Family.

William Cavendish was born at Handsworth Manor, Yorkshire, eldest surviving son of Sir Charles Cavendish and Catherine Ogle. He was a grandson of Bess of Hardwick, and courtier William Cavendish. He had a younger brother Charles (1594–1654), and the two remained close friends throughout their lives.  In 1618, Cavendish married Elizabeth Howard (1599–1643), with whom he had five children; Jane (1621–1669), Charles (1626–1659), Elizabeth (1626–1663), Henry, 2nd Duke of Newcastle (1630–1691), and Frances. Encouraged by their father, Jane and Elizabeth became minor poets and writers. In 1645, he married Margaret Lucas, a natural philosopher writer. With his help and support, she became a popular writer of plays, poetry, and fiction, and was known as "mad Madge" for her extravagant style and affected manner.

Career.

He was created a Knight of the Bath (KB) in 1610 and sat in the House of Commons as the member for East Retford in the Addled Parliament of 1614. He succeeded his father in 1617.  On 3 November 1620 Cavendish was created 'Viscount Mansfield', then 'Earl of Newcastle-upon-Tyne' in 1628. In 1629 he inherited his mother's barony of Ogle, together with an estate of £3,000 per annum. In 1638 he became governor of Charles, Prince of Wales, and in 1639 a Privy Counsellor. When the Scottish war (1639–1640) broke out he assisted King Charles I with a loan of £10,000 and a troop of volunteer horse, consisting of 120 knights and gentlemen. He was appointed Gentleman of the Robes in 1641, but was implicated in the Army Plot, and in consequence withdrew for a time from the court.

First English Civil War.

As tension increased, both Charles and Parliament tried to secure key ports and weapons; an attempt by Newcastle to capture Hull in July failed. When Charles formally declared war in August, Newcastle was given command of the four northern counties, largely because he was willing to pay for his own troops. In November 1642, he advanced into Yorkshire, raised the siege of York, and forced Lord Fairfax to retire after attacking him at Tadcaster.  Fighting continued during the winter, as Newcastle tried to secure a landing place for an arms convoy organised by Henrietta Maria, who was in the Dutch Republic purchasing weapons. He had insufficient troops to hold the entire area, and Parliamentary forces under Lord Fairfax and his son Sir Thomas, retained key towns like Hull, and Leeds. In late February 1643, a convoy with Henrietta Maria and weapons landed at Bridlington, and was escorted to Oxford. Combined with a victory at Adwalton Moor near Leeds in June, he was created 'Marquess of Newcastle-upon-Tyne'.  The 1643 Solemn League and Covenant had created a Committee of Both Kingdoms, which for the first time co-ordinated Parliamentary strategy in all three war zones, England, Scotland and Ireland. In February 1644, the Scots under Leven besieged Newcastle, closing the major import point for Royalist war supplies. They made little progress, with the Marquess-based nearby at Durham.  Two weeks later, the Earl of Manchester defeated a Royalist force at Selby. Newcastle had to leave Durham, and garrison York, which city was besieged by the Scots, Sir Thomas Fairfax, and Manchester's Army of the Eastern Association. In May, Prince Rupert left Shrewsbury, and marched north; on 29 June, he arrived at Knaresborough, 30 kilometres from York, to find he was faced by a superior force. Despite Newcastle's opposition, the largest battle of the war took place on 2 July, at Marston Moor. The result was a decisive Royalist defeat that lost them the North, while York surrendered on 16 July.  As a military commander, Lord Clarendon described Newcastle as "fit to be a general as a bishop". However, Marston Moor was fought against his advice, while he was also intelligent enough to understand his limits, and recruited reliable subordinates. After Marston Moor, Newcastle left England for Hamburg, accompanied by his two sons and his brother Charles; in April 1645, they moved to Paris, where he met and married his second wife Margaret, maid of honour to Queen Henrietta Maria. While there, Newcastle continued his feud with Prince Rupert, suggesting to the Queen he should be removed from command.  The new Marchioness was a dramatist and romancer, and had been maid of honour to Queen Henrietta Maria. Their marriage appears to have been a very happy one, and she later wrote a biography of him. His love and admiration for his wife is best expressed in the fine sonnet he wrote as an introduction to her masterpiece "The Blazing World".  Newcastle left in 1648 for Rotterdam with the intention of joining the Prince of Wales in command of the rebellious navy, and finally took up his abode at Antwerp, where he remained till the Restoration. In April 1650 he was appointed a member of Charles II's privy council, and in opposition to Edward Hyde advocated the agreement with the Scots. In Antwerp he lived in the Rubenshuis (the house where the painter Peter Paul Rubens had lived from 1610 till his death in 1640) and established his famous riding-school, exercised "the art of manège" (High School riding), and published his first work on horsemanship, "Méthode et invention nouvelle de dresser les chevaux" in 1658. This work had an influence on one of the greatest French riding masters, François Robichon de La Guérinière, as well as a more controversial figure in dressage, Baucher. He is also said to be the inventor of draw reins.

Restoration.

At the Restoration (1660) Newcastle returned to England, and succeeded in regaining the greater part of his estates, though burdened with debts, his wife estimating his total losses in the war at the enormous sum of £941,303. He was reinstated in the offices he had filled under Charles I and appointed a Gentleman of the Bedchamber. He was invested in 1661 with the Order of the Garter which had been bestowed upon him in 1650, and was advanced to a dukedom (of Newcastle-on-Tyne) on 16 March 1665.  He retired, however, from public life and occupied himself with his estate and with his favourite pursuit of training horses. He established a racecourse near Welbeck. In his later years, he suffered from Parkinson's disease, and the sudden death of his second wife was a blow from which he never recovered. With John Dryden's assistance he translated Molière's "L'Etourdi" as "Sir Martin Mar-all" (1688). He contributed scenes to his wife's plays, and poems of his composition are to be found among her works.  Cavendish was the patron of, among others, Jonson, Shirley, Davenant, Dryden, Shadwell and Flecknoe, and of Hobbes, Gassendi and Descartes. During their stay in Antwerp, the Cavendishes had a music chapel of 5 musicians. They were acquainted with several of the contemporary English composers, and Newcastle's library contained a substantial collection of music of these composers.  The department of Manuscripts and Special Collections, The University of Nottingham holds a number of papers relating to the 1st Duke: the Cavendish Papers (Pw 1), part of the Portland (Welbeck) Collection, includes some of his personal papers; the Portland Literary Collection (Pw V), also part of the Portland (Welbeck) Collection, contains many of his literary papers; and the Newcastle (Clumber) Collection (Ne) includes some estate papers from the time of the 1st Duke, for example, relating to his purchase of Nottingham Castle.

Works by William Cavendish.

Plays:

William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle upon Tyne KG KB PC (ca 16 December 159325 December 1676), was an English courtier and supporter of the arts. He was a renowned horse breeder, as well as being patron of the playwright Ben Jonson, and the intellectual group known as the Welbeck Circle.

William Cavendish, 1. vévoda z Newcastle ("William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle, 1st Marquess of Newcastle, 1st Earl Ogle, 1st Viscount Mansfield, 9th Baron Ogle, 1st Baron Cavendish") (6. prosince 1592, Handsworth, Anglie – 25. prosince 1676, Welbeck Abbey, Anglie) byl anglický šlechtic, politik, dvořan a spisovatel z rodu Cavendishů. Jako dědic značného majetku získal vliv u dvora Jakuba I. a Karla I., na straně krále se také aktivně zúčastnil anglické revoluce. Po obnovení monarchie získal titul vévody z Newcastle (1664).


Club career.

Atalanta.

Conti was born and raised in Lecco, Lombardy. In 2002, he had a successful trial at A.C. Milan yet refused to join the team due to his dislike of the club's youth training center in Linate area of the city, as well as its far-from-home location. He also had an offer from the club's cross-city rivals, Inter Milan, yet eventually joined Atalanta's youth academy where he would play together with Mattia Caldara and Roberto Gagliardini for over a decade.  In July 2013, Conti was loaned to Lega Pro side Perugia. He made his professional debut on 4 August 2013, starting in a 0–1 Coppa Italia home loss against Savona. His first league appearance occurred later that month, a 2–2 away draw against Nocerina. Conti made 16 league appearances, helping his team achieve promotion to Serie B.  On 10 July 2014, Conti moved to a fellow second-tier team Virtus Lanciano, in a season-long loan deal. Conti made 24 league appearances while his team finished 14th out of 22. In the summer of 2015, he returned to Atalanta and was included in the first team squad for the upcoming Serie A season.  On 30 September 2015, Conti signed a new contract with Atalanta until July 2019. He made his debut for the club on 2 December, in a 1–3 loss against Udinese in Coppa Italia. Conti made his debut in Serie A on 6 January 2016, in a 1–2 loss against the same opponent. His first goal in the competition occurred on 3 February, in a 2–1 win against Verona.  Conti managed to score 8 goals in 33 appearances during the 2016–17 Serie A season, setting a personal record for scoring. His main playing position was a right wing-back in a 3–4–3 formation.

Milan.

On 7 July 2017, Conti joined Milan in exchange for a reported fee of €24 million, plus Matteo Pessina. He made his debut for the club on 27 July 2017, replacing Ignazio Abate as a second-half substitute in the 2017–18 UEFA Europa League qualification away game against CS U Craiova. He made his league debut in the 3–0 away win against Crotone on 20 August 2017.  On 15 September 2017, during A.C. Milan's training session, Conti suffered an injury to his left anterior cruciate ligament. Having undergone knee surgery, he was in recovery until March 2018. However, shortly after resuming training and playing a few matches with the reserves, Conti suffered a recurring ACL injury that sidelined him for the rest of the year.  On December 22, 2018, Conti made his highly anticipated return to the pitch, coming on as a substitute for Ignazio Abate eleven minutes before the final whistle in a 0–1 home Serie A defeat against Fiorentina. Before the end of the season, he appeared in 14 more games (mostly as a substitute) and made 3 assists.  Despite the two unsuccessful seasons in Milan, Conti declined transfer offers from Parma and Werder during the summer of 2019, opting to stay at the club and work with its new head coach Marco Giampaolo.

International career.

On 12 August 2015, Conti made his debut with the Italy U21 team, in a friendly match against Hungary.  In June 2017, he was included in the Italy under-21 squad for the 2017 UEFA European Under-21 Championship by manager Luigi Di Biagio. Italy were eliminated by Spain in the semi-finals on 27 June, following a 3–1 defeat, although Conti did not appear during the match.  In August 2017, he was called up to the senior squad by Gian Piero Ventura 2018 World Cup qualification match against Spain on 2 September and, on 5 September against Israel. He made his senior international debut in Italy's 1–0 home win over Israel, but was forced off early due to injury and replaced by Davide Zappacosta.

Style of play.

Conti can play as a right-back or a right wing-back, although he is more comfortable in the latter position. Gifted with a great pace, he thrives going forward and making overlapping runs. He excels at staying wide and crossing but also has a knack for getting into the box and scoring himself. His great stamina allows him to make attacking runs and rapidly get back into defense when needed.

Andrea Conti (; born 2 March 1994) is an Italian professional footballer who plays for Serie A team Milan and the Italy national football team as a right-back.

Andrea Conti (* 2. března 1994, Lecco, Itálie) je italský fotbalový záložník v současnosti hrající za AC Milán a italskou reprezentaci. Během úvodních zápasů v novém dresu AC Milán se dlouhodobě zranil.


Biography.

Sulton attended and graduated in 1973 from Susan E. Wagner High School in Staten Island, New York. He married his high school sweetheart, Laurie Rampulla, and had three children with her. She died of cancer in 2011.  Sulton started his musical career playing piano and vocals for Cherry Vanilla before gaining a place in Utopia in 1976. During his time with Utopia, they recorded nine albums and toured extensively until disbanding in 1986, with occasional reunions to the present.  He has toured with Blue Öyster Cult, Meat Loaf, Hall & Oates, Cheap Trick, Patty Smyth, Akiko Yano and Richie Sambora, among many other artists. As a studio musician, he has played on albums by Patti Smith, Indigo Girls and Steve Stevens, and appeared on an album of traditional Irish music by Eileen Ivers. He was a member of Joan Jett's backing band, The Blackhearts, touring with them and playing on Jett's album "Up Your Alley" (1988) as well as contributing a number of tracks to her compilation album "The Hit List" (1990).  Sulton was the bassist and sang background vocals on the breakout Meat Loaf album "Bat Out of Hell". He and Thommy Price collaborated on an album, "Lights On", which Sulton co-wrote. The song "No T.V. No Phone" was featured in the comedy film "The Allnighter" (1987), starring Susanna Hoffs.  Sulton recorded a solo album on 4 September 2002 entitled "Quid Pro Quo". The album was released on Sphere Sound Records, and Sulton played all but two instruments on the album.  Sulton sang background vocals on Meat Loaf's album "", joining his backing band, Neverland Express, touring for three years on the "Everything Louder Tour". He also recorded on Meat Loaf's album "Welcome to the Neighborhood", arranging and singing background vocals on most of the tracks. He went on to become Music director for Meat Loaf, rehearsing Meat Loaf's band, Neverland Express, in preparation for touring. "The Very Best of Meat Loaf" album was released with three new tracks, one of which, "Is Nothing Sacred", was later re-recorded as a duet with Patti Russo and produced by Sulton, with the track reaching No. 15 on the UK charts. Sulton also produced the Meat Loaf album "", and toured with the band on the "Night of the Proms Tour" in Europe and the "Meat Loaf Just Havin' Fun for the Summer" and "Winter" Tour in the United States and Europe, where he and Patti Russo both served as opening acts. He also toured on Meat Loaf's "Couldn't Have Said It Better" tour where he played a short solo acoustic set to open the concert at most venues. One of Meat Loaf's shows on this tour was filmed for the DVD "". Kasim also toured on the 2005 "Hair of the Dog" Tour and the 2006–2007 "Bat Out of Hell III" tour, and he is featured as bassist/backing vocalist on the album. In summer 2008, he rejoined Meat Loaf for The Casa de Carne Tour.  Sulton played bass in the pit orchestra for the Twyla Tharp-choreographed musical based on Billy Joel music called "Movin' Out" on Broadway.  After a brief stint with the reunited band Scandal in 2004, Sulton joined The New Cars in 2005, replacing original Cars bassist and co-lead vocalist Benjamin Orr, who died of cancer in 2000. The band also included original Cars band members Elliot Easton and Greg Hawkes as well as Todd Rundgren and Prairie Prince from Journey and The Tubes. An album, "It's Alive!", was followed by a tour in 2006, with Sulton singing lead on The Cars' hit "Drive".  Sulton continues to appear live playing bass, keyboards, and guitar on most Todd Rundgren tours, including the 2008–09 "Arena" gigs, 2009–10 performances of the classic album "A Wizard, a True Star" (1973) in the United States and Europe, and 2010 "TR's Johnson" shows. He was in the band for the six show "Todd/Healing Albums Live" tour that began Labor Day Weekend of 2010 in Akron, Ohio, and played a solo show before the premiere. He also played in the second run of "Todd/Healing Albums Live", a five-show tour that began on 25 March 2011 in Hartford, Connecticut.  In 2011, Sulton replaced Matt Bissonette as the bass player in the Beatles tribute supergroup Yellow Matter Custard.  In 2012, he joined the classic hard rock band Blue Öyster Cult; he remained its bassist until 2017.  In September 2015, Sulton, along with legendary songwriter Paul Williams, led a global virtual songwriting collaboration at Hookist.com. The mission was to write the 1st ever crowd-sourced anthem to be performed at FacingAddiction.org's concert and rally on The National Mall on 4 October 2015, headlined by Steven Tyler, Sheryl Crow and Joe Walsh among others. The theme of the song was "Celebrate Recovery" and the goal was to reduce the stigma associated with addiction. Sulton, Williams and Dr. Mehmet Oz opened the show and led 10,000 people in a singalong of "Voice Of Change" at the base of the Washington Monument. Sulton also led a singalong of the song on The Dr. Oz Show which quickly went viral.

Kasim Sulton (born 8 December 1955) is an American bass guitarist, keyboardist and vocalist. Best known for his work with Utopia, Sulton sang lead on 1980s "Set Me Free," Utopia's only top 40 hit in the United States. As a solo artist, Sulton hit the Canadian top 40 in 1982 with "Don't Break My Heart".

Kasim Sulton (* 8. prosince 1955) je americký baskytarista, zpěvák a hráč na klávesové nástroje. Svou kariéru zahájil v kapele zpěvačky Cherry Vanilla. V roce 1975 nahradil Johna Sieglera ve skupině Utopia, kterou vedl zpěvák a kytarista Todd Rundgren. Členem kapely zůstal řadu let. Rovněž se podílel na dalších Rundgrenových projektech. Rovněž působil v kapelách Blue Öyster Cult, The New Cars a dalších. Hrál na albech řady hudebníků, mezi něž patří například Patti Smith ("Dream of Life"), Steve Hillage ("L") a Meat Loaf ("Bat Out of Hell"). Své první sólové album "Kasim" vydal roku 1982).


Biography.

1749–1758: Early life.

Fox was born at 9 Conduit Street, London, the second surviving son of Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland, and Lady Caroline Lennox, a daughter of Charles Lennox, 2nd Duke of Richmond. Henry Fox (1705–1774) was an ally of Robert Walpole and rival of Pitt the Elder. He had amassed a considerable fortune by exploiting his position as Paymaster General of the forces. Fox's elder brother Stephen (1745–1774) became the 2nd Baron Holland. His younger brother Henry (1755–1811) had a distinguished military career.

1758–1768: Education.

Given "carte blanche" to choose his own education, Fox in 1758 attended a fashionable Wandsworth school run by a Monsieur Pampellonne, followed by Eton College, where he began to develop his lifelong love of classical literature. In later life he was said always to have carried a copy of Horace in his coat pocket. He was taken out of school by his father in 1761 to attend the coronation of George III, who would become one of his most bitter enemies, and once more in 1763 to visit the Continent (to Paris and Spa). On this trip, Charles was given a substantial amount of money

1768–1774: Early political career.

For the 1768 general election, Henry Fox bought his son a seat in Parliament for the West Sussex constituency of Midhurst, though Charles was still nineteen and technically ineligible for Parliament. Fox was to address the House of Commons some 254 times between 1768 and 1774 and rapidly gathered a reputation as a superb orator, but he had not yet developed the radical opinions for which he would become famous. Thus he spent much of his early years unwittingly manufacturing ammunition for his later critics and their accusations of hypocrisy. A supporter of the Grafton and North ministries, Fox was prominent in the campaign to punish the radical John Wilkes for challenging the Commons. "He thus opened his career by speaking in behalf of the Commons against the people and

1774–1782: American War of Independence.

After 1774, Fox began to reconsider his political position under the influence of Edmund Burke – who had sought out the promising young Whig and would become his mentor – and the unfolding events in America. He drifted from his rather unideological family-oriented politics into the orbit of the Rockingham Whig party.  During this period, Fox became possibly the most prominent and vituperative parliamentary critic of Lord North and the conduct of the American War. In 1775, he denounced North in the Commons as  Fox,

1782–1784: Constitutional crisis.

When North finally resigned under the strains of office and the disastrous American War in March 1782, after Earl Cornwallis surrendered at the Battle of Yorktown, and was gingerly replaced with the new ministry of the Marquess of Rockingham, Fox was appointed Foreign Secretary. But Rockingham, after finally acknowledging the independence of the former Thirteen Colonies, died unexpectedly on 1 July. Fox refused to serve in the successor administration of the Earl of Shelburne, splitting the Whig party; Fox's father had been convinced that Shelburne – a supporter of the elder Pitt – had thwarted his ministerial ambitions at the time of the Treaty of Paris in 1763. Fox now found himself in common opposition to Shelburne with his old and bitter enemy, Lord North. Based on this single conjunction of interests

1784–1788: His Majesty’s Loyal Opposition.

One of Pitt’s first major actions as prime minister was, in 1785, to put a scheme of parliamentary reform before the Commons, proposing to rationalise somewhat the existing, decidedly unrepresentative, electoral system by eliminating thirty-six rotten boroughs and redistributing seats to represent London and the larger counties. Fox supported Pitt’s reforms, despite apparent political expediency, but they were defeated by 248 to 174. Reform would not be considered seriously by Parliament for another decade.  In 1787, the most dramatic political event of the decade came to pass in the form of the Impeachment of Warren Hastings, the Governor of Bengal until 1785, on charges of corruption and extortion.

1788–1789: The Regency Crisis.

In late October 1788, George III descended into a bout of mental illness. He had declared that Pitt was "a rascal" and Fox "his Friend". The King was placed under restraint, and a rumour went round that Fox had poisoned him. Thus the opportunity revealed itself for the establishment of a regency under Fox’s friend and ally, the Prince of Wales, which would take the reins of government out of the hands of the incapacitated George III and allow the replacement of his "minion" Pitt with

1789–1791: The French Revolution.

Fox welcomed the French Revolution of 1789, interpreting it as a late Continental imitation of Britain's Glorious Revolution of 1688. In response to the Storming of the Bastille on 14 July, he famously declared, "How much the greatest event it is that ever happened in the world! and how much the best!" In April 1791, Fox told the Commons that he "admired the new constitution of France, considered altogether, as the most stupendous and glorious edifice of liberty, which had been erected on the foundation of human integrity in

1791–1797: "Pitt's Terror".

Fox continued to defend the French Revolution, even as its fruits began to collapse into war, repression and the Reign of Terror. Though there were few developments in France after 1792 that Fox could positively favour, Fox maintained that the old monarchical system still proved a greater threat to liberty than the new, degenerating experiment in France. Fox thought of revolutionary France as the lesser of two evils and emphasised the role of traditional despots in perverting the course of the revolution: he argued that Louis XVI and the French aristocracy had brought their fates upon themselves by abusing the constitution of 1791 and that the coalition of European autocrats, which was currently dispatching its armies against France's borders, had driven the revolutionary government to desperate and bloody

1797–1806: Political wilderness.

By May 1797, an overwhelming majority – both in and outside of Parliament – had formed in support of Pitt's war against France.  Fox's following in Parliament had shrivelled to about 25, compared with around 55 in 1794 and at least 90 during the 1780s. Many of the Foxites purposefully seceded from Parliament in 1797; Fox himself retired for lengthy periods to his wife's house in Surrey. The distance from the stress and noise of Westminster was an enormous psychological and spiritual relief to Fox, but still he defended his earlier principles: "It is a great comfort to me to reflect how steadily I have opposed this war, for the miseries it seems likely to produce are without end." On 1 May 1798, Fox proposed a toast to "Our Sovereign, the Majesty of the People". The Duke of Norfolk had made the same toast in January at

1806: Final year.

When Pitt died on 23 January 1806, Fox was the last remaining great political figure of the era and could no longer be denied a place in government. When Grenville formed a "Ministry of All the Talents" out of his supporters, the followers of Addington and the Foxites, Fox was once again offered the post of Foreign Secretary, which he accepted in February. Fox was convinced (as he had been since Napoleon's accession) that France desired a lasting peace and that he was "sure that two civil sentences from the Ministers would ensure Peace". Therefore, peace talks were speedily entered into by Fox and his old friend Talleyrand, now French foreign minister. The mood had completely changed by July, however, and Fox was forced to acknowledge that his assessment of Napoleon's pacific intentions was wrong. Negotiations over Hanover, Naples, Sicily, and Malta faltered and Talleyrand vetoed Russian participation in the negotiations. King George believed this was a ploy to divide Britain and Russia as French interests would suffer if she had to deal with an Anglo-Russian alliance. Fox was forced to agree that the King's belief was "but too well

Death.

Fox died – still in office – at Chiswick House, west of London, on 13 September 1806, not eight months after the younger Pitt. An autopsy revealed a hardened liver, thirty-five gallstones and around seven pints of transparent fluid in his abdomen. Fox left £10,000-worth of debts, though this was only a

Private life.

Fox's private life (as far as it was private) was notorious, even in an age noted for the licentiousness of its upper classes. Fox was famed for his rakishness and his drinking; vices which were both indulged frequently and immoderately. Fox was also an inveterate gambler, once claiming that winning was the greatest pleasure in the world, and losing the second greatest. Between 1772 and 1774, Fox's fathershortly before dyinghad to pay off £120,000 of Charles' debts; the equivalent of around £ million in. Fox was twice bankrupted between 1781 and 1784, and at one point his creditors confiscated his furniture. Fox's finances were often "more the subject of conversation than any other topic." By the end of his life, Fox had lost about £200,000 gambling.  In appearance, Fox was dark, corpulent and hairy, to the extent that when he was born his father compared him to a monkey. His round face was dominated by his luxuriant eyebrows, with the result that he was known among fellow Whigs as 'the Eyebrow.' Though he became increasingly dishevelled and fat in middle age, the young Fox had been very fashionable; he had been the leader of the 'Maccaroni' set of extravagant young followers of Continental fashions. Fox liked riding horses and watching and playing cricket, but his impulsive nature and considerable bulk led to his often being run out between wickets.  Fox was extremely ridiculed – most famously by Gillray, for whom he served as a stock Jacobin villain. The King disliked Fox greatly, regarding him as beyond morality and the corrupter of his own eldest son, and the late eighteenth-century movements of Christian evangelism and middle-class'respectability' also frowned on his excesses. Fox was apparently not greatly bothered by these criticisms and kept a collection of his caricatures, which he found amusing. His friend, Frederick Howard, 5th Earl of Carlisle, said of him, since "the respect of the world was not easily retrievable, he became so callous to what was said of him, as never to

Legacy.

In the 19th century, liberals portrayed Fox as their hero, praising his courage, perseverance and eloquence. They celebrated his opposition to war in alliance with European despots against the people of France eager for their freedom, and they praised his fight for liberties at home. The liberals saluted his fights for parliamentary reform, Catholic Emancipation, intellectual freedom, and justice for the Dissenters. They were especially pleased with his fight for the abolition of the slave trade. More recent historians put Fox in the context of the 18th century, and emphasize the brilliance of his battles with Pitt. A statue of Fox stands, alongside other notable Parliamentarians, in St Stephen's Hall in the Palace of Westminster.  While not wholly forgotten today Fox is no longer the famous hero he had been, and is less well remembered than Pitt. After 1794, the word 'Whig' gave way to the word "Foxite" as the self-description of the members of the opposition to Pitt. In many ways, the Pittite-Foxite division of Parliament after the French Revolution established the basis for the ideological Conservative-Liberal divide of the nineteenth century. Fox and Pitt went down in parliamentary history as legendary political and oratorical opponents who would not be equalled until the days of Gladstone and Disraeli more than half a century later. Even Fox’s great rival was willing to acknowledge the old Whig’s talents. When, in 1790, the comte de Mirabeau disparaged Fox in Pitt's presence, Pitt stopped him, saying, "You have never seen the wizard within the magic circle."  As Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey asked a Newcastle-upon-Tyne Fox dinner in 1819: "What subject is there, whether of foreign or domestic interest, or that in the smallest degree affects our Constitution which does not immediately associate itself with the memory of Mr Fox?" Fox's name was invoked numerous times in debates by supporters of Catholic Emancipation and the Great Reform Act in the early nineteenth century. John Russell, 6th Duke of Bedford kept a bust of Fox in his pantheon of Whig grandees at Woburn Abbey and erected a statue of him in Bloomsbury Square. Sarah Siddons kept a portrait of Fox in her dressing room. In 1811, the Prince of Wales took the oaths of office as regent with a bust of Fox at his side. Whig households would collect locks of Fox's hair, books of his conflated speeches and busts in his likeness. The Fox Club was established in London in 1790 and held the first of its Fox dinners – annual events celebrating Fox's birthday – in 1808; the last recorded dinner took place at Brooks's in 1907.  The town of Foxborough, Massachusetts, was named in honour of the staunch supporter of American independence. Fox is remembered in his home town of Chertsey by a bust on a high plinth ("pictured left"), erected in 2006 in a new development by the railway station. Fox is also commemorated in a termly dinner held in his honour at his "alma mater", Hertford College, Oxford, by students of English, history and the romance languages.  Fox was the subject of the epigraph in John F. Kennedy's Pulitzer-prize winning book "Profiles in Courage": "He well knows what snares are spread about his path, from personal animosity...and possibly from popular delusion. But he has put to hazard his ease, his security, his interest, his power, even his...popularity....He is traduced and abused for his supposed motives. He will remember that obloquy is a necessary ingredient in the composition of all true glory: he will remember...that calumny and abuse are essential parts of triumph....He may live long, he may do much. But here is the summit. He never can exceed what he does this day." — Edmund Burke’s eulogy of Charles James Fox for his attack upon the tyranny of the East India Company. House of Commons, 1 December 1783 Fox featured as a character in the 1994 movie "The Madness of King George", portrayed by Jim Carter; in the 2006 movie "Amazing Grace", played by Michael Gambon; and in the 2008 movie "The Duchess," played by Simon McBurney. Fox is also portrayed in the 1999 BBC mini series "Aristocrats".

Charles James Fox (24 January 1749 – 13 September 1806), styled "The Honourable" from 1762, was a prominent British Whig statesman whose parliamentary career spanned 38 years of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. He was the arch-rival of the Tory politician William Pitt the Younger. His father Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland, a leading Whig of his day, had similarly been the great rival of Pitt's famous father William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham ("Pitt the Elder"). Fox rose to prominence in the House of Commons as a forceful and eloquent speaker with a notorious and colourful private life, though his opinions were rather conservative and conventional. However, with the coming of the American War of Independence and the influence of the Whig Edmund Burke, Fox's opinions evolved into some of the most radical ever to be aired in the Parliament of his era.

Charles James Fox (24. ledna 1749, Londýn, Anglie – 13. září 1806, Londýn, Anglie) byl britský politik z významného rodu Foxů. Od devatenácti let až do smrti byl členem Dolní sněmovny. Vynikl jako jeden z nejvýznamnějších parlamentních řečníků přelomu 18. a 19. století, v politice patřil k whigům, zastával liberální názory, podporoval úsilí amerických kolonistů o získání nezávislosti a francouzskou revoluci, zasazoval se o zrušení otroctví a emancipaci náboženských menšin. Celý život se potýkal s nepřízní krále Jiřího III. a většinu své politické dráhy strávil v opozici proti dlouholeté vládě Williama Pitta. Třikrát byl britským ministrem zahraničí (1782, 1783, 1806), celkově tuto funkci ale vykonával jen dvacet měsíců.


Early years.

Kristal was born in New York City in 1931, the son of Russian Jewish immigrants. His father, Shamai Kristal, was a Russian pogrom survivor. His family moved to Hightstown, New Jersey when he was an infant. He studied music from a young age and eventually attended the Settlement Music School in Philadelphia. Kristal also spent a period of time in the Marines.

Venturing into music.

He moved back to New York City, where he worked as a singer, appearing on stage in the men's choral group at Radio City Music Hall. He later became the manager of the Village Vanguard, a jazz club in Greenwich Village, where he booked Miles Davis and other musicians.  He married in 1951 and had two children: Lisa Kristal Burgman and Mark Dana Kristal.  In 1966 he and Ron Delsener co-founded the Rheingold Central Park Music Festival, sponsored by Rheingold Beer. By 1968, Delsener had changed beer sponsors to Schaefer and Kristal was no longer involved. The festival took place every year until 1976 in Central Park and featured musicians from a range of genres, including Miles Davis, the Who, Chuck Berry, Bob Marley, B.B. King, Led Zeppelin, the Beach Boys, Frank Zappa, Ray Charles, Patti LaBelle, Ike & Tina Turner, Fleetwood Mac, the Allman Brothers, Slade, Kris Kristofferson, Curtis Mayfield, Bruce Springsteen, Aerosmith and the Doors.

CBGB.

In 1970, Kristal opened a bar in the Bowery section of New York called "Hilly's on the Bowery", which closed within a couple of years. Then in December 1973, he created "CBGB and OMFUG", an abbreviation for the kinds of music he intended to feature there (the letters stood for "Country, BlueGrass, Blues and Other Music For Uplifting Gormandizers"). The club, eventually called simply CBGB, became known as the starting point for the careers of such punk rock and new wave acts as the Ramones, Talking Heads, Patti Smith, Television and Blondie. Kristal also briefly managed Dead Boys and The Shirts, two bands that frequently performed at his club.  CBGB featured many famous musicians over the years and remained very popular until its closing in 2006 due to a personal disagreement with the landlord, who opted not to renew the lease. For a short while after the closing, Kristal considered moving the club to Las Vegas.  A film, "CBGB", about Kristal and the origins of the club, was released in October 2013. Actor Alan Rickman portrayed Kristal in the film.

Death.

Kristal died on August 28, 2007 from complications of lung cancer, aged 75.

Hillel Kristal (September 23, 1931August 28, 2007) was an American club owner, manager and musician who was the owner of the iconic New York City club CBGB, which opened in 1973 and closed in 2006 over a rent dispute.

Hilly Kristal (23. září 1931 – 28. srpna 2007) byl Američan, který vlastnil hudební klub CBGB v New Yorku. Od dětství studoval hudbu, později například na filadelfské škole Settlement Music School. Později zpíval ve sboru v newyorské Radio City Music Hall. Dále pracoval v hudebním klubu Village Vanguard. V šedesátých letech pořádal festival Schaefer Music Festival a v roce 1970 otevřel na Bowery bar nazvaný "Hilly's on the Bowery". Po jeho zániku otevřel klub CBGB (1973). Zemřel na karcinom plic ve věku 75 let. Ve filmu "" (2013) jej ztvárnil Alan Rickman.


Development.

The game was developed by Charles University and the Czech Academy of Sciences. It is the first game in the Czechoslovakia 38-89 project, which covers different events from contemporary history. "Attentat 1942" is a significantly enhanced version of the game "Československo 38-89: Atentát", which was released in the Czech language in 2015, adapted and changed for an international audience. Revenues from the game are to be invested into the continuing research and science in their field. The core development team is composed of the lead game designer, Vít Šisler (from the Faculty of Arts), the lead programmer, Jakub Gemrot (from the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics), art director Richard Alexander, and students from Charles University and historians from the Institute of Contemporary History of the Czech Academy of Sciences. The illustrations were created by Peter Novák (Ticho 762), and the music was composed by the band DVA, which also created soundtracks for the games Botanicula and Chuchel. The game was released for Windows and Mac on Steam on October 31, 2017. The game is available in Czech, with English, Russian, and German subtitles.

Release.

The game was released on Steam in October 2017. It was available worldwide, except for Germany, where it was banned due to German laws barring games containing Nazi symbols. In May 2018, "Attentat 1942" won the "Most Amazing Game" Award at the A MAZE festival in Berlin, although attendees could not play it. In August 2018, the policy of USK, the authority providing age ratings for video games, was changed to allow games with Nazi symbolism to receive age ratings, depending on their individual "social adequacy". "Attentat 1942" was released in Germany as the first PC game with Nazi symbolism with the USK age rating after the policy change.

Reception.

The game holds a 75% rating on Metacritic based on thirteen generally favorable reviews.  Rock, Paper, Shotgun stated: "["Attentat 1942"] captivates from start to finish by humanizing history brilliantly." Destructoid's review was also positive: ""Attentat 1942" will be a treasure not only for a fresh perspective on a widely reported period of time but also for the amount of work that you can see the developers put into making sure their story fit within the confines of history."

Attentat 1942 is a Czech point-and-click adventure game, in which players take the role of Jindřich Jelínek's grandchild. Jelínek was arrested by the Gestapo shortly after the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich, ruler of the Nazi-occupied Czech lands and the leading architect of The Holocaust. The objective of the game is to establish what role he played in the attack, as well as the reason for his arrest. Throughout the investigation, players interview eyewitnesses, discover the family's back story and learn more about life in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.

Attentat 1942 je česká počítačová hra z roku 2017, která vypráví příběh nacistické okupace za 2. světové války z pohledu lidí, kteří válku zažili. Hra je založena na filmových rozhovorech, interaktivních komiksech a autentických záběrech. Postavy ve hře a jejich příběhy jsou fiktivní, ale byly vytvořeny na základě historického výzkumu a dobových svědectví.


Design and construction.

"Charleston" was built with plans purchased from Armstrong, a British manufacturer, which were similar to the Armstrong-built and launched in 1885. was also built to Armstrong plans. Building "Charleston"s propulsion machinery proved troublesome; apparently it was a combination of components of several different plants. Union Iron Works had to make costly changes in order to build the ship.  "Charleston" was armed with two /35 caliber Mark 3 guns, one each in bow and stern barbettes, and six /30 caliber Mark 3 guns in sponsons along the sides. The 8-inch guns were initially unavailable, so from her commissioning in 1889 until a refit in 1891 they were replaced by four additional 6-inch guns. Secondary armament was four 6-pounder () guns, two 3-pounder () Hotchkiss revolving cannon, two 1-pounder () Hotchkiss revolving cannon, and two.45 caliber (11.4 mm) Gatling guns. Four torpedo tubes were included in the design but never mounted.  "Charleston" had gun shields, barbettes, and a conning tower. The complete armored deck was up to on its sloped sides and in the middle.  The engineering plant included six coal-fired cylindrical boilers producing steam for two horizontal compound engines totaling for a speed of on trials. "Charleston" was the last US Navy ship with the older compound engine design; later ships had more powerful and efficient triple expansion engines. Unlike some contemporary designs, no sails were fitted. "Charleston" carried 328 tons of coal for a range of at ; this could be increased to 682 tons for.

Service history.

Pacific, 1890–96.

"Charleston" cleared Mare Island Navy Yard on 10 April 1890 to join the Pacific Squadron as flagship, cruising in the eastern Pacific. She carried the remains of King David Kalakaua of Hawaii to Honolulu after his death in San Francisco, and between 8 May and 4 June 1891, took part in the search for the Chilean steamer "Itata" which had fled San Diego in violation of the American neutrality laws, enforced strictly during the 1891 Chilean Civil War. Between 19 August and 31 December 1891, "Charleston" cruised in the Far East as flagship of the Asiatic Squadron, rejoining the Pacific Squadron in 1892 until 7 October, when she departed for the east coast, calling at a number of South American ports en route.  "Charleston" arrived in Hampton Roads on 23 February 1893. From here she sailed with other American and foreign ships to the International Naval Review conducted at New York City on 26 April 1893 as part of the Columbian Exposition. Taking the review was President Grover Cleveland in despatch vessel USS "Dolphin". In the fall of 1893, "Charleston" turned south to join the strong force patrolling the east coast of South America to protect American interests and shipping from disturbance during the Brazilian Revolution. After a leisurely cruise from Montevideo, Uruguay, she arrived in San Francisco on 8 July 1894 to prepare for a return to the Asiatic Station. She cruised in the Far East until 6 June 1896, when she steamed from Yokohama for San Francisco where she was placed out of commission on 27 July 1896.

Spanish–American War, 1898–99.

Upon the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, "Charleston" was quickly made ready for service, and was recommissioned on 5 May 1898, Captain Henry Glass, Commanding. Sixteen days later, she sailed for Honolulu, where she was joined by three chartered steamers transporting troops, including "City of Peking".  "Charleston" was sent to raise the American flag over Guam, then a Spanish possession. At daybreak on 20 June, the little convoy arrived off the north end of Guam. "Charleston" investigated the harbor at Agana, then proceeded to Apra Harbor. Leaving the transports safely anchored outside, "Charleston" sailed boldly into the harbor, firing a challenge at Fort Santa Cruz. Almost at once, a boatload of Spanish authorities came out to apologize for having no gunpowder with which to return the presumed salute. They were astounded to learn that a state of war existed, and that the American ships had come to take the island. The next day the surrender was received by a landing party sent ashore from "Charleston". With the Spanish governor and the island's garrison of 69 as prisoners in one of the transports, "Charleston" then sailed to join Admiral George Dewey's fleet in Manila Bay.  She arrived Manila on 30 June 1898 to reinforce the victors of the previous month's great naval battle in their close blockade of the Bay. "Charleston" joined in the final bombardment of 13 August, which brought about the surrender of the city of Manila. She remained in the Philippines through 1898 and 1899, bombarding insurgent positions to aid Army forces advancing ashore, and taking part in the naval expedition that captured Subic Bay in September 1899.

Loss by wrecking, November 1899.

"Charleston" grounded on an uncharted reef near Camiguin Island north of Luzon on 2 November 1899. Wrecked beyond salvage, she was abandoned by all her crew, who made camp on a nearby island, later moving on to Camiguin while the ship's sailing launch was sent for help. On 12 November, gunboat arrived to rescue the shipwrecked men. "Charleston" was the first steel-hulled ship lost by the US Navy.

The second USS "Charleston" (C-2) was a United States Navy protected cruiser — the fourth US protected cruiser to be built. Lacking experience in building steel cruisers, the design was purchased from the British company Armstrong, Mitchell and Co. of Newcastle, the construction to be by an American shipyard. In design, she succeeded the "ABC" cruisers,, and with better protection, higher speed, and similar armament.

USS Charleston (C-2) byla chráněný křižník námořnictva Spojených států amerických. Ve službě byl v letech 1889–1898. Byl ztracen najetím na mělčinu.


Career.

Osian Ellis was born in Ffynnongroyw, Flintshire in 1928, spending the first 4 years of his life at Llys Myfr on Llinegr Hill. He studied at the Royal Academy of Music with Gwendolen Mason, whom he later succeeded as Professor of Harp from 1959 to 1989. He joined the London Symphony Orchestra in 1961 and was Principal Harpist. He was a member of the Melos Ensemble and also formed the Osian Ellis Harp Ensemble.  His 1959 recording of Handel's harp concertos (with Thurston Dart) won the Grand Prix du Disque. In 1962, the Melos Ensemble with Osian Ellis released what is considered by musicologist Paul Loeber the finest rendition ever of Ravel's "Introduction and Allegro", playing with Richard Adeney (flute), Gervase de Peyer (clarinet), Emanuel Hurwitz and Ivor McMahon (violin), Cecil Aronowitz (viola) and Terence Weil (cello). The record, released on the L'oiseau-Lyre label, OL 50217, also included works by three other French composers — Debussy: Sonata for Flute, Viola & Harp; Albert Roussel: Serenade for Flute, Violin, Viola, Cello and Harp; and Guy Ropartz: "Prelude, Marine and Chansons" for Flute, Violin, Viola, Cello and Harp. He also took part in the ensemble's recording of Peter Maxwell Davies's cantata "Leopardi Fragments".  Ellis was made Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1971. He is the Honorary President of the Wales International Harp Festival.

Influence on other musicians.

Concertos have been written specially for him by Alun Hoddinott (for the Cheltenham Festival in 1957), William Mathias (for the Llandaff Festival of 1970), Jorgen Jersild (1972), William Alwyn (1979) and Robin Holloway (1985).  Ellis is particularly known for his musical association with Benjamin Britten, with whom he collaborated extensively. Britten wrote the harp part in several of his major pieces with Ellis in mind, particularly "A Midsummer Night's Dream", the "War Requiem" and the Church Parables. Britten also wrote his "Harp Suite" (Op. 83) for Ellis (1969). Ellis appears in many first recordings of Britten's pieces, often with Britten himself conducting. In later life Britten withdrew from accompanying his partner the tenor Peter Pears on the piano. Ellis was one of the artists who accompanied Pears, and Britten wrote pieces for Pears and Ellis, including Canticle V: "The Death of St Narcissus" and "A Birthday Hansel".

Compositions and writings.

His own compositions have drawn on his Welsh heritage, including settings of Welsh folksongs for tenor and harp and settings of medieval Welsh strict metre poems. "Diversions" for two harps includes a "cerdd dant" setting of a Dylan Thomas poem.  His writings include "The Story of the Harp in Wales" (1991) (a revision of an earlier publication in Welsh), which traces the harp's development and discusses some famous harpists.

Osian Gwynn Ellis CBE (born 8 February 1928) is a Welsh harpist and composer, known as the first harpist of the Melos Ensemble and for his musical association with Benjamin Britten.

Osian Gwynn Ellis (* 8. února 1928 Ffynnongroew) je velšský harfenista a hudební skladatel. Studoval na Královské akademii hudby v Londýně, kde byl následně v letech 1959 až 1989 profesorem hry na harfu. V roce 1961 začal hrát s Londýnským symfonickým orchestrem a také působil v uskupení Melos Ensemble, stejně jako ve vlastním harfenistickém ansámblu. Je autorem knihy "The Story of the Harp in Wales". Rovněž hrál na varhany v kapli ve obci Pwllheli, kde řadu let žil.


Signs and symptoms.

The symptoms of vaginal thrush include vulval itching, vulval soreness and irritation, pain or discomfort during sexual intercourse (superficial dyspareunia), pain or discomfort during urination (dysuria) and vaginal discharge, which is usually odourless. This can be thin and watery, or thick and white, like paper paste or cottage cheese.  As well as the above symptoms of thrush, vulvovaginal inflammation can also be present. The signs of vulvovaginal inflammation include erythema (redness) of the vagina and vulva, vaginal fissuring (cracked skin), edema (swelling from a build-up of fluid), also in severe cases, satellite lesions (sores in the surrounding area). This is rare, but may indicate the presence of another fungal condition, or the herpes simplex virus (the virus that causes genital herpes).  Vaginal candidiasis can very rarely cause congenital candidiasis in newborns.

Causes.

Vaginal yeast infections are typically caused by the yeast species "Candida albicans". "Candida albicans" is a common fungus often harbored in the mouth, digestive tract, or vagina without causing adverse symptoms. The causes of excessive "Candida" growth are not well understood, but some predisposing factors have been identified.

Medications.

Infection occurs in about 30% of women who are taking a course of antibiotics by mouth. Broad-spectrum antibiotics kill healthy bacteria in the vagina, such as "Lactobacillus". These bacteria normally help to limit yeast colonization.  The evidence of the effect of oral contraceptives is controversial.

Pregnancy.

In pregnancy, higher levels of estrogen make a woman more likely to develop a yeast infection. During pregnancy, the "Candida" fungus is more common, and recurrent infection is also more likely. There is tentative evidence that treatment of asymptomatic candidal vulvovaginitis in pregnancy reduces the risk of preterm birth.

Lifestyle.

While infections may occur without sex, a high frequency of intercourse increases the risk. Personal hygiene methods or tight-fitting clothing, such as tights and thong underwear, do not appear to increase the risk.

Diseases.

Those with poorly controlled diabetes have increased rates of infection while those with well controlled diabetes do not. The risk of developing thrush is also increased when there is poor immune function, as with HIV/AIDS, or in those receiving chemotherapy.

Less common infection types.

While "Candida albicans" is the most common yeast species associated with vaginal thrush, infection by other types of yeast can produce similar symptoms. A Hungarian study of 370 patients with confirmed vaginal yeast infections identified the following types of infection:  Non-albicans "Candida" are often found in complicated cases of vaginal thrush in which the first line of treatment is ineffective. These cases are more likely in those who are immunocompromised.

Diagnosis.

Vulvovaginal candidosis is the presence of "Candida" in addition to vaginal inflammation. The presence of yeast is typically diagnosed in one of three ways: vaginal wet mount microscopy, microbial culture, and antigen tests. The results may be described as being either uncomplicated or complicated.

Uncomplicated.

Uncomplicated thrush is when there are less than four episodes in a year, the symptoms are mild or moderate, it is likely caused by "Candida albicans", and there are no significant host factors such as poor immune function.

Complicated.

Complicated thrush is four or more episodes of thrush in a year or when severe symptoms of vulvovaginal inflammation are experienced. It is also complicated if coupled with pregnancy, poorly controlled diabetes, poor immune function, or the thrush is not caused by "Candida albicans".

Recurrent.

About 5-8% of the reproductive age female population will have four or more episodes of symptomatic Candida infection per year; this condition is called recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis (RVVC). Because vaginal and gut colonization with Candida is commonly seen in people with no recurrent symptoms, recurrent symptomatic infections are not simply due to the presence of Candida organisms. There is some support for the theory that RVVC results from an especially intense inflammatory reaction to colonization. Candida antigens can be presented to antigen-presenting cells, which may trigger cytokine production and activate lymphocytes and neutrophils that then cause inflammation and edema.

Treatment.

The following treatments are typically recommended:  Short-course topical formulations (i.e., single dose and regimens of 1–3 days) effectively treat uncomplicated candidal vulvovaginitis. The topically applied azole drugs are more effective than nystatin. Treatment with azoles results in relief of symptoms and negative cultures in 80–90% of patients who complete therapy.  The creams and suppositories in this regimen are oil-based and might weaken latex condoms and diaphragms. Treatment for vagina thrush using antifungal medication is ineffective in up to 20% of cases. Treatment for thrush is considered to have failed if the symptoms do not clear within 7–14 days. There are a number of reasons for treatment failure. For example, if the infection is a different kind, such as bacterial vaginosis (the most common cause of abnormal vaginal discharge), rather than thrush.

Recurrent.

For infrequent recurrences, the simplest and most cost-effective management is self-diagnosis and early initiation of topical therapy. However, women whose condition has previously been diagnosed with candidal vulvovaginitis are not necessarily more likely to be able to diagnose themselves; therefore, any woman whose symptoms persist after using an over the counter preparation, or who has a recurrence of symptoms within 2 months, should be evaluated with office-based testing. Unnecessary or inappropriate use of topical preparations is common and can lead to a delay in the treatment of other causes of vulvovaginitis, which can result in worse outcomes.  When there are more than four recurrent episodes of candidal vulvovaginitis per year, a longer initial treatment course is recommended, such as orally administered fluconazole followed by a second and third dose 3 and 6 days later, respectively.  Other treatments after more than four episodes per year, may include ten days of either oral or topical treatment followed by fluconazole orally once per week for 6 months. About 10-15% of recurrent candidal vulvovaginitis cases are due to non-"Candida albicans" species. Non-"albicans" species tend to have higher levels of resistance to fluconazole. Therefore, recurrence or persistence of symptoms while on treatment indicates speciation and antifungal resistance tests to tailor antifungal treatment.

Alternative medicine.

Up to 40% of women seek alternatives to treat vaginal yeast infection. Example products are herbal preparations, probiotics and vaginal acidifying agents. Other alternative treatment approaches include switching contraceptive, treatment of the sexual partner and gentian violet. However, the effectiveness of such treatments has not received much study.  Probiotics (either as pills or as yogurt) do not appear to decrease the rate of occurrence of vaginal yeast infections. No benefit has been found for active infections. Example probiotics purported to treat and prevent candida infections are Lactobacillus fermentum RC-14, Lactobacillus fermentum B-54, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GR-1, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and Lactobacillus acidophilus.  There is no evidence to support the use of special cleansing diets and colonic hydrotherapy for prevention.

Epidemiology.

The number of cases of vaginal yeast infection is not entirely clear because it is not a reportable disease and it is commonly diagnosed clinically without laboratory confirmation.  Candidiasis is one of the three most common vaginal infections along with bacterial vaginosis and trichomonas. Approximately 20% of women get an infection yearly. About 75% of women have at least one infection in their lifetime.

Vaginal yeast infection, also known as candidal vulvovaginitis and vaginal thrush, is excessive growth of yeast in the vagina that results in irritation. The most common symptom is vaginal itching, which may be severe. Other symptoms include burning with urination, a thick, white vaginal discharge that typically does not smell bad, pain during sex, and redness around the vagina. Symptoms often worsen just before a woman's period. Vaginal yeast infections are due to excessive growth of "Candida". These yeast are normally present in the vagina in small numbers. It is not classified as a sexually transmitted infection; however, it may occur more often in those who are frequently sexually active. Risk factors include taking antibiotics, pregnancy, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS. Eating a diet high in simple sugar may also play a role. Tight clothing, type of underwear, and personal hygiene do not appear to be factors. Diagnosis is by testing a sample of vaginal discharge. As symptoms are similar to that of the sexually transmitted infections, chlamydia and gonorrhea, testing may be recommended. Despite the lack of evidence, wearing cotton underwear and loose fitting clothing is often recommended as a preventive measure. Avoiding douching and scented hygiene products is also recommended. Treatment is with an antifungal medication. This may be either as a cream such as clotrimazole or with oral medications such as fluconazole. Probiotics have not been found to be useful for active infections. Around 75% of women have at least one vaginal yeast infection at some point in their lives, while nearly half have at least two. Around 5% have more than three infections in a single year. It is the second most common cause of vaginal inflammation after bacterial vaginosis.

Vaginální kandidóza je velmi častá infekce způsobená převážně kvasinkou Candida albicans. Je pro ni typické svědění, pálení, bolest a zčervenání pochvy a vulvy. Je také často doprovázena bílým hrudkovitým výtokem bez zápachu. Až 75 % žen se za život alespoň jednou setká s kvasinkovou infekcí pochvy, nejčastěji během těhotenství. Kvasinky jsou běžnou součástí komenzální mikroflóry až 20 % zdravých žen. Ačkoli léčba primární infekce pomocí antimykotik je často úspěšná, u 5-8 % žen dochází k opakovanému návratu této nemoci (čtyřikrát až vícekrát za rok). Možnými příčinami vzniku tohoto onemocnění může být užívání estrogenové hormonální antikoncepce, hormonální terapie, užívání antibiotik, narušení vaginální mikroflóry a neléčený diabetes mellitus.


History.

The mission started as a reformulation of the Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter proposal, which was to be ESA's component of the cancelled Europa Jupiter System Mission – Laplace (EJSM-Laplace). It became a candidate for the first L-class mission (L1) of the ESA Cosmic Vision Programme, and its selection was announced on 2 May 2012.  In April 2012, JUICE was recommended over the proposed ATHENA X-ray telescope and a gravitational wave observatory (New Gravitational wave Observatory (NGO)). In July 2015, Airbus Defence and Space was selected as the prime contractor to design and build the probe.

Timeline.

Launch and trajectory.

JUICE will be launched in May 2022 by an Ariane 5 rocket. Following the launch, there is a planned first flyby of Earth in May 2023, Venus in October 2023, second flyby of Earth in September 2024, Mars in February 2025 and a final third flyby of Earth in November 2026, to put the JUICE on a trajectory to Jupiter.

Arrival to the Jovian system.

In October 2029, when it arrives in Jupiter's system, JUICE will first perform a flyby of Ganymede in preparation for orbital insertion ≈7.5 hours later. The first orbit will be elongated, with the first Jupiter closest approach taking place in May 2030. After that, the orbits will be gradually closer to Jupiter, resulting in a circular orbit.  The first Europa flyby will take place in October 2030. JUICE will enter a high inclination orbit to allow exploration of Jupiter's polar regions. JUICE will study Jupiter's magnetosphere. Then a Callisto flyby in April 2031 will put JUICE on a normal equatorial orbit. Also, there is a transit of Europa and Io that will occur on 27 January 2032.

Orbital insertion on Ganymede.

In September 2032, JUICE will enter an elliptical orbit around Ganymede, becoming the first spacecraft to orbit a moon other than Earth's. The first orbit will be at a distance of. In February 2033, JUICE will enter a circular orbit above the surface of Ganymede. JUICE will study Ganymede's composition and magnetosphere among other things.

Planned deorbit on Ganymede.

When the spacecraft consumes its propellant, JUICE is planned to be deorbited and impact Ganymede in February 2034.

Science objectives.

The "Jupiter Icy moons Explorer" orbiter will perform detailed investigations on Ganymede and evaluate its potential to support life. Investigations of Europa and Callisto will complete a comparative picture of these Galilean moons. The three moons are thought to harbour internal liquid water oceans, and so are central to understanding the habitability of icy worlds.  The main science objectives for Ganymede, and to a lesser extent for Callisto, are:  For Europa, the focus is on the chemistry essential to life, including organic molecules, and on understanding the formation of surface features and the composition of the non-water-ice material. Furthermore, JUICE will provide the first subsurface sounding of the moon, including the first determination of the minimal thickness of the icy crust over the most recently active regions.  More distant spatially resolved observations will also be carried out for several minor irregular satellites and the volcanically active moon Io.

Spacecraft.

Design drivers.

The main spacecraft design drivers are related to the large distance to the Sun, the use of solar power, and Jupiter's harsh radiation environment. The orbit insertions at Jupiter and Ganymede and the large number of flyby manoeuvres (more than 25 gravity assists, and two Europa flybys) requires the spacecraft to carry about of chemical propellant.  Gravity assists include:

Ganymede Lander.

The Russian Space Research Institute is currently evaluating a Ganymede lander mission called Laplace-P, with emphasis in astrobiology. Cooperation and a possible synergy with JUICE Ganymede orbital mission is being discussed between ESA and Roscosmos. Russia had also proposed to power the JUICE spacecraft with a Russian-built radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), replacing solar panels that would be vulnerable to Jupiter's radiation.

Science instruments.

On 21 February 2013, after a competition, 11 science instruments were selected by ESA, which are being developed by science and engineering teams from all over Europe, with participation from the US. Japan will also contribute several components for SWI, RPWI, GALA, PEP, JANUS and J-MAG instruments, and will facilitate testing.

Targets.

The craft will have encounters with three planets and the Moon before arriving at Jupiter.

The JUpiter ICy moons Explorer (JUICE) is an interplanetary spacecraft in development by the European Space Agency (ESA) with Airbus Defence and Space as the main contractor. The mission will study three of Jupiter's Galilean moons: Ganymede, Callisto, and Europa (excluding the more volcanically active Io) all of which are thought to have significant bodies of liquid water beneath their surfaces, making them potentially habitable environments.

JUpiter ICy moons Explorer (zkráceně JUICE) je projekt kosmické sondy Evropské kosmické agentury (ESA), která se má vypravit k planetě Jupiter a k okolním měsícům.


History.

As early as the 19th century, the Peak attracted prominent European residents because of its panoramic view over the city and its temperate climate compared to the sub-tropical climate in the rest of Hong Kong. The sixth Governor of Hong Kong, Sir Richard MacDonnell had a summer residence built on the Peak circa 1868. Those that built houses named them whimsically, such as The Eyrie, and the Austin Arms.  These original residents reached their homes by sedan chairs, which were carried up and down the steep slope of Victoria Peak. This limited development of the Peak until the opening of the Peak Tram funicular in 1888.  The boost to accessibility caused by the opening of the Peak Tram created demand for residences on the Peak. Between 1904 and 1930, the Peak Reservation Ordinance designated the Peak as an exclusive residential area reserved for non-Chinese. They also reserved the Peak Tram for the use of such passengers during peak periods. The Peak remains an upmarket residential area, although residency today is based on wealth.  In 1905 construction of the Pinewood Battery was completed on the western side of the Peak. Harlech Road was constructed around the Peak as a means of resupply to this artillery and later anti-aircraft battery.

Ecology.

The Peak is home to many species of birds, most prominently the black kite, and numerous species of butterflies. Wild boar and porcupines are also seen on Peak, along with a variety of snakes.

Tourism.

With some seven million visitors every year, the Peak is a major tourist attraction of Hong Kong. It has views of the city and its waterfront. The viewing deck also has coin-operated telescopes that the visitors can use to enjoy the cityscape. The number of visitors led to the construction of two major leisure and shopping centres, the Peak Tower and the Peak Galleria, situated adjacent to each other.  The Peak Tower incorporates the upper station of the Peak Tram, the funicular railway that brings passengers up from the St. John's Anglican Cathedral in Hong Kong's Central district, whilst the Peak Galleria incorporates the bus station used by the Hong Kong public buses and green minibuses on the Peak. The Peak is also accessible by taxi and private car via the circuitous Peak Road, or by walking up the steep Old Peak Road from near the Zoological Botanical Gardens or the Central Green Trail from Hong Kong Park. The nearest MTR station is Central.  Victoria Peak Garden is located on the site of Mountain Lodge, the Governor's old summer residence, and is the closest publicly accessible point to the summit. It can be reached from Victoria Gap by walking up Mount Austin Road, a climb of about. Another popular walk is the level loop along Lugard and Harlech Roads, giving good views of the entire Hong Kong Harbour and Kowloon, as well as Lantau and Lamma Islands, encircling the summit at the level of the Peak Tower.  There are several restaurants on Victoria Peak, most of which are located in the two shopping centres. However, the Peak Lookout Restaurant, is housed in an older and more traditional building which was originally a spacious house for engineers working on the Peak Tramway. It was rebuilt in 1901 as a stop area for sedan chairs, but was re-opened as a restaurant in 1947.  In addition to being a major tourist attraction for Hong Kong, The Peak is also the summit of Hong Kong's property market. Properties on The Peak can be as expensive as anywhere else in the world. On 12 January 2014, a Barker Road property sold at over HK$100,000 (US$13,000) per square foot for HK$690 million.

Official residences.

The Peak is home to a few other key officials in Hong Kong:

Victoria Peak is a hill on the western half of Hong Kong Island. It is also known as Mount Austin, and locally as The Peak. With an elevation of, it is the highest hill on Hong Kong island, ranked 31 in terms of elevation in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (Tai Mo Shan is the highest point in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region with an elevation of ).

Victoria Peak (čínsky:太平山; pchin-jinem:"Tàipíng Shān;" standardní čínština:) je hora na západní části ostrova Hongkong. S výškou 552 metrů nad mořem je to nejvyšší vrchol ostrova, ale nejvyšší horou celého Hongkongu je výrazně vyšší Tai Mo Shan (957 m). Nejvyšší přístupnou horou je Lantau Peak (934 m) na ostrově Lantau. Viktoria Peak je turisticky oblíbenější a vyhledávanější, protože na vrcholu hory Tai Mo Shan se nachází meteorologická stanice a je veřejnosti nepřístupný.


History.

Origins.

The strong tradition of theological teaching in Durham gave rise to various attempts to form a university there, notably under King Henry VIII and Oliver Cromwell, who issued letters patent and nominated a proctor and fellows for the establishment of a college in 1657. However, there was deep concern expressed by Oxford and Cambridge that the

The church university, 1832–1909.

The university opened on 28 October 1833. In 1834 all but two of the bishops of the Church of England confirmed that they would accept holders of Durham degrees for ordination. In 1835 a fundamental statute was passed by the Dean and Chapter, as governors of the University, setting up Convocation and laying down that Durham degrees would only be open to members of the Church of England. Regulations for degrees were finalised in 1836 and the university was incorporated by Royal Charter granted by William IV on 1 June 1837 as the "Warden, Masters and Scholars of the University of Durham", with the first students graduating a week later. Accommodation was provided in the Archdeacon's Inn (now Cosin's Hall) from 1833 to 1837. On the

The federal university, 1909–1963.

The Newcastle division of the university, which comprised both Armstrong College (named after Lord Armstrong) and Durham University College of Medicine, quickly grew to outnumber the Durham colleges, despite the addition of two independent Anglican foundations: St Chad's College (1904) and St John's College (1909). A parliamentary bill proposed in 1907 would have fixed the seat of the university in Durham for only ten years, allowing the Senate to choose to move to Newcastle after this. This was blocked by a local MP, with the support of graduates of the Durham colleges, until the bill was modified to establish a federal university with its seat fixed in Durham. This reform also removed the university from the authority of the Dean and Chapter of Durham Cathedral, who had been the governors of the university since its foundation. Thirty years after this, the Royal Commission of 1937 recommended changes in the constitution of the federal university, resulting in the

The modern university, 1963–1999.

By the time of the separation from Newcastle the Elvet Hill site was well established; with the first of the new colleges being founded in 1959, Grey College, named after the second Earl Grey who was the Prime Minister when the university was founded. Expansion up Elvet Hill continued, with Van Mildert College and the Durham Business School (1965), Trevelyan College (1966) and Collingwood College (1972) all being added to the university, along with a Botanic Garden (1970). These were not

Development in Stockton, 1992–1999.

In 1991, a joint venture between the university and the University of Teesside saw the Joint University College on Teesside of the Universities of Durham and Teesside (JUCOT) established at Thornaby-on-Tees in the borough of Stockton-on-Tees and the ceremonial county of North Yorkshire, to the south of Durham. It opened under the name of University College Stockton (UCS) in 1992.  UCS was initially intended to grant joint degrees validated by both institutions (BAs and BScs). However, Teesside, which had only become a university in 1992, had difficulties in taking on its responsibilities for the college and withdrew in 1994, Durham taking over full responsibility for UCS and the degrees to be awarded there.  A programme of integration with Durham began, with the Privy Council approving changes in Durham's statutes to make UCS a college of the University of Durham. Further integration of the Stockton development with the University led to the formation of the University of Durham, Stockton Campus (UDSC) in 1998 and the separation of teaching responsibilities from UCS.

21st century.

In 2001, two new colleges, John Snow and George Stephenson (after the physician and the engineer) were established at Stockton, replacing UCS, and the new medical school (operating in association with the University of Newcastle upon Tyne) accepted its first students. In 2002, her golden jubilee year, the Queen granted the title "Queen's Campus" to the Stockton site. By 2005, Queen's Campus, Stockton, accounted for around 18 per cent of the total university student population.  In 2005, the university unveiled a re-branded logotype and introduced the trading name of Durham University, although the legal name of the institution remained the University of Durham and the official coat of arms was unchanged. The same year, St Mary's College had its first mixed undergraduate intake. In October 2006, Josephine Butler College opened its doors to students as Durham's newest college – the only purpose-built self-catering college for students within Durham. This was the first new college to open in Durham itself since the creation of Collingwood in the 1970s.  In May 2010, Durham joined the Matariki Network of Universities (MNU) together with Dartmouth College (USA), Queen's University (Canada), University of Otago (New Zealand), University of Tübingen (Germany),

Campus.

Durham University owns a estate which includes part of a UNESCO world heritage site, one ancient monument, five grade-one listed buildings and 68 grade two-listed buildings, along with of woodland. The estate is divided across two separate locations: Durham City and Queen's Campus, Stockton. The two locations are connected via a free bus service that runs frequently throughout the week. One of the major public attractions in Durham City is the Botanic Gardens, established in 1970, with over 78,000 visitors (2007/08).<ref name="Estates and Buildings Annual Report 2007/2008"></ref>, the estate included over 300 buildings with a floor area of more than 380,000 m and a 2014 insurance reinstatement value of close to £850 million.

Durham City.

Durham City is the main location of the university and contains all of the colleges along with most of the academic departments. The Durham City estate is spread across several different sites.  The Bailey is the historic centre of the university and contains five colleges as well as the departments of Music and of Theology and Religion, the Institute of Advanced Study and Palace Green Library, housing the University's special collections. The Bailey is linked to Dunelm House, home of the Students Union in New Elvet, by the University's Kingsgate Bridge.  The Old and New Elvet areas contain a number of departments in Humanities and Social Sciences including Philosophy, and Sociology. The Leazes Road site on the north bank of the Wear, opposite the university's Racecourse playing fields and Old Elvet, is home to the School of Education and Hild Bede College. Old Elvet was previously the site of the university's administration in Old Shire Hall, which has, since September 2012, been based on the Mountjoy site, in the Palatine Centre on Stockton Road.

Mountjoy.

The Mountjoy site (formerly the Science site) south of New Elvet contains the vast majority of departments and large lecture theatres such as Appleby, Scarborough, James Duff, Heywood and more recently the Calman Learning Centre, along with the Bill

Elvet Hill.

Elvet Hill, south of the Mountjoy site, has 8 of the colleges as well as the Botanic Garden and the Vice-Chancellor's residence in Hollingside House. It is also home to the Business School and the department of Government and International Affairs, as well as the Teikyo University of Japan in Durham and

Mount Oswald.

Two new colleges are currently being built at the former Mount Oswald golf course on Elvet Hill and are due to be occupied in 2020. John Snow college will move into one college, with the other forming an (as yet unnamed) 17th college. The new colleges at Mount Oswald will have around 500 self-catered rooms each. As of 2016, when bids were solicited

Development plans.

The university's 2017–2027 strategy document calls for the development of a new home for the business school at Elvet Waterside (Old Elvet), to open in 2021, and for the redevelopment of the arts and humanities facilities at Elvet Riverside (New Elvet), opening from 2022. The plans are, however, contingent on the university being granted a Certificate of Immunity from Listing for the current student union building, Dunelm House, which would allow it to be demolished. Following

Ushaw College.

Ushaw College, 5 miles west of Durham, is a former Catholic seminary that is a licensed hall of residence of the university. It hosts parts of the Business School and of the Centre for Catholic Studies, with the university having committed to leasing the East Wing until 2027 and to establishing a residential research library at Ushaw. It formerly housed some students from Josephine Butler College, but since summer 2015 the only students at Ushaw are business marketing students. In 2017 the university's Centre for Evaluation and Monitoring, part of the School of Education, moved to Ushaw College.

Queen's Campus.

Queen's Campus, Stockton was established in 1992 and is located in Thornaby-on-Tees in the borough of Stockton-on-Tees, some 30 miles from Durham City. Until 2017–18, the campus was home to around 2,000 full-time students in two colleges (John Snow and Stephenson Colleges) and the Wolfson Research Institute. A bus connects Queen's Campus to Durham City, with a one-way journey usually taking 45 minutes.  The colleges and academic departments were relocated to Durham City (or transferred to Newcastle University in the case of the School of Medicine, Pharmacy and Health) between 2017 and 2018, and the

Libraries.

The Durham University Library system holds over 1.5 million printed items. The library was founded in January 1833 at Palace Green with a 160-volume donation by the Bishop of Durham, William Van Mildert. The library operates five branches: Bill Bryson Library (the main library), Leazes Road Library, Queen's Campus Library, Durham University Business School Library and the Palace Green Library, which holds the special and heritage collections.  In 2005, designated status was granted by the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council to two of the special collections: Bishop Cosin's Library on Palace Green (an endowed public library dating from 1669 of which the University is the trustee), which contains medieval manuscripts and over 5,000 printed books, many early, and the Sudan Archive, described by the university as "the pre-eminent archive on the Sudan outside Khartoum". Since the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council was abolished in 2012, the designation scheme has been

Museums.

The university manages a number of museums. Built in the 1960s, the Durham University Oriental Museum grew predominantly from the acquisitions of the university's former School of Oriental Studies. Initially housed across the university and used as a teaching collection, the size of the collection led to the building of the current museum to house the material. The collection to date contains over 30,000 objects from Asian art to antiquities, covering the Orient and Levant to the Far

Organisation and administration.

Academic year.

The academic year at Durham is divided into three terms: Michaelmas term, which lasts 10 weeks from October to December; Epiphany term, which lasts nine weeks from January to March; and Easter term, which lasts nine weeks from April to June. All terms start on a Monday. The weeks of term are called "Teaching Weeks", numbered from 1 (start of Michaelmas) to

Colleges.

Durham operates a collegiate structure similar to that of the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, in that all the colleges at Durham (and the Wesley Study Centre) are "listed bodies" in part two of the Education (Listed Bodies) (England) Order 2013 made under the Education Reform Act 1988, as bodies that appear to the Secretary of State "to be a constituent college, school, hall or other institution of a university which is such a recognised body" (the "recognised body" being, in this case, Durham University). Though most of the Durham colleges are governed and owned directly by the university itself (the exceptions being

Governance.

The University is governed by the Statutes put in place by the Universities of Durham and Newcastle upon Tyne Act, 1963, and subsequently amended by the Privy Council. The Statutes provide that: "The University shall be governed by a Visitor, Chancellor, Vice-Chancellor, Convocation, Council, Senate, and Boards of Studies." (Statute 4). The Visitor for the University of Durham is the Bishop of Durham. The Visitor is the final arbiter of any dispute within the university, except in those areas where legislation has removed this to the law courts or other ombudsmen, or in matters

Schools and faculties.

The teaching departments of the university are divided into four faculties: Science, Arts and Humanities, Social Sciences and Health, and the Business School. Each faculty is headed by a Pro-Vice-Chancellor and one or more Deputies. These, along with the heads of the departments in the faculty and the Vice-Chancellor, make up the Faculty Board for that faculty. Each department also has a Board of Studies consisting of the

Academic profile.

Admissions.

The average UCAS point score for new entrants in 2018–19 was 192 points, placing Durham University sixth in the country in terms of entrants' points. Durham's student body consists of undergraduates and postgraduate students (). In 2014/15, Durham had the fourth highest number of students from middle class backgrounds at 85.8 per cent. For the same year, 34.3 per cent of the undergraduate full-time student population came from independent schools and 8.75% from grammar schools,<ref name="Total Undergraduate by School Type - Full-Time 2014/2015"></ref> 19.35 per cent of full-time students are of ethnic minorities.<ref name="Undergraduate Total Students Ethnicity - Full-Time 2014/2016"></ref><ref name="Undergraduate Students by Gender - Full-Time 2007/2008"></ref> In 2014–15, 44.8 per cent of full-time undergraduate students lived in University (including St John's and St Chad's colleges) accommodation. The

Widening access.

Durham has been criticised for not accepting as many students from low participation neighbourhoods, and from state schools, as might be expected from its admission standards and course offerings. For admissions in 2015/16, Durham had the third lowest percentage of state school students (among higher education institutions with over 1,000 full-time first-degree entrants) at 60.5 per cent, compared to a Higher Education Statistics Agency benchmark of 75 per cent. According to pro-vice-chancellor, Alan Hudson, this was a temporary drop from the 63 per cent level the university has reached in recent years, and to which it was expected to return in 2016/17. The university also fell short of its benchmark for admissions from low participation neighbourhoods, accepting 5.1 per cent, compared to a benchmark of 6 per cent. The data for 2016/17 showed that admissions from state schools had recovered to 62.9 per cent, still short of the location-adjusted benchmark of 74.9 per cent, and that admissions from low participation neighbourhoods were 5.2 per cent compared to the location-adjusted benchmark of 6.6 per cent.  Since 1992 the university has run a widening access programme, originally called the Centre for Lifelong

Research.

The university is part of the Russell Group, Virgo Consortium and the N8 Group of Universities. According to the latest CWTS Leiden Ranking 2018 that measures the scientific performance of 500 major universities worldwide, Durham is ranked 89th in the world in terms of the proportion of its academic papers in the top 10 per cent for impact (the "PP(top 10%)" measure).  Research institutes at the university include the Centre for the Advanced Study of the Arab World, the Durham Energy Institute, the Institute for Hazard and Risk Research, the Institute of Advanced Study, the International Boundaries Research Unit and the Institute for Computational Cosmology.

Rankings and reputation.

Durham University's Strategic Plan 2017–2027 defines targets of being in the top 5 nationally on the Times/Sunday Times league table, of having 50 per cent of eligible subjects in the top 50 globally on the QS world rankings, and of being in the top three UK institutions by citations per academic staff member.  The earlier 2010–2020 strategic plan called for it "to be in the top 5 universities in major UK league tables" (defined as the Times/Sunday Times Good University Guide and the Complete University Guide) and "to be in the top 50 universities in the Times Higher Education world rankings by 2020". The first objective was met in 2012 and 2015, the second remains as yet unmet, with Durham ranking 70th in the world in 2015. The previous 2005–2010 strategic plan called for Durham "to be ranked among the top 30 universities in Europe and the top 100 in the world in the Times Higher Education Supplement international league tables"; Durham ranked 85th in the world (19th in Europe) in 2010 and has since maintained its position in the top 100.  Durham consistently places in the top ten in rankings of universities in the United Kingdom. The 2018 "Complete University Guide" ranks Durham 6th overall, "The Guardian University Guide 2018" ranks Durham 4th overall and the

Student life.

Residential life.

Durham students belong to a college for the duration of their time at the university. Most students live in their college for the first year of their undergraduate life, then choose to 'live-out' in their second year, and subsequently have the option of moving back into college for their final year, usually via a ballot system. The Colleges provide a key role in the pastoral care and social centre of students with each running a college tutorial system, along with JCRs providing events and societies for undergraduate members, MCRs being a centre for postgraduate students and the SCRs for the college officers, fellows and tutors. These common rooms are run by an

Student organisations.

Approximately 200 student clubs and organisations run on Durham's campuses, covering academic, arts, culture and faith, hobbies and games, outdoors, politics, law and music interests. Durham Students' Union (DSU) charters

Civic engagement.

Durham University Student Volunteering and Outreach (DUSVO; formally Student Community Action – SCA) oversees over 80 volunteer projects in Durham and the surrounding area, involving more than 2,000 students each year. It was awarded the Queen's Award for Voluntary Service – the UK's highest honour for volunteer groups – in 2020. Colleges often organise their own outreach and charitable activities.  Durham University Charity Kommittee (or DUCK) is the university's equivalent of student's rag week. Originally set up as

Town and gown relations.

The relationship between the university and the wider city has

Student media.

"Palatinate", Durham's independent student run fortnightly newspaper, has been continually published since 1948. Notable former editors include George Alagiah, Hunter Davies, Piers Merchant, Sir Timothy Laurence, Jeremy Vine and Harold Evans.  Purple Radio is Durham's student radio station. It broadcasts live

Sport.

Sport at Durham is a key aspect of student life with some 92 per cent of students regularly taking part. As of 2018, the university caters for more than 50 different sports, organised under the umbrella name of Team Durham, with many being predominantly based at the Graham Sports Centre at Maiden Castle. This facility has 26 courts and pitches for sports ranging from rugby to lacrosse to netball, additional facilities include eleven boat houses and two astroturfs, a fitness studio, and a weights room. The university also owns The Racecourse which has a further eight courts and pitches for cricket, rugby (union and league), squash and football.  The university is recognised as a Centre of Cricketing Excellence (one of only six university centres to play first-class matches) by the England and Wales Cricket Board. The university also has Performance Centres for rowing, lacrosse, tennis and fencing.  Durham has been 2nd across all sports in the British Universities & Colleges Sport (BUCS) table since 2011/12. In 2014/15 it became only the second University (after Loughborough) to pass 4000 BUCS points and the top university in the country for team

Music and drama.

The central body for theatre at the university is known as Durham Student Theatre (DST), with around 700 active student members throughout 27 separate, student-run theatre societies as of 2018. The Assembly Rooms is the university-owned theatre, located on The Bailey, which hosts a number of student productions each term. Alongside this, student drama productions are held at Durham City's Gala Theatre (notably Durham University Light Opera Group (DULOG) and Durham Opera Ensemble (DOE), which both perform one show in the Gala every year in Epiphany term), venues around Durham University and within the colleges, Durham Castle, Durham Cathedral, as well as in national and international venues and the Edinburgh Fringe Festival.  Since 1975, the university has played host to the Durham Drama Festival which celebrates new theatrical and dramatic material written by Durham students.  The Durham Revue is the university's sketch comedy group. Tracing its roots back

Notable alumni.

Durham alumni are active through organisations and events such as the annual Reunions, Dinners and Balls. There are 67 Durham associations ranging from international to college and sports affiliated groups that cater for the more than 109,000 living alumni.  A number of Durham alumni have made significant contributions in the fields of government, law, science, academia, business, arts, journalism, and athletics, among others. These have included Justin Welby, Archbishop of Canterbury (St John's, 1992), Sir Milton Margai, first prime minister of Sierra Leone (MD, 1926), the 7th Queensland Premier John Douglas (BA, 1850), Henry Holland, 1st Viscount Knutsford, Secretary of State for the Colonies from 1887 to 1892 (Law, 1847), Herbert Laming, Baron Laming, head of the Harold Shipman inquiry and the investigation of Britain's social services following the death of Baby P, (Applied Social Studies, 1960), Dame Caroline Swift, the lead counsel to the Shipman inquiry, and Mo Mowlam, Secretary of State for Northern Ireland at the time of the Good Friday Peace Agreement (Sociology and Anthropology). Durham graduate Libby Lane was the first woman to be consecrated bishop in the Church of England.  Durham graduates also hold noteworthy positions in the law, including Supreme Court Justices Lord Hughes (Law) and Lady Black (Law), the President of the Family Division Sir Andrew McFarlane and the current Lord Chancellor Robert Buckland (Law) amongst others.  Within the military graduates include General Richard Dannatt, Baron Dannatt (Economic History), the Chief of the General Staff, the professional head of the British Army, Vice-Admiral Sir Tim Laurence (Geography), Chief Executive of Defence Estates and husband to The Princess Royal, and Rear-Admiral Amjad Hussain (Engineering, 1979) highest-ranking officer from an ethnic minority in the British Armed Forces. In academia, Durham graduates include John D. Barrow (Mathematics and Physics, 1974), winner of the Templeton Prize, Sir George Malcolm Brown (Chemistry & Geology, 1950), invited by NASA to work on the moon rock samples recovered from the Apollo 11 lunar mission, George Rochester (1926), co-discoverer of the kaon sub-atomic particle, alongside Sir Harold Jeffreys (Mathematics, 1919), winner of the Royal Society's Copley Medal, Sir Kingsley Charles Dunham (Geology 1930) former director of the British Geological Survey and E. J. Field, early discoverer of what are now called prions and significant contributor to MS research. The current Vice-chancellor of the University of Wollongong (Paul Wellings), former Vice-chancellor of Cardiff University (David Grant), and Chris Higgins, former vice-chancellor of Durham, are also graduates.  Several alumni hold top positions in the business world. Richard Adams (Sociology), founder of fair trade organisation Traidcraft, Paul Hawkins (PhD in Artificial Intelligence), inventor of the Hawk-Eye ball-tracking system, Dame Elisabeth Hoodless (Sociology), former Executive Director of Community Service Volunteers, Sir Nick Scheele (German, 1966), former President and chief operating officer of Ford Motor Company, entrepreneur Brenda Lindiwe Mabaso-Chipeio, David Sproxton (Geography, 1976), co-founder of Aardman Animations who produce Wallace & Gromit, Tim Smit (Archaeology and Anthropology), co-founder of the Eden Project and David Walton (Economics and Mathematics, 1984), member of the Bank of England's Monetary Policy Committee.  Prominent journalists and media specialists include: George Entwistle, former Director-General of the BBC, Sir Harold Evans (Politics and Economics), editor of "The Sunday Times" from 1967 to 1981 and "The Times" from 1981 to 1982, Nigel Farndale (Philosophy), "Sunday Telegraph" journalist, George Alagiah (Politics), presenter of the "BBC News at Six", Matthew Amroliwala (Law and Politics, 1984), BBC News channel presenter, Biddy Baxter (1955), former producer of "Blue Peter", Arthur Bostrom (BA Hons), Officer Crabtree in "'Allo 'Allo!", Nish Kumar (English with History), stand-up comedian, Jamie Campbell (English Literature), filmmaker, Alastair Fothergill (Zoology, 1983), series producer of "The Blue Planet", "Planet Earth" and the director of "Earth", Shelagh Fogarty (Modern Languages, 1988), host of the BBC Radio 5 Live breakfast show, Lorraine Heggessey (English Language & Literature), the first female Controller of BBC One and Chris Terrill (Anthropology and Geography), documentary maker, writer and adventurer. Other BBC hosts who have graduated from Durham include Chris Hollins, sports presenter on BBC Breakfast, Gabby Logan (Law, 1995), Kate Silverton (Psychology), Jeremy Vine (English), Tim Willcox (Spanish) and Nina Hossain (English Language and Linguistics).  Noted writers include Edward Bradley author of "The Adventures of Mr. Verdant Green", Minette Walters (French, 1971), author of "The Sculptress" and "The Scold's Bridle", Graham Hancock (Sociology, 1973) author of "The Sign and the Seal", Tim FitzHigham, comedian and author, James Kirkup, travel writer, poet and playwright, Patrick Tilley, science fiction author, and Lorna Hill (born Lorna Leatham, English, 1926), children's writer, author of the Sadlers Wells series.  In the sports realm, former England rugby captains Will Carling (Psychology), Phil de Glanville (Economics), and vice-captain Will Greenwood (Economics, 1994), alongside Olympic gold-medal triple jumper Jonathan Edwards (Physics, 1987), Beijing Olympics Bronze-medallist rower Stephen Rowbotham (Business Economics), London 2012 Gold-medallist rower Sophie Hosking (Chemistry and Physics), former England cricket captains Nasser Hussain (Geochemistry) and Andrew Strauss (Economics) are among the most famous.

Durham University (legally the University of Durham) is a collegiate public research university in Durham, England, founded by an Act of Parliament in 1832 and incorporated by royal charter in 1837. It was the first recognised university to open in England for more than 600 years, after Oxford and Cambridge, and is thus one of the institutions to be described as the third-oldest university in England. As a collegiate university its main functions are divided between the academic departments of the university and its 16 colleges. In general, the departments perform research and provide teaching to students, while the colleges are responsible for their domestic arrangements and welfare.

Durhamská univerzita (anglicky University of Durham, často také Durham University) je veřejná výzkumná univerzita v Durhamu (Severovýchodní Anglie) založená v roce 1832; díky tomu je považována za třetí nejstarší univerzitu v Anglii. Sídlí v centru univerzitního města (mj. v Durhamském hradu), kde spolu s Durhamskou katedrálu spravuje místní památkovou rezervaci UNESCO.