Definitions.

Strictly speaking, Classical Chinese refers to the written language of the classical period of Chinese literature, from the end of the Spring and Autumn period (early 5th century BC) to the end of the Han dynasty (AD 220), while Literary Chinese is the form of written Chinese used from the end of the Han Dynasty to the early 20th century, when it was replaced by vernacular written Chinese. It is often also referred to as "Classical Chinese", but sinologists generally distinguish it from the language of the early period. During this period the dialects of China became more and more disparate and thus the Classical written language became less and less representative of the varieties of Chinese (cf. Classical Latin, which was contemporary to the Han Dynasty, and the Romance languages of Europe). Although authors sought to write in the style of the Classics, the similarity decreased over the centuries due to their imperfect understanding of the older language, the influence of their own speech, and the addition of new words.  This situation, the use of Literary Chinese throughout the Chinese cultural sphere despite the existence of disparate regional vernaculars, is called diglossia. It can be compared to the position of Classical Arabic relative to the various regional vernaculars in Arab lands, or of Latin in medieval Europe. The Romance languages continued to evolve, influencing Latin texts of the same period, so that by the Middle Ages, Medieval Latin included many usages that would have baffled the Romans. The coexistence of Classical Chinese and the native languages of Japan, Korea and Vietnam can be compared to the use of Latin in nations that natively speak non-Latin-derived Germanic languages or Slavic languages, to the position of Arabic in Persia or the position of the Indic language, Sanskrit, in South India and Southeast Asia. However, the non-phonetic Chinese writing system causes a unique situation where the modern pronunciation of the classical language is far more divergent (and heterogeneous, depending on the native – not necessarily Chinese – tongue of the reader) than in analogous cases, complicating understanding and study of Classical Chinese further compared to other classical languages.  Christian missionaries coined the term Wen-li () for Literary Chinese. Though composed from Chinese roots, this term was never used in that sense in Chinese, and was rejected by non-missionary sinologues.

Pronunciation.

Chinese characters are not alphabetic and only rarely reflect sound changes. The tentative reconstruction of Old Chinese is an endeavor only a few centuries old. As a result, Classical Chinese is not read with a reconstruction of Old Chinese pronunciation; instead, it is always read with the pronunciations of characters categorized and listed in the Phonology Dictionary (韻書; pinyin: "yùnshū", "rhyme book") officially published by the Governments, originally based upon the Middle Chinese pronunciation of Luoyang in the 2nd to 4th centuries. With the progress of time, every dynasty has updated and modified the official Phonology Dictionary. By the time of the Yuan Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, the Phonology Dictionary was based on early Mandarin. But since the Imperial Examination required the composition of Shi genre, in non-Mandarin speaking parts of China such as Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian, pronunciation is either based on everyday speech as in Cantonese; or, in some varieties of Chinese (e.g. Southern Min), with a special set of pronunciations used for Classical Chinese or "formal" vocabulary and usage borrowed from Classical Chinese usage. In practice, all varieties of Chinese combine these two extremes. Mandarin and Cantonese, for example, also have words that are pronounced one way in colloquial usage and another way when used in Classical Chinese or in specialized terms coming from Classical Chinese, though the system is not as extensive as that of Southern Min or Wu. (See Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters)  Japanese, Korean or Vietnamese readers of Classical Chinese use systems of pronunciation specific to their own languages. For example, Japanese speakers use "On'yomi" pronunciation when reading the kanji of words of Chinese origin such as 銀行 (ginkō) or the name for the city of Tōkyō (東京), but use "Kun'yomi" when the kanji represents a native word such as the reading of 行 in 行く (iku) or the reading of both characters in the name for the city of Ōsaka (大阪), and a system that aids Japanese speakers with Classical Chinese word order.  Since the pronunciation of all modern varieties of Chinese is different from Old Chinese or other forms of historical Chinese (such as Middle Chinese), characters that once rhymed in poetry may not rhyme any longer, or vice versa. Poetry and other rhyme-based writing thus becomes less coherent than the original reading must have been. However, some modern Chinese varieties have certain phonological characteristics that are closer to the older pronunciations than others, as shown by the preservation of certain rhyme structures. Some believe Classical Chinese literature, especially poetry, sounds better when read in certain varieties that are believed to be closer to older pronunciations, such as Cantonese or Southern Min, because the rhyming is often lost due to sound shifts in Mandarin.  Another phenomenon that is common in reading Classical Chinese is homophony (words that sound the same). More than 2,500 years of sound change separates Classical Chinese from any modern variety, so when reading Classical Chinese in any modern variety of Chinese (especially Mandarin) or in Japanese, Korean, or Vietnamese, many characters which originally had different pronunciations have become homonyms. There is a famous Classical Chinese poem written in the early 20th century by the linguist Chao Yuen Ren called the "Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den", which contains only words that are now pronounced with various tones in Mandarin. It was written to show how Classical Chinese has become an impractical language for speakers of modern Chinese because Classical Chinese when spoken aloud is largely incomprehensible. However the poem is perfectly comprehensible when read silently because Literary Chinese, by its very nature as a "written" language using a logographic writing system, can often get away with using homophones that even in spoken Old Chinese would not have been distinguishable in any way.  The situation is analogous to that of some English words that are spelled differently but sound the same, such as "meet" and "meat", which were pronounced and respectively during the time of Chaucer, as shown by their spelling. However, such homophones are far more common in Literary Chinese than in English. For example, the following distinct Old Chinese words are now all pronounced "yì" in Mandarin: "*ŋjajs" 議 "discuss", "*ŋjət" 仡 "powerful", "*ʔjup" 邑 "city", "*ʔjək" 億 "100,000,000", "*ʔjəks" 意 "thought", "*ʔjek" 益 "increase", "*ʔjik" 抑 "press down", "*jak" 弈 "Chinese chess", "*ljit" 逸 "flee", "*ljək" 翼 "wing", "*ljek" 易 "change", "*ljeks" 易 "easy" and "*slek" 蜴 "lizard".  Romanizations have been devised giving distinct spellings for the words of Classical Chinese, together with rules for pronunciation in various modern varieties. The earliest was the Romanisation Interdialectique (1931–2) of French missionaries Henri Lamasse, of the Paris Foreign Missions Society, and Ernest Jasmin, based on Middle Chinese, followed by linguist Wang Li's "wényán luómǎzì" (1940) based on Old Chinese, and Chao's General Chinese Romanization (1975). However none of these systems has seen extensive use.

Grammar and lexicon.

Classical Chinese is distinguished from written vernacular Chinese in its style, which appears extremely concise and compact to modern Chinese speakers, and to some extent in the use of different lexical items (vocabulary). An essay in Classical Chinese, for example, might use half as many Chinese characters as in vernacular Chinese to relate the same content.  In terms of conciseness and compactness, Classical Chinese rarely uses words composed of two Chinese characters; nearly all words are of one syllable only. This stands directly in contrast with modern Northern Chinese varieties including Mandarin, in which two-syllable, three-syllable, and four-syllable words are extremely common, whilst although two-syllable words are also quite common within modern Southern Chinese varieties, they are still more archaic in that they use more one-syllable words than Northern Chinese varieties. This phenomenon exists, in part, because polysyllabic words evolved in Chinese to disambiguate homophones that result from sound changes. This is similar to such phenomena in English as the "pen–pin" merger of many dialects in the American south and the "caught-cot" merger of most dialects of American English: because the words "pin" and "pen", as well as "caught" and "cot", sound alike in such dialects of English, a certain degree of confusion can occur unless one adds qualifiers like "ink pen" and "stick pin." Similarly, Chinese has acquired many polysyllabic words in order to disambiguate monosyllabic words that sounded different in earlier forms of Chinese but identical in one region or another during later periods. Because Classical Chinese is based on the literary examples of ancient Chinese literature, it has almost none of the two-syllable words present in modern Chinese varieties.  Classical Chinese has more pronouns compared to the modern vernacular. In particular, whereas Mandarin has one general character to refer to the first-person pronoun ("I"/"me"), Literary Chinese has several, many of which are used as part of honorific language (see Chinese honorifics).  In syntax, Classical Chinese is always ready to drop subjects and objects when a reference to them is understood (pragmatically inferable). Also, words are not restrictively categorized into parts of speech: nouns are commonly used as verbs, adjectives as nouns, and so on. There is no copula in Classical Chinese, "是" (pinyin: "shì") is a copula in modern Chinese but in old Chinese it was originally a near demonstrative ("this"); the modern Chinese for "this" is "這" (pinyin: "zhè").  Beyond grammar and vocabulary differences, Classical Chinese can be distinguished by literary and cultural differences: an effort to maintain parallelism and rhythm, even in prose works, and extensive use of literary and cultural allusions, thereby also contributing to brevity.  Many final particles (歇語字 "xiēyǔzì") and interrogative particles are found in Literary Chinese.

Modern use.

Classical Chinese was the main form used in Chinese literary works until the May Fourth Movement (1919), and was also used extensively in Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. Classical Chinese was used to write the Hunmin Jeongeum proclamation in which the modern Korean alphabet (hangul) was promulgated and the essay by Hu Shih in which he argued against using Classical Chinese and in favor of written vernacular Chinese. (The latter parallels the essay written by Dante in "Latin" in which he expounded the virtues of the vernacular "Italian".) Exceptions to the use of Classical Chinese were vernacular novels such as "Dream of the Red Chamber".  Most government documents in the Republic of China were written in Classical Chinese until reforms in the 1970s, in a reform movement spearheaded by President Yen Chia-kan to shift the written style to vernacular Chinese.  Today, pure Classical Chinese is occasionally used in formal or ceremonial occasions. The "National Anthem of the Republic of China" (中華民國國歌), for example, is in Classical Chinese. Buddhist texts, or sutras, are still preserved in Classical Chinese from the time they were composed or translated from Sanskrit sources. In practice there is a socially accepted continuum between vernacular Chinese and Classical Chinese. For example, most official notices and formal letters are written with a number of stock Classical Chinese expressions (e.g. salutation, closing). Personal letters, on the other hand, are mostly written in vernacular, but with some Classical phrases, depending on the subject matter, the writer's level of education, etc. With the exception of professional scholars and enthusiasts, most people today cannot write in full Classical Chinese with ease.  Most Chinese people with at least a middle school education are able to read basic Classical Chinese, because the ability to read (but not write) Classical Chinese is part of the Chinese middle school and high school curricula and is part of the college entrance examination. Classical Chinese is taught primarily by presenting a classical Chinese work and including a vernacular gloss that explains the meaning of phrases. Tests on classical Chinese usually ask the student to express the meaning of a paragraph in vernacular Chinese. They often take the form of comprehension questions.  The contemporary use of Classical Chinese in Japan is mainly in the field of education and the study of literature. Learning the Japanese way (kanbun) of decoding Classical Chinese is part of the high school curriculum in Japan.  Classical Chinese is not a part of middle school and high school curricula in the Korean peninsula and Vietnam nowadays. The use of Classical Chinese in these regions is limited and is mainly in the field of Classical studies.  In addition, many works of literature in Classical Chinese (such as Tang poetry) have been major cultural influences. However, even with knowledge of grammar and vocabulary, Classical Chinese can be difficult to understand by native speakers of modern Chinese, because of its heavy use of literary references and allusions as well as its extremely abbreviated style.

Classical Chinese, also known as Literary Chinese (文言文, "wényánwén" or 古文, "gǔwén") is the language of the classic literature from the end of the Spring and Autumn period through to the end of the Han dynasty, a written form of Old Chinese (上古漢語 or "shànɡɡǔ hànyǔ"). Classical Chinese is a traditional style of written Chinese that evolved from the classical language, making it different from any modern spoken form of Chinese. Literary Chinese was used for almost all formal writing in China until the early 20th century, and also, during various periods, in Japan, Korea and Vietnam. Among Chinese speakers, Literary Chinese has been largely replaced by written vernacular Chinese, a style of writing that is similar to modern spoken Mandarin Chinese, while speakers of non-Chinese languages have largely abandoned Literary Chinese in favor of local vernaculars.

Klasická čínština (, doslova „starý text“) je jazyk klasické čínské literatury období válčících států a dynastie Chan (tj. 5. století př. n. l. až 3. století n. l.), psaná forma staré čínštiny. Termín je často užíván pro literární čínštinu (, „psaný text“; zkráceně, "wen-jen"), tradiční formu zápisu čínštiny založenou na nápodobě její klasické formy. Literární čínština byla převažující formou zápisu čínštiny od chanské doby až po 20. století, kdy ji vytlačila paj-chua, psaná forma standardní mluvené čínštiny.


History.

The band was founded in late 1982 by Paul Weller and initially consisted only of himself and Mick Talbot, who Weller said he chose because "he shares my hatred of the rock myth and the rock culture". The band showed a diversity of musical styles. Singles "Speak Like a Child" (with its loud soul-influenced style), the extended funk of "Money-Go-Round", and the synth-ballad "Long Hot Summer" all featured Talbot on keyboards and organ. Near the end of 1983, these songs were compiled on "Introducing The Style Council", a mini-album initially released in Japan, the Netherlands, Canada, and the US only. The Dutch version was heavily imported to the United Kingdom.  In 1984, the band undertook a brief tour of the United States, during which they played two gigs at the Savoy in New York at the beginning of May. This led to modest chart success with the single "My Ever Changing Moods", which reached No. 29 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 the following month. The song remains Weller's greatest success in the US, including his period with the Jam and also as a solo artist. In the UK, the group reached the height of its popularity with the release of "Our Favourite Shop", which entered the UK album chart at number 1 immediately following its release in June 1985 (only to be supplanted by Brian Ferry's "Boys and Girls" a week later). It notched up a total of 13 weeks in the top 40 (including a re-entry in October), of which 3 weeks were spent in the top 10. In 2015, it was included in a list of 50 albums released in 1985 which, according to the "NME", "still sound great today". Together with "You're the Best Thing" (from "Café Bleu") and "The Big Boss Groove", two songs from the album – "Internationalists" and "Walls Come Tumbling Down" – were played by the band at the UK Live Aid concert, where they appeared second in the running order at Wembley Stadium between Status Quo and the Boomtown Rats. The international exposure, however, did little to boost the group's career, and future commercial success was largely confined to their home country.  In 1989, members of The Style Council went under the name of 'King Truman' to release a single on Acid Jazz titled "Like a Gun". This was unknown to Polydor, and the single was pulled from the shops three days prior to release. Acid Jazz founder Eddie Piller said "The pair offered to make a single for my new label, which I'd just started with Radio 1 DJ Gilles Peterson as a side project. Talbot and Weller took pseudonyms Truman King and Elliott Arnold."  The Style Council broke up in 1989. About the breakup, Paul Weller said (in 1990): The cover version of "Promised Land" (originally by Joe Smooth) was the only release which surfaced from the "Modernism" sessions at the time; however, the entire album was released in 1998, both independently and in a 5-CD box set, "The Complete Adventures of The Style Council". After the split, Weller embarked on a successful solo career (which featured Steve White on drums, who had left the Style Council by the time "Confessions of a Pop Group" was released, having only played on a few of its tracks). Talbot and White released two albums as Talbot/White—"United States of Mind" (1995) and "Off the Beaten Track" (1996). Talbot and White then formed the Players with Damon Minchella and Aziz Ibrahim. White and Minchella went on to form Trio Valore whilst Talbot went touring with Candi Staton in 2009.  All of the Style Council's UK releases (including singles, 12" maxis, albums, compact discs and re-issues thereof) featured the work of graphic designer Simon Halfon, who often collaborated with Weller to hone his ideas into a graphic form. Weller and Halfon began working together at the end of the Jam's career, and continue to work together on Weller's solo material.

Politics.

In December 1984, Weller put together an ensemble called The Council Collective to make a charity record, "Soul Deep", initially to raise money for striking miners during a long-running industrial dispute, and subsequently also for the family of David Wilkie. The track featured the Style Council and a number of other performers, notably Jimmy Ruffin and Junior Giscombe. In spite of, or perhaps due to, the song's political content, it received airplay on BBC Radio 1 and was performed by the group on "Top of the Pops", as well as (live) on Channel 4's "The Tube".  In their lyrics, the Style Council took a more overtly political approach than the Jam, with tracks such as "Walls Come Tumbling Down!", "The Lodgers" and "Come to Milton Keynes" being deliberate attacks on'middle England' and the Thatcherite policies of the UK government during the 1980s. In 1985, Weller was persuaded by Billy Bragg to let the Style Council play a leading role in Red Wedge, a youth-oriented political campaign associated with the British Labour Party. Although his views at the time have since been described as those of a "traditional British socialist", in 2014 Weller admitted the experience had left him feeling "exploited" by politicians, noting further that: "Before the Wedge, the Style Council had done a lot independently, raised a lot of money in benefits. But after the Wedge we were so disillusioned it all stopped. We were totally cynical about all of it." In a previous interview, whilst asserting that there was still "a place for outspokenness" in popular music, Weller had pointed out he was "first and foremost" a musician, and stated: "In the '80s, in the Style Council, we were involved with a lot of political things going on at that time. I think after a while that overshadowed the music a bit."

Discography.

Albums.

Compilations.

Many compilations have been released although not all were released with the band's consent. Many of them feature orange text atop a white background with a picture of the band, typically one from 1987 showing all four members (like the one on the US cover of "The Cost of Loving".)

Other appearances.

During his time with The Style Council, Paul Weller made guest appearances on other recordings, most notably:

The Style Council were an English band formed in late 1982 by Paul Weller, the former singer, songwriter and guitarist with the punk rock/new wave/mod revival band the Jam, and keyboardist Mick Talbot, previously a member of Dexys Midnight Runners, the Bureau and the Merton Parkas. The band enabled Weller to take his music in a more soulful direction.

The Style Council byla britská kapela, kterou v roce 1983 ve Wokingu založil Paul Weller, bývalý zpěvák a kytarista The Jam, a klávesák Mick Talbot, dřívější člen Dexys Midnight Runners a The Merton Parkas. Poté se stálými členy stali i bubeník Steve White a Wellerova tehdejší manželka, zpěvačka Dee C. Lee.


History.

The different concepts of justice, as discussed in ancient Western philosophy, were typically centered upon the community.  After the Renaissance and Reformation, the modern concept of social justice, as developing human potential, began to emerge through the work of a series of authors. Baruch Spinoza in "On the Improvement of the Understanding" (1677) contended that the one true aim of life should be to acquire "a human character much more stable than [one's] own", and to achieve this "pitch of perfection... The chief good is that he should arrive, together with other individuals if possible, at the possession of the aforesaid character." During the enlightenment and responding to the French and American Revolutions, Thomas Paine similarly wrote in "The Rights of Man" (1792) society should give "genius a fair and universal chance" and so "the construction of government ought to be such as to bring forward... all that extent of capacity which never fails to appear in revolutions."  Although there is no certainty about the first use of the term "social justice", early sources can be found in Europe in the 18th century. Some references to the use of the expression are in articles of journals aligned with the spirit of the Enlightenment, in which social justice is described as an obligation of the monarch; also the term is present in books written by Catholic Italian theologians, notably members of the Society of Jesus. Thus, according to this sources and the context, social justice was another term for "the justice of society", the justice that rules the relations among individuals in society, without any mention to socio-economic equity or human dignity.  The usage of the term started to become more frequent by Catholic thinkers from the 1840s, including the Jesuit Luigi Taparelli in "Civiltà Cattolica", based on the work of St. Thomas Aquinas. He argued that rival capitalist and socialist theories, based on subjective Cartesian thinking, undermined the unity of society present in Thomistic metaphysics as neither were sufficiently concerned with moral philosophy. Writing in 1861, the influential British philosopher and economist, John Stuart Mill stated in "Utilitarianism" his view that "Society should treat all equally well who have deserved equally well of it, that is, who have deserved equally well absolutely. This is the highest abstract standard of social and distributive justice; towards which all institutions, and the efforts of all virtuous citizens, should be made in the utmost degree to converge."  In the later 19th and early 20th century, social justice became an important theme in American political and legal philosophy, particularly in the work of John Dewey, Roscoe Pound and Louis Brandeis. One of the prime concerns was the "Lochner era" decisions of the US Supreme Court to strike down legislation passed by state governments and the Federal government for social and economic improvement, such as the eight-hour day or the right to join a trade union. After the First World War, the founding document of the International Labour Organization took up the same terminology in its preamble, stating that "peace can be established only if it is based on social justice". From this point, the discussion of social justice entered into mainstream legal and academic discourse.  Thus, in 1931, the Pope Pius XI stated the expression for the first time in the Catholic Social Teaching in the encyclical Quadragesimo Anno. Then again in Divini Redepmtoris, the Church pointed out that the realisation of social justice relied on the promotion of the dignity of human person. The same year, and because of the documented influence of Divini Redemptoris in its drafters, the Constitution of Ireland was the first one to establish the term as a principle of the economy in the State, and then other countries around the world did the same throughout the 20th century, even in Socialist regimes such as the Cuban Constitution in 1976.  In the late 20th century, a number of liberal and conservative thinkers, notably Friedrich von Hayek rejected the concept by stating that it did not mean anything, or meant too many things. However the concept remained highly influential, particularly with its promotion by philosophers such as John Rawls. Even though the meaning of social justice varies, at least three common elements can be identified in the contemporary theories about it: a duty of the State to distribute certain vital means (such as economic, social, and cultural rights), the protection of human dignity, and affirmative actions to promote equal opportunities for everybody.

Contemporary theory.

Philosophical perspectives.

Cosmic values.

Hunter Lewis' work promoting natural healthcare and sustainable economies advocates for conservation as a key premise in social justice. His manifesto on sustainability ties the continued thriving of human life to real conditions, the environment supporting that life, and associates injustice with the detrimental effects of unintended consequences of human actions. Quoting classical Greek thinkers like Epicurus on the good of pursuing happiness, Hunter also cites ornithologist, naturalist, and philosopher Alexander Skutch in his book Moral Foundations:  Pope Benedict XVI cites Teilhard de Chardin in a vision of the cosmos as a 'living host' embracing an understanding of ecology that includes humanity's relationship to others, that pollution affects not just the natural world but interpersonal relations as well. Cosmic harmony, justice and peace are closely interrelated:  In "The Quest for Cosmic Justice", Thomas Sowell writes that seeking utopia, while admirable, may have disastrous effects if done without strong consideration of the economic underpinnings that support contemporary society.

John Rawls.

Political philosopher John Rawls draws on the utilitarian insights of Bentham and Mill, the social contract ideas of John Locke, and the categorical imperative ideas of Kant. His first statement of principle was made in "A Theory of Justice" where he proposed that, "Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override. For this reason justice denies that the loss of freedom for some is made right by a greater good shared by others." A deontological proposition that echoes Kant in framing the moral good of justice in absolutist terms. His views are definitively restated in "Political Liberalism" where society is seen "as a fair system of co-operation over time, from one generation to the next".  All societies have a basic structure of social, economic, and political institutions, both formal and informal. In testing how well these elements fit and work together, Rawls based a key test of legitimacy on the theories of social contract. To determine whether any particular system of collectively enforced social arrangements is legitimate, he argued that one must look for agreement by the people who are subject to it, but not necessarily to an objective notion of justice based on coherent ideological grounding. Obviously, not every citizen can be asked to participate in a poll to determine his or her consent to every proposal in which some degree of coercion is involved, so one has to assume that all citizens are reasonable. Rawls constructed an argument for a two-stage process to determine a citizen's hypothetical agreement: This applies to one person who represents a small group (e.g., the organiser of a social event setting a dress code) as equally as it does to national governments, which are ultimate trustees, holding representative powers for the benefit of all citizens within their territorial boundaries. Governments that fail to provide for welfare of their citizens according to the principles of justice are not legitimate. To emphasise the general principle that justice should rise from the people and not be dictated by the law-making powers of governments, Rawls asserted that, "There is... a general presumption against imposing legal and other restrictions on conduct without sufficient reason. But this presumption creates no special priority for any particular liberty." This is support for an unranked set of liberties that reasonable citizens in all states should respect and uphold — to some extent, the list proposed by Rawls matches the normative human rights that have international recognition and direct enforcement in some nation states where the citizens need encouragement to act in a way that fixes a greater degree of equality of outcome. According to Rawls, the basic liberties that every good society should guarantee are:

Thomas Pogge.

Thomas Pogge's arguments pertain to a standard of social justice that creates human rights deficits. He assigns responsibility to those who actively cooperate in designing or imposing the social institution, that the order is foreseeable as harming the global poor and is reasonably avoidable. Pogge argues that social institutions have a negative duty to not harm the poor.  Pogge speaks of "institutional cosmopolitanism" and assigns responsibility to institutional schemes for deficits of human rights. An example given is slavery and third parties. A third party should not recognize or enforce slavery. The institutional order should be held responsible only for deprivations of human rights that it establishes or authorizes. The current institutional design, he says, systematically harms developing economies by enabling corporate tax evasion, illicit financial flows, corruption, trafficking of people and weapons. Joshua Cohen disputes his claims based on the fact that some poor countries have done well with the current institutional design. Elizabeth Kahn argues that some of these responsibilities should apply globally.

United Nations.

The United Nations calls social justice "an underlying principle for peaceful and prosperous coexistence within and among nations.  The United Nations’ 2006 document "Social Justice in an Open World: The Role of the United Nations", states that "Social justice may be broadly understood as the fair and compassionate distribution of the fruits of economic growth..."  The term "social justice" was seen by the U.N. "as a substitute for the protection of human rights [and] first appeared in United Nations texts during the second half of the 1960s. At the initiative of the Soviet Union, and with the support of developing countries, the term was used in the Declaration on Social Progress and Development, adopted in 1969."  The same document reports, "From the comprehensive global perspective shaped by the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, neglect of the pursuit of social justice in all its dimensions translates into de facto acceptance of a future marred by violence, repression and chaos." The report concludes, "Social justice is not possible without strong and coherent redistributive policies conceived and implemented by public agencies."  The same UN document offers a concise history: "[T]he notion of social justice is relatively new. None of history’s great philosophers—not Plato or Aristotle, or Confucius or Averroes, or even Rousseau or Kant—saw the need to consider justice or the redress of injustices from a social perspective. The concept first surfaced in Western thought and political language in the wake of the industrial revolution and the parallel development of the socialist doctrine. It emerged as an expression of protest against what was perceived as the capitalist exploitation of labour and as a focal point for the development of measures to improve the human condition. It was born as a revolutionary slogan embodying the ideals of progress and fraternity. Following the revolutions that shook Europe in the mid-1800s, social justice became a rallying cry for progressive thinkers and political activists... By the mid-twentieth century, the concept of social justice had become central to the ideologies and programmes of virtually all the leftist and centrist political parties around the world..."

Religious perspectives.

Abrahamic religions.

Christianity.

Methodism.

From its founding, Methodism was a Christian social justice movement. Under John Wesley's direction, Methodists became leaders in many social justice issues of the day, including the prison reform and abolition movements. Wesley himself was among the first to preach for slaves rights attracting significant opposition.  Today, social justice plays a major role in the United Methodist Church. The "Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church" says, "We hold governments responsible for the protection of the rights of the people to free and fair elections and to the freedoms of speech, religion, assembly, communications media, and petition for redress of grievances without fear of reprisal; to the right to privacy; and to the guarantee of the rights to adequate food, clothing, shelter, education, and health care." The United Methodist Church also teaches population control as part of its doctrine.

Catholicism.

Catholic social teaching consists of those aspects of Roman Catholic doctrine which relate to matters dealing with the respect of the individual human life. A distinctive feature of Catholic social doctrine is its concern for the poorest and most vulnerable members of society. Two of the seven key areas of "Catholic social teaching" are pertinent to social justice:  Even before it was propounded in the Catholic social doctrine, social justice appeared regularly in the history of the Catholic Church:  The "Catechism of the Catholic Church" (§§ 1928–1948) contains more detail of the Church's view of social justice.

Islam.

In Muslim history, Islamic governance has often been associated with social justice. Establishment of social justice was one of the motivating factors of the Abbasid revolt against the Umayyads. The Shi'a believe that the return of the "Mahdi" will herald in "the messianic age of justice" and the Mahdi along with the Isa (Jesus) will end plunder, torture, oppression and discrimination.  For the Muslim Brotherhood the implementation of social justice would require the rejection of consumerism and communism. The Brotherhood strongly affirmed the right to private property as well as differences in personal wealth due to factors such as hard work. However, the Brotherhood held Muslims had an obligation to assist those Muslims in need. It held that "zakat" (alms-giving) was not voluntary charity, but rather the poor had the right to assistance from the more fortunate. Most Islamic governments therefore enforce the "zakat" through taxes.

Judaism.

In "To Heal a Fractured World: The Ethics of Responsibility", Rabbi Jonathan Sacks states that social justice has a central place in Judaism. One of Judaism's most distinctive and challenging ideas is its ethics of responsibility reflected in the concepts of simcha ("gladness" or "joy"), tzedakah ("the religious obligation to perform charity and philanthropic acts"), chesed ("deeds of kindness"), and tikkun olam ("repairing the world").

Eastern religions.

Hinduism.

The present-day Jāti hierarchy is undergoing changes for a variety of reasons including'social justice', which is a politically popular stance in democratic India. Institutionalized affirmative action has promoted this. The disparity and wide inequalities in social behaviour of the jātis – exclusive, endogamous communities centred on traditional occupations – has led to various reform movements in Hinduism. While legally outlawed, the caste system remains strong in practice.

Traditional Chinese religion.

The Chinese concept of Tian Ming has occasionally been perceived as an expression of social justice. Through it, the deposition of unfair rulers is justified in that civic dissatisfaction and economical disasters is perceived as Heaven withdrawing its favor from the Emperor. A successful rebellion is considered definite proof that the Emperor is unfit to rule.

Social justice movements.

Social justice is also a concept that is used to describe the movement towards a socially just world, e.g., the Global Justice Movement. In this context, social justice is based on the concepts of human rights and equality, and can be defined as ""the way in which human rights are manifested in the everyday lives of people at every level of society"".  A number of movements are working to achieve social justice in society. These movements are working toward the realization of a world where all members of a society, regardless of background or procedural justice, have basic human rights and equal access to the benefits of their society.

Liberation theology.

Liberation theology is a movement in Christian theology which conveys the teachings of Jesus Christ in terms of a liberation from unjust economic, political, or social conditions. It has been described by proponents as "an interpretation of Christian faith through the poor's suffering, their struggle and hope, and a critique of society and the Catholic faith and Christianity through the eyes of the poor", and by detractors as Christianity perverted by Marxism and Communism.  Although liberation theology has grown into an international and inter-denominational movement, it began as a movement within the Catholic Church in Latin America in the 1950s–1960s. It arose principally as a moral reaction to the poverty caused by social injustice in that region. It achieved prominence in the 1970s and 1980s. The term was coined by the Peruvian priest, Gustavo Gutiérrez, who wrote one of the movement's most famous books, "A Theology of Liberation" (1971). According to Sarah Kleeb, "Marx would surely take issue," she writes, "with the appropriation of his works in a religious context...there is no way to reconcile Marx's views of religion with those of Gutierrez, they are simply incompatible. Despite this, in terms of their understanding of the necessity of a just and righteous world, and the nearly inevitable obstructions along such a path, the two have much in common; and, particularly in the first edition of [A Theology of Liberation], the use of Marxian theory is quite evident."  Other noted exponents are Leonardo Boff of Brazil, Carlos Mugica of Argentina, Jon Sobrino of El Salvador, and Juan Luis Segundo of Uruguay.

Health care.

Social justice has more recently made its way into the field of bioethics. Discussion involves topics such as affordable access to health care, especially for low income households and families. The discussion also raises questions such as whether society should bear healthcare costs for low income families, and whether the global marketplace is the best way to distribute healthcare. Ruth Faden of the Johns Hopkins Berman Institute of Bioethics and Madison Powers of Georgetown University focus their analysis of social justice on which inequalities matter the most. They develop a social justice theory that answers some of these questions in concrete settings.  Social injustices occur when there is a preventable difference in health states among a population of people. These social injustices take the form of health inequities when negative health states such as malnourishment, and infectious diseases are more prevalent in impoverished nations. These negative health states can often be prevented by providing social and economic structures such as primary healthcare which ensures the general population has equal access to health care services regardless of income level, gender, education or any other stratifying factors. Integrating social justice with health inherently reflects the social determinants of health model without discounting the role of the bio-medical model.

Human rights education.

The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action affirm that "Human rights education should include peace, democracy, development and social justice, as set forth in international and regional human rights instruments, in order to achieve common understanding and awareness with a view to strengthening universal commitment to human rights."

Ecology and environment.

Social justice principles are embedded in the larger environmental movement. The third principle of The Earth Charter is Social and economic justice, which is described as seeking to 1) Eradicate poverty as an ethical, social, and environmental imperative 2) Ensure that economic activities and institutions at all levels promote human development in an equitable and sustainable manner 3) Affirm gender equality and equity as prerequisites to sustainable development and ensure universal access to education, health care, and economic opportunity, and 4) Uphold the right of all, without discrimination, to a natural and social environment supportive of human dignity, bodily health, and spiritual well-being, with special attention to the rights of indigenous peoples and minorities.  The Climate Justice and Environmental Justice movements also incorporate social justice principles, ideas, and practices. Climate justice and environmental justice, as movements within the larger ecological and environmental movement, each incorporate social justice in a particular way. Climate justice includes concern for social justice pertaining to greenhouse gas emissions, climate-induced environmental displacement, as well as climate change mitigation and adaptation. Environmental justice includes concern for social justice pertaining to either environmental benefits or environmental pollution based on their equitable distribution across communities of color, communities of various socio/economic stratification, or any other barriers to justice.

Criticism.

Many authors criticize the idea that there exists an objective standard of social justice. Moral relativists deny that there is any kind of objective standard for justice in general. Non-cognitivists, moral skeptics, moral nihilists, and most logical positivists deny the epistemic possibility of objective notions of justice. Political realists believe that any ideal of social justice is ultimately a mere justification for the status quo.  Michael Novak argues that social justice has seldom been adequately defined, arguing:  Many other people accept some of the basic principles of social justice, such as the idea that all human beings have a basic level of value, but disagree with the elaborate conclusions that may or may not follow from this. One example is the statement by H. G. Wells that all people are "equally entitled to the respect of their fellowmen."  Friedrich Hayek of the Austrian School of economics rejected the very idea of social justice as meaningless, self-contradictory, and ideological, believing that to realize any degree of social justice is unfeasible, and that the attempt to do so must destroy all liberty: Hayek argued that proponents of social justice often present it as a moral virtue but most of their descriptions pertain to impersonal states of affairs (e.g income inequality, poverty), which are cited as "social injustice." Hayek argued that social justice is either a virtue or it is not. If it is, it can only be ascribed to the actions of individuals. However, most who use the term ascribe it to social systems, so "social justice" in fact describes a regulative principle of order; they are interested not in virtue but in power.  For Hayek, this notion of social justices presupposes that people are guided by specific external directions rather than internal, personal rules of just conduct. It further presupposes that one can never be held accountable for ones own behaviour, as this would be "blaming the victim." Thus for Hayek, the function of social justice is to blame someone else, often attributed to "the system" or those who are supposed, mythically, to control it. Thus it is based on the appealing idea of "you suffer; your suffering is caused by powerful others; these oppressors must be destroyed."  Ben O'Neill of the University of New South Wales and the Mises Institute argues that, for proponents of "social justice":

Social justice is a concept of fair and just relations between the individual and society, as measured by the distribution of wealth, opportunities for personal activity, and social privileges. In Western as well as in older Asian cultures, the concept of social justice has often referred to the process of ensuring that individuals fulfill their societal roles and receive what was their due from society. In the current global grassroots movements for social justice, the emphasis has been on the breaking of barriers for social mobility, the creation of safety nets and economic justice.

Sociální spravedlnost je pojem týkající se podmínek postavení člověka ve společnosti. Je to pojem velmi obsáhlý a není pro něj jednoznačná, obecně užívaná a jednoznačně vymezující definice. Pojem sociální spravedlnosti je jedním ze základních pilířů, principů sociální politiky – spolu s principy solidarity, subsidiarity, participace a ekvivalence.


History.

Both Minyue and Dong'ou were founded by the royal Zou family who fled Yue after being defeated by Chu and Qi in 334 BC. When the Qin dynasty fell in 206 BC, the Hegemon-King Xiang Yu did not make Zou Wuzhu and Zou Yao kings. For that reason they refused to support him and instead joined Liu Bang in attacking Xiang Yu. When Liu Bang won the war in 202 BC, he made Zou Wuzhu king of Minyue and in 192 BC, he made Zou Yao king of Dong'ou (Eastern Ou).  In 154 BC, Liu Pi King of Wu, revolted against the Han and tried to persuade Minyue and Dong'ou to join him. The king of Minyue refused but Dong'ou sided with the rebels. However when Liu Pi was defeated and fled to Dong'ou, they killed him to appease the Han, and therefore escaped any retaliation. Liu Pi's son, Liu Ziju, fled to Minyue and worked to incite a war between the Minyue and Dong'ou.  In 138 BC, Minyue attacked Dong'ou and besieged their capital. Dong'ou managed to send someone to appeal for help from the Han. Opinions at the Han court were mixed on whether or not to help Dong'ou. Grand commandant Tian Fen was of the opinion that the Yue constantly attacked each other and it was not in the Han's interest to interfere in their affairs. Palace counsellor Zhuang Zhu argued that to not aid Dong'ou would be to signal the end of the empire just like the Qin. A compromise was made to allow Zhuang Zhu to call up troops, but only from Kuaiji Commandery, and finally an army was transported by sea to Dong'ou. By the time the Han forces had arrived, Minyue had already withdrawn its troops. The king of Dong'ou no longer wished to live in Dong'ou, so he requested permission for the inhabitants of his state to move into Han territory. Permission was granted and he and all his people settled in the region between the Changjiang and Huai River.  In 137 BC, Minyue invaded Nanyue. An imperial army was sent against them, but the Minyue king was murdered by his brother Zou Yushan, who sued for peace with the Han. The Han enthroned Zou Wuzhu's grandson, Zou Chou, as king. After they left, Zou Yushan secretly declared himself king while the Han backed Zou Chou found himself powerless. When the Han found out about this the emperor deemed it too troublesome to punish Yushan and let the matter slide.  In 112 BC, Nanyue rebelled against the Han. Zou Yushan pretended to send forces to aid the Han against Nanyue, but secretly maintained contact with Nanyue and only took his forces as far as Jieyang. Han general Yang Pu wanted to attack Minyue for their betrayal, however the emperor felt that their forces were already too exhausted for any further military action, so the army was disbanded. The next year, Zou Yushan learned that Yang Pu had requested permission to attack him and saw that Han forces were amassing at his border. Zou Yushan made a preemptive attack against the Han, taking Baisha, Wulin, and Meiling, killing three commanders. In the winter, the Han retaliated with a multi-pronged attack by Han Yue, Yang Pu, Wang Wenshu, and two Yue marquises. When Han Yue arrived at the Minyue capital, the Yue native Wu Yang rebelled against Zou Yushan and murdered him. Wu Yang was enfeoffed by the Han as marquis of Beishi. Emperor Wu of Han felt it was too much trouble to occupy Minyue as it was a region full of narrow mountain passes. He commanded the army to evict the region and resettle the people between the Changjiang and Huai River, leaving the region (modern Fujian) a deserted land.  An ancient stone city located in the inner mountains of Fujian is said to have been the Minyue capital. The nearby tombs show the same funerary tradition as Yue state tombs in Zhejiang Province. Hence, it is concluded that the city was a Minyue center.

Culture.

The ancient Min in modern-day Fujian province had customs similar to those of some of the Taiwanese aborigines, such as snake totemism, short hair-style, tattooing, teeth pulling, pile-dwellings, cliff burials, and uxorilocal post-marital residences. It is possible that the ancient Taiwan aborigines were related to the Baiyue culture, derived in ancient times from the southeast coast of Mainland China, as suggested by linguists Li Jen-Kuei and Robert Blust. It is suggested that in the southeast coastal regions of China, there were many sea nomads during the Neolithic era and they may have spoken ancestral Austronesian languages, and were skilled seafarers. In fact, there is evidence that an Austronesian language was still spoken in Fujian as late as 620 AD.

Minyue () was an ancient kingdom in what is now Fujian province in southern China. It was a contemporary of the Han dynasty, and was later annexed by the Han empire as the dynasty expanded southward. Its inhabitants were groups of indigenous non-Chinese tribes called the Baiyue. The kingdom survived roughly from 334–110 BC.

Min-jüe () byl starověký stát rozkládající se ve 3. – 2. století př. n. l. na území dnešní čínské provincie Fu-ťien. Osídlen byl vesměs jüeskými kmeny. Zanikl roku 110 př. n. l., kdy byl dobyt čínskou říší Chan.


Early life and education.

José Cristóbal Hurtado de Mendoza y Montilla was born in the Trujillo city and area of Venezuela on 23 June 1772 to his parents Luis Bernardo Hurtado de Mendoza y Valera and Gertrudis Eulalia Montilla y Briceño. He was educated by his father in a Franciscan Monastery under the tutelage of Friar Antonio de Pereira. At the age of 16, he was sent to Caracas to complete his education at the university, where he earned a bachelor of arts degree in philosophy in 1791. He studied for his master's degree at the university until 1793. He afterwards began attending university in Santo Domingo in the Dominican Republic, where in 1794 obtained his doctorate degree in both canonical rights and civil rights, becoming a doctor utriusque juris (Doctor of Canon and Civil Law).  After obtaining his doctorate, Mendoza returned to Venezuela in his early twenties to begin working in his hometown. He first worked in the law office of Antonio Nicolás Briceño in Trujillo, and in the city of Mérida in 1975 he practiced law with Juan Marimón y Henríquez e Hipólito Elías González. In 1795 he briefly taught as a professor of philosophy at the seminary college of San Buenaventura de Mérida. Mendoza eventually moved to Caracas to finish his academic and vocational training in law, and he had the lawyer title conferred to him by the Real Audiencia of Caracas on 10 July 1796. He moved to Barinas in late 1796 and continued to practice law.

Political career.

1807–1809: Governor of Barinas and Congress.

After obtaining his law degree, Mendoza moved to Barinas, where he became known for defending local tribal groups and helping invest their profits in several agricultural properties. In January 1807, he was elected Mayor of Barinas by the Council of Barinas. After charges of nepotism in the election process that had led to Mendoza's appointment, the Royal Court ruled in favor of Mendoza retaining the governorship in 1808. On 19 April 1810, Mendoza joined the insurgent movement started by the Caracas elite against the Spanish crown. In May 1810, he was elected the secretary of the newly created Board of Local Government of Barinas, and he also led a movement among Caracas' wealthy citizens with the slogan "Peace and tranquility are our desires. Die or be free is our currency." Both Mendoza and his brother Luis Ignacio Mendoza were among those elected to represent the province of Barinas when the Constituent Congress of Venezuela was founded on 2 March 2011. Mendoza was not given the opportunity serve in the congress, however, before he was informed he had been appointed as president of the First Republic of Venezuela as of 5 March 1811. At the time of being appointed to president, he had been preparing to travel to Caracas while also fulfilling his duties with the newly formed Board of Governors.

1811–1812: President of Venezuela.

In March 1811 during the Spanish American wars of independence, the first Venezuelan constitutional congress established as the executive power a triumvirate in which three men shared executive power and rotated the presidency every week. At age 39, Mendoza became a member of the triumvirate that headed the First Republic of Venezuela and was unanimously elected by the other two as the first to go in rotation on 5 March 1811. With Manuel Moreno de Mendoza serving as the interim first president in his absence, Mendoza arrived in Caracas to begin serving his first week-long term on 25 April 1811. As part of the triumvirate, Mendoza began the war for independence against the parts of Venezuela that still supported the Spanish monarchy. He also was the author of the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence, issued on 5 July 1811. While in office he formed part of the constitutional convention that designed and promulgated the first Constitution of the Republic of Venezuela in December 1811. In March 1812, a second presidential triumvirate was appointed, with Mendoza, Juan Escalona and Baltazar Padron resigning and Fernando Toro, Francisco Javier Ustáriz and Francisco Espejo taking power.

1813–1820: Governor of Mérida and Caracas.

The First Republic fell following a royalist invasion led by Captain Domingo de Monteverde in 1813. After that, Mendoza moved to the island of Grenada. He joined the cause of Brigadier Simon Bolivar, becoming Bolivar's aide as Bolivar was preparing to fight the Spanish for the liberation of Venezuela. Bolivar appointed Mendoza the governor of Mérida, a city that had joined Bolivar's cause that May, with Mendoza entering the city on 23 May 1813. Mendoza also became governor of the province of Mérida. During the War to the Death initiated by Bolivar in Trujillo on 15 June 1813, Mendoza served multiple functions, including "political administration, taxes, provisions, stores and changing rooms for the army, hospitals, civic patrolling and surveillance of spies."  Bolívar appointed Mendoza governor of the province of Caracas, with Mendoza making his entrance into the city of Caracas on 6 August 1813. In Caracas, Mendoza formally proposed holding the Open Meeting held on 14 October 1813 where Bolivar was granted the title Liberator. A popular assembly on 2 January 1814 ratified Bolivar as the supreme commander of the Liberation Army (Ejército Libertador) fighting for independence from Spanish rule. In July 1814, the forces of José Tomás Boves conquered Caracas. Mendoza and his family escaped and went into exile, and after touring a number of islands in the West Indies, moved to Trinidad. Between 1819 and 1820, while in Trinidad Mendoza supported the cause of the Republic of Venezuela by writing newspaper articles under the pseudonym "a patriot" for the "Correo del Orinoco". Under that pseudonym he also published articles on both civic and international political issues, in particular arguing against efforts to found monarchies in the Americas.

1821–1826: Justice Minister and private practice.

After the Battle of Carabobo assured Venezuelan independence in June 1821, Mendoza returned to Caracas with his family in late 1821. He was designated Justice Minister of Gran Colombia (now Venezuela), a title which can also be translated president of the Superior Court of Justice of the department of Venezuela (Corte Superior de Justicia del departamento de Venezuela). While in this role, Mendoza continued to study law and history, while also editing "El Observador Caraqueño" along with. Mendoza resigned from his role as Justice Minister in 1825 and again went into private practice, his firm meeting with mixed success. He dedicated himself to civic projects as well, for example promoting the construction of a highway between La Guaira and Caracas as an alternative to the railway, although the project failed to materialize. Although not a candidate, he was the most voted person to serve as the vice president of the Department of Venezuela (Vicepresidencia del Departamento de Venezuela) in 1825. In 1826, he and published the first major study of Bolivar and his time, with the first edition entitled "Collection of documents relating to the public life of the Liberator of Colombia and Peru, Simon Bolivar." Mendoza published 22 volumes overall.

1826–1828: Mayor of the Department of Venezuela.

In April 1826, under the will of Gran Colombia Vice President Francisco de Paula Santander, Mendoza was appointed Mayor of the Department of Venezuela (Intendente del Departamento de Venezuela). His appointment occurred during the time of El Cosiata, a separatist movement founded by José Antonio Páez that was opposed to Bolivar's unification movement in South America. While in his new position, Mendoza tried and failed to quell tensions between opposing parties in Venezuela, in an effort to avoid more conflict and civil war. He also failed in convincing Caracas not to join the insurrection plan aimed at dissolving Bolivar's Gran Colombia. Mendoza was exiled from Venezuela by General Jose Antonio Paez, and fled to the island of Saint Thomas on 27 November 1826, with his family remaining in Caracas. Bolivar returned to Caracas at the end of 1826, and peace was restored in the city by January 1827.  After Bolivar again secured power in Caracas and conflict between the factions abated, Bolivar invited Mendoza to return to Venezuela. Bolivar appointed Mendoza Mayor of the Department of Venezuela, a role Medoza kept until resigning in the middle of 1828. According to essayist Luis Britto Garcia, Mendoza's resignation was potentially motivated by new tax measures, with Britto writing ""The mere announcement of rigorous tax measures strikes fear into the hearts of civil servants like the Intendant Cristóbal Mendoza, who suddenly tendered his resignation.""

Death.

With ailing health, in the middle of 1828 he resigned from his post as intendant, retiring to the outskirts of Caracas. On his deathbed, he wrote his political will in a letter to Bolívar where he stated his possessions as being "the remembrance of my weak services for the republic and the memories of our lifelong friendship." Cristóbal Mendoza died in Caracas on 8 February 1829. Mendoza's funeral took place on 9 February 1829 in the Church of San Pablo (now Santa Teresa). He was initially buried in the "Brothers of San Pedro" (Corner of Canons). Years later, he was buried in the Church of Altagracia (Iglesia de Altagracia). In October 2014, a legislator of the Legislative Council of Trujillo state proposed that Mendoza's remains be moved to the National Pantheon of Venezuela as a national hero.

Views and legacy.

Cristóbal Mendoza supported a federation of Latin American republics. He opposed the separatist efforts of José Antonio Páez, and according to the publication "Entorno Inteligente", the triumvirate presidential model Mendoza helped initiate in 1811 was "bitterly criticized by Simon Bolivar in his Cartagena Manifesto, [with the model reflecting an] ideology of liberal constitutionalism which prevailed in the United States..."  Mendoza was a loyal and trusted advisor to Simon Bolivar, and he collected documents on Bolivar's public life, publishing 20 small volumes of the documents between 1824 and 1828. Bolivar purportedly stated about Mendoza that ""you are the man I admire most in this world, because you carry and retain the model of virtue and helpful goodness.""  In 1972, Venezuela enacted National Lawyer Day (Día Nacional del Abogado) on Mendoza's birth date of 23 June in commemoration of Mendoza. The holiday was enacted by president Rafael Caldera Rodriguez at the request of the Federation of Associations of Venezuela (Federación de Colegios de Abogados de Venezuela).

Personal life.

Mendoza moved to Barinas from Caracas in late 1796, where he married Juana Mendez Mendoza Briceño. He was widowed shortly after, and in the early nineteenth century, he remarried Maria Regina Montilla of Pumar, a relation of Jose Ignacio of Pumar. He had been widowed a second time by 1810. On 14 August 1811, Mendoza married for the third time to Gertrudis Buroz Tovar. Mendoza procreated 17 children.  Two of his grandsons emigrated to Cuba under Spanish rule and fought for the independence of the island during the Ten Years War (1868–1878). Cristóbal Mendoza Durán, who worked as journalist in Camagüey, later joined the Liberating Army and Carlos Manuel de Cespedes, in appreciation of his intellectual and moral values, appointed him Foreign Secretary of the first government of the Republic of Cuba in Arms. His brother Tomás, who was also a journalist and who in the ranks mambises acted as assistant secretary of General Manuel de Quesada. Both Cristóbal and Tomás Mendoza gave their lives on the battlefields of Cuba.  Other descendants of Cristobal Mendoza include Eugenio Mendoza, Eduardo Mendoza Goiticoa, Lorenzo Mendoza and Leopoldo López.

José Cristóbal Hurtado de Mendoza y Montilla (23 June 1772 – 8 February 1829), commonly known as Cristóbal Mendoza, was a Venezuelan lawyer, politician, writer, and academic. Cristobal is best known for serving as the first official President of Venezuela from 1811 to 1812. After earning a master's degree in philosophy in Caracas and his doctor utriusque juris (Doctor of Canon and Civil Law) in the Dominican Republic, early in his professional career he served in various law firms in Trujillo, Mérida, and Caracas. He moved to Barinas in 1796 to practice law, and in 1807 was elected Mayor of Barinas. In 1810, Mendoza joined the insurgent movement started by wealthy Caracan citizens against the Spanish crown, and in 1811 was elected to represent the province of Barinas in the newly founded Constituent Congress of Venezuela. Days later he was appointed the first president of the First Republic of Venezuela, a role he shared as part of a triumvirate. Until his term ended in March 1812, Mendoza began the war for independence against the parts of Venezuela that still supported the Spanish monarchy, authored the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence, and also took part in constructing the first Constitution of the Republic of Venezuela.

Cristóbal Mendoza, plným jménem José Cristóbal Hurtado de Mendoza y Montilla (23. června 1772, stát Trujillo, Místokrálovství Nová Granada – 8. února 1829, Caracas, Velká Kolumbie) byl venezuelský politik. V době od 5. března 1811 do 21. března 1812 zastával úřad prezidenta, prvního v historii země.


Early career.

Ash was born in Henley-on-Thames, Oxfordshire, and first appeared on British television in 1964 at the age of four asking "Mummy, why are your hands so soft?" in an advertisement for the washing-up product Fairy Liquid. She was educated at the independent Italia Conti Academy stage school, and then started a career as a fashion model appearing on the cover of a number of teenager magazines, including "Pink", and "Jackie", for which she was photographed by David Bailey.  Having appeared with her sister Debbie in the 1978 British slapstick comedy "Rosie Dixon – Night Nurse"; her first major film role was playing the romantic lead in "Quadrophenia" in 1979. In 1980, Ash appeared in the Iron Maiden music video, "Women in Uniform". In 1982 she played the role of a fast food chef in the fifth series of Shelley (TV series) entitled "When the Chip hits the Fan". In 1983, she had the starring role in "The Balance of Nature" (1983), a film about a Cockney girl from a tower block with aspirations to win the Miss United Kingdom competition. The same year, she played Julie Morgan, "alias" Juletta Shane, in "Curse of the Pink Panther". In 1983, she also appeared opposite Nicky Henson as Nancy in the ITV situation comedy "The Happy Apple" playing a secretary whose opinions successfully reflected public opinion. She then played a regular role in crime series "C.A.T.S. Eyes."  In 1987, Ash appeared in the first episode of the third series of the ITV "Home to Roost". The episode was entitled "Human Interest," and Ash played the role of the flamboyant cleaner, Susie Perkins.  Ash's best known role was playing Neil Morrissey's romantic interest Deborah (Debs) in the situation comedy "Men Behaving Badly". She continued in the role for six series. She subsequently acted in BBC police drama "Merseybeat" and the ITV drama "Where the Heart Is".  In 1996, during her time on "Men Behaving Badly", Leslie released a single "Tell Him" with co-star Caroline Quentin, under the name of "Quentin & Ash". It reached number 25 in the UK singles chart.

Later work.

Ash appeared in BBC Radio 4's comic radio series, "Vent" (2007), alongside Neil Pearson, Fiona Allen and Josie Lawrence.  In May 2008, Ash worked with Transparent Television to make a documentary about the unregulated cosmetic beauty industry whilst exploring her own experiences. The programme, "Leslie Ash: Face to Face" was broadcast on ITV on 23 September 2008.  In 2009, Ash appeared on daytime TV panel programme "Loose Women" to discuss her new role in "Holby City" and her previous health problems. Leslie reappeared on "Loose Women" on 17 February 2012 where she discussed her new on stage tour of "All the Single Ladies" where she stars alongside Brooke Kinsella and Tara Flynn.  In 2014, Leslie was a contestant on the BBC programme, "Celebrity Masterchef".

Personal life.

Ash is married to former footballer Lee Chapman, and they have two sons. Her sister is former 'Hot Gossip' dancer Debbie Ash. They appeared together as sisters in "Rosie Dixon – Night Nurse".

Health problems.

Ash contracted toxoplasmosis two months into her pregnancy in France, where it is more common than the United Kingdom. She told the BBC that she wished to raise awareness of the issue in Britain.  Ash was hospitalised at the Chelsea and Westminster Hospital in April 2004 after suffering two cracked ribs, saying she fell off a table during frantic Kama Sutra sex with her husband. She was discharged after a few days, but was readmitted after losing all feeling in her legs. In June 2004 while she was still in hospital, it was announced that a "Staphylococcus aureus" infection might have rendered her permanently unable to walk.  In January 2007 Ash confirmed she was suing the hospital. Papers lodged at the High Court asserted that Ash would never return to active TV roles. The hospital admitted breach of duty over part of her treatment but denied responsibility for the extent of her injuries and in January 2008 paid out a record £5m compensation in an out-of-court settlement. Steve Walker, chief executive of the NHS Litigation Authority, said the payout set a new record for compensation following a hospital-acquired infection. The previous highest amount was £500,000. The payment was justified by the NHS compensation body as being "because of the amount Leslie was earning at the time she fell ill and takes into account how much she might have earned in the future".

Lip implants.

In her thirties, Ash had a collagen injection to 'plump up' her lips. When she was forty she decided to repeat the procedure with the same plastic surgeon, the mother of a Venezuelan friend. In the second procedure, liquid silicone was injected resulting in extreme swelling of her lips, a condition dubbed as "trout pout" in the press. Subsequent medical analysis showed that the silicone had set and the condition is permanent. During this time Ash starred in a series of advertisements for the DIY chain Homebase (again, with Neil Morrissey) and starred in "Merseybeat", which evoked further ridicule from the media about her appearance.  Ash has since spoken out about the press ridicule she received as a result of her botched implants, commenting: "If I'd lost a leg in a car crash, people wouldn't have felt able to take the mickey out of me so mercilessly...People don't laugh at Heather Mills because she lost a leg."

"News of the World" legal action.

Ash and Chapman sued the "News of the World" for breach of privacy over suspicions that their voicemails, and those of their two sons, were illegally accessed by private investigator, Glenn Mulcaire. They wrote to the police over their suspicions, and the police informed them that there were four pieces of paper referring to Ash in Mulcaire's notebooks, and five items relating to Chapman. There were further items relating to their children.  In August 2011, Ash and Chapman settled a claim against the paper and Mulcaire for an undisclosed sum and received an apology. They planned to take action against other newspapers.

Leslie Ash (born 19 February 1960) is an English actress. She is best known for her roles in "C.A.T.S. Eyes." (1985–1987), the BBC sitcom "Men Behaving Badly" (1992–1997), ITV drama "Where the Heart Is" (2000–2003), and BBC medical drama "Holby City" (2009–2010). Her book "My Life Behaving Badly: The Autobiography" was published in 2007.

Leslie Ash (*19. února 1960, Clapham, Londýn) je britská herečka. Proslavila se zejména rolí v sitcomu "Men Behaving Badly". Její kniha "My Life Behaving Badly: The Autobiography" byla vydána v roce 2007.


Biography.

'Abū 'Abdullāh Muḥammad ibn 'Alī ibn Muḥammad ibn `Arabī al-Ḥātimī aṭ-Ṭāʾī () was a Sufi mystic, poet, and philosopher born in Murcia, Spain on the 17th of Ramaḍān (26 July 1165 AD).  Ibn Arabi was Sunni, although his writings on the Twelve Imams were also popularly received among Shia. It is debated whether or not he ascribed to the Zahiri "madhab".  After his death, Ibn Arabi's teachings quickly spread throughout the Islamic world. His writings were not limited to the Muslim elites, but made their way into other ranks of society through the widespread reach of the Sufi orders. Arabi's work also popularly spread through works in Persian, Turkish, and Urdu. Many popular poets were trained in the Sufi orders and were inspired by Arabi's concepts.

Family.

Ibn Arabi's paternal ancestry was from the Arabian tribe of Tayy, and his maternal ancestry was North African Berber. Al-Arabi writes of a deceased maternal uncle, Yahya ibn Yughan al-Sanhaji, a prince of Tlemcen, who abandoned wealth for an ascetic life after encountering a Sufi mystic. His father, ‘Ali ibn Muḥammad, served in the Army of Muhammad ibn Sa'id ibn Mardanish, the ruler of Murcia. When Ibn Mardanīš died in 1172 AD, his father shifted allegiance to the Almohad Sultan, Abū Ya’qūb Yūsuf I, and returned to government service. His family then relocated from Murcia to Seville. Ibn Arabi grew up at the ruling court and received military training.  As a young man Ibn Arabi became secretary to the governor of Seville. He married Maryam from an influential family.

Education.

Ibn Arabi writes that as a child he preferred playing with his friends to spending time on religious education. He had his first vision of Jesus in his teens and later wrote of the experience as "the differentiation of the universal reality comprised by that look". Later he had several more visions of Jesus and called him his "first guide to the path of God". His father, on noticing a change in him, had mentioned this to philosopher and judge, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), who asked to meet Ibn Arabi. Ibn Arabi said that from this first meeting, he had learned to perceive a distinction between formal knowledge of rational thought and the unveiling insights into the nature of things. He then adopted Sufism and dedicated his life to the spiritual path. When he later moved to Fez, in Morocco, Mohammed ibn Qasim al-Tamimi became his spiritual mentor. In 1200 he took final leave from his master Yūsuf al-Kūmī, then living in the town of Salé.

Pilgrimage to Mecca.

Ibn Arabi left Spain for the first time at age 36 and arrived at Tunis in 1193. While there, he received a vision in year 1200 instructing him to journey east. After a year in Tunisia, he returned to Andalusia in 1194. His father died soon after Ibn Arabi arrived at Seville. When his mother died some months later he left Spain for the second time and travelled with his two sisters to Fez, Morocco in 1195. He returned to Córdoba, Spain in 1198, and left Spain crossing from Gibraltar for the last time in 1200. After visiting some places in Maghreb, he left Tunisia in 1201 and arrived for the Hajj in 1202. He lived in Mecca for three years, and there began writing his work "Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya" ()'The Meccan Illuminations'.

Journeys north.

After spending time in Mecca, he traveled throughout Syria, Palestine, Iraq and Anatolia.  In 1204, Ibn Arabi met Shaykh Majduddīn Isḥāq ibn Yūsuf (شيخ مجد الدين إسحاق بن يوسف), a native of Malatya and a man of great standing at the Seljuk court. This time Ibn Arabi was travelling north; first they visited Medina and in 1205 they entered Baghdad. This visit offered him a chance to meet the direct disciples of Shaykh ‘Abd al-Qādir Jīlānī. Ibn Arabi stayed there only for 12 days because he wanted to visit Mosul to see his friend ‘Alī ibn ‘Abdallāh ibn Jāmi’, a disciple of the mystic Qaḍīb al-Bān (471-573 AH/1079-1177 AD; قضيب البان). There he spent the month of Ramaḍan and composed "Tanazzulāt al-Mawṣiliyya" (تنزلات الموصلية), "Kitāb al-Jalāl wa’l-Jamāl" (كتاب الجلال والجمال, "The Book of Majesty and Beauty") and "Kunh mā lā Budda lil-MurīdMinhu".

Return south.

In the year 1206 Ibn Arabi visited Jerusalem, Mecca and Egypt. It was his first time that he passed through Syria, visiting Aleppo and Damascus.  Later in 1207 he returned to Mecca where he continued to study and write, spending his time with his friend Abū Shujā bin Rustem and family, including Niẓām.  The next four to five years of Ibn Arabi's life were spent in these lands and he also kept travelling and holding the reading sessions of his works in his own presence.

Death.

On 22 Rabī‘ al-Thānī 638 AH (8 November 1240) at the age of seventy-five, Ibn Arabi died in Damascus.

Islamic law.

Although Ibn Arabi stated on more than one occasion that he did not prefer any one of the schools of Islamic jurisprudence, he was responsible for copying and preserving books of the Zahirite or literalist school, to which he has been ironically and erroneously ascribed. Ibn Arabi shared Ghazali's views that Islamic law was only a temporary means to a higher goal, eschewing the heavy focus on worldly matters such as financial transactions and regulations regarding clothing.  Ibn Arabi did delve into specific details at times, and was known for his view that religiously binding consensus could only serve as a source of sacred law if it was the consensus of the first generation of Muslims who had witnessed revelation directly.

Al-Insān al-kāmil.

The doctrine of perfect man ("Al-Insān al-Kāmil") is popularly considered an honorific title attributed to Muhammad having its origins in Islamic mysticism, although the concept's origin is controversial and disputed. Arabi may have first coined this term in referring to Adam as found in his work "Fusus al-hikam", explained as an individual who binds himself with the Divine and creation.  Taking an idea already common within Sufi culture, Ibn Arabi applied deep analysis and reflection on the concept of a perfect human and one's pursuit in fulfilling this goal. In developing his explanation of the perfect being, Ibn Arabi first discusses the issue of oneness through the metaphor of the mirror.  In this philosophical metaphor, Ibn Arabi compares an object being reflected in countless mirrors to the relationship between God and his creatures. God's essence is seen in the existent human being, as God is the object and human beings the mirrors. Meaning two things; that since humans are mere reflections of God there can be no distinction or separation between the two and, without God the creatures would be non-existent. When an individual understands that there is no separation between human and God they begin on the path of ultimate oneness. The one who decides to walk in this oneness pursues the true reality and responds to God's longing to be known. The search within for this reality of oneness causes one to be reunited with God, as well as, improve self-consciousness.  The perfect human, through this developed self-consciousness and self-realization, prompts divine self-manifestation. This causes the perfect human to be of both divine and earthly origin. Ibn Arabi metaphorically calls him an Isthmus. Being an Isthmus between heaven and Earth, the perfect human fulfills God's desire to be known. God's presence can be realized through him by others. Ibn Arabi expressed that through self manifestation one acquires divine knowledge, which he called the primordial spirit of Muhammad and all its perfection. Ibn Arabi details that the perfect human is of the cosmos to the divine and conveys the divine spirit to the cosmos.  Ibn Arabi further explained the perfect man concept using at least twenty-two different descriptions and various aspects when considering the Logos. He contemplated the Logos, or "Universal Man", as a mediation between the individual human and the divine essence.  Ibn Arabi believed Muhammad to be the primary perfect man who exemplifies the morality of God. Ibn Arabi regarded the first entity brought into existence was the reality or essence of Muhammad ("al-ḥaqīqa al-Muhammadiyya"), master of all creatures, and a primary role-model for human beings to emulate. Ibn Arabi believed that God's attributes and names are manifested in this world, with the most complete and perfect display of these divine attributes and names seen in Muhammad. Ibn Arabi believed that one may see God in the mirror of Muhammad. He maintained that Muhammad was the best proof of God and, by knowing Muhammad, one knows God.  Ibn Arabi also described Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and all other prophets and various "Awliya Allah" (Muslim saints) as perfect men, but never tires of attributing lordship, inspirational source, and highest rank to Muhammad. Ibn Arabi compares his own status as a perfect man as being but a single dimension to the comprehensive nature of Muhammad. Ibn 'Arabi makes extraordinary assertions regarding his own spiritual rank, but qualifying this rather audacious correlation by asserting his "inherited" perfection is only a single dimension of the comprehensive perfection of Muhammad.

Reaction.

The reaction of Ibn 'Abd as-Salam, a Muslim scholar respected by both Ibn Arabi's supporters and detractors, has been of note due to disputes over whether he himself was a supporter or detractor. All parties have claimed to have transmitted Ibn 'Abd as-Salam's comments from his student Ibn Sayyid al-Nas, yet the two sides have transmitted very different accounts. Ibn Taymiyyah, Al-Dhahabi and Ibn Kathir all transmitted Ibn 'Abd as-Salam's comments as a criticism, while Fairuzabadi, Al-Suyuti, Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari and Yusuf an-Nabhani have all transmitted the comments as praise.

Works.

Some 800 works are attributed to Ibn Arabi, although only some have been authenticated. Recent research suggests that over 100 of his works have survived in manuscript form, although most printed versions have not yet been critically edited and include many errors. A specialist of Ibn 'Arabi, William Chittick, referring to Osman Yahya's definitive bibliography of the Andalusian's works, says that, out of the 850 works attributed to him, some 700 are authentic while over 400 are still extant.

The Meccan Illuminations (Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya).

According to Claude Addas, Ibn Arabi began writing "Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya" after he arrived in Mecca in 1202. After almost thirty years, the first draft of "Futūḥāt" was completed in December 1231 (629 AH), and Ibn Arabi bequeathed it to his son. Two years before his death, Ibn ‘Arabī embarked on a second draft of the "Futūḥāt" in 1238 (636 AH), of which included a number of additions and deletions as compared with the previous draft, that contains 560 chapters. The second draft, which the most widely circulated and used, was bequeathed to his disciple, Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi. There are many scholars attempt to translate this book from Arabic into other languages, but there is no complete translation of "Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya" to this day.

The Bezels of Wisdom (Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam).

There have been many commentaries on Ibn 'Arabī's "Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam": Osman Yahya named more than 100 while Michel Chodkiewicz precises that "this list is far from exhaustive." The first one was "Kitab al-Fukūk" written by Ṣadr al-Dīn al-Qunawī who had studied the book with Ibn 'Arabī; the second by Qunawī's student, Mu'ayyad al-Dīn al-Jandi, which was the first line-by-line commentary; the third by Jandī's student, Dawūd al-Qaysarī, which became very influential in the Persian-speaking world. A recent English translation of Ibn 'Arabī's own summary of the "Fuṣūṣ, Naqsh al-Fuṣūṣ" (The Imprint or Pattern of the Fusus) as well a commentary on this work by 'Abd al-Raḥmān Jāmī, "Naqd al-Nuṣūṣ fī Sharḥ Naqsh al-Fuṣūṣ" (1459), by William Chittick was published in Volume 1 of the "Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society" (1982).

Critical editions and translations of Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam.

The "Fuṣūṣ" was first critically edited in Arabic by 'Afīfī (1946) that become the standard in scholarly works. Later in 2015, Ibn al-Arabi Foundation in Pakistan published the Urdu translation, including the new critical of Arabic edition.  The first English translation was done in partial form by Angela Culme-Seymour from the French translation of Titus Burckhardt as "Wisdom of the Prophets" (1975), and the first full translation was by Ralph Austin as "Bezels of Wisdom" (1980). There is also a complete French translation by Charles-Andre Gilis, entitled "Le livre des chatons des sagesses" (1997). The only major commentary to have been translated into English so far is entitled "Ismail Hakki Bursevi's translation and commentary on Fusus al-hikam by Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi", translated from Ottoman Turkish by Bulent Rauf in 4 volumes (1985–1991).  In Urdu, the most widespread and authentic translation was made by Shams Ul Mufasireen Bahr-ul-uloom Hazrat (Muhammad Abdul Qadeer Siddiqi Qadri -Hasrat), the former Dean and Professor of Theology of the Osmania University, Hyderabad. It is due to this reason that his translation is in the curriculum of Punjab University. Maulvi Abdul Qadeer Siddiqui has made an interpretive translation and explained the terms and grammar while clarifying the Shaikh's opinions. A new edition of the translation was published in 2014 with brief annotations throughout the book for the benefit of contemporary Urdu reader.

Legacy.

In fiction.

In the Turkish television series "" Ibn Arabi portrayed by Ozman Sirgood.

References.

Bibliography.

Books by Ibn Arabi.

This is a small selection of his many books.

Ibn ʿArabi () (26 July 1165 – 16 November 1240), full name Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad ibnʿArabī al-Ḥātimī aṭ-Ṭāʾī (), was an Arab Andalusian Muslim scholar, mystic, poet, and philosopher, whose works have grown to be very influential beyond the Muslim world. Out of the 850 works attributed to him, some 700 are authentic while over 400 are still extant. His cosmological teachings became the dominant worldview in many parts of the Islamic world.

Muhjiddín ibn Arabí (28. července 1165, Murcia – 16. listopadu 1240, Damašek) byl arabský islámský mystik a filozof, představitel súfismu. Panteistické tendence v jeho díle vzbudily hněv muslimské ortodoxie a některé jeho knihy byly zakázány.


Lyrics.

The song's lyrics begin with the speaker's memories of his father instilling pride in the family's hometown. While it first appears that the song will be a nostalgic look at the speaker's childhood, the song then goes on to describe the racial violence and economic depression that the speaker witnessed as an adolescent and a young adult. The song concludes with the speaker's reluctant proclamation that he plans to move his family out of the town, but not without first taking his own son on a drive and expressing the same community pride that was instilled in him by his father. Some of the song's images reference the recent history of Springsteen's own hometown of Freehold Borough, New Jersey, in particular the racial strife in 1960s New Jersey and economic tensions from the same times (e.g., the "textile mill being closed" was the A & M Karagheusian Rug Mill at Center and Jackson Streets of Freehold).

Music video.

The music video for "My Hometown" was a straightforward video filming of a performance of the song at a Springsteen and E Street Band concert late in the Born in the U.S.A. Tour, eschewing fast-paced cutting for slower montages of Springsteen and various band members. Despite its lack of visual excitement, it still managed substantial MTV airplay in late 1985 and early 1986.

Track listing.

The B-side of the single, "Santa Claus Is Comin' to Town", was a semi-comical live recording of the Christmas favourite from a Springsteen and E Street Band concert on December 12, 1975 at C. W. Post College on Long Island, New York. Long familiar to Springsteen fans from its distribution years earlier to rock radio stations, it had previously been released on the fairly unknown 1981 children's album "In Harmony 2"; now in time for the Christmas season it was being issued again. Always a radio favorite, "Santa Claus" would benefit from the all-holiday-music-all-the-time formats of the 2000s, and during the 2005 holiday season "Santa Claus" would appear on the Billboard Top 40 Adult Recurrents and Hot Digital Songs charts.

"My Hometown" is a single by Bruce Springsteen off his "Born in the U.S.A." album, that was the record-tying seventh and last top 10 single to come from it, peaking at #6 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 singles chart. It also topped the U.S. adult contemporary chart, making the song Springsteen's only #1 song on this chart to date. The song is a synthesizer-based, low-tempo number that features Springsteen on vocals.

„My Hometown“ je píseň amerického zpěváka a kytaristy Bruce Springsteena, poprvé vydaná v červnu 1984 na jeho albu "Born in the U.S.A." V listopadu 1985 pak vyšla jako poslední singl z tohoto alba, přičemž na B-straně se nacházela píseň „Santa Claus Is Coming to Town“. Singl se umístil na šesté příčce v žebříčku Billboard Hot 100. Kanadský písničkář nahrál coververzi této písně na své album "A Letter Home" z roku 2014.


Early life.

Willow Shields was born in Albuquerque, New Mexico, the daughter of Carrie and Rob Shields, an art teacher. She has a twin sister, Autumn, and an older brother, River, both of whom are also actors.

Career.

Shields' first job was in 2008 narrating the short film "Las Vegas New Mexico 1875". She portrayed Lisa Rogan a.k.a. Lisa Royal in a 2009 episode of the USA Network drama "In Plain Sight", entitled "In My Humboldt Opinion", and the voice of a girl watching a gun fight in the 7-minute 2008 Western short film "Las Vegas New Mexico 1875". In 2011, Shields appeared on CBS in the Hallmark Hall of Fame movie, "Beyond the Blackboard", starring Emily VanCamp. In the television movie, Shields portrayed a homeless child named Grace.  Shields co-starred in "The Hunger Games", portraying Primrose Everdeen. She reprised her role in the sequels, "", "", and "". She has said that "just growing up as the character is going to be really fun". It was announced in 2015 that Shields would star in the films "The Wonder" (released in 2017 under the title "Into the Rainbow"), directed by Norman Stone, and "A Fall From Grace", directed by Jennifer Lynch.  On February 24, 2015, Shields was announced as one of the celebrities to compete on season 20 of "Dancing with the Stars". Her professional partner was Mark Ballas. At age 14, she is the youngest competitor to ever appear on the show (taking the record from Zendaya, who was 16 when she competed on Season 16). In a shocking turn of events, the couple had been eliminated in the seventh week of competition, (finishing in 7th place) despite receiving consistently high scores from the judges throughout the season.

Willow Shields (born June 1, 2000) is an American actress. She played Primrose Everdeen in "The Hunger Games" film series, Grace in "Beyond the Blackboard", Rachel in "Into the Rainbow", Lorian in "Woodstuck or Bust", and stars as Serena in the Netflix-original series "Spinning Out".

Willow Shields (* 1. června 2000 Albuquerque, Nové Mexiko, Spojené státy americké) je americká filmová a televizní herečka. Je známá rolí Primrose Everdeenové ve filmu "Hunger Games".


Mechanism of action.

Protein kinase-R is activated by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), introduced to the cells by a viral infection. PKR can also be activated by the protein PACT or by heparin. PKR contains an N-terminal dsRNA binding domain (dsRBD) and a C-terminal kinase domain, that gives it pro-apoptotic (cell-killing) functions. The dsRBD consists of two tandem copies of a conserved double stranded RNA binding motif, dsRBM1 and dsRBM2. PKR is induced by interferon in a latent state. Binding to dsRNA is believed to activate PKR by inducing dimerization and subsequent auto-phosphorylation reactions. In situations of viral infection, the dsRNA created by viral replication and gene expression binds to the N-terminal domain, activating the protein. Once active, PKR is able to phosphorylate the eukaryotic translation initiation factor eIF2α. This inhibits further cellular mRNA translation, thereby preventing viral protein synthesis. Since ElF2α is involved in the commonly initiation translation from an AUG codon, the alternative non-AUG initiation takes place instead. An example of mRNAs using non-AUG initiation are mRNAs for the heat shock proteins. Active PKR is also able to mediate the activation of the transcription factor NFkB, by phosphorylating its inhibitory subunit, IkB. Activated NFkB upregulates the expression of Interferon cytokines, which work to spread the antiviral signal locally. Active PKR is also able to activate tumor suppressor PP2A which regulates the cell cycle and the metabolism. Through complex mechanisms, active PKR is also able to induce cellular apoptosis, to prevent further viral spread.

PKR stress pathway.

PKR is in the center of cellular response to different stress signals such as pathogens, lack of nutrients, cytokines, irradiation, mechanical stress, or ER stress. PKR pathway leads to stress response through activation of other stress pathway such as JNK, p38, NFkB, PP2A and phosphorylation of eIF2α. ER stress caused by excess of unfolded proteins leads to inflammatory responses. PKR contributes to this response by interacting with several inflammatory kinases such as IKK, JNK, ElF2α, insulin receptor and others. This metabolically activated inflammatory complex is called metabolic inflammasome or metaflammasome.

Viral defense.

Viruses have developed many mechanisms to counteract the PKR mechanism. It may be done by Decoy dsRNA, degradation, hiding of virus dsRNA, dimerization block, dephosphorylation of substrate or by a pseudosubstrate.  For instance, Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) uses the gene EBER1 to produce decoy dsRNA. This leads to cancers such as Burkitt's lymphoma, Hodgkin's disease, nasopharyngeal carcinoma and various leukemias.

Memory and learning.

PKR knockout mice or inhibition of PKR in mice enhances memory and learning.

Neuronal degeneration disease.

First report in 2002 has been shown that immunohistochemical marker for phosphorylated PKR and eIF2α was displayed positively in degenerating neurons in the hippocampus and the frontal cortex of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), suggesting the link between PKR and AD. Additionally, many of these neurons were also immunostained with an antibody for phosphorylated Tau protein. Activated PKR was specifically found in the cytoplasm and nucleus, as well as co-localized with neuronal apoptotic markers. Further studies have assessed the levels of PKR in blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of AD patients and controls. The result of an analysis of the concentrations of total and phosphorylated PKR (pPKR) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in 23 AD patients and 19 control individuals showed statistically significant increased levels of the ratio of phosphorylated PKR/PKR in AD patients compared with controls. Assessments of CSF biomarkers, such as Aβ1-42, Aβ1-40, Tau, and phosphorylated Tau at threonine 181, have been a validated use in clinical research and in routine practice to determine whether patients have CSF abnormalities and AD brain lesions. A study found that "total PKR and pPKR concentrations were elevated in AD and amnestic mild cognitive impairment subjects with a pPKR value (optical density units) discriminating AD patients from control subjects with a sensitivity of 91.1% and a specificity of 94.3%. Among AD patients, total PKR and pPKR levels correlate with CSF p181tau levels. Some AD patients with normal CSF Aß, T-tau, or p181tau levels had abnormal total PKR and pPKR levels". It was concluded that the PKR-eIF2α pro-apoptotic pathway could be involved in neuronal degeneration that leads to various neuropathological lesions as a function of neuronal susceptibility.  PKR and beta amyloid  Activation of PKR can cause accumulation of amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) via de-repression of BACE1 (ß-site APP Cleaving Enzyme) expression in Alzheimer Disease patients. Normally, the 5′untranslated region (5′UTR) in the BACE1 promoter would fundamentally inhibit the expression of BACE1 gene. However, BACE1 expression can be activated by phosphorylation of eIF2a, which reverses the inhibitory effect exerted by BACE1 5′UTR. Phosphorylation of eIF2a is triggered by activation of PKR. Viral infection such as Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) or oxidative stress can both increase BACE1 expression through activation of PKR-eIF2a pathway.  In addition, the increased activity of BACE1 could also lead to β-cleaved carboxy-terminal fragment of β-Amyloid precursor protein (APP-βCTF) induced dysfunction of endosomes in AD. Endosomes are highly active β-Amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing sites, and endosome abnormalities are associated with upregulated expression of early endosomal regulator, rab5. These are the earliest known disease-specific neuronal response in AD. Increased activity of BACE1 leads to synthesis of the APP-βCTF. An elevated level of βCTF then causes rab 5 overactivation. βCTF recruits APPL1 to rab5 endosomes, where it stabilizes active GTP-rab5, leading to pathologically accelerated endocytosis, endosome swelling and selectively impaired axonal transport of rab5 endosomes.  PKR and Tau phosphorylation  It is reported earlier that phosphorylated PKR could co-localize with phosphorylated Tau protein in affected neurons. A protein phosphatase-2A inhibitor (PP2A inhibitor) – Okadaic acid (OA) – is known to increase tau phosphorylation, Aβ deposition and neuronal death. It is studied that OA also induces PKR phosphorylation and thus, eIF2a phosphorylation. eIF2a phosphorylation then induces activation of transcription factor 4 (ATF4), which induces apoptosis and nuclear translocation, contributing to neuronal death.  Glycogen Synthase Kinase Aβ (GSK-3β) is responsible for tau phosphorylation and controls several cellular functions including apoptosis. Another study demonstrated that tunicamycin or Aβ treatment can induce PKR activation in human neuroblastoma cells and can trigger GSK3β activation, as well as tau phosphorylation. They found that in AD brains, both activated PKR and GSK3β co-localize with phosphorylated tau in neurons. In SH-SY5Y cell cultures, tunicamycin and Aβ(1-42) activate PKR, which then can modulate GSK-3β activation and induce tau phosphorylation, apoptosis. All these processes are attenuated by PKR inhibitors or PKR siRNA. PKR could represent a crucial signaling point relaying stress signals to neuronal pathways by interacting with transcription factor or indirectly controlling GSK3β activation, leading to cellular degeneration in AD.

Fetal alcohol syndrome.

PKR also mediates ethanol-induced protein synthesis inhibition and apoptosis which is linked to fetal alcohol syndrome.

Interactions.

Protein kinase R has been shown to interact with:

Protein kinase RNA-activated also known as protein kinase R (PKR), interferon-induced, double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase, or eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2-alpha kinase 2 (EIF2AK2) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the "EIF2AK2" gene.

Proteinkináza R (PKR) je enzym ze skupiny serin/threonin kináz, který fosforyluje eukaryotický iniciační faktor eIF-2. Po této fosforylaci dochází k zastavení syntézy bílkovin v buňce, tedy jinými slovy k inhibici translace. To je důležité při obraně proti napadení buňky viry – PKR je aktivována po vzestupu hladiny interferonů α a β a v závislosti na přítomnosti dvouvláknové RNA, které signalizují právě napadení buňky viry.