theatre in Glasgow in 1976. "Race with the Devil" has been covered by Judas Priest (on the remastered CD version of "Sin After Sin"), Black Oak Arkansas (on their album "Race with the Devil"), Girlschool (on their album "Demolition"), and Church of Misery (on their 1996 demo, released as a split album with Acrimony, and on their full-length LP "Vol. 1").  Their debut album's cover is noteworthy as it was the first by Roger Dean. AllMusic described it as having a "distinctive psych-flavoured proto-metal" sound. Their second album, "Gunsight" was released in 1969.  Despite releasing a number of other singles, and an attempt by their record label to identify them with the underground counter-culture, the band had no further hits.

Aftermath.

After a short time working separately, the Gurvitz brothers formed Three Man Army in 1971 and recorded three albums.  Between 1974 and 1976, Three Man Army became the Baker Gurvitz Army with Ginger Baker, the former drummer for Cream, in the line-up. The trio recorded three albums: "Baker Gurvitz Army", "Elysian Encounter" and "Hearts On Fire". During the same period, the Gurvitz brothers recorded two albums under the name The Graeme Edge Band, with drummer Graeme Edge of The Moody Blues: "Kick Off Your Muddy Boots" and "Paradise Ballroom". It was not a touring band, and also featured Baker. Paul Gurvitz now tours as the Paul Gurvitz and the New Army.

"Gun" track listing.

Side One  Side Two

Gun were a late 1960s British rock guitar trio who had a single British Top Ten hit, "Race with the Devil" and recorded two albums before disbanding. The band included brothers Paul Gurvitz and Adrian Gurvitz.

The Gun byla britská rocková skupina, kterou v roce 1967 založili v Londýně bratři Paul a Adrian Gurvitzovi. Po uzavření smlouvy s firmou CBS začátkem roku 1968, zabodovali ohromným hitem "Race With The Devil," který byl vydán jako singl v říjnu 1968. Obal alba byl prvním výtvorem umělce Rogera Deana. Vydali pak ještě další pozoruhodný hit "Drives You Mad" a druhé album. Adrian Gurvitz a Paul Gurvitz později spolupracovali s Gingerem Bakerem ve skupině The Baker Gurvitz Airforce.


Design.

The Arabic inscription on the flag, written in the calligraphic Thuluth script, is the "shahada" or Islamic declaration of faith: The green of the flag represents Islam and the sword stands for the strictness in applying justice.  The flag is manufactured with identical obverse and reverse sides, to ensure the "shahada" reads correctly, from right to left, from either side. The sword also points to the left on both sides, in the direction of the script. The flag is sinister hoisted, meaning that when viewed from the obverse (front) side, it is hoisted to the left of the flagpole.  The usual color of the flag's green was approximated by Album des pavillons as Pantone 330 C, while the color used on flags at United Nations is approximately Pantone 349. At the 2012 London Olympics, Pantone 355 was used.

Use.

Because the "shahada" is considered holy, the flag is not normally used on T-shirts or other items. Saudi Arabia protested against its inclusion on a planned football to be issued by FIFA, bearing all the flags of the participants of the 2002 FIFA World Cup. Saudi officials said that kicking the creed with the foot was completely unacceptable. Similarly, an attempt by the U.S. military to win favour with children of the Khost Province of Afghanistan by distributing footballs adorned with flags, including that of Saudi Arabia, ended in demonstrations.  The flag is never lowered to half-mast as a sign of mourning, because lowering it would be considered blasphemous. Similarly, the flags of Afghanistan, Somaliland, and Iraq are also never at half-mast.  The normal flag cannot be hoisted vertically according to Saudi legislation. Special vertical flags are manufactured where both the inscription (the creed) and the emblem (the sword) are rotated, although this is rare, as most Arab countries traditionally do not hoist flags vertically.

History.

The precursor states to Saudi Arabia were Nejd and Hejaz. The state flag of Nejd followed today's Saudi flag pattern very closely. The state of Hijaz followed the patterns seen in countries like Palestine and Sudan. From 1902 until 1921 a different Arabic inscription was used. One of the primary opponents to the Saudis was the Emirate of Jabal Shammar of the Al Rashid family in the north of the peninsula, until their defeat in 1921.

Past flags.

The Al Saud, the ruling family of Saudi Arabia, has long been closely related with Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. He and the people who followed him, since the 18th century, had used the "shahada" on their flags. In 1921 Abdulaziz Abdulrahman Al-Saud, leader of the Al Saud and the future founder of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, added a sword to this flag. The design of the flag was not standardized prior to March 15, 1973, and variants with two swords and/or a white vertical stripe at the hoist were frequently used. By 1938, the flag had basically assumed its present form, except the sword had a different design (with a more curved blade) and it, along with the "shahada" above, took up more of the flag's space.

Royal Standard.

The Royal Standard consists of a green flag, with an Arabic inscription and a sword featured in white, and with the national emblem embroidered in gold in the lower right canton of the year 1973.  The script on the flag is written in the Thuluth script. It is the "shahada" or Islamic declaration of faith:

Other flags.

The civil ensign, for use by merchant vessels at sea, is a green flag with the state flag in the canton with a white border. The royal standard is the state flag with the palm tree and swords in the canton.

The flag of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia () is the flag used by the government of Saudi Arabia since 15 March 1973. It is a green flag featuring in white an Arabic inscription and a sword. The inscription is the Islamic creed, or "shahada": "There is no god but Allah; Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah".

Vlajka Saúdské Arábie je zelená s bílým arabským nápisem a s šavlí (s rovnou čepelí). Zelená je barva islámu, Mohameda a Fátimovců, dynastie odvozující svůj původ od prorokovy dcery Fatimy. Sečná zbraň symbolizuje výdobytky islámu a vahabitské(?) bojování; nad ní je muslimské vyznání víry (šaháda): "Není boha kromě Alláha a Mohamed je jeho prorok." Tento text zaplňuje blok o délce, která je rovna polovině délky vlajky. Šířka nápisu je rovna čtvrtině šířky vlajky. Text se čte zprava doleva.


Biography.

Born in Varín, Gábor studied at the Bratislava Conservatory under Ida Černecká and then at the Academy of Performing Arts in Bratislava with Anna Korínska and in his final year of study Janko Blaho. He was a leading performer at the Slovak National Theatre for 35 years, making his debut at the house on New Years Day 1960. He particularly excelled in comic roles. Among his signature parts were Count Almaviva in "The Barber of Seville", Basilio in "The Marriage of Figaro", Triquet in "Eugene Onegin", Puk in "A Midsummer Night's Dream", the Minister in Juraj Beneš's "The Emperor's New Clothes", Smelkov in Ján Cikker's "Vzkriesenie", and Vašek in "The Bartered Bride". The biggest success of his career came in 1966 when he portrayed the title role in "Albert Herring".  Gábor was also active on the international stage, singing as a guest artist at the National Theatre in Prague, La Monnaie, and with opera houses in Germany, Greece, and Iran. He was notably committed to the Hamburg State Opera from 1967 to 1968 and performed at almost all of the opera houses in his home nation. He also toured with the Slovak National Theatre for performances in the Soviet Union, the Netherlands, Germany, Spain, Bulgaria, Romania, and Yugoslavia.  In addition to his work in opera, Gábor was an active concert performer and recitalist. He performed with most of the major orchestras in his nation and Czech Republic during his career. He was also an admired performer of Slovak folk music and was interested in the traditional folk dances of his country.  Gábor gave his last public singing performance on New Year's Eve 1995. He died in Bratislava at the age of 70.

Pavol Gábor (1 December 1932 – 28 August 2003) was a Slovak operatic tenor who had an active international career during the 1960s through the 1990s. He had a lengthy and fruitful partnership at the Slovak National Theatre which lasted for over three decades.

Pavol Gábor (* 1. prosince 1932, Varín, Československo – 28. srpna 2003, Bratislava, Slovensko) byl slovenský operní pěvec-tenorista. Od 1. ledna 1960 do 31. prosince 1995 byl členem Slovenského národního divadla v Bratislavě. Vynikl hlavně jako představitel komických a tragikomických rolí. Uplatnil se i v operetě (1967 – 1968 zpíval v hamburské operetě), jako interpret lidových písní a tanečník. Vystupoval v mnoha evropských zemích, ve USA a v Kanadě.