History.

Early steps.

The idea of combining motion pictures with recorded sound is nearly as old as the concept of cinema itself. On February 27, 1888, a couple of days after photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge gave a lecture not far from the laboratory of Thomas Edison, the two inventors privately met. Muybridge later claimed that on this occasion, six years before the first commercial motion picture exhibition, he proposed a scheme for sound cinema that would combine his image-casting zoopraxiscope withholding Edison's recorded-sound technology. No agreement was reached, but within a year Edison commissioned the development of the Kinetoscope, essentially a "peep-show" system, as a visual complement to his cylinder phonograph. The two devices were brought together as the Kinetophone in 1895, but individual, cabinet viewing of motion pictures was soon to be outmoded by successes in film projection. In 1899, a projected sound-film system known as Cinemacrophonograph or Phonorama, based primarily on the work of Swiss-born inventor François Dussaud, was exhibited in Paris; similar to the Kinetophone, the system required individual use of earphones. An improved cylinder-based system,

Crucial innovations.

A number of technological developments contributed to making sound cinema commercially viable by the late 1920s. Two involved contrasting approaches to synchronized sound reproduction, or playback:

Advanced sound-on-film.

In 1919, American inventor Lee De Forest was awarded several patents that would lead to the first optical sound-on-film technology with commercial application. In De Forest's system, the sound track was photographically recorded onto the side of the strip of motion picture film to create a composite, or "married", print. If proper synchronization of sound and picture was achieved in recording, it could be absolutely counted on in playback. Over the next four years, he improved his system with the help of equipment and patents licensed from another American inventor in the field, Theodore Case.  At the University of Illinois, Polish-born research engineer Joseph Tykociński-Tykociner was working independently on a similar process. On June 9, 1922, he gave the first

Advanced sound-on-disc.

Parallel with improvements in sound-on-film technology, a number of companies were making progress with systems that recorded movie sound on phonograph discs. In sound-on-disc technology from the era, a phonograph turntable is connected by a mechanical interlock to a specially modified film projector, allowing for synchronization. In 1921, the Photokinema sound-on-disc system developed by Orlando Kellum was employed to add synchronized sound sequences to D. W. Griffith's failed silent film "Dream Street". A love song, performed by star Ralph Graves, was recorded, as was a sequence of live vocal effects. Apparently, dialogue scenes were also recorded, but the results were unsatisfactory and the film was never publicly screened incorporating them. On May 1, 1921, "Dream Street" was re-released, with love song added, at New York City's Town Hall theater, qualifying it—however haphazardly—as the first feature-length film with a live-recorded vocal sequence. There would be no others for more than six years. In 1925, Sam Warner of Warner Bros., then a small Hollywood studio with big ambitions, saw a demonstration of the Western Electric sound-on-disc system and was sufficiently impressed to persuade his brothers to

Fidelity electronic recording and amplification.

In 1913, Western Electric, the manufacturing division of AT&T, acquired the rights to the de Forest audion, the forerunner of the triode vacuum tube. Over the next few years they developed it into a predictable and reliable device that made electronic amplification possible for the first time. Western Electric then branched-out into developing uses for the vacuum tube including public address systems and an electrical recording system for the recording industry. Beginning in 1922, the research branch of Western Electric began working intensively on recording technology for both sound-on-disc and

Triumph of the "talkies".

In February 1927, an agreement was signed by five leading Hollywood movie companies: Famous Players-Lasky (soon to be part of Paramount), Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Universal, First National, and Cecil B. DeMille's small but prestigious Producers Distributing Corporation (PDC). The five studios agreed to collectively select just one provider for sound conversion, and then waited to see what sort of results the front-runners came up with. In May, Warner Bros. sold back its exclusivity rights to ERPI (along with the Fox-Case sublicense) and signed a new royalty contract similar to Fox's for use of Western Electric technology. Fox and Warners pressed forward with sound cinema, moving in different directions both technologically and commercially: Fox moved into newsreels and then scored dramas, while Warners concentrated on talking features. Meanwhile, ERPI sought to corner the market by signing up the five allied studios. The big sound film sensations of the year all took advantage of preexisting celebrity. On May 20, 1927, at New York City's Roxy Theater, Fox Movietone presented a sound film of the takeoff of Charles Lindbergh's celebrated flight to Paris, recorded earlier that day. In June, a Fox sound newsreel depicting his return welcomes in New York City and Washington, D.C., was shown. These were the two most acclaimed sound motion pictures to date. In May, as well, Fox had released the first Hollywood fiction film with synchronized dialogue: the short "They're Coming to Get Me", starring comedian Chic Sale. After rereleasing a few silent feature hits, such as "Seventh Heaven", with recorded music, Fox came out with its first original Movietone feature on September 23: "Sunrise", by acclaimed German director F. W. Murnau. As with "Don Juan", the film's soundtrack consisted of a musical score and sound effects (including, in a couple of crowd scenes, "wild", nonspecific vocals).  Then, on October 6, 1927, Warner Bros.' "The Jazz Singer" premiered. It was a smash box office success for the mid-level studio, earning a total of $2.625 million in the United States and abroad, almost a million dollars more than the previous record for a Warners film. Produced with the Vitaphone system, most of the film does not contain live-recorded audio, relying, like "Sunrise" and "Don Juan", on a score and effects. When the movie's star, Al Jolson, sings, however, the film shifts to sound recorded on the set, including both his musical performances and two scenes with ad-libbed speech—one of Jolson's character, Jakie Rabinowitz (Jack Robin), addressing a cabaret audience; the other an exchange between him and his mother. The "natural" sounds of the settings were also audible. Though the success of "The Jazz Singer" was due largely to Jolson, already established as one of U.S. biggest music stars, and its limited use of synchronized sound hardly qualified it as an innovative sound film (let alone the "first"), the movie's profits were proof enough to the industry that the technology was worth investing in.  The development of commercial sound cinema had proceeded in fits and starts before "The Jazz Singer", and the film's success did not change things overnight. Influential gossip columnist Louella Parsons reaction to "The Jazz Singer" was badly off the mark: "I have no fear that the screeching sound film will ever disturb our theaters," while MGM head of production Irving Thalberg called the film "a good gimmick, but that's all it was." Not until May 1928 did the group of four big studios (PDC had dropped out of the alliance), along with United Artists and others, sign with ERPI for conversion of production facilities and theaters for sound film. It was a daunting commitment; revamping a single theater cost as much as $15,000 (the equivalent of $220,000 in 2019), and there were more than 20,000 movie theaters in the United States. By 1930, only half of the theaters had been wired for sound.  Initially, all ERPI-wired theaters were made Vitaphone-compatible; most were equipped to project Movietone reels as well. However, even with access to both technologies, most of the Hollywood companies remained slow to produce talking features of their own. No studio besides Warner Bros. released even a part-talking feature until the low-budget-oriented Film Booking Offices of America (FBO) premiered "The Perfect Crime" on June 17, 1928, eight months after "The Jazz Singer". FBO had come under the effective control of a Western Electric competitor, General Electric's RCA division, which was looking to market its new sound-on-film system, Photophone. Unlike Fox-Case's Movietone and De Forest's Phonofilm, which were variable-density systems, Photophone was a variable-area system—a refinement in the way the audio signal was inscribed on film that would ultimately become the standard. (In both sorts of systems, a specially-designed lamp, whose exposure to the film is determined by the audio input, is used to record sound photographically as a series of minuscule lines. In a variable-density process, the lines are of varying darkness; in a variable-area process, the lines are of varying width.) By October, the FBO-RCA alliance would lead to the creation of Hollywood's newest major studio, RKO Pictures.  Meanwhile, Warner Bros. had released three more talkies, all profitable, if not at the level of "The Jazz Singer": In March, "Tenderloin" appeared; it was billed by Warners as the first feature in which characters spoke their parts, though only 15 of its 88 minutes had dialogue. "Glorious Betsy" followed in April, and "The Lion and the Mouse" (31 minutes of dialogue) in May. On July 6, 1928, the first all-talking feature, "Lights of New York", premiered. The film cost Warner Bros. only $23,000 to produce, but grossed $1.252 million, a record rate of return surpassing 5,000%. In September, the studio released another Al Jolson part-talking picture, "The Singing Fool", which more than doubled "The Jazz Singer"'s earnings record for a Warners movie. This second Jolson screen smash demonstrated the movie musical's ability to turn a song into a national hit: inside of nine months, the Jolson number "Sonny Boy" had racked up 2 million record and 1.25 million sheet music sales. September 1928 also saw the release of Paul Terry's "Dinner Time", among the first animated cartoons produced with synchronized sound. Soon after he saw it, Walt Disney released his first sound picture, the Mickey Mouse short "Steamboat Willie".  Over the course of 1928, as Warner Bros. began to rake in huge profits due to the popularity of its sound films, the other studios quickened the pace of their conversion to the new technology. Paramount, the industry leader, put out its first talkie in late September, "Beggars of Life"; though it had just a few lines of dialogue, it demonstrated the studio's recognition of the new medium's power. "Interference", Paramount's first all-talker, debuted in November. The process known as "goat glanding" briefly became widespread: soundtracks, sometimes including a smatter of post-dubbed dialogue or song, were added to movies that had been shot, and in some cases released, as silents. A few minutes of singing could qualify such a newly endowed film as a "musical." (Griffith's "Dream Street" had essentially been a "goat gland.") Expectations swiftly changed, and the sound "fad" of 1927 became standard procedure by 1929. In February 1929, sixteen months after "The Jazz Singer"'s debut, Columbia Pictures became the last of the eight studios that would be known as "majors" during Hollywood's Golden Age to release its first part-talking feature, "The Lone Wolf's Daughter". In late May, the first all-color, all-talking feature, Warner Bros.' "On with the Show!", premiered.  Yet most American movie theaters, especially outside of urban areas, were still not equipped for sound: while the number of sound cinemas grew from 100 to 800 between 1928 and 1929, they were still vastly outnumbered by silent theaters, which had actually grown in number as well, from 22,204 to 22,544. The studios, in parallel, were still not entirely convinced of the talkies' universal appeal—until mid-1930, the majority of Hollywood movies were produced in dual versions, silent as well as talking. Though few in the industry predicted it, silent film as a viable commercial medium in the United States would soon be little more than a memory. "Points West", a Hoot Gibson Western released by Universal Pictures in August 1929, was the last purely silent mainstream feature put out by a major Hollywood studio.

Consequences.

Technology.

In the short term, the introduction of live sound recording caused major difficulties in production. Cameras were noisy, so a soundproofed cabinet was used in many of the earliest talkies to isolate the loud equipment from the actors, at the expense of a drastic reduction in the ability to move the camera. For a time, multiple-camera shooting was used to compensate for the loss of mobility and innovative studio technicians could often find ways to liberate the camera for particular shots. The necessity of staying within range of still microphones meant that actors also often had to limit their movements unnaturally. "Show Girl in Hollywood" (1930), from First National Pictures (which Warner Bros. had taken control of thanks to its profitable adventure into sound), gives a behind-the-scenes look at some of the techniques involved in shooting early talkies. Several of the fundamental problems caused by the transition to sound were soon solved with new camera casings, known as "blimps", designed to suppress noise and boom microphones that could be held just out of frame and moved with the actors. In 1931, a major improvement in playback fidelity was introduced: three-way speaker systems in which sound was separated into low, medium, and high frequencies and sent respectively to a large bass "woofer", a midrange driver, and a treble "tweeter."  There were consequences, as well, for other technological aspects of the cinema. Proper recording and playback of sound required exact standardization of camera and projector speed. Before sound, 16 frames per second (fps) was the supposed norm, but practice varied widely. Cameras were often undercranked or overcranked to improve exposures or for dramatic effect. Projectors were commonly run too fast to shorten running time and squeeze in extra shows. Variable frame rate, however, made sound unlistenable, and a new, strict standard of 24 fps was soon established. Sound also forced the abandonment of the noisy arc lights used for filming in studio interiors. The switch to quiet incandescent illumination in turn required a switch to

Labor.

While the introduction of sound led to a boom in the motion picture industry, it had an adverse effect on the employability of a host of Hollywood actors of the time. Suddenly those without stage experience were regarded as suspect by the studios; as suggested above, those whose heavy accents or otherwise discordant voices had previously been concealed were particularly at risk. The career of major silent star Norma Talmadge effectively came to an end in this way. The celebrated German actor Emil Jannings returned to Europe. Moviegoers found John Gilbert's voice an awkward match with his swashbuckling persona, and his star also faded. Audiences now seemed to perceive certain silent-era stars as old-fashioned, even those who had the talent to succeed in the sound era. The career of Harold Lloyd, one of the top screen comedians of the 1920s, declined precipitously. Lillian Gish departed, back to the stage, and other leading figures soon left acting entirely: Colleen Moore, Gloria Swanson, and Hollywood's most famous performing couple, Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford. As actress Louise Brooks suggested, there were other issues as well:  Studio heads, now forced into unprecedented decisions, decided to begin with the actors, the least palatable, the most vulnerable part of movie production. It was such a splendid opportunity, anyhow, for breaking contracts, cutting salaries, and taming the stars... Me, they gave the salary treatment. I could stay on without the raise my contract called for, or quit, [Paramount studio chief B. P.] Schulberg said, using the questionable dodge of whether I'd be good for the talkies. Questionable, I say, because I spoke decent English in a decent voice and came from the theater. So without hesitation I quit.  Buster Keaton was eager to explore the new medium, but when his studio, MGM, made the changeover to sound, he was quickly stripped of creative control. Though a number of Keaton's early talkies made impressive profits, they were artistically dismal.  Several of the new medium's biggest attractions came from vaudeville and the musical theater, where performers such as

Commerce.

In September 1926, Jack L. Warner, head of Warner Bros., was quoted to the effect that talking pictures would never be viable: "They fail to take into account the international language of the silent pictures, and the unconscious share of each onlooker in creating the play, the action, the plot, and the imagined dialogue for himself." Much to his company's benefit, he would be proven very wrong—between the 1927–28 and 1928–29 fiscal years, Warners' profits surged from $2 million to $14 million. Sound film, in fact, was a clear boon to all the major players in the industry. During that same twelve-month span, Paramount's profits rose by $7 million, Fox's by $3.5 million, and Loew's/MGM's by $3 million. RKO, which did not even exist in September 1928 and whose parent production company, FBO, was in the Hollywood minor leagues, by the end of 1929 was established as one of America's leading entertainment businesses. Fueling the boom was the emergence of an important new cinematic genre made possible by sound: the musical. Over sixty Hollywood musicals were released in 1929, and more than eighty the following year.  Even as the Wall Street crash of October 1929 helped plunge the United States and ultimately the global economy into depression, the popularity of the talkies at first seemed to keep Hollywood immune. The 1929–30 exhibition season was even better for the motion picture industry than the previous, with ticket sales and overall profits hitting new highs. Reality finally struck later in 1930, but sound had clearly secured Hollywood's position as one of the most important industrial fields, both commercially and culturally, in the United States. In 1929, film box-office receipts comprised 16.6 percent of total spending by Americans on recreation; by 1931, the figure had reached 21.8 percent. The motion picture business would command similar figures for the next decade and a half. Hollywood ruled on the larger stage, as well. The American movie industry—already the world's most powerful—set an export record in 1929 that, by the applied measure of total feet of exposed film, was 27 percent higher than the year before. Concerns that language differences would hamper U.S.

Aesthetic quality.

In the first, 1930 edition of his global survey "The Film Till Now", British cinema pundit Paul Rotha declared, "A film in which the speech and sound effects are perfectly synchronised and coincide with their visual image on the screen is absolutely contrary to the aims of cinema. It is a degenerate and misguided attempt to destroy the real use of the film and cannot be accepted as coming within the true boundaries of the cinema." Such opinions were not rare among those who cared about cinema as an art form; Alfred Hitchcock, though he directed the first commercially successful talkie produced in Europe, held that "the silent pictures were the purest form of cinema" and scoffed at many early sound films as delivering little beside "photographs of people talking". In Germany, Max Reinhardt, stage producer and movie director, expressed the belief that the talkies, "bringing to the screen stage plays... tend to make this independent art a subsidiary of the theater and really make it only a substitute for the theater instead of an art in itself... like reproductions of paintings."  In the opinion of many film historians and aficionados, both at the time and subsequently, silent film had reached an aesthetic peak by the late 1920s and the early years of sound cinema delivered little that was comparable to the best of the silents. For instance, despite fading into relative obscurity once its era had passed, silent cinema is represented

Cinematic form.

"Talking film is as little needed as a singing book." Such was the blunt proclamation of critic Viktor Shklovsky, one of the leaders of the Russian formalist movement, in 1927. While some regarded sound as irreconcilable with film art, others saw it as opening a new field of creative opportunity. The following year, a group of Soviet filmmakers, including Sergei Eisenstein, proclaimed that the use of image and sound in juxtaposition, the so-called contrapuntal method, would raise the cinema to "...unprecedented power and cultural height. Such a method for constructing the sound-film will not confine it to a national market, as must happen with the photographing of plays, but will give a greater possibility than ever before for the circulation throughout the world of a filmically expressed idea." So far as one segment of the audience was concerned, however, the introduction of sound brought a virtual end to such circulation: Elizabeth C. Hamilton writes, "Silent films offered people who were deaf a rare opportunity to participate in a public discourse, cinema, on equal terms with hearing people. The emergence of sound film effectively separated deaf from hearing audience members once again."  On March 12, 1929, the first feature-length talking picture made in Germany had its premiere. The inaugural Tobis Filmkunst production, it was not a drama, but a documentary sponsored by a shipping line: "Melodie der Welt" ("Melody of the World"), directed by Walter Ruttmann. This was also perhaps the first feature film anywhere to significantly explore the artistic possibilities of joining the motion picture with recorded sound. As described by scholar William Moritz, the movie is "intricate, dynamic, fast-paced... juxtapos[ing] similar cultural habits from countries around the world, with a superb orchestral score... and many synchronized sound effects." Composer Lou Lichtveld was among a number of contemporary artists struck by the film: ""Melodie der Welt" became the first important sound documentary, the first in which musical and unmusical sounds were composed into a single unit and in which image and sound are controlled by one and the same impulse." "Melodie der Welt" was a direct influence on the industrial film "Philips Radio" (1931), directed by Dutch avant-garde filmmaker Joris Ivens and scored by Lichtveld, who described its audiovisual aims:  To render the half-musical

A sound film is a motion picture with synchronized sound, or sound technologically coupled to image, as opposed to a silent film. The first known public exhibition of projected sound films took place in Paris in 1900, but decades passed before sound motion pictures were made commercially practical. Reliable synchronization was difficult to achieve with the early sound-on-disc systems, and amplification and recording quality were also inadequate. Innovations in sound-on-film led to the first commercial screening of short motion pictures using the technology, which took place in 1923.

Zvukový film je filmové nebo jiné audiovizuální dílo, které kromě obrazového obsahuje i zvukový záznam (ať už starší optický či magnetický nebo novější digitální), který je náležitě synchronizován s obrazem. Zvukový film obsahuje tedy vždy dvě základní složky – složku obrazovou (obraz) a složku zvukovou (doprovodný zvuk).


Outline.

The Europaeum aims to promote movement of academic staff and students between these institutions, with ‘the study of the languages, history, cultures and professions of the people of Europe’. It brings together talented students and faculty working in the Humanities and the Social Sciences, to promote a better ‘sense of Europe’ through collaboration and academic mobility.

The Europaeum's mission.

For 25 years, the Europaeum has successfully encouraged collaboration between European research universities, facilitated tripartite dialogue between academics, students, and those working in the public and private sectors, and has contributed to European-wide debates about culture, politics, and society, as well as established excellent faculty collaboration and student exchange; earned a reputation for organising strikingly successful student Spring and Summer Schools, public debates, seminars, joint teaching programmes, lectures and workshops; and run high quality linked scholarship schemes.  The Europaeum Scholars Programme (launched in 2018) is the latest venture to bring together the values and vision of the Europaeum, with a focus on themes such as inclusion, sustainability, and growth and development.  The Europaeum's belief is that today, we need more not less international collaboration, more not less emphasis on universities engaging with the wider society, and more not less connection between the disciplines. Fresh cohorts of talented young people, committed to making a difference for the better, are essential to shaping the future of Europe for the better.

History.

1992–2000.

The Europaeum's international network was launched in 1992 by Oxford, Leiden and Bologna. Oxford played the lead role, both spearheading a significant fund-raising drive across Europe, and giving the consortium the status of an official university department. The Europaeum helped to spawn two independent centres: the Institute for the Advanced Study of European and Comparative Law (IECL) and the Centre for European Politics, Economics and Society (CEPES), which closed in 2003.  A range of scholarships for European graduates to come to Oxford were set up as well as collaborative activities such as international conferences, summer schools, and academic mobility.  The network expanded to include Bonn University (Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn) in 1996; then Paris I (Panthéon-Sorbonne) in 1997; the then Geneva HEI, now the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in 1998.

2000–2010.

Charles University, Prague, joined in 2001, and the Europaeum Review was launched in the same year.  A regular newsletter was set up from Oxford, alongside its own website, and a database to try to link academics working in European Law, Politics and Economics. In 2003, a part-time Secretary-General (Dr Paul Flather) was appointed to oversee the overall growth and development of the Europaeum. The Europaeum Office moved from the Central University Offices to rented offices on the Banbury Road, leased from the Oxford Voltaire Foundation, and the organisation became a Charity (Registration Number 1105477) in 2004. Academic mobility was boosted under the Europaeum Visiting Academics scheme enabling leading academics to teach and research at partner institutions within the association, helping nourish future academic and teaching links. Two innovative programmes, an MA in European Politics, Culture, History and Institutions, linking Bologna, Leiden and Oxford, and a plan for modular programmes in European Business, Culture, and Institutions, initially to link Leiden and Oxford, were run as pilot projects.  In 2003, Complutense University of Madrid joined the Europaeum. Helsinki University followed in 2004, and the Jagiellonian University, Kraków, in 2005, bringing the association to its target of 10 members.  In 2004–2005, Oxford, Paris and Leiden launched a new jointly-offered Europaeum MA in European History and Civilisation. Three new major themed programmes were launched, each running with linked workshops, seminars, conferences and lectures: the Humanities and New Technology programme in 2003, the Islam-in-Europe programme in 2004, and the US-Europe TransAtlantic Dialogue programme in 2005.  Following the death of Roy Jenkins in 2003, one of the founders of the Europaeum and former Chancellor of the University of Oxford, a memorial fund was set up to raise funds for European scholarships, and these have been directly linked to the Europaeum by the trustees. The first two awards were made in 2004 and the scheme ended in 2017 due to lack of further funds.

2010 to 2016.

A new Board of Trustees was established in 2009–10, to take over fund-raising, networking and overall supervisory duties from the more cumbersome Council, which was converted into the Academic Council focussing on academic matters. The trustees included the two founding fathers, George Weidenfeld and Ronald Grierson, as well as the third co-opted member of the former Europaeum Council, with M Keller elected to the chair, while Dr Andrew Graham from Oxford was appointed a permanent chair of the Academic Council to ensure continuity.  Pompeu-Fabra University (Barcelona) joined in 2012, and Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich in 2015.  A new joint academic programme was launched in 2012 by the Universities of Prague, Leiden and Paris, around the theme of European Politics and Society, aiming for about 20 graduates spending their second year of study on a two-year graduate programme, at a partner institution. The programme was named in tribute to the late President of the Czech Republic and important human rights activist Vaclav Havel.

2016 to the present.

From 2016 to 2020, Andrew Graham has led a substantial restructuring of the Europaeum. In particular he created and launched a new Europaeum Scholarship Programme and, as a result, the full university membership has subsequently grown from eleven in 2016 to seventeen now.  New members included the University of St Andrews, the University of Luxembourg, KU Leuven, Freie Universitat,Berlin, the Catholic University of Lisbon,the University of Copenhagen, and Bologna (who re-joined). The Central European University (Budapest/Vienna) was added as a special member for a limited period in recognition and support of their circumstances.  In addition, Dr Graham became Executive Chair, Dr Hartmut Mayer was appointed as Acting Director (Dr Flather having stood down from being Secretary General), the Governance was modernised (with a new smaller Executive Committee, chaired by Dr Graham, replacing the Steering Committee).(- see Press Release), Dr Tracey Sowerby was appointed Programme Director to lead the Scholars Programme and an Alumni Programme was initiated.

Joint MA programmes.

The Europaeum organises two Joint MA Programmes, the MA European History and Civilization and the Europaeum Václav Havel Masters Programme (EMAP). Partner universities of the one-year degree MA European History and Civilisation are the Leiden University, University of Paris 1 Pantheon-Sorbonne and the University of Oxford. Participating students will visit each of these universities for one trimester.  The Europaeum Václav Havel Masters Programme, named after Václav Havel, the late Czech dissident and President, is a two-years Masters Programme in European Society and Politics. This programme is organized by the Leiden University, University of Paris 1 Pantheon-Sorbonne and the Charles University in Prague.

Scholarship schemes.

Europaeum Scholars Programme.

Launched in January 2018 with thirty selected doctoral students from the member Universities, the Europaeum Scholars Programme is a two-year long innovative initiative that draws together talented scholars from across Europe who are committed to making a difference. Its cross-disciplinary, cross-university and cross-cultural nature combined with a strong practical ethos and collaborative project work provides scholars with a firm grounding with which to tackle the challenges facing Europe today.

Jenkins Memorial Scholarship.

The Jenkins Scholarship Scheme honoured the lifelong achievements of Roy Jenkins, the former President of the European Commission (1976–1981) and Chancellor of the University of Oxford (1987–2003). This scholarship finished in 2017 due to lack of further funds.

Study bursaries.

The Europaeum organises study bursaries in cooperation with Charles University (Prague), the Graduate Institute in Geneva and Helsinki University. These support an Oxford graduate to pursue a short period of research at these member institutions, and one from each of these member institutions to come to Oxford on a self-directed research trip.

Members.

The Europaeum currently has seventeen members universities located in fourteen countries. Germany, Spain, and the United Kingdom are the only countries with more than one member institution.  The Europaeum also has a “special relationship” with the Central European University, Vienna to indicate its support for that institution.

The Europaeum is a network of seventeen leading universities in Europe. It was conceived of in 1990–1991 by Lord Weidenfeld and Sir Ronnie Grierson and they persuaded Roy Jenkins, who had just become Chancellor of the University of Oxford, to push this initiative in conjunction with the universities of Leiden, and Bologna. It has subsequently been supporting the "advancement of education through the encouragement of European studies in the University of Oxford and other European institutions of higher education having links with Oxford."

Europaeum je aliance evropských univerzit. Síť Europaeum založili v roce 1990 George Weidenfeld a Ronnie Grierson při Oxfordské univerzitě, aby pomáhala rozvíjet evropská studia v Oxfordu a na univerzitách, které s ní spolupracovaly. Jedním z cílů této aliance je usnadnit mobilitu učitelů a studentů mezi členskými univerzitami.


History.

The historic University of Paris () first appeared in the second half of the 12th century, but was reorganised in 1970 as 13 autonomous universities after the student protests of the French May. Following months of conflict between students and authorities at the University of Paris at Nanterre, the administration shut down that university on May 2, 1968. Students of the University of Paris protested the closure and the threatened expulsion of several students at Nanterre on May 3, 1968. After the student protests of May and June 1968, thirteen universities succeeded to the University of Paris (nicknamed "the Sorbonne"), which ceased to exist.  Pantheon-Sorbonne University was established in 1971 by Professors François Luchaire (Law), Henri Bartoli (Economy) and Hélène Ahrweiler (Humanities) from two faculties of the historical University of Paris — colloquially referred to as the Sorbonne — after the French May of 1968, which resulted in the division of one of the world's oldest academic institution. The double origin of the founders – Luchaire and Bartoli from the Faculty of Law and Economics and Ahrweiler from the Faculty of Letters – is now found in the name of the university: "Panthéon" for law and Economics, "Sorbonne" for humanities.  While Paris-Sorbonne University and Sorbonne Nouvelle succeeded the faculty of humanities of the University of Paris, Panthéon-Assas University the faculty of law and economics, and Pierre and Marie Curie University and Paris Descartes University the faculty of sciences, Panthéon-Sorbonne University was founded on a wish for interdisciplinarity by bringing together disciplines. Indeed, most of the law professors of the faculty of law and economics of the University of Paris wished only to restructure their faculty into a university. However, most of the faculty's economists and political scientists and some public law professors sought to create a university which would extend beyond the disciplinary compartmentalisation; they hurried ahead of their colleagues and established "Paris I"—which would later be called "Panthéon-Sorbonne"—with professors of both the faculty of human sciences and the faculty of law and economics. The name of the university show this interdisciplinarity: the Sorbonne building is the traditional seat of the Humanities studies in Paris (hence it is also used by and University Paris-Sorbonne), and the Panthéon building is, with the Assas building, the traditional seat of the law studies (hence it is also used by Panthéon-Assas University).

Campuses.

The main buildings are the Centre Pierre Mendès France, the Centre René Cassin, the Centre Saint-Charles, the Centre Arago which houses the new International Relations Building; the research centers have been relocated, in particular in the Rue Malher and the Boulevard de l’Hôpital, where the Economics Building is currently located.

Organisation and administration.

The Pantheon-Sorbonne University is organized in several departments ("unités de formation et de recherche") and institutes.

Departments.

Art School.

The Sorbonne Art School (École des arts de la Sorbonne) specializes in plastic arts. The school offers degrees from the Bachelor to the Doctorate level. The specialities are cinema, plastic arts, design, management of cultural projects or institutions, and aesthetics.

Law Department.

Panthéon-Sorbonne united in 2009 all legal studies in the university and gave that new department the name of "École de droit de la Sorbonne" ("Sorbonne Law School"). The school offers degrees from the Bachelor to the Doctorate level. The Sorbonne Law School holds since 1993 with Cornell University, the "Cornell Law School-Université Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne Summer Institute of Comparative and International Law".

Sorbonne Publishing.

Sorbonne Publishing (Editions de la Sorbonne) is a publishing house of the Panthéon-Sorbonne University.  It has published over 700 books since 1971 and publishes approximately 50 new titles a year.

Academics.

Research.

Research programs exist in economics, management and applied mathematics; in law and politics; in philosophy and the arts; in history, art history and archaeology; in geography, demography and sociology, to name but some. The eleven hundred members of faculty, 200 researchers who are attached to major research institutions, mainly the CNRS (National Center for Scientific Research), and 150 technical and administrative staff are grouped in 68 research groups recognised by the CNRS and the Ministry of Education and Research.  Every year around 400 PhD theses are defended and 1,700 pre-PhD post-graduate degrees are awarded in 74 subjects divided between 15 graduate schools.

Documentary resource centers.

In Economics, the library at the Centre Pierre Mendès France offers students free access to its large collection.  In Law, the Cujas Library, co-administered with Panthéon-Assas, with its computerized documentation service, provides access to over 500 data banks and is the largest law and economics library in France.  In Humanities, The Sorbonne library, a common library of Panthéon-Sorbonne University,, Sorbonne University, Paris Descartes University, and Paris Diderot University. It is administered by Panthéon-Sorbonne University as per a governing agreement signed among these universities in 2000. It has a collection of almost three million books, 100,000 of which are more than 200 years old, and 17,500 periodicals covering all the humanities. The library and map collection of the Geography Institute are the oldest such collection in France. In addition, the 400,000 volumes in the specialist libraries offer users one of the largest collections in France and Europe.

International.

Panthéon-Sorbonne has signed over 150 conventions with foreign universities across five continents. These exchanges revolve around international networks such as Europaeum which bring together Oxford, London, Bologna, Bonn, Geneva, Helsinki, Leiden and Prague. The University of Paris I also heads a number of consortia which bring together French universities and professional organisations. The consortia are responsible for major international projects in Bucharest, Buenos Aires, Cairo, Istanbul (Galatasaray), and Moscow.  Every year some 130 academics from foreign universities come to teach and do research at the University of Paris I. Many researchers and members of faculty take part in major international research programs abroad; the University also hosts many annual international conferences. Six thousand international students, mainly from Europe, come to study as part of the SOCRATES or TEMPUS programmes. African students are joined by increasing numbers from Asia and America, and take part in specific programs organised in conjunction with universities across the world.

Dual and double degree programs.

At Panthéon-Sorbonne, students can apply for admission to one of the dual degree or double degree programs designed in conjunction with partner universities in France and abroad. Double degree programs confer two degrees to students, whereas dual degrees confer a degree from the host university only.

Rankings.

International rankings.

In 2020, Pantheon-Sorbonne was globally ranked 305th (11th of France) by QS World University Rankings and 601-800th (32nd of France) by The Times Higher Education. It was ranked 1010th (54th of France) by US News in 2017.  By world reputation, it was ranked 71-80th in 2017 by THE but is no longer among the top 100 since 2019.  By area or subject, it was ranked:

National rankings.

Economics and business  In Economics, its undergraduate program is ranked second of the French universities by Eduniversal. Its masters programs are ranked 4th of the French Universities or academic institution by Eduniversal.  In Business, Panthéon-Sorbonne is ranked 14 by Eduniversal, second of the universities, behind Paris Dauphine University.  Law  Panthéon-Sorbonne undergraduate law program is ranked four by Eduniversal. It was ranked in interdisciplinary fields also, as follows:  Panthéon-Sorbonne masters law programs are globally ranked second by Eduniversal, behind Panthéon-Assas University ones. On the 55 master's degree ranked in 6 specialties, 4 are from Panthéon-Sorbonne University from 3 specialties, i.e. second ex aequo with Paris Dauphine University and Aix-Marseille University but with higher rankings than these two universities. They were ranked as follow  In terms of salary, Panthéon-Sorbonne law graduates are second nationally behind Panthéon-Assas University ones.  Humanities  No national ranking exists in Humanities.

Controversies.

Tolbiac blockades.

The Tolbiac center of Paris 1, which hosts the undergraduate lectures in law, is regularly subject to blockades, which cause cancellation of all lectures up to several months, including in 1995, 1997, 2006, 2007–09, 2010 and 2018.

People.

This list includes notable people affiliated with the Pantheon-Sorbonne University. For people affiliated with the University of Paris which ceased to exist in 1970, see List of University of Paris people.

University of Paris 1 Pantheon-Sorbonne (), also known as Paris 1 or Pantheon-Sorbonne University, is a multidisciplinary public research university in Paris, France.

Univerzita Paříž 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, francouzsky plným názvem "Université Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne" je francouzská vysoká škola a jedna z univerzit, které vznikly rozdělením starobylé Pařížské univerzity v roce 1971. Hlavní sídlo školy je v Paříži v 5. obvodu v Latinské čtvrti na náměstí "Place du Panthéon". Její název je odvozen od pařížského Pantheonu a Sorbonny. Škola se specializuje na výuku ekonomie a managementu, umění a humanitních věd, práva a politologie.


Theory.

Attachment therapy is a treatment used primarily with fostered or adopted children who have behavioral difficulties, sometimes severe, but including disobedience and perceived lack of gratitude or affection for their caregivers. The children's problems are ascribed to an inability to attach to their new parents, because of suppressed rage due to past maltreatment and abandonment. The common form of attachment therapy is "holding" therapy, in which a child is firmly held (or lain upon) by therapists or parents. Through this process of restraint and confrontation, therapists seek to produce in the child a range of responses such as rage and despair with the goal of achieving

Treatment characteristics.

The controversy, as outlined in the 2006 American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (APSAC) Task Force Report, has broadly centered around "holding therapy" and coercive, restraining, or aversive procedures. These include deep tissue massage, aversive tickling, punishments related to food and water intake, enforced eye contact, requiring children to submit totally to adult control over all their needs, barring normal social relationships outside the primary caretaker, encouraging children to regress to infant status, reparenting, attachment parenting, or techniques designed to provoke cathartic emotional discharge. Variants of these treatments have carried various labels that change frequently. They may be known as "rebirthing therapy", "compression therapy", "corrective attachment therapy", "the Evergreen model", "holding time", "rage-reduction therapy" or "prolonged parent-child embrace therapy". Some authors critical of this therapeutic approach have used the term Coercive Restraint Therapy. It is this form of treatment for attachment difficulties or disorders which is popularly known as "attachment therapy". Advocates for Children in Therapy, a group that campaigns against attachment therapy, give a list of therapies they state are attachment therapy by another name. They also provide a list of additional therapies used by attachment therapists which they consider to be unvalidated. Matthew Speltz of the University of Washington School of Medicine describes a typical treatment taken from The Center's material (apparently a replication of the program at the Attachment Center, Evergreen) as follows: "Like Welsh ("sic")(1984, 1989), The Center induces rage by physically restraining the child and forcing eye contact with the therapist (the child must lie across the laps of two therapists, looking up at one of them). In a workshop handout prepared by two therapists at The Center, the following sequence of events is described: (1) therapist 'forces control' by holding (which produces child 'rage'); (2) rage leads to child 'capitulation' to the therapist, as indicated by the child breaking down emotionally ('sobbing'); (3) the therapist takes advantage of the child's capitulation by showing nurturance and warmth; (4) this new trust allows the child to accept 'control' by the therapist and eventually the parent. According to The Center's treatment protocol, if the child'shuts down' ("i.e.", refuses to comply), he or she may be threatened with detainment for the day at the clinic or forced placement in a temporary foster home; this is explained to the child as a consequence of not choosing to be a 'family boy or girl.' If the child is actually placed in foster care, the child is then required to 'earn the way back to therapy' and a chance to resume living with the adoptive family."  According to the APSAC Task Force, "A central feature of many of these therapies is the use of psychological, physical, or aggressive means to provoke the child to catharsis, ventilation of rage, or other sorts of acute emotional discharge. To do this, a variety of coercive techniques are used, including scheduled holding, binding, rib cage stimulation (e.g., tickling, pinching, knuckling), and/or licking. Children may be held down, may have several adults lie on top of them, or their faces may be held so they can be forced to engage in prolonged eye contact. Sessions may last from 3 to 5 hours, with some sessions reportedly lasting longer... Similar but less physically coercive approaches may involve holding the child and psychologically encouraging the child to vent anger toward her or his biological parent."  The APSAC Task Force describes how the conceptual focus of these treatments is the child's individual internal pathology and past caregivers rather than current parent-child relationships or current environment. If the child is well-behaved outside the home this is seen as successful manipulation of outsiders, rather than as evidence of a problem in the current home or current parent-child relationship. The APSAC Task Force noted that this perspective has its attractions because it relieves the caregivers of responsibility to change aspects of their own behavior and aspirations. Proponents believe that traditional therapies fail to help children with attachment problems because it is impossible to establish a trusting relationship with them. They believe this is because children with attachment problems actively avoid forming genuine relationships. Proponents emphasize the child's resistance to attachment and the need to break it down. In rebirthing and similar approaches, protests of distress from the child are considered to be resistance that must be overcome by more coercion.  Coercive techniques, such as scheduled or enforced holding, may also serve the intended purpose of demonstrating dominance over the child. Establishing total adult control, demonstrating to the child that he or she has no control, and demonstrating that all of the child's needs are met through the adult, is a central tenet of many controversial attachment therapies. Similarly, many controversial treatments hold that children described as attachment–disordered must be pushed to revisit and relive early trauma. Children may be encouraged to regress to an earlier age where trauma was experienced or be reparented through holding sessions. Other features of attachment therapy are the "two week intensive" course of therapy, and the use of "therapeutic foster parents" with whom the child stays whilst undergoing therapy. According to O'Connor and Zeanah, the "holding" approach would be viewed as intrusive and therefore non-sensitive and countertherapeutic, in contrast with accepted theories of attachment.  According to Advocates for Children in Therapy, "Attachment Therapy almost always involves extremely confrontational, often hostile confrontation of a child by a therapist or parent (sometimes both). Restraint of the child by more powerful adult(s) is considered an essential part of the confrontation." The purported correction is described as "... to force the children into loving (attaching to) their parents;... there is a hands-on treatment involving physical restraint and discomfort. Attachment Therapy is the imposition of boundary violations – most often coercive restraint – and verbal abuse on a child, usually for hours at a time;... Typically, the child is put in a lap hold with the arms pinned down, or alternatively an adult lies on top of a child lying prone on the floor."  Psychiatrist Bruce Perry cites the use of holding therapy techniques by caseworkers and foster parents investigating a Satanic Ritual Abuse case in the late 1980s, early 1990s, as instrumental in obtaining lengthy and detailed alleged "disclosures" from children. In his opinion, using force or coercion on traumatised children simply re-traumatizes them and far from producing love and affection, produces obedience based on fear, as in the trauma bond known as Stockholm syndrome.

Theoretical principles.

Like a number of other alternative mental health treatments for children, attachment therapy is based on some assumptions that differ strongly from the theoretical foundations of other attachment based therapies. In contrast to traditional attachment theory, the theory of attachment described by attachment therapy proponents is that young children who experience adversity (including maltreatment, loss, separations, adoption, frequent changes in child care, colic or even frequent ear infections) become enraged at a very deep and primitive level. This results in a lack of ability to attach or to be genuinely affectionate to others. Suppressed or unconscious rage is theorized to prevent the child from forming bonds with caregivers and leads to behavior problems when the rage erupts into unchecked aggression. Such children are said to fail to develop a conscience, to not trust others, to seek control rather than closeness, to resist the authority of caregivers, and to engage in endless power struggles. They are seen as highly manipulative and as trying to avoid true attachments while simultaneously striving to control those around them through manipulation and superficial sociability. Such children are said to be at risk of becoming psychopaths who will go on to engage in very serious delinquent, criminal, and

Diagnosis and attachment disorder.

Attachment therapists claim to diagnose attachment disorder, and reactive attachment disorder. However, within attachment therapy, the diagnoses of attachment disorder and reactive attachment disorder are used in a manner not recognised in mainstream practice. Prior and Glaser describe two discourses on attachment disorder. One is science-based, found in academic journals and books with careful reference to theory, international classifications and evidence. They list Bowlby, Ainsworth, Tizard, Hodges, Chisholm, O'Connor and Zeanah and colleagues as respected attachment theorists and researchers in the field. The other discourse is found in clinical practice, non-academic literature and on the Internet where claims are made which have no basis in attachment theory and for which there is no empirical evidence. In particular unfounded claims are made as to efficacy of treatments. The Internet is considered essential to the popularization of holding therapy as an "attachment" therapy.  The APSAC Task Force describes the relationship between the proponents of attachment therapy and mainstream therapies as polarized. "This polarization is compounded by the fact that attachment therapy has largely developed outside the mainstream scientific and professional community and flourishes within its own networks of attachment therapists, treatment centers, caseworkers, and parent support groups. Indeed, proponents and critics of the controversial attachment therapies appear to move in different worlds."

Diagnosis lists and questionnaires.

Both the APSAC Task Force and Prior and Glaser describe the proliferation of alternative "lists" and diagnoses, particularly on the Internet, by proponents of attachment therapy, that are not in accord with either DSM or ICD classifications and which are partly based on the unsubstantiated views of Zaslow and Menta and Cline. According to the Task Force, "These types of lists are so nonspecific that high rates of false-positive diagnoses are virtually certain. Posting these types of lists on internet sites that also serve as marketing tools may lead many parents or others to conclude inaccurately that their children have attachment disorders."  Prior and Glaser describe the lists as "wildly inclusive" and state that many of the behaviors in the lists are likely to be the consequences of neglect and abuse rather than located within the attachment paradigm. Descriptions of children are frequently highly pejorative and "demonizing". Examples given from lists of attachment disorder symptoms found on the internet include lying, avoiding eye contact except when lying, persistent nonsense questions or incessant chatter, fascination with fire, blood, gore and evil, food

Patient recruitment.

In addition to concerns about the use of non-specific diagnostic checklists on the Internet being used as a marketing tool, the Task Force also noted the extreme claims made by proponents as to both the prevalence and effect of attachment disorders. Some proponents suggest most or a high proportion of adopted children are likely to suffer attachment disorder. Statistics on the prevalence of maltreatment are wrongly used to estimate the prevalence of RAD. Problematical or less desirable styles such as insecure or disorganized attachment are conflated with attachment disorder. Children are labeled as "RADs", "RAD-kids" or "RADishes". They are seen as manipulative, dishonest, without conscience and dangerous. Some attachment therapy sites predict that attachment-disordered children will grow up to become violent predators or psychopaths unless they receive the treatment proposed. A sense of urgency is created which serves to justify the application of aggressive and unconventional techniques. One site was noted to contain the argument that Saddam Hussein, Adolf Hitler, and Jeffrey Dahmer were examples of children who were attachment-disordered who "did not get help in time". Foster Cline in his seminal work on attachment therapy "Hope for

Contrasting mainstream position.

Within mainstream practice, disorders of attachment are classified in DSM-5 and ICD-10 as reactive attachment disorder (generally known as RAD), and Disinhibited social engagement disorder. Both classification systems warn against automatic diagnosis based on abuse or neglect. Many symptoms are present in a variety of other more common and more easily treatable disorders. There

Prevalence.

Attachment therapy prospered during the 1980s and '90s as a consequence of both the influx of older adopted orphans from Eastern European and third world countries and the inclusion of reactive attachment disorder in the 1980 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders which attachment therapists adopted as an alternative name for their existing unvalidated diagnosis of attachment disorder.  According to the APSAC Task Force, these therapies are sufficiently prevalent to have prompted position statements or specific prohibitions against using coercion or restraint as a treatment by mainstream professional societies such as: American Psychological Association (Division on Child Maltreatment), National Association of Social Workers (and its Utah Chapter), American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children, American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, and American Psychiatric Association. The Association for the Treatment and Training in the Attachment of Children, (ATTACh), an organization for professionals and families associated with attachment therapy, has also issued statements against coercive practices. Two American states, Colorado and North Carolina, have outlawed rebirthing. There have been professional licensure sanctions against some leading proponents and successful criminal prosecutions and imprisonment of therapists and parents using attachment therapy techniques. Despite this, the treatments

Developments.

The APSAC Task Force stated that proponents of attachment therapy correctly point out that most critics have never actually observed any of the treatments they criticize or visited any of the centers where the controversial therapies are practiced. Proponents argue that their therapies present no physical risk if undertaken properly and that critics' concerns are based on unrepresentative occurrences and misapplications of techniques, or misunderstanding by parents. Holding is described as gentle or nurturing and it is maintained that intense, cathartic approaches are necessary to help children with attachment disorders. Their evidence for this is primarily clinical experience and testimonials.  According to the APSAC Task Force, there are controversies within the attachment therapy community about coercive practices. There has been a move away from coercive and confrontational models towards attunement and emotional regulation amongst some leaders in the field, notably Hughes, Kelly and Popper. A number of therapies are quite different from those that have led to the abuse and deaths of children in much publicized court cases. The Task Force, however, points out that all the therapies, including those using frankly coercive practices, present themselves as humane, respectful and nurturing, therefore caution is advised. Some practitioners condemn the most

History.

Matthew Speltz of the University of Washington School of Medicine states that the roots of attachment therapy are traceable to psychologist Robert Zaslow and his "Z-process" in the 1970s. Zaslow attempted to force attachment in autistic children by creating rage while holding them against their will. He believed this would lead to a breakdown in their defense mechanisms, making them more receptive to others. Zaslow thought attachment arose when an infant experienced feelings of pain, fear and rage, and then made eye contact with the carer who relieved those feelings. If an infant did not experience this cycle of events by having his fear and rage relieved, the infant would not form an attachment and would not make eye contact with other people. Zaslow believed that creating pain and rage and combining them with eye contact would cause attachment to occur, long after the normal age for such developments. Holding therapies derive from these "rage-reduction" techniques applied by Zaslow. The holding is not used for safety purposes but is initiated for the purpose of provoking strong negative emotions such as fear and anger. The child's release typically depends upon his or her compliance with the therapist's clinical agenda or goals. In 1971, Zaslow surrendered his California psychology license following an injury to a patient during rage-reduction therapy. Zaslow's ideas on the use of the Z-process and holding for autism have been dispelled by research on the genetic/biologic causes of autism.  Zaslow and his "Z-process", a physically rough version of holding therapy, influenced Foster Cline (known as the "father of attachment therapy") and associates at his clinic in Evergreen A key tenet of Zaslow's approach was the notion of "breaking through" a child's defenses—based on the model of ego defenses borrowed from psychoanalytic theory, which critics state has been misapplied. The "breaking through" metaphor was then applied to children whose attachments were thought to be impaired. The clinic, originally called the Youth Behavior Program, was subsequently renamed the Attachment Center at Evergreen.  In 1983, ethologist Nikolas Tinbergen published a book recommending the use of holding therapy by parents as a treatment or "cure" for autistic children. Tinbergen based his ideas on his methods of observational study of birds. Parents were advised to hold their autistic children despite resistance and to endeavor to maintain eye contact and share emotions. Tinbergen believed that autism related to a failure in the bond between mother and child caused by "traumatic influences" and that enforced holding and eye contact could establish such a relationship and rescue the child from autism. Tinbergen's interpretations of autism were without scientific rigor and were contrary to the then growing acceptance that autism had a genetic cause. Despite the lack of a sound theoretical or scientific base, holding therapy as a treatment for autism is still practiced in some parts of the world, notably Europe.  Speltz cites child psychiatrist Martha Welch and her 1988 book, "Holding Time", as the next significant development. Like Zaslow and Tinbergen, Welch recommended holding therapy as a treatment for autism. Like Tinbergen, Welch believed autism was caused by the failure of the attachment relationship between mother and child. Mothers were instructed to hold their defiant child, provoking anger and rage, until such time as the child ceased to resist, at which point a bonding process was believed to begin.  Foster Cline and associates at the Attachment Center at Evergreen, Colorado began to promote the use of the same or similar holding techniques with adopted, maltreated children who were said to have an "attachment disorder". This was replicated elsewhere such as at "The Center"

Claims.

According to the APSAC Task Force, proponents of attachment therapy commonly assert that their therapies alone are effective for attachment-disordered children and that traditional treatments are ineffective or harmful. The APSAC Task Force expressed concern over claims by therapies to be "evidence-based", or the "only" evidence-based therapy, when the Task Force found no credible evidence base for any such therapy so advertised. Nor did it accept more recent claims to evidence base in its November 2006 Reply.  Two approaches on which published studies have been undertaken are holding therapy and dyadic developmental psychotherapy. Each of these non-randomized studies concluded that the treatment method studied was effective. Both the APSAC Task Force and Prior and Glaser cite and criticize the one published study on holding therapy undertaken by Myeroff et al., which "purports to be an evaluation of holding therapy". This study covers the "across the lap" approach, described as "not restraint" by Howe and Fearnley but "being held whilst unable to gain release." Prior and Glaser state that although the Myeroff study claims it is based on attachment theory, the theoretical basis for the treatment is in fact Zaslow.  Dyadic developmental psychotherapy was developed by psychologist Daniel Hughes, described by the Task Force as a "leading attachment therapist". Hughes' website gave a list of attachment therapy techniques, repeated by the APSAC Task Force from an earlier website, which he stated do not or should not form part of dyadic developmental psychotherapy, which the Task Force took as a description of attachment therapy techniques. Two studies on dyadic developmental psychotherapy have been published by Becker-Weidman, the second being a four-year follow up of the first.

Cases of harm and death.

There have been a number of cases of serious harm to children while using the therapy. An estimated six children have died as a consequence of the more coercive forms of such treatments or the application of the accompanying parenting techniques.

Attachment therapy (also called "the Evergreen model", "holding time", "rage-reduction", "compression therapy", "rebirthing", "corrective attachment therapy" and Coercive Restraint Therapy) is a pseudoscientific child mental health intervention intended to treat attachment disorders. It is found primarily in the United States, and much of it is centered in about a dozen clinics in Evergreen, Colorado, where Foster Cline, one of the founders, established his clinic in the 1970s.

Terapie pevným objetím či terapie pevným držením vyvinutá Martou Welchovou, je neověřenou formou psychoterapie. Měla by intenzivním, ale neagresivním držením řešit problémy narušených vazeb. Terapie byla původně vyvíjena a podporována etologem a nositelem Nobelovy ceny Nikolaasem Tinbergenem pro děti s autismem. Nicméně jeho interpretace autistického chování a z ní vycházející terapie postrádala vědeckou podporu, česká organizace APLA pro podporu dětí s autismem pak proti této metodě veřejně vystupuje.


Life and career.

Leonard Rosenman was born in Brooklyn, New York, United States. After service in the Pacific with the United States Army Air Forces in World War II, he earned a bachelor's degree in music from the University of California, Berkeley. He also studied composition with Arnold Schoenberg, Roger Sessions and Luigi Dallapiccola.  Amongst Rosenman's earliest film work was the scores for James Dean movies "East of Eden" (1955) and "Rebel Without a Cause" (1955). Rosenman had lived together with Dean, to whom he gave piano lessons, and it was Dean who introduced him to director Elia Kazan. Dean also lobbied George Stevens to let Rosenman score "Giant", but Stevens preferred Dimitri Tiomkin.  Rosenman remarked "The year I did my first film, I had five major performances in New York." But "the minute I did my first film, I didn't have a performance there for 20 years. They would never say, 'I don't like them'. They wouldn't look at them."  He composed the score for Vincente Minnelli's "The Cobweb" (1955) regarded as the first major Hollywood score to be written in the Twelve-tone technique. His avant-garde music was used for Martin Ritt's "Edge of the City" (1956) and John Frankenheimer's "The Young Stranger" (1957). He composed scores for war films such as William Wellman's biographical "Lafayette Escadrille" (1958), Lewis Milestone's "Pork Chop Hill" (1959), Delbert Mann's "The Outsider" (1961), Don Siegel's "Hell is for Heroes" (1962), and the "Combat!" television series (1962). He wrote incidental music for such television series as "Law of the Plainsman", "The Defenders", "The Twilight Zone", "Gibbsville", and "Marcus Welby, M.D.".  He went on to compose George Cukor's "The Chapman Report", then "Fantastic Voyage" (1966), where he rejected producer Saul David's instructions. Rosenman stated, "A producer asked me to write a jazz score, and I asked him why. He said he wanted the picture to be the first hip science fiction movie. I said that's a great idea for an advertising agency, but it doesn't fit the film."  He provided scores to science fiction films such as "Beneath the Planet of the Apes" (1970), the first animated adaptation of "The Lord of the Rings" (1978), and "" (1986).  In the 1970s, he composed "Bass Concerto Chamber Music 4" for bassist Buell Neidlinger and four string quartets with a second bass.  In 1983 he composed the score for "Cross Creek", for which he won an Academy Award nomination.  In 1995, Nonesuch Records issued an album of music from both "East of Eden" and "Rebel Without A Cause", played by the London Sinfonietta conducted by John Adams.  In his seventies, Rosenman was diagnosed with Frontotemporal dementia, a degenerative brain condition with symptoms similar to Alzheimer's disease.  He died March 4, 2008, of a heart attack at the Motion Picture & Television Country House and Hospital in Woodland Hills, Los Angeles, California.

Awards.

Leonard Rosenman earned two Academy Awards:  After receiving his second Oscar he quipped "I write original music too, you know!"  He received two additional Academy Award nominations:  He also received two Emmy Awards:

Leonard Rosenman (September 7, 1924 – March 4, 2008) was an American film, television and concert composer with credits in over 130 works, including "", "Beneath the Planet of the Apes", "Barry Lyndon" and the animated "The Lord of the Rings."

Leonard Rosenman (7. září 1924 New York, New York – 4. března 2008 Los Angeles, Kalifornie) byl americký hudební skladatel, skládající mimo jiné i hudbu pro film. Dvakrát získal za svoje dílo Oscara.


Biography.

Israel Rokach was born in 1896 in Neve Tzedek, then part of Jaffa. His mother was Rachel Rokach (born in 1863). His father, Shimon Rokach (born in 1863), a journalist, was one of the founders of the neighborhood. His grandfather, Israel Beck, revived the Hebrew printing industry in Palestine. Rokach attended a cheder and then an Alliance Israélite Universelle school. He traveled to Switzerland, where he continued his education at a high school in Lausanne and then studied electrical engineering at the Zürich polytechnic.  In 1920, Israel Rokach moved to the United Kingdom, where he worked as an electrical engineer. In 1922, he returned to Jaffa, where he opened a store for electrical supplies. In 1933, Rokach married Esther Epstein.  Rokach died in 1959 and was buried in Trumpeldor Cemetery in Tel Aviv.

Political career.

Rokach's first public position was council member in Jaffa, representing the Jewish neighborhoods of Neve Tzedek, Neve Shalom and Ohel Moshe. In 1922, he was elected to the city council of Tel Aviv, representing the United Centrist List party. In 1929 he was appointed deputy mayor to Meir Dizengoff.  In the 1936 municipal elections, Israel Rokach represented the right-wing parties, although he lost to Moshe Chelouche of the workers' parties. Nevertheless, the British High Commissioner forced Rokach's appointment to the mayoral post. Despite public uproar about British intervention in the Jewish democratic process, Rokach went on to serve as mayor of Tel Aviv until 1953. For his great success, he was awarded the title of Officer of the Order of the British Empire.  During his tenure, Tel Aviv expanded rapidly and its population tripled. Jaffa, Rokach's birthplace, was merged into the city in 1949, giving it a significant population boost, despite Rokach's initial opposition to the merger.  The 1936-39 Arab revolt, World War II and the 1948 Arab-Israeli War all occurred during his tenure, including Operation Hametz - the capture of Jaffa from Arab hands. During this period, Tel Aviv was bombed from the air multiple times, the first being by the Italian Air Force in 1940. After this, underground shelters and loudspeaker systems were built, which also served the population in 1949, when Egyptian Spitfires made strafing runs on the city. On August 5, 1947, Rokach and other municipal leaders were imprisoned in Latrun for aiding Jewish underground organizations. He was released in September 1947.  In 1952, Israel Rokach delivered a farewell speech and ceased his municipal duties in Tel Aviv. However, he officially continued as mayor until Chaim Levanon was elected to replace him on April 13, 1953. Rokach served as head of the Maccabi World Union. He was a member of the Knesset from its first inception until the third as a member of the General Zionists. In the first and second Knessets, he was also a member of the Finance Committee. In the third Knesset, he also held the position of deputy speaker.  In the fourth and fifth governments, between 1952 and 1955, Israel Rokach served as the Interior Minister of Israel. In 2008, Israel honored him on a postage stamp.

Israel Rokach, Honorary CBE (; December 31, 1896 – September 13, 1959) was an Israeli politician, Knesset member, and fourth mayor of Tel Aviv from November 15, 1936 until April 13, 1953.

Jisra'el Rokeach (:, 31. prosince 1896 – 13. září 1959) byl sionistický aktivista, izraelský politik a poslanec Knesetu za stranu Všeobecní sionisté.


Biography.

Eliezer Liebenstein (later Livneh) was born in Łódź in the Russian Empire (now Poland) in 1902, but his family moved to Rostov-on-Don at the outbreak of World War I. In 1920, he immigrated to Palestine and worked as a road builder. He then joined Ahdut HaAvoda and in 1923 he was elected Secretary of the Haifa Workers Council. That year he also joined Kibbutz Ein Harod, of which he would be a member for many years. He was the Haavara emissary to Germany from 1928 to 1930 and again from 1933 to 1935, seeking to encourage immigration to Palestine and transfer of assets. His experiences of the Nazi rise to power made him an opponent of totalitarian regimes of any kind, including that of Joseph Stalin, which was popular among many in the proletarian movement. Between 1937 and 1939 he studied in England.

Journalism and literary career.

After the outbreak of World War II he became a propagandist for the Haganah and Mapai and was the founder (with Galili and Gershon Rivlin) and editor of "Maarachot" (meaning both "systems" and "military campaigns"), a newspaper on military affairs, in 1939.  In 1940 he published another newspaper, "Ashnav" ("porthole") with Berl Katznelson. Edited by Livneh, it became the voice of the "activist" faction of Mapai for seven years until it went too far by publishing an obituary listing the names of Dov Gruner, Yehiel Drezner and Eliezer Kashani—Irgun members who became Olei Hagardom in April 1947—alongside Haganah casualties who were killed during the illegal immigration activities. Published a few months after the King David Hotel Bombing and shortly after the disbandment of the Jewish Resistance Movement, the analogy between Irgun and Haganah casualties was unacceptable to the Haganah and resulted in the closing of "Ashnav".  He founded and edited a more successful journal, "Beterem" ("before"), from 1942 to 1960. He was also known for his oratory and was active in both Kol Jerusalem, the Mandate authorities operated radio station, and Kol Israel, Haganah's illegal radio station, in which he was also an editor.  In addition to writing several books, he was also an editor of the "Encyclopedia Hebraica" as an expert on Jerusalem, Zionism, Socialism, and Russian history.

Political career.

A few days before the Provisional State Council's Declaration of Independence of 12 May 1948, he was sent by David Ben-Gurion to Menachem Begin to tell him he and his men would be subject to Ben-Gurion's government, to which Begin consented. After the establishment of the State of Israel, he was elected for Mapai to the first and second Knessets, and was a member of the Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee. He supported the dispersion of the population, giving preference to the periphery rather than the center area. He was among the activist members of the party, taking an ardent pro-American stand in the struggle against Mapam, regarding Israel's relation with the United States and the Soviet Union. When MK Yaakov Hazan said that the USSR is his second homeland, Livneh said command positions are not to be put in the hands of people with more than one homeland.  In 1952 he was reprimanded by Foreign Minister Abba Eban for meeting with the Pakistani ambassador at the United Nations. Before the elections to the third Knesset, he was reported to have purchased a relatively luxurious apartment in Kiryat Hayovel, Jerusalem, and was scolded by his party for deviating from the modest behavior policy. He was not elected, but remained active in the party secretariat until 13 November 1957.  In 1959 he founded the "New Government" Movement with Shmuel Tamir and Yeshayahu Leibowitz, which sought to undermine Mapai's dominance in Israeli politics, but resigned from the Movement in 1960. Those days also saw the formation of Israel's nuclear policy. Supporters of Israel's nuclear plan, headed by Ben-Gurion along with Shimon Peres and Ernst David Bergmann, acted behind the scenes to promote the program. Against them, Livneh and Leibowitz formed The Committee for Denuclearization of the Middle East. When Israel's nuclear activities were exposed in "The New York Times" in December 1960, he was joined by several members of the Nuclear Energy Committee, who resigned when Israel's cooperation with France made the Atomic project practical.  The committee argued that Israel's security relies not on the attainment of a nuclear bomb but rather on the nuclear proliferation of the entire region. It was also argued that attaining a nuclear bomb would cause an intensified Arab effort to attain one as well, thus resulting in a balance of terror that might jeopardize the Zionist enterprise. The committee acted behind the scenes and led to a quiet discussion on the issue among several of the members of the big parties, including Levi Eshkol, who replaced Ben-Gurion in 1963, and other party leaders such as Haim-Moshe Shapira of the National Religious Party, Pinchas Rosen of the Liberal party, Yaakov Hazan and Mordechai Bentov of Mapam and Ahdut HaAvoda men Yisrael Galili and Yigal Allon. Allon was particularly attentive to the committee and was considered its loyal supporter in the government. The committee ceased its activities after the Six-Day War. According to Avner Cohen, its term of operation was the closest thing in Israeli history to public democratic debate on nuclear policy.  Prior to the Six Day War, he wrote in "Haaretz": "It is more than the Strait of Tiran that is at issue now. What is at issue is the existence or nonexistence of the Jewish people. We must crush the machinations of the new Hitler at the outset, when it is still possible to crush them and survive.... Neither the world nor the Jews believed in the sincerity of Hitler's declarations.... Nasser's fundamental strategy is the same as Hitler." After the war, he was one of the founders of the Movement for Greater Israel, in which he was active for the rest of his life. His last book, "Israel and the Crisis of Western Civilization" promoted a return to original Jewish culture instead of the Western one. His book "On the Road to Elon Moreh—Zionism on the path of Emunim" was released posthumously by Gush Emunim publishing.

Eliezer Livneh ( (born 2 December 1902, died 1 March 1975) was a Zionist activist, journalist, publicist and Israeli politician. He is known for his activism against nuclear proliferation of the Middle East and for his endorsement of the Greater Israel cause.

Eli'ezer Livne (: אליעזר ליבנה, rodným jménem Eli'ezer Liebenstein, žil 2. prosince 1902 – 1. březen 1975) byl sionistický aktivista, izraelský politik a poslanec Knesetu za stranu Mapaj.


Early life.

He was born in Fairfield, Maine, the son of Albert Coffin and his wife Anstrus (Varney). He married Caroline Russell of Holbrook, Massachusetts and had three children.

Career.

At age 18, he moved to Lynn, Massachusetts to join his uncle Charles E. Coffin and his shoe company, at which he spent the next twenty years. Eventually he established his own shoe factory named Coffin and Clough in Lynn.  In 1883, he was approached by another Lynn businessman, Silas A. Barton, to bring to town a struggling electric company from New Britain, Connecticut, finance it and lead it. With the engineering work of Elihu Thomson and Edwin J. Houston, Coffin was able to build up the company, renamed Thomson-Houston Electric Company, to be an equal to Thomas Edison's companies.  Under Coffin, Thomson-Houston deployed power plants in the South, including two in Atlanta, Georgia to run the electric lighting and in 1889, Joel Hurt's electric streetcar line.  When General Electric was formed from Thomson-Houston and Edison's companies, Coffin was its first chief executive officer. The company was tested quickly during the Panic of 1893, where Coffin negotiated with New York banks to advance money in exchange for GE-owned utility stocks.  He established a duopoly of important electric patents with Westinghouse Electric in the late 1890s, and in 1901 established a research laboratory for the company. Suggested by Charles Proteus Steinmetz, this was the first industrial research lab in the US. He supported GE engineers in the adaptation and development of the Curtis steam turbine, which advanced electric power generation. He retired from the board in 1922, and retained a large amount of GE stock. Upon his death in 1926, he was one of the wealthiest men in the world.

External links.

Silas A. Barton short biographical facts and gravesite info

Charles Albert Coffin (31 December 1844 – 14 July 1926) was an American businessman who was the co-founder and first President of General Electric corporation.

Charles Albert Coffin (31. prosinec 1844 Fairfield – 14. července 1926) byl první prezident společnosti General Electric, kterou pomáhal založit společně s Thomasem Alvou Edisonem, Eliu Thomsonem a Edwinem Houstonem.


Plot.

In 1898, Sir Robert Beaumont, the primary financier of a railroad project in Tsavo, Kenya, is furious because the project is running behind schedule. He seeks out the expertise of Lt. Colonel John Henry Patterson, a British military engineer, to get the project back on track. Patterson travels from England to Tsavo, telling his wife, Helena, he will complete the project and be back in London for the birth of their son. He meets British supervisor Angus Starling, Kenyan foreman Samuel, and Doctor David Hawthorne. Hawthorne tells Patterson of a recent lion attack that has affected the project.  That night, Patterson kills an approaching lion with one shot, earning the respect of the workers and bringing the project back on schedule. However, not long afterwards, Mahina, the construction foreman, is dragged from his tent in the middle of the night. His half-eaten body is found the next morning. Patterson then attempts a second night-time lion hunt, but the following morning, another worker is found dead at the opposite end of the camp from Patterson's position.  Patterson's only comfort now is the letters he receives from his wife. Soon, while the workers are gathering wood and building fire pits around the tents, a lion attacks the camp in the middle of the day, killing another worker. While Patterson, Starling and Samuel are tracking it to one end of the camp, another lion leaps upon them from the roof of a building, killing Starling with a slash to the throat and injuring Patterson on the left arm. Despite the latter's efforts to kill them, both lions escape. Samuel states that there has never been a pair of man-eaters; they have always been solitary hunters.  The workers, led by Abdullah, begin to turn on Patterson. Work on the bridge comes to a halt. Patterson requests soldiers from England to protect the workers, but is denied. During a visit to the camp, Beaumont tells Patterson that he will ruin his reputation if the bridge is not finished on time and that he will contact the famous hunter Charles Remington to help because Patterson has been unable to kill the animals.  Remington arrives with skilled Maasai warriors to help kill the lions. They dub the lions "the Ghost" and "the Darkness" because of their notorious methods of attack. The initial attempt fails when Patterson's borrowed gun misfires. The warriors decide to leave, but Remington stays behind. He constructs a new hospital for sick and injured workers and tempts the lions to the abandoned building with animal parts and blood. When the lions seemingly fall for the trap, Remington and Patterson shoot at them; but they flee and attack the new hospital, killing many patients and Hawthorne.  Abdullah and the construction men leave, and only Patterson, Remington, and Samuel remain behind. Patterson and Remington locate the animals' lair, discovering the bones of dozens of the lions' victims, leading Remington to the realization that the lions are killing many of their victims merely for sport. That night, Remington kills one of the pair by using Patterson and a baboon as bait. The three hunters spend the evening drinking and celebrating but the next morning, Patterson awakes to find that the remaining lion has slaughtered Remington as he and Samuel slept. After the two men cremate Remington, they burn the tall grass surrounding the camp, driving the surviving lion toward the camp and the ambush that they set there. The lion attacks them on the partially constructed bridge, and after a lengthy fight Patterson finally kills it. Abdullah and the construction workers return, and the bridge is completed on time. Patterson reunites with his wife and meets his son for the first time.

Production.

The film is based upon "The Man-Eaters of Tsavo" by Lieutenant Colonel John Henry Patterson, the man who actually killed both real lions.

Screenplay.

William Goldman first heard about the story when travelling in Africa in 1984, and thought it would make a good script. In 1989 he pitched the story to Paramount as a cross between "Lawrence of Arabia" and "Jaws", and they commissioned him to write a screenplay which he delivered in 1990.  "My particular feeling is that they were evil," said Goldman of the lions. "I believe that for nine months, evil popped out of the ground at Tsavo."  The script fictionalizes Patterson's account, introducing an American big game hunter called Charles Remington. The character was based on Anglo-Indian big game hunter Charles H. Ryall, superintendent of the Railway Police. In original drafts the character was called Redbeard, and Goldman says his purpose in the story was to create an imposing character who could be killed by the lions and make Patterson seem more brave; Goldman says his ideal casting for the role would have been Burt Lancaster.  According to Goldman, Kevin Costner expressed interest in playing Patterson, but Paramount wanted to use Tom Cruise who ultimately declined. Work on the film slowed until Michael Douglas moved his producing unit with partner Steven Reuther, Constellation Films, to Paramount. Douglas read the script and loved it, calling it "an incredible thriller about events that actually took place." Douglas decided to produce and Stephen Hopkins was hired to direct.  Val Kilmer, who had just made "Batman Forever" and was a frequent visitor to Africa then expressed enthusiasm for the script, which enabled the project to be financed.  The part of Remington was originally offered to Sean Connery and Anthony Hopkins but both declined; the producers were considering asking Gérard Depardieu when Douglas decided to play the role himself. Stephen Hopkins later said he was unhappy about this.  In early drafts of the script, Remington was originally going to be an enigmatic figure but when Douglas chose to play him, the character's role was expanded and was given a history. In Goldman's book "Which Lie Did I Tell?", the screenwriter argues that Douglas' decision ruined the mystery of the character, making him a "wimp" and a "loser".

Locations.

The film was shot mainly on location at Songimvelo Game Reserve in South Africa, rather than Kenya, due to tax laws. Many Maasai characters in the film were actually portrayed by South African actors, although the Maasai depicted during the hunt were portrayed by real Maasai warriors who were hired for the movie.

Filming.

While the real man-eaters were, like all lions from the Tsavo region, a more aggressive, maneless variety, those used for filming were actually the least aggressive available, for both safety and aesthetic reasons. The film's lions were two male lions with manes. They were brothers named "Caesar" and "Bongo", who were residents of the Bowmanville Zoo in Bowmanville, Ontario, Canada, both of whom were also featured in "George of the Jungle". The film also featured three other lions: two from France and one from the USA.  Director Stephen Hopkins later said of the shoot: We had snake bites, scorpion bites, tick bite fever, people getting hit by lightning, floods, torrential rains and lightning storms, hippos chasing people through the water, cars getting swept into the water, and several deaths of crew members, including two drownings... Val came to the set under the worst conditions imaginable. He was completely exhausted from doing "The Island of Dr. Moreau"; he was dealing with the unfavorable publicity from that set; he was going through a divorce; he barely had time to get his teeth into this role before we started; and he is in nearly every scene in this movie. But I worked him six or seven days a week for four months under really adverse conditions, and he really came through. He had a passion for this film.

Reception.

The film won the Academy Award for Best Sound Editing (Bruce Stambler) at the 69th Academy Awards. However, Val Kilmer was nominated for the Razzie Award for Worst Supporting Actor. Reviews were mixed, with Rotten Tomatoes giving it a 50% rating based on 48 reviews. The site's consensus states: ""The Ghost and the Darkness" hits its target as a suspenseful adventure, but it falls into a trap of its own making whenever it reaches for supernatural profundity." Roger Ebert said the film was so awful it "lacked the usual charm of being so bad it's funny" adding it was "an African adventure that makes the Tarzan movies look subtle and realistic". Ebert would put the film on his list of the worst movies of 1996. Conversely, the late David R. Ellis listed this film at #8 on his "Top 10 Animal Horror Movies" countdown, a list he made to promote the release of "Shark Night 3D".  Hopkins said in a 1998 interview that the film "was a mess... I haven't been able to watch it."  In India, the film was remade in Telugu as "Mrugaraju" and released in 2001.

Home release.

"The Ghost and the Darkness" was released by Paramount Home Video on VHS on April 1, 1997. Later on, the film is available as a one-disc DVD. There are no special features besides a theatrical trailer. The film was released on LaserDisc in 1997 as a one-disc, double-sided release featuring a Dolby Digital audio track.

Historical accuracy.

Although Patterson claimed the lions were responsible for up to 135 deaths, a peer-reviewed paper on man-eating lions and the circumstances surrounding this notorious event states that only about 28–31 killings can be verified (Kerbis Peterhans & Gnoske, 2001). (This figure does not take into account any people who may have been killed but not eaten by the animals.)  Patterson's 1907 book itself states that "between them (the lions) no less than 28 Indian coolies, in addition to scores of unfortunate African natives of whom no official record was kept" were killed. This lesser number was confirmed in the definitive paper on man-eating behavior and the Tsavo lions by Kerbis Peterhans and Gnoske (2001) and soon thereafter in Dr. Bruce Patterson's definitive book "The Lions of Tsavo: Exploring the Legacy of Africa's Notorious Man-Eaters" published by McGraw-Hill in 2004. Patterson wrote the book at the Field Museum in Chicago, where the lions are on display. Kerbis Peterhans & Gnoske showed that the greater toll attributed to the lions resulted from a pamphlet written by Col. Patterson in 1925, stating "these two ferocious brutes killed and devoured, under the most appalling circumstances, 135 Indian and African artisans and laborers employed in the construction of the Uganda Railway."  The location where the bridge was built is now called Man-Eater's Camp. It is in Tsavo East National Park, Kenya, about east of Mount Kilimanjaro and southeast of Nairobi, at

The Ghost and the Darkness is a 1996 American historical adventure film directed by Stephen Hopkins and starring Val Kilmer and Michael Douglas. The screenplay was written by William Goldman. The story is a fictionalized account of the Tsavo Man-Eaters, two Tsavo lions that attacked and killed workers at Tsavo, Kenya during the building of the Uganda-Mombasa Railway in East Africa in 1898.

Lovci lvů (v originálu "The Ghost and the Darkness") je dobrodružný thriller z roku 1996. Byl natočen podle skutečné události, která se odehrála v Africe na přelomu 19. a 20. století v době, kdy všechny světové velmoci té doby toužily po ovládnutí tohoto tajuplného místa.


Statistics provided.

Netstat provides statistics for the following:

Parameters.

Parameters used with this command must be prefixed with a hyphen (-) rather than a slash (/). Some parameters are not supported on all platforms.

Examples.

Cross platform.

On macOS, BSD systems, Linux distributions, and Microsoft Windows:  To display the statistics for only the TCP or UDP protocols, type one of the following commands:  codice_10  codice_11

Unix-like.

On Unix-like systems:  To display all ports open by a process with id "pid":  codice_12  To continuously display open TCP and UDP connections numerically and also which program is using them on Linux: codice_13

Windows.

On Microsoft Windows:  To display active TCP connections and the process IDs every 5 seconds, type the following command (works on NT based systems only, or Windows 2000 with hotfix):  codice_14  To display active TCP connections and the process IDs using numerical form, type the following command (works on NT based systems only, or Windows 2000 with hotfix):  codice_15

Wildcards.

Netstat uses a asterisk * as a wildcard which means "any". An example would be  Example output:...Local Address Foreign Address State... *:smtp *:* LISTEN Under "Local Address" *, in codice_16, means the process is listening on all of the network interfaces the machine has for the port mapped as smtp (see /etc/services for service resolution). This can also be shown as 0.0.0.0. The first *, in codice_17, means connections can come from any IP address, and the second *, in codice_17, means the connection can originate from any port on the remote machine.

Caveats.

Some versions of codice_1 lack explicit field delimiters in their printf-generated output, leading to numeric fields running together and thus corrupting the output data.

Platform specific remarks.

Under Linux, raw data can often be obtained from the /proc/net/dev to work around the printf output corruption arising in netstat's network interface statistics summary, codice_6, until such time as the problem is corrected.  On the Windows platform, netstat information can be retrieved by calling the GetTcpTable and GetUdpTable functions in the IP Helper API, or IPHLPAPI.DLL. Information returned includes local and remote IP addresses, local and remote ports, and (for GetTcpTable) TCP status codes. In addition to the command-line netstat.exe tool that ships with Windows, GUI-based netstat programs are available.  On the Windows platform, this command is available only if the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol is installed as a component in the properties of a network adapter in Network Connections.  On the Windows platform running Remote Desktop Services (formerly Terminal Services) it will only show connections for the current user, not for the whole computer.  On macOS, the /System/Library/CoreServices/Applications folder (or /Applications/Utilities in OS X Mountain Lion and earlier) contains a network GUI utility called Network Utility, the Netstat tab of which runs the netstat command and displays its output in the tab.

In computing, codice_1 ("network statistics") is a command-line network utility that displays network connections for Transmission Control Protocol (both incoming and outgoing), routing tables, and a number of network interface (network interface controller or software-defined network interface) and network protocol statistics. It is available on Unix-like operating systems including macOS, Linux, Solaris and BSD, and is available on IBM OS/2 and on Microsoft Windows NT-based operating systems including Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8 and Windows 10.

codice_1 () je v informatice nástroj pro příkazový řádek, který zobrazuje aktivní (resp. navázaná) síťová spojení (příchozí i odchozí), směrovací tabulku a řadu statistik síťového rozhraní. Je dostupný jak na unixových systémech (Linux, BSD), tak v systémech Windows NT. Typicky je používán při hledání problémů v síti nebo ve funkci síťových programů.