Design.

In the early 1880s, the United States Navy began to grapple with the question of coastal defense; the United States at that time had a significant isolationist streak and naval strategy had historically been grounded in commerce raiding. After building the interim armored vessels and, the navy requested funding for additional ships in 1887, and one vessel was authorized for the following year. Conflicting ideas about the vessel that would be built delayed construction and led the Secretary of the Navy, Benjamin F. Tracy, to convene a Policy Board in January 1890. Tracy wanted to build sea-going battleships that could project American naval power overseas, though significant elements in the Navy and the United States Congress preferred shallow-draft coastal-defense ships.  The Board concluded that the distance between Europe and North America would hamper European naval attacks, but the power of the British Royal Navy and the possibility of future political developments warranted the construction of a powerful American battle fleet. The Policy Board issued a call for a fleet that would consist of eight first-class battleships, ten slightly smaller second-class battleships, and five third-class ships, along with substantial numbers of lesser craft to support them. The fleet would be tasked with defending the East Coast of the United States, which required an operational range that could cover as far south as the Caribbean Sea, as the Board had determined that any hostile power would need to seize advance bases there to effectively operate against the United States. The three vessels already authorized—"Maine", "Texas", and what became the armored cruiser fit in the third category, so larger and more powerful vessels would have to be built to meet the Board's recommendations.  Congress, dismayed by the Board's conclusions, nevertheless approved funding for three of the first-class battleships in April 1890, which became the s. These were low-freeboard vessels intended for local, coastal defense. They were badly overweight when completed, and as a result suffered from serious problems, including belt armor that was fully submerged when the ships were fully loaded, a tendency to ship excessive amounts of water, and poor handling characteristics. Changes in the control of Congress in late 1890 led to delays for the next ship to be authorized until 19 July 1892, when funds were allocated for a "seagoing coastline battleship". The vessel was to be built with a displacement of around.  The Policy Board had intended in its original plan that the seagoing ship would trade armor for greater range, but the Bureau of Construction and Repair, responsible for the design of the vessel, decided to reduce the gun armament compared to the "Indiana"s to free up displacement for greater fuel storage. The main battery of the "Indiana" class would be replaced with guns, while some of the secondary guns would be replaced with faster-firing quick-firing guns. Weight would also be saved by the adoption of Harvey armor, which was significantly more effective than compound armor; a thinner belt could thus be used to achieve the same level of protection. The intention to use the new ship for long-range deployments required other changes, in addition to increased coal storage. Since the vessel would necessarily have to operate on the high seas, seaworthiness would have to be improved. This required a greater freeboard, so the ship that was to become "Iowa" was given a raised forecastle deck that extended from the bow to amidships. The hull was lengthened and displaced more than the "Indiana"s. In addition, the heavy 8-inch gun turrets were moved closer together amidships, which reduced the amount of weight toward the ends of the ship, also contributing to improved sea-keeping. The arrangement also reduced blast interference between the 8-inch and the 12-inch guns.

Service history.

The keel for "Iowa" was laid down on 5 August 1893 at the William Cramp & Sons shipyard in Philadelphia. Her completed hull was launched on 28 March 1896, and after completing fitting out, the vessel was commissioned into service on 16 June 1897. Captain William T. Sampson served as the ship's first commanding officer. "Iowa" got underway to begin her shakedown cruise on 13 July, steaming first to Newport, Rhode Island from 16 July to 11 August, moving to Provincetown, Massachusetts the next day. She next departed on 14 August for Portland, Maine, where she stayed from 16 to 23 August, before sailing for Bar Harbor, Maine the next day, where she spent the rest of the month. She then steamed south to Virginia, visiting Hampton Roads from 12 to 16 September, Newport News from 16 to 19 September, a second stop at Hampton Roads from the 16th to the 19th, and finally Yorktown from 27 September to 4 October. "Iowa" then sailed back north for a second visit to Provincetown that lasted from 12 to 14 October and then moved to Boston, staying there from 15 to 22 October.  She made one last port call, in Tompkinsville, New York, from 24 to 29 October, before entering the New York Navy Yard for repairs that lasted from 29 October to 5 January 1898. After emerging from the dry dock, "Iowa" sailed for Virginia, alternating between Hampton Roads and Newport News through mid-January, before departing for Key West, Florida. She then spent the next month and a half cruising between Key West and the Dry Tortugas to the west. During this period, "Maine" exploded and sank in Havana, Cuba; the accidental explosion was initially blamed on a deliberately detonated Spanish naval mine. Sampson was appointed to serve as President of the Board of Inquiry that was sent to investigate the sinking, so Captain Robley D. Evans took his place as "Iowa"s commander on 24 March. The ship remained in the Florida Keys through 22 April, by which time the Spanish–American War had broken out.

Spanish–American War.

On 22 April, President William McKinley declared a blockade of western Cuba and three days later, Congress declared war on Spain, retroactively effective as of 21 April. Sampson had by this time taken command of the North Atlantic Squadron, which "Iowa" joined; she took part in the blockade operation from 22 April to 1 May before returning to Key West to replenish fuel. By that time, Sampson had been informed that a Spanish squadron of four armored cruisers and three torpedo boats commanded by Rear Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete had crossed the Atlantic to attack the blockade squadron; he gathered his ships on 4 May to search for them. Sampson had at his disposal his flagship, "New York", "Iowa",, and the unprotected cruiser, and these ships were soon reinforced by the unprotected cruiser and the monitors and, and later the armored cruiser.  The Americans searched the harbor at Puerto Rico on 12 May, but found no Spanish warships, and so bombarded the port, focusing their fire on Castillo San Felipe del Morro, an old coastal fortress. "Iowa" led the American line of battle on several passes in front of the fort, and she was struck once by a Spanish shell that wounded three men and inflicted minor splinter damage to the ship. During her last 12-inch salvo, one of her forward guns inflicted blast damage to the deck and parts of the superstructure. One man was killed aboard "Brooklyn" and three more were wounded aboard other vessels, but none of the ships was seriously damaged by Spanish fire; American shelling was equally ineffective. Assuming that Cervera was headed for Havana, Sampson took his squadron there, but while en route he learned that the Spanish had been coaling in Saint Thomas in the Danish West Indies. Sampson instead decided to take his ships back to Key West, arriving there on 18 May, while Cervera reached Santiago de Cuba the following day. Sampson detached "Iowa" to reinforce the Flying Squadron under Commodore Winfield Scott Schley, which was conducting the blockade of Cuba. She joined the squadron off Cienfuegos on 22 May.  The Flying Squadron, which by then consisted of "Iowa", "Texas", the battleship, "New York", "Brooklyn", the unprotected cruiser, and several gunboats, auxiliary cruisers, and supporting vessels, spent the next week patrolling off the coast of Cuba, searching for Cervera's squadron. On the morning of 29 May, lookouts aboard "Marblehead" reported spotting the Spanish cruiser in the roadstead outside Santiago de Cuba. The American squadron converged on the port over the next two days and prepared for action; "Iowa" coaled at sea on 30 May during this period. Schley made an initial attack on the afternoon of 31 May; he led the line with his flagship "Massachusetts", followed by the protected cruiser, and then "Iowa" on a pass in front of Cervera's ships, opening fire at long range at 14:05. The American shells fell short and they gradually shifted their fire, but they failed to score any hits, though Evans noted that he believed they had inflicted splinter damage. Spanish return fire was similarly inaccurate, and both sides had checked fire by 15:10, by which time the American ships had broken off.  The next day, Sampson arrived on the scene and boarded "New York" to take command of the blockade. The approach to Santiago de Cuba was guarded by coastal artillery and mines, which prevented Sampson's ships from breaking into the inner harbor without taking serious damage. But the American squadron was too powerful for the Spanish to attempt to break out. Both sides spent the next month in the resulting stalemate; the Americans preferred to wait until ground forces could attack the port from the land side and seize the coastal batteries. During this period, "Iowa" withdrew to Guantánamo Bay from 18 to 28 June, which had been seized by American forces by that time. She returned to bombard the coastal fortifications on 1 and 2 July in company with "Indiana" and the battleship. By early July, American troops were beginning to approach the hills outside Santiago de Cuba, threatening the coastal batteries that protected Cervera's ships, and prompting the Spanish command to order him to attempt a break out. Cervera did not believe he possessed a significant chance of success, as his ships were in poor condition by that time and most of his ships' crews were poorly trained. He nevertheless complied with the directive and sent a gunboat to surreptitiously clear a path in the minefield on the night of 2 July.

1898–1904.

"Iowa" left Cuban waters after Spain surrendered in August, arriving in New York on 20 August. Captain Silas Terry took command of the ship on 24 September and on 12 October, she departed for the West Coast of the United States, where she was to join the Pacific Squadron. The next year passed uneventfully and "Iowa" put into the Puget Sound Navy Yard for an overhaul that began on 11 June 1899. She took part in training exercises off San Diego, California from 20 December to 15 January 1900. On the first day of the exercises, "Iowa" lost one of her Howell torpedoes after the practice warhead likely detached after it was launched. In March 2012, a pair of dolphins that were part of the Navy's Marine Mammal Program recovered the torpedo, which was missing the practice warhead; the section recovered was later transferred to the Underwater Archaeology Branch for preservation. The torpedo is one of three Howell torpedoes known to exist. During the period in San Diego, she received a pair of 3-inch field guns and four M1895 Colt-Brownings that were chambered in.30-40 Krag for use by landing parties ashore. After the training exercises, "Iowa" underwent a refit, after which she resumed her peacetime routine of training exercises, shooting practice, and cruises in the eastern Pacific. Captain Philip H. Cooper took command of the ship on 9 June, serving as her commander until 1 April 1901. On 8 September, the sailing ship collided with her while she was at anchor in San Francisco Bay and then collided with a barque and sank.  In early February 1902, she was transferred to the South Atlantic Squadron to serve as its flagship. During this period, she visited a number of foreign ports, including Montevideo, Uruguay from late July to 2 August, Santos, Brazil from 6 to 7 August, Salvador, Brazil from 11 August to 8 September, Trade Island from 8 to 14 September, Montevideo again from

1905–1908.

After emerging from dry dock, "Iowa" rejoined the fleet on 3 January 1905 at Hampton Roads and Captain Benjamin Franklin Tilley took command of the vessel on 14 January. The ship then took part in a series of maneuvers with the rest of the squadron off Culebra in mid January, Guantánamo Bay from 19 February to 22 March, and then Pensacola from 27 March to 3 May. She then returned to Hampton Roads on 7 May for repairs at Norfolk that lasted from 9 May to 24 June. She helped to test the new floating dry dock from 25 to 30 June, thereafter returning to Newport News for periodic maintenance from 30 June to 3 July. "Iowa" then sailed north to New England, visiting several ports, including Provincetown, Newport, Bar Harbor, Boston, and New York over the course of the next four months. She arrived back in Hampton Roads on 13 October, where she remained until the end of the month, when she sailed to visit Annapolis, Maryland, from 30 October to 7 November.  "Iowa" then steamed to North River, New York, staying there from 8 to 20 November, before returning to Hampton Roads for another refit at the Norfolk Navy Yard from 22 November to 23 December. She then returned to New York for a short dry-docking from 26 to 28 December before sailing back south to Hampton Roads on the last day of the year. She lay there through 17 January 1906 before getting underway for the Caribbean, stopping in Culebra from 22 January to 6 February, Barbados from 8 to 15 February, and then Guantánamo Bay from 19 February to 31 March. Shooting practice followed from 1 to 10 April off Cape Cruz, Cuba. "Iowa"

1910–1919.

"Iowa" was moved to the New York Navy Yard, where she was recommissioned on 2 May 1910, with Commander William H. G. Bullard serving as her captain. She got underway on 23 May, joining the Naval Academy Practice Squadron the next day. After embarking contingents of midshipmen from the Naval Academy, the ships in the squadron began a training cruise to Europe. Stops on the tour included Plymouth, Great Britain, from 23 to 30 June; Marseille, France, from 8 to 15 July; Gibraltar from 19 to 24 July; Funchal, Madeira, from 27 July to 2 August; and Horta, Azores from 5 to 12 August. The ships then returned to the United States, disembarking the midshipmen at the end of the month. From 6 to 19 September, she was in dock at the New York Navy Yard to have another coaling-at-sea apparatus installed; she conducted tests with the collier on 22 September. "Iowa" then returned to the Philadelphia Navy Yard four days later, where she was again reduced to reserve.  On 3 May 1911, "Iowa" returned to active service for another cruise with the Naval Academy Practice Squadron from 13 May to 5 June. While en route to join the squadron on 12 May, she and rescued passengers from the sinking Ward liner after she collided with the United Fruit Company's steamship "Admiral Farragut" some east

Target ship.

With no further use for the ship, the Navy decided to convert "Coast Battleship No. 4" into a radio-controlled target ship. She was briefly struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 4 February 1920 before the order was reversed six days later. She was subsequently turned over to the captain of the battleship on 2 August. "Coast Battleship No. 4" was converted for radio control in Philadelphia, with a wireless receiver that could control both the steering and speed of the ship as well as pumps to control the boilers, which were replaced with oil-fired versions. She was then moved from Philadelphia to Hampton Roads under radio control, departing on 17 August without any crew aboard, her speed and course being directed from the deck of "Ohio". Tests to determine the effectiveness of control from "Ohio" were conducted there through 10 September, when the Navy was informed of their success.  In June 1921, the Navy and Army conducted a series of bombing tests off the Virginia Capes to evaluate the effectiveness of aircraft against warships. The Navy also sought to determine the ability of internal compartmentalization to resist flooding from bomb attacks. "Coast Battleship No. 4" was used as

USS "Iowa" (BB-4) was a pre-dreadnought battleship built for the United States Navy in the mid-1890s. The ship was a marked improvement over the previous s, correcting many of the defects in the design of those vessels. Among the most important improvements were significantly better seaworthiness owing to her greater freeboard and a more efficient arrangement of the armament. "Iowa" was designed to operate on the high seas, which had been the impetus to increase the freeboard. She was armed with a battery of four guns in two twin-gun turrets, supported by a secondary battery of eight guns.

USS Iowa (BB-4) byl predreadnought amerického námořnictva. Ve službě byl v letech 1897–1919. "Iowa" byla určena zejména pro účely pobřežní obrany, zároveň však schopna operací na otevřeném moři.


Taxonomy.

Past literature classified Diapensiaceae as an old family, without defining the meaning of old. The name "Diapensia" was given to "Diapensia lapponica" by Linnaeus previously, it was the Greek name of sanicle. The family, originally including only "Diapensia lapponica", was named by Heinrich Friedrich Link in 1829. Concerning the interrelationships in Diapensiaceae, debate still remains regarding the recognition of "Schizocodon", and whether it should be separate from "Shortia". However, recent molecular studies support the split of the two genera. Additionally, recognition of species within the genera has been debated. Within the genus "Pyxidanthera", two species have previously been recognized. Recent morphology and molecular work found that the two species do not differ morphologically and gene flow exists between them.  Over time, various relationships among Diapensiaceae and other angiosperm families have been proposed. Previously, it was placed within the order Rosales, as well as in the Cornales. Diapensiaceae was also placed in an order of its own in the Cronquist system and by Takhtajan. Recent studies have placed Diapensiaceae as part of the Ericales clade, belonging to the “styracoids” (Diapensiaceae, Styracaceae, Symplocaceae). It is estimated that Diapensiaceae diverged from Sytracaceae about 93 million years ago. The family is thought to have originated in the Northern Hemisphere.

Distribution.

Family Diapensiaceae members are mostly found in North America and Eastern Asia.

Characteristics.

Members of Diapensiaceae are mostly herbs or shrublets. Flowers have radial symmetry, are hypogynous, and have most parts arranged in whorls of 5. The ovary is made of three fused carpels. They have both ectotrophic and endotrophic mycorrhiza associations. Table reference -

Diapensiaceae (Link) Lindley is a small family of flowering plants, classified as a crown group, which includes 15 species in 6 genera. The genera include "Berneuxia" Decne. (1 species),"Diapensia" L. (5 species), "Galax" Sims (1 species), "Pyxidanthera" Michx. (2 species), "Shortia" Torr. & A.Gray (4 species), and "Schizocodon" Siebold & Zucc. (2 species). Members of this family have little economic importance, however, some members are cultivated by florists.

Diapensiovité ("Diapensiaceae") je malá čeleď vyšších dvouděložných rostlin z řádu vřesovcotvaré ("Ericales"). Jsou to vesměs nevelké byliny a polokeře s jednoduchými listy a pravidelnými pětičetnými květy. Jsou rozšířeny v počtu asi 18 druhů v severním mírném a a arktickém pásu. V Evropě tuto čeleď zastupuje jediný druh, diapensie laponská. V České republice neroste.


Biography.

After training with Prussian architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel and some years studying in Vienna, he moved to Athens in 1837, where he studied architecture and design, with a concentration and interest in Byzantine architecture. During his stay in Athens, Hansen designed his first building, the National Observatory of Athens and two of the three contiguous buildings forming the so-called "Athenian Trilogy": the Academy of Athens and the National Library of Greece, the third building of the trilogy being the National and Capodistrian University of Athens, which was designed by his brother Hans Christian Hansen (1803–1883).  The Greek-Austrian entrepreneur Georgios Sinas (1783-1856, who donated the observatory, called Hansen to Vienna in 1846, where Hansen took up an apprenticeship with noted Austrian architect Ludwig Förster (1797–1863). In his early works, such as the museum at The Arsenal in Vienna, Hansen was still rather aligned to a more romantic style. In later years, he became the most outstanding representative of Renaissance-inspired historicism (Neo-Renaissance), which also came to be known as Viennese-style. This style extended into the smallest details of the interior design and partially accepted the courses of a synthesis of the arts.  Along with Förster and many others, Hansen was one of the most important and influential architects of the Viennese Ringstraße. His most famous work is the Austrian Parliament building, which was created in the style of an ancient, neo-classic temple, and serves to refer to the Greek beginnings of democracy. Hansen was originally a staunch critic of the Classical style that was taught to him at the Copenhagen Academy. Over the years, however, he came to incorporate Classical elements into his forms. "Bauleiter" on this project was Swiss-Austrian architect Hans Auer (1847–1906) who would go on to win the competition for the Swiss Bundeshaus. Hansen's famed Musikverein in Vienna is one of the most notable concert halls in the world; a concert hall whose design and acoustics are often admired and copied in present-day music houses. Hansen worked together with Austrian sculptor Vincenz Pilz (1816-1896) and artist Carl Rahl (1812–1865), as well as with architect Otto Wagner (1841-1918). In 1884 Emperor Franz Joseph honoured Hansen with a barony in the Austrian nobility and he was since styled "Freiherr von Hansen".

Baron Theophil Edvard von Hansen (; original Danish name: Theophilus Hansen ; 13 July 1813, in Copenhagen – 17 February 1891, in Vienna) was a Danish architect who later became an Austrian citizen. He became particularly well known for his buildings and structures in Athens and Vienna, and is considered an outstanding representative of Neoclassicism and Historicism.

Theophil Edvard Hansen, od roku 1884 v Rakousku-Uhersku nobilitovaný sv. pán von Hansen (13. července 1813 Kodaň – 17. února 1891 Vídeň) byl dánsko-rakouský architekt, představitel evropského klasicismu a novorenesance 19. století.


Life and career.

Early life.

Blackman was born on 22 August 1925 in Plaistow, the daughter of Edith Eliza (Stokes) and Frederick Blackman, a civil service statistician. She attended North Ealing Primary School and Ealing County Grammar School for Girls. For her 15th birthday, her parents gave her acting lessons and began her training at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in 1940. While attending the Guildhall School, Blackman worked as a clerical assistant for the Home Office. Following graduation, she was an understudy in the West End play "The Guinea Pig". In 1947 she appeared in the Patrick Hastings play "The Blind Goddess" at the Apollo Theatre.

Films.

Blackman's film debut was a nonspeaking part in "Fame Is the Spur" (1947). Her other films include "Quartet" (1948), based on short stories by W. Somerset Maugham; "Diamond City" (1949), "So Long at the Fair" (1950), in which she again appeared with Dirk Bogarde; "A Night to Remember" (1958), an account of the "Titanic" disaster; the comedy "The Square Peg" (1958); "Life at the Top" (1965) with Laurence Harvey; "The Virgin and the Gypsy" (1970), and the Western films "Shalako" (1968) with Sean Connery and Brigitte Bardot, and "Something Big" (1971) with Dean Martin. She played Hera in "Jason and the Argonauts" (1963), which featured stop-motion animation by Ray Harryhausen. She had roles in the films "Bridget Jones's Diary" (2001) and "Jack Brown and the Curse of the Crown" (also 2001).

James Bond.

Albert R. Broccoli said Blackman was cast opposite Sean Connery in the James Bond films based on her success in the British television series "The Avengers". He knew that most American audiences would not have seen the programme. Broccoli said, "The Brits would love her because they knew her as Mrs. Gale, the Yanks would like her because she was so good, it was a perfect combination."  During the 1960s, Blackman practised judo at the Budokwai dojo. This helped her prepare for her roles as Cathy Gale in "The Avengers" and Pussy Galore in "Goldfinger" (1964). At 38, she was one of the oldest actresses to play a Bond girl, and was five years older than the star Sean Connery. Following its release, she was the subject of the long-running BBC radio programme "Desert Island Discs", choosing an anthology of poetry as her book, and Michelangelo's David as her luxury.

Theatre.

In 1968, Blackman appeared opposite John Neville and Hylda Baker in the musical play "Mr & Mrs", based on the plays of Noël Coward. In the late 1970s, she toured Australia and New Zealand with Michael Craig and Colleen Clifford in the comedy play "Move Over, Mrs Markham". In February 1979, she starred in Stephen Barry's production of Tom Stoppard's "Night and Day" at the Perth Playhouse, coinciding with Stoppard's presence as a participant in the Festival of Perth.  In 1981, she appeared in a London revival of "The Sound of Music" opposite Petula Clark. The production opened to rave reviews and the largest advance sale in British theatre history to that time. She spent most of 1987 at the Fortune Theatre starring as the Mother Superior in the West End production of "Nunsense".  Blackman returned to the theatre in 2005, touring through 2006 with a production of "My Fair Lady", in which she played Mrs. Higgins. She developed a one-woman show, "Word of Honor", which premiered in October 2006. From April to September 2007, Blackman took over the role of Fraulein Schneider in "Cabaret" at the Lyric Theatre in London's West End.

Television.

Blackman started acting on television in the recurring role of "Nicole", secretary/assistant to Dan Dailey's character of Tim Collier in the television series "The Four Just Men" (1959). In an episode of "The Saint" titled "The Arrow of God" (1962), Blackman played an adulterous personal secretary named Pauline Stone, who became one of several suspects in the murder of a despised gossip columnist.  In an episode of "The Avengers", "Too Many Christmas Trees" (1965), John Steed received a Christmas card from Cathy Gale. Reading the envelope, he says in a puzzled voice, "Whatever can she be doing at Fort Knox...?" It was an inside joke, as Blackman was filming "Goldfinger" at the time.  In December 1969 and in February 1993, Blackman was taken by surprise as the subject of "This Is Your Life". In 1972, Blackman (as a "Special Guest Star") and Richard Basehart played a married pair of Shakespearean actors who commit murder in the American crime mystery series "Columbo" (episode "Dagger of the Mind"). In 1983, she appeared in a film production of Agatha Christies novel, "The Secret Adversary", in the role of Rita Vandemeyer, and as Juno/Empress Eugénie in the BBC television production of "Orpheus in the Underworld".  In 1986, she had a role in "Terror of the Vervoids", a segment of the "Doctor Who" serial "The Trial of a Time Lord". From 1990 to 1996, she appeared as Laura West on "The Upper Hand". In 2003, Blackman took a guest role on "Midsomer Murders," as ex-racing driver Isobel Hewitt in the episode "A Talent for Life". In September 2004, she briefly joined the "Coronation Street" cast in a storyline about wife swapping. In 2007, she participated in the BBC TV project "The Verdict". She was one of 12 well-known figures who made up a jury to hear a fictional rape case. The series was designed to explore the jury system. She was sworn in as a juror as "Honor Kaufmann". In 2013, she guest-starred in the BBC medical drama "Casualty" and in "By Any Means".  Blackman also appeared in a number of episodes of "Never the Twain" with Donald Sinden and Windsor Davies as vet Veronica Barton.

Singing career.

Blackman's recording with "The Avengers" co-star Patrick Macnee of "Kinky Boots" (1964), referring to the boots she wore in the show, was a surprise hit. In 1990 it resurfaced on the chart, peaking at No. 5 after being played incessantly by BBC Radio 1 breakfast show presenter Simon Mayo. After her appearance in "Goldfinger", she recorded a full album of songs titled "Everything I've Got".  In 1968, Blackman released a 45 of "Before Today"/"I'll Always Be Loving You" (CBS 3896), which were featured in the musical play "Mr & Mrs". In 1983 she sang as Juno in a special TV production of Jacques Offenbach's "Orpheus in the Underworld".  On 6 July 2009, Blackman released a new single, "The Star Who Fell from Grace", composed by Jeff Chegwin and Adrian Munsey. She also compered the James Bond Prom, part of the "Welsh Proms" concert series in 2009.

Other roles.

Blackman appeared in the "Doctor Who" audio drama "The Children of Seth", in which she plays the role of Anahita, released in December 2011.

Personal life.

Blackman was married twice. She was married to Bill Sankey from 1948 to 1956. After their divorce, she married British actor Maurice Kaufmann (1961–75). They appeared together in the slasher film "Fright" (1971) and some stage productions. They adopted two children, Lottie (1967) and Barnaby (1968).  After her divorce from Kaufmann, she did not remarry and stated that she preferred being single. She enjoyed watching football.  Blackman owned a summer house in Islesboro, Maine, United States.  Blackman died at her home in Lewes, East Sussex, on 5 April 2020, aged 94, from natural causes.

Politics.

Blackman was a British Republican, a member of the Liberal Democrats and was previously a member of the Liberal Party, campaigning for the party at the 1964 general election. She declined a CBE in 2002, as she felt that as a republican it would be hypocritical to accept the award. She publicly supported changing the British electoral system from first-past-the-post to alternative vote for electing members to the House of Commons in the Alternative Vote referendum in 2011.  In 2012 Blackman publicly criticised actor Sean Connery, her Bond co-star in the 1960s, for his status as a tax exile. She said "I disapprove of him strongly now. Because I don't think you should accept a title from a country and then pay absolutely no tax towards it. He wants it both ways. I don't think his principles are very high."  Following the death of Margaret Thatcher in April 2013, when asked about her thoughts on Thatcher, Blackman responded:

Filmography.

Blackman appeared in the following films:

Honor Blackman (22 August 1925 – 5 April 2020) was an English actress, widely known for the roles of Cathy Gale in "The Avengers" (1962–1964), Bond girl Pussy Galore in "Goldfinger" (1964), Julia Daggett in "Shalako" (1968) and Hera in "Jason and the Argonauts" (1963). She is also known for her role as Laura West in the ITV sitcom "The Upper Hand" (1990–1996).

Honor Blackmanová (* 22. srpna 1925 Londýn – 5. dubna 2020 Lewes) byla anglická herečka známá především rolí Bond girl "Pussy Galore" v bondovce "Goldfinger" (1964), a také díky postavě "Cathy Galeové " v seriálu "The Avengers" (Mstitelé).


Background.

The surname 'Zelaya' is a word from the Basque language, which means 'field'.  Zelaya was born the eldest of four children in Juticalpa, Olancho. Two of his brothers remain alive. Zelaya's mother, Ortensia Rosales de Zelaya, has been described as his best campaigner. His family first lived in Copán, then they moved east to Catacamas, Olancho.  He attended Niño Jesús de Praga y Luis Landa elementary school and the Instituto Salesiano San Miguel. He began his university studies in civil engineering, but left in 1976 with 11 courses completed, for agriculture and the forestry sector. He was forced to take over the family business by the arrest of his father José Manuel Zelaya Ordoñez, implicated in the murders known as "Slaughter of the Horcones." These murders also involved Mayor José Enrique Chinchilla, Sub-Lieutenant Benjamín Plata, José Manuel Zelaya Ordoñez (property owner) and Carlos Bhar. They were charged and taken to the Central Prison; after four years in prison, they were favored with a pardon from the head of state, General Policarpo Paz García, in 1979. He has engaged in business activities that including timber and cattle, handed down to him by his late father. He is now a landowner in Olancho. In 1987, Zelaya became manager of the Honduran Council of Private Enterprise (COHEP), as well as of the National Association of Wood Processing Enterprises. The COHEP occupies a particularly important role in Honduran politics, as the Constitution delineates that the organization elects one of the seven members of the Nominating Board that proposes nominees to the Supreme Court of Honduras.  Zelaya's father got a 20-year prison sentence for his role in the 1975 Los Horcones massacre, which took place on the Zelaya family ranch, "Los Horcones". As a result of an amnesty, he served less than two.

Political career.

Zelaya joined the Liberal Party of Honduras, "Partido Liberal de Honduras", (PLH) in 1970 and became active a decade later. He was a deputy in the National Congress for three consecutive times between 1985 and 1998. He held many positions within the PLH and was Minister for Investment in charge of the Honduran Social Investment Fund (FHIS) in a previous PLH government. Under the administration of Zelaya the FHIS lost $40 million. Zelaya was accused of embezzlement but escaped prosecution. In the 2005 presidential primaries, his faction was called "Movimiento Esperanza Liberal" (MEL). He received 52% of the 289,300 Liberal votes, vs. 17% for Jaime Rosenthal Oliva and 12% for Gabriela Núñez, the candidate of the Nueva Mayoría faction.

Presidency (2006-2009).

During Zelaya's time in office Honduras became a member of ALBA, an international cooperation organization based on the idea of social, political, and economic integration between the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. It marked his turning to a left-of-center politics, the first such case of right to left policy switch as he had been elected in on a conservative platform. Political opponents, particularly business elites, opposed his foreign policy, including his alliance with Hugo Chávez in Venezuela, and friendship with Cuba's Raúl Castro.  In spite of a number of economic problems, there were a number of significant achievements under Zelaya's presidency. Under his government, free education for all children was introduced, subsidies to small farmers were provided, bank interest rates were reduced, the minimum wage was increased by 80%, school meals were guaranteed for more than 1.6 million children from poor families, domestic employees were integrated into the social security system, poverty was reduced by almost 10% during two years of government, and direct state help was provided for 200,000 families in extreme poverty, with free electricity supplied to those Hondurans most in need.

Alliance with ALBA.

On 22 July 2008, Zelaya sought to incorporate Honduras into ALBA, an international cooperation organization based on the idea of social, political, and economic integration in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Conflict with media.

Zelaya said that the main media outlets in Honduras, owned by wealthy conservatives, were biased against him and did not cover what his government was doing: "No one publishes anything about me.... what prevails here is censorship of my government by the mass media." Inter Press Service says that the vast majority of radio and TV stations and print publications are owned by just six families.  According to a paper written by Manuel Orozco and Rebecca Rouse for the Inter-American Dialogue think tank in the United States, the Honduran media operate as arms of political parties. Honduran journalists say that most of the news media in Honduras are unabashedly partisan, allied with political parties and local power brokers.  On 24 May 2007, Zelaya ordered ten two-hour "cadenas" (mandatory government broadcasts) on all television and radio stations, "to counteract the misinformation of the news media". The move, while legal, was fiercely criticized by the country's main journalists' union, and Zelaya was dubbed "authoritarian" by his opposition. Ultimately, the broadcasts were scaled back to a one-hour program on the government's plans to expand telephone service, a half-hour on new electrical power plants and a half-hour about government revenues.  An unknown gunman in 2007 murdered a journalist who often criticized Zelaya. The Inter-American Press Association (IAPA) and the United Nations criticized threats against journalists in Honduras. Other critical journalists, such as Dagoberto Rodriguez and Hector Geovanny Garcia, fled into exile because of constant murder threats.  The Associated Press, citing Manuel Orozco of the Inter American Dialogue, said that "His [Zelaya's] campaign for changing the constitution has energized his support base of labour groups, farmers and civil organisations who have long felt marginalized in a country where a wealthy elite controls the media and much of politics."

Corruption investigations of Hondutel.

Manuel Zelaya appointed his nephew Marcelo Chimirri as General Manager of the state-owned telecom Hondutel.  According to the Mexican newspaper "El Universal", relying on information supplied by the Arcadia Foundation, Hondutel's revenue decreased 47% between 2005 and 2006, the first year of President Manuel Zelaya's administration, despite Hondutel's monopoly on international calls In April 2009, Latin Node Inc., an American company, pleaded guilty to making improper payments to Hondutel, "knowing that some, or all of those funds, would be passed on as bribes to officials of Hondutel". Chimirri resigned in 2007, and was arrested following the coup. He remains in prison on charges of abuse of authority and embezzlement, charges he denies. Apart from Chimirri, Oscar Danilo Santos (the former manager of Hondutel), Jorge Rosa, and James Lagos are all charged in connection with allegedly committing crimes of abuse of authority, fraud and bribery having received bribes of $1.09 million U.S. from an international carrier in exchange for Hondutel providing that carrier lower rates than other firms. Auditor Julio Daniel Flores was charged for the lesser crime of violation of duties of officers.

Attempts to modify the constitution.

President Zelaya came to international attention in June 2009 when he was overthrown in a military coup and forced into exile. The crisis that led to his removal from office centered around the question of whether changes would be made to the 1982 Honduran Constitution. Zelaya proposed a national poll to gauge interest in constitutional change, which provoked a fierce reaction from opposition parties. Those responsible for the coup justified their actions on the grounds that Zelaya's interest in potentially convening a constituent assembly to draft a new constitution was illegal, and alleged that his real motive was to increase his time in office. Zelaya denied that his motive was to stay in office, stating that he intended to step down in January 2010 as scheduled, noting that his successor would be elected at the same time the vote on whether to convene a constituent assembly would occur.  Under constitutional law, the President of Honduras can amend the constitution without a referendum if a congressional majority exists. However, eight articles cannot be amended, including those related to term limits, the permitted system of government, and the process of presidential succession.  Because the president can amend 368 of the 375 articles in the Honduran constitution without calling a constituent assembly, some suspected that Zelaya's true intention was to extend his rule. One-time Christian Democrat presidential candidate Juan Ramon Martinez argued that Zelaya was attempting to discredit parliamentary democracy, saying, "There appears to be a set of tactics aimed at discrediting institutions... he has repeated on several occasions that democratic institutions are worthless and that democracy has not helped at all".

Referendum.

On 11 November 2008, following requests from many Honduran groups for the convening of a constituent assembly, Zelaya issued a decree organizing a poll to decide whether the electorate wanted a fourth ballot box installed at polling places for the upcoming 29 November 2009 General Election – an addition to the usual three for Presidential, Congressional, and municipal candidates. The fourth ballot would ask voters whether to convene a National Constituent Assembly for the purpose of writing a new constitution. In March 2009, Zelaya announced that he first wanted to have a preliminary poll – he suggested 28 June 2009 as a date – to ask voters whether they wanted the fourth ballot to be included in the November 2009 election.  There has been considerable debate as to whether Zelaya's call for a poll about whether to organize a constituent assembly was legally valid according to the 1982 Constitution. Article 373 of the Constitution states that the Constitution can be amended by a two-thirds majority of the normal National Congress. Only eight articles cannot be amended in this fashion; they are specified in Article 374 of the Constitution and include term limits, system of government that is permitted, and process of presidential succession. Because the congress can amend 368 of 375 articles without any constituent assembly, some observers charged that Zelaya's true intention of holding a referendum on convening a constitutional convention on the same date as his successor's election was to extend his term of rule. In a newspaper interview shortly before his removal from office, Zelaya stated that he had every intention of stepping down when his term ends in January 2010.

Violation of Supreme Court rulings.

The Supreme Court, without deciding on the constitutionality of the poll, ruled that a lower court ruling blocking the referendum was lawful  The Supreme Court's ruling was supported by Congress, the country's attorney general, top electoral body, and the country's human rights ombudsman, who all said that Zelaya violated the law. Despite the opposition of the other branches of the government, Zelaya moved forward with his plan to hold the poll on 28 June 2009. In Honduras the military assist with election logistics; So in late May 2009, Zelaya requested military help to distribute ballot boxes and other materials for the poll. The chief of the military, General Romeo Vásquez Velásquez, refused to carry this order out. In response, Zelaya dismissed Vásquez on 24 May. Subsequently, defense minister Edmundo Orellana and several other military commanders resigned in support of Vásquez. Both the Honduran Supreme Court and the Honduran Congress deemed the dismissal of Velásquez unlawful.  By 25 June, the newspaper "La Tribuna" reported that the military had deployed hundreds of troops around Tegucigalpa, to prevent possible disturbances by organisations that support Zelaya and with the exception of leftist organizations, "all sectors are publicly opposed to the consultation, which has been declared illegal by the Prosecutor and the Supreme Court". The troops were deployed from the First Infantry Battalion, located 5 km East of the city, to the vicinity of the presidential residence in the West, and the airport, in the South.  There is some doubt, however, that Zelaya ever actually fired Vásquez. CNN news on 27 June reported that Zelaya on 24 June had "said that he would" fire Vásquez; but that on 26 June Zelaya said that he had never carried out his threat and the general had not been fired. "I didn't do it", he told CNN.  The Congress, the attorney general, and the top electoral tribunal declared Zelaya's proposed referendum illegal. Congress began to discuss impeaching Zelaya. On 27 June and again on 30 June 2009, thousands of protesters opposed to Zelaya's marched through the capital city.

Constitutional crisis.

Coup.

On 28 June 2009, the Supreme Court issued an order to detain President Zelaya, who was subsequently captured by the military. He was then brought to the air force base Hernan Acosta Mejia, and taken into exile in Costa Rica, precipitating the 2009 Honduran constitutional crisis.  The reason given for the arrest order were charges brought by the Attorney General. The rationale of the order was to enable a statement before the Supreme Court. The decision to expatriate Zelaya was however taken by the military themselves, knowing full well that expatriation violated the constitution. The military offered as justification that they exiled Zelaya "to avoid mob violence". Following the coup, Zelaya spoke to the media from his forced exile in San José. He identified the events as a coup and a kidnapping. Soldiers pulled him from his bed, he said, and assaulted his guards. Zelaya announced that he would not recognize anyone named as his successor, and that he wanted to finish his term in office. He also stated that he would begin to meet with diplomats, and attended the Summit of Central American presidents held in Managua, Nicaragua, two days later (30 June 2009).  The National Congress voted unanimously to accept what they said was Zelaya's letter of resignation. Zelaya said he did not write the letter.  National Congress President Roberto Micheletti, the next person in the presidential line of succession and a centre-Right, assumed the presidency following Zelaya's removal from office. The event was greeted with applause in the national Congress.  International bodies like the United Nations, the Organization of American States, and the European Union publicly condemned the events. U.S. President Barack Obama said, "We believe that the coup was not legal and that President Zelaya remains the President of Honduras." Hugo Chávez threatened to invade Honduras if the Venezuelan embassy or ambassador were attacked. Venezuela has said it would suspend oil shipments, and Honduras's neighbors—El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua—suspended overland trade, and lifted the ban after two days. A one-page United Nations resolution, passed by acclamation in the then 192-member body, condemned the events and demanded Zelaya's "immediate and unconditional restoration" as president. The resolution calls "firmly and categorically on all states to recognise no government other than that" of Mr. Zelaya.  During the first five days out of country, Zelaya spent 80,000 dollars of Honduran public money on goods including hotels, food and clothing, continuing to spend on his expenses as the president of the country.  Zelaya's wife, Xiomara Castro de Zelaya, charged that the exiling of her husband was a violation of the Honduran Constitution. Article 102 of the Honduran Constitution forbids expatriating or handing over of Hondurans to foreign countries.  Following the coup trends of decreasing poverty and extreme poverty were reversed. The nation saw a poverty increase of 13.2 percent and in extreme poverty of 26.3 percent in just 3 years. Furthermore, unemployment grew between 2008 and 2012 from 6.8 percent to 14.1 percent.

Return to Honduras.

On 21 September 2009, Zelaya and his wife arrived at the Brazilian embassy in Tegucigalpa. Zelaya said that to reach the embassy he travelled through mountains for fifteen hours, and took back roads to avoid checkpoints. Zelaya did not state from which country he entered Honduras. Hundreds of Zelaya's supporters surrounded the Brazilian embassy. Zelaya chanted "Restitution, Fatherland or Death!" to his supporters, raising fears that Zelaya was attempting a violent confrontation.  Michelletti initially denied that Zelaya had returned, but later admitted he had. Michelletti added that the return "changes nothing of our reality". Michelletti later issued a state of emergency with a curfew and asked the Brazilian government to put Zelaya in Honduran custody for trial. Brazilian foreign minister Celso Amorim stated that Brazil did not aid Zelaya's return. Security Vice-Minister Mario Perdomo ordered checkpoints on the highways leading to Tegucigalpa, to "stop those people coming to start trouble". Defense Minister Lionel Sevilla also suspended all air flights to Tegucigalpa.  Costa Rican President Óscar Arias and U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton urged both sides to begin a dialogue toward a peaceful solution and Eulogio Chavez, leader of a 60,000-member teachers union, announced that his organization would go on strike to back Zelaya. Shortly thereafter, Zelaya claimed that Israeli mercenaries had installed a mobile phone jammer.  On 27 September 2009 Honduras gave Brazil a ten-day deadline. Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva replied that he would ignore the deadline. "Brazil will not comply with an ultimatum from a government of coup-mongers". Lula said. Honduran interim president Roberto Micheletti warned that his government would take action if Brazil did not determine Zelaya's status soon. President Lula requested an apology. Hundreds of Honduran soldiers and Police Officers surrounded the Brazilian embassy, where protests against the coup continued.  On 29 October 2009, the government of "de facto" president Roberto Micheletti signed what United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton called a "historic agreement" to let Manuel Zelaya serve the remaining three months of his term. "If Congress agrees", according to Elisabeth Malkin of "The New York Times", "control of the army would shift to the electoral court, and the presidential election set for 29 Nov. would be recognized by both sides. Neither Mr. Zelaya nor Mr. Micheletti will be candidates".  When Micheletti announced he had, unilaterally, formed the unity government without input from Zelaya, Zelaya declared the agreement "dead" early on 6 November. The United States sent diplomats to help to resurrect the pact, but Zelaya insisted that he would not accept any deal to restore him to office if it meant he must recognize the elections of 29 November.

Presidential election of 29 November 2009.

On 29 November 2009, a presidential election was held under a state of emergency declared in Decree PCM-M-030-2009. According to the decree, the Secretary of State of the 'de facto' government was expected to participate in the military command for this state of emergency. Five of the six presidential candidates retained their candidacies, while Carlos H. Reyes had withdrawn his candidacy on 9 November in protest at what he perceived as illegitimacy of the election. Zelaya called for a boycott of the poll. Some Hondurans interviewed by Associated Press said that they "sought to move past the crisis with the elections", which had been scheduled previous to Zelaya's removal. Early returns indicated that conservative Porfirio Lobo was elected with around 55% of the votes. Official numbers for the turnout of the election falsely placed it at around 60%, but subsequently revised the numbers to 49% turnout.  Organisations and individuals in Honduras, including the National Resistance Front against the coup d'état in Honduras, Marvin Ponce of the Democratic Unification Party, and Bertha Oliva of COFADEH, and internationally, including Mercosur, President Cristina Kirchner of Argentina and the Union of South American Nations, said that elections held on 29 November under Micheletti would not be legitimate.  On 2 December, the National Congress began debate regarding the possible reinstatement of Zelaya to the presidency.  On 4 December, Juan Barahona-led activists ended five months of daily protests demanding the reinstatement of Zelaya, saying they were moving on now that Congress has voted to keep Manuel Zelaya out of office. Juan Barahona, who had been leading protests since late June when Zelaya was forced out of the country, said that his supporters are "closing that chapter" of their struggle. Barahona said it was time for Hondurans who support policies in favor of the poor and other themes that Zelaya espoused to shift their focus to the 2014 elections.

Exile.

On 20 January 2010, the Dominican Republic and Honduran President-elect Lobo agreed to a deal that would allow Zelaya to be transported safely from the Brazilian embassy in Tegucigalpa where he had been, to the Dominican Republic upon Lobo taking office on 27 January. Lobo stated that he would ensure Zelaya would leave safely and "with dignity." Lobo negotiated with Dominican President Leonel Fernández. Lobo also discussed the situation with former presidential candidates, who signed onto a joint statement on the agreement, which also requested that sanctions against Honduras as a result of the coup be lifted. The next day, Zelaya agreed to the deal. A close advisor said Zelaya would remain politically active and hoped to later return to political activity.  Zelaya left Honduras on 27 January 2010 for the Dominican Republic, along with his wife, two children, and President Fernández of the Dominican Republic. Zelaya and his family lived in the Dominican Republic until his return in 2011. Several countries in the region continued to see Zelaya as the legitimate Honduran head of state.

Return from exile.

Honduran President Porforio Lobo met with Zelaya in Cartagena, Colombia on 22 May 2011. They both signed an agreement that allowed Zelaya to return to Honduras from exile. Six days later, on 28 May, Zelaya flew back to Honduras aboard a Conviasa jet and was greeted by thousands of his supporters at the airport. He gave a conciliatory speech that called for political reconciliation and increased democracy in the country.

Role of the United States.

In 2015 and 2016, emails by U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton were released subsequent to disputes over the Secretary's use of private email accounts for government communications. Some critics, who are not named in this article, have argued that, despite President Obama's public support for Zelaya and condemnation of the coup, these communications suggest that the Secretary seemed more interested in ensuring that previously scheduled elections for the new president proceeded in November, rather than taking a strong stand insisting that Zelaya be restored in the meantime. And Zelaya himself has criticized both Clinton and the Obama administration saying, "On the one hand, they condemned the coup, but on the other hand, they were negotiating with the leaders of the coup."

José Manuel Zelaya Rosales (born 20 September 1952) is a Honduran politician who was President of Honduras from 27 January 2006 until 28 June 2009. He is the eldest son of a wealthy businessman, and inherited his father's nickname "Mel". Before entering politics he was involved in his family's logging and timber businesses.

José Manuel Zelaya Rosales (* 20. září 1952) je honduraský podnikatel a politik. Od 27. ledna 2006 zastával funkci prezidenta Hondurasu, 28. června 2009 jej však sesadila armáda. V čele země ho vystřídal předseda parlamentu Roberto Micheletti. Zelaya je synem bohatého honduraského podnikatele a ve firmě svého otce působí dodnes.


"Star Trek".

Original warp scale ("The Original Series", "The Animated Series", "Enterprise", and "Discovery").

Warp drive is one of the fundamental features of the "Star Trek" franchise; in the first pilot episode of "", "The Cage", it is referred to as a "hyperdrive", with Captain Pike stating the speed to reach planet TalosIV as "time warp, factor 7". When beginning to explain travel times to the illusion survivors (before being interrupted by the sight of Vina), crewmember Jose stated that "the time barrier's been broken", allowing a group of interstellar travelers to return to Earth far sooner than would have otherwise been possible. Later in the pilot, when Spock is faced with the only action of escaping, he announces to the crew they have no choice but to leave, stating "Our time warp factor..." before the ship's systems start failing. In the second pilot for "The Original Series", "Where No Man Has Gone Before", "time" was dropped from the speed setting with Kirk ordering speeds in the simple "ahead warp factor one" that became so familiar from then on.  The warp drive velocity in "Star Trek" is generally expressed in "warp factor" units, which—according to "Star Trek Star Fleet Technical Manual"—corresponds to the magnitude of the warp field. Achieving warp factor1 is equal to breaking the light barrier, while the actual velocity corresponding to higher factors is determined using an ambiguous formula. According to the "Star Trek" episode writer's guide for "The Original Series", warp factors are converted to multiples of the speed of light by multiplication with the cubic function of the warp factor itself. Accordingly, "warp 1" is equivalent to the speed of light, "warp 2" is eight times the speed of light, "warp 3" is 27 times the speed of light, etc. Several episodes of "The Original Series" placed the "Enterprise" in peril by having it travel at high warp factors. However, the velocity (in present dimensional units) of any given warp factor is rarely the subject of explicit expression, and travel times for specific interstellar distances are not consistent through the various series. In the "" it was written that the real warp speed depends on external factors such as particle density or electromagnetic fields and only roughly corresponds with the calculated speed of current warp factor. The reference work "Star Trek Maps" established the theory of subspace (or warp) highways. In certain regions, a spaceship can fly at a multiple of the speed that corresponds to the current warp factor.  In "The Original Series", warp factor6 was established as the common speed of the USS "Enterprise" NCC-1701. In some cases, the starship traveled at warp7 or above, but with risk of damaging the ship or the engines. Warp9 in "The Original Series" was the "never exceed" speed for the hulls and engines of "Constitution-"class starships, equivalent to the aircraft V V-speed. Warp6 was the V "Normal Operation" maximum "safe" cruising speed for that vessel class. Only five stories in the original "Star Trek" series involved the "Enterprise" traveling beyond warp9. In any instance, it was a result of the influence of alien beings or foreign technology. The warp 14.1 incident in "That Which Survives" was the result of runaway engines which brought the hull within seconds of structural failure before power was disengaged.  Later on, a prequel series titled "" describes the warp engine technology as a "Gravimetric Field Displacement Manifold" (Commander Tucker's tour, ""), and describes the device as being powered by a matter/anti-matter reaction which powers the two separate nacelles (one on each side of the ship) to create a displacement field. "Enterprise", set in 2151 and onwards, follows the voyages of the first human ship capable of traveling at warp factor 5.2, which under the old warp table formula (the cube of the warp factor times the speed of light), is about 140 times the speed of light (i.e., 5.2 cubed). In the series pilot episode "", Capt. Archer equates warp 4.5 to "Neptune and back [from Earth] in six minutes" (which would correspond to a distance of 547 light-minutes or 66 au, consistent with Neptune's being a minimum of 29 au distant from Earth).

Modified warp scale ("The Next Generation", "Deep Space Nine", "Voyager" and "Picard").

For "" and the subsequent series, "Star Trek" artist Michael Okuda drew up a new warp scale and devised a formula based on the original one but with an important difference: In the half-open interval from 9to 10, the exponent"w" increases toward infinity. Thus, in the Okuda scale, warp velocities approach warp 10 asymptotically. According to the "" there is no exact formula for this interval because the quoted velocities are based on a hand-drawn curve; what can be said is that at velocities greater than warp 9, the form of the warp function changes because of an increase in the exponent of the warp factor"w". Due to the resultant increase in the derivative, even minor changes in the warp factor eventually correspond to a greater than exponential change in velocity. Warp factor 10 was set as an unattainable maximum (according to the new scale, reaching or exceeding warp 10 required an infinite amount of energy). This is described in "Star Trek Technical Manuals" as "Eugene's limit", in homage to creator/producer Gene Roddenberry.  In "Star Trek: The Next Generation Technical Manual" it was established that the normal operating speed of the "Enterprise"-D ("Galaxy"-class) was warp6 (new scale), the maximum rated cruise was warp 9.2 and the maximum design speed of warp factor 9.6. In two episodes, the "Enterprise"-D could travel at warp 9.8 at "extreme risk", while fleeing from an enemy. According to the "Star Trek: Deep Space Nine Technical Manual" the "Galaxy"-class starships and some other starfleet vessels like "Nebula"-class or "Excelsior"-class were refitted during the Dominion War with newer technology including modifications which increased their maximum speed to warp 9.9.  According to the reference book "USS Enterprise Owners' Workshop Manual" the "Enterprise"-E can reach a maximum velocity of warp 9.95. The "" reference book states that the "Intrepid"-class starship "Voyager" has a maximum sustainable cruising speed of warp 9.975, while the "Prometheus"-class can reach a maximum of warp 9.99, with maximum cruising speed of warp 9.9.  As stated in the collection "Star Trek Fact Files", no ship, including highly developed ships like the Borg cube, may exceed warp factor 9.99 with their normal warp drive. To achieve higher speeds, the use of transwarp technology is required.

Warp velocities.

In the book "Star Trek Encyclopedia", some warp velocities are given directly. For comparison, the following table shows these values and also the calculated speeds of the original warp scale, the calculated speeds of a simplified Okuda scale and some canonical reference values for warp speeds from onscreen sources.

Transwarp.

Transwarp generally refers to speeds and technologies that are beyond conventional warp drives. The warp drive has a natural physical or economical limit beyond which higher speeds are no longer possible. The reference work "Star Trek Fact Files" indicates this limit at warp factor 9.99. This is the highest conventional warp speed mentioned for a spaceship (Borg cube). Also in the episode "Threshold" ("Star Trek Voyager") the warp factor 9.99 is suggested as the limit. This is the last warp factor mentioned before the leap takes place in the transwarp state.  In the book "" the authors describes the idea of transwarp: Finally, we had to create a back door for various powerful aliens like Q who got the knack of hurling the ship through the room for millions of light years during a commercial break.  The transwarp concept itself is not tied to any particular technology or speed limit.  The first mention of a transwarp drive took place in the movie "". There, the Starfleet developed a new spaceship type, the USS "Excelsior" (NX-2000), which should have a superior engine. The "Excelsior" captain plans to break the speed record of the USS "Enterprise" (warp 14.1 cubic scale). The principle of this drive is not explained. Later, in "", the USS "Excelsior" had a normal warp drive. In " Star Trek Fact Files " it is stated that the experiment was a failure and the spaceship was converted to a normal warp drive.  The entire episode "Threshold" from "Star Trek Voyager" is about a transwarp experiment by the USS "Voyager" crew. To get home faster, a shuttle is modified with novel dilithium crystals. The crew is trying to break the transwarp threshold. This threshold is between warp 9.99 and warp 10, and transwarp itself represented the infinite speed. The shuttle allegedly found itself at all points in the universe at the same time during the flight. However, the pilot suffers genetic mutations after the flight, so it is not repeated. Due to the shuttle's limited memory, only a small portion of the sensor data was recorded. The entire experiment is described in the reference work "Star Trek Fact Files".  Some episodes later, fictionalized a few months later, the crew of USS "Voyager" encounters a species called the Voth. This species has spaceships with transwarp drive. However, this drive does not work on the basis of transwarp conduits, as the transwarp drive of the Borg, but is a further development of the conventional warp drive.  The mention of a second transwarp technology took place in the episode "" of the series "Star Trek: The Next Generation". A group of renegade Borg used transwarp conduits. These are wormhole-like tunnels through subspace. It was said in the dialogue that the flight through these tunnels was 20 times faster than the flight with maximum warp speed of the "Enterprise". The flight itself was described as follows: "falling into a fast-moving river and getting swept away by the current." In the episode "" it is explained that the origin of these corridors was in six transwarp hubs spread across the galaxy. There were two ways to use these conduits outside these hubs. In "The Next Generation", the "Enterprise" was able to open such a channel with a precisely modulated tachyon impulse, traveling 65 light-years. However, when the USS "Voyager" tried the same thing in "Day of Honor", the attempt failed and almost destroyed the ship. The second possibility is the use of the transwarp coil. In episode "Dark Frontier" the crew of "Voyager" steals such a coil from the Borg and is able to shorten their journey home by 15 years, before the coil burns out.

Quantum slipstream.

Another form of transwarp used in "Star Trek" is called "Quantum Slipstream".  Similar to the Borg transwarp conduits, the slipstream is a narrowly focused, directed field that is initiated by manipulating the fabric of the space-time continuum using the starship's navigational deflector array. This creates a subspace tunnel, which is projected ahead of the vessel. Once a ship has entered this tunnel, the forces inside propel it at incredible speed. To maintain the slipstream, a ship has to constantly modify the quantum field with its deflector dish. The speed of the drive is inversely proportional to the time and distance. When the crew enters the "Dauntless" in the episode "Hope and Fear" for the first time and accidentally activates the propulsion system, the spaceship flies a flight of 15 light-years over a period of about 10 seconds. That is equivalent to approximately 50 million times the speed of light. After realizing that they would have to leave "Voyager" forever to get home with the "Dauntless", the crew tries to match the drive of the USS "Voyager" to the parameters of the "Dauntless". The modified "Voyager" is able to cover a distance of 300 light years with the slipstream modification before the system becomes unstable. The way back to Earth is stated in a fake message, created by Arturis, with seven months aboard the "Dauntless". For this period, the stocks are filled. At a residual distance of 60,000 light years at this time, this would correspond to a speed of about 100,000 times the speed of light or 1/500th of the time of a short slipstream jump.  However, in the episode "Timeless", the technology proved to be dangerously unstable, resulting in the loss of all hands of the "Voyager" in an alternate timeline. Due to a phase variance, the slipstream tunnel, produced by a replica slipstream drive of the "Voyager", collapsed during the flight and the ship crashed on a planet near the edge of the Beta Quadrant. Harry Kim and Chakotay survived, because they used the "Delta Flyer", which flew ahead of the "Voyager", and reached the Earth safely. They used, some years after this event, a temporal communication device to change the timeline and rescue the ship and the crew.

Folding space.

In addition to the possibility to let a spaceship glide through space in a warp field, there is also space folding in "Star Trek". Spatial folding means that two points of space-time are directly connected and an instantaneous change takes place. The space between is simply folded into a higher-dimensional hyperspace or subspace.  In the episode "That Which Survives" of "The Original Series", the "Enterprise" encountered the remains of people called Kalandans. These are able to instantaneously teleport spaceships as well as people over long distances.  In the episode "" of the series "Star Trek: The Next Generation", the "Enterprise"-D discovered the former homeworld of the Iconians. These people were able to instantaneously teleport people over long distances with the help of Iconian Gateways. To ensure the gateway did not fall into the wrong hands, Captain Picard destroyed it.  A year later, in "", terrorists on the planet RutiaIV used a space folding teleporter called an inverter. However, this caused progressive physical harm to people during transport; multiple use almost always ended in death.  The USS "Voyager" came in touch with this technology several times on their way home. In the episode "" the crew tried to buy a Spatial Trajector from the Sikarians. This wraps an object in a kind of subspace bubble, and teleports it to another location using spatial folding. The range was 40,000 light-years. However, the technology was not compatible with the warp core and almost destroyed "Voyager" when it was used.  Three years later, in the episode "", "Voyager" discovered a stranded spaceship with a coaxial warp drive. This also used spatial folding for locomotion. But the system was very unstable and if there is a fault in the drive it could cause a tear in the space-time continuum. A replica of the drive was only tested in a shuttle and never used for the "Voyager".  Last but not least, spatial folding appeared as a Geodesic Fold in the episode "". A geodesic fold occurs when a Verteron beam is fired at the atmosphere of a giant star at two different locations. This connects both points in space and creates a short lived passage. However, this was not usable because of deadly radiation that occurred during flight. A Ferengi ship's faked message from the Alpha Quadrant made the crew believe there was a safe passage. However, the Ferengi only wanted to get the Borg technology aboard "Voyager" and would have let the crew die. At the last moment, travel through the passage was aborted.

Fictional history.

The episode "Metamorphosis", from "The Original Series", establishes a backstory for the invention of warp drive on Earth, in which Zefram Cochrane discovered the "space warp". Cochrane is repeatedly referred to afterwards, but the exact details of the first warp trials were not shown until the second "" movie, "". The movie depicts Cochrane as having first operated a warp drive on Earth in 2063. This successful first trial led directly to first contact with the Vulcans.  It was also established that many other civilizations had warp drive before humans; "First Contact" co-writer Ronald D. Moore suggested Cochrane's drive was in some way superior to forms which existed beforehand, and was gradually adopted by the galaxy at large.

Slingshot effect.

The "slingshot effect" is first depicted in "Tomorrow Is Yesterday" (1967) as a method of time travel. The procedure involves traveling at a high warp velocity in the proximity to a star, on a precisely calculated "slingshot" path; if successful, it causes a ship to enter a time warp, leading to the past or future. The same technique is used in the episode "" (1968) for historic research. The term ""time warp"" was first used in "The Naked Time" (1966) when a previously untried cold-start intermix of matter and antimatter threw the "Enterprise" back three days in time. The term was later used in "Star TrekIV" in describing the slingshot effect. The technique was mentioned as a viable method of time travel in "The Next Generation" episode "" (1989). The equations used to calculate the time warp trajectory are extremely complicated, understood only by a select few, with even the most minuscule error resulting in catastrophe.  This "slingshot" effect has been explored in theoretical physics: it is hypothetically possible to slingshot oneself "around" the event horizon of a black hole. As a result of the black hole's extreme gravitation, time would pass at a slower rate near the event horizon, relative to the outside universe; the traveler would experience the passage of only several minutes or hours, while hundreds of years would pass in 'normal' space.

Warp core.

A primary component of the warp drive method of propulsion in the "Star Trek" universe is the "gravimetric field displacement manifold", more commonly referred to as a "warp core". It is a fictional reactor that taps the energy released in a matter-antimatter annihilation to provide the energy necessary to power a starship's warp drive, allowing faster-than-light travel. Starship warp cores generally also serve as powerplants for other primary ship systems.  When matter and antimatter come into contact, they annihilate—both matter and antimatter are converted directly and entirely into enormous quantities of energy, in the form of subnuclear particles and electromagnetic radiation (specifically, mesons and gamma rays). In the "Star Trek" universe, fictional "dilithium crystals" are used to regulate this reaction. These crystals are described as being non-reactive to anti-matter when bombarded with high levels of radiation.  Usually, the reactants are deuterium, which is an isotope of hydrogen, and antideuterium (its antimatter counterpart). In "The Original Series" and in-universe chronologically subsequent series, the warp core reaction chamber is often referred to as the "dilithium intermix chamber" or the "matter/antimatter reaction chamber", depending upon the ship's intermix type. The reaction chamber is surrounded by powerful magnetic fields to contain the anti-matter. If the containment fields ever fail, the subsequent interaction of the antimatter fuel with the container walls would result in a catastrophic release of energy, with the resultant explosion capable of utterly destroying the ship. Such "warp core breaches" are used as plot devices in many "Star Trek" episodes. An intentional warp core breach can also be deliberately created, as one of the methods by which a starship can be made to self-destruct.  The mechanism that provides a starship's propulsive force is the "warp nacelle", a cylindrical pod (or pods) offset from the hull. Nacelles generate the actual "warp bubble" outside the ship; destruction of a nacelle will cripple the ship and possibly cause a warp core breach.

Real-world theories and science.

In 1994, physicist Miguel Alcubierre formulated a theoretical solution, called the Alcubierre drive, for faster-than-light travel which models the warp drive concept. Calculations found that such a model would require prohibitive amounts of negative energy or mass.  In 2012, NASA researcher Harold White hypothesized that by changing the shape of the warp drive, much less negative mass and energy could be used, though the energy required ranges from the mass of Voyager 1 to the mass of the observable universe, or many orders of magnitude greater than anything currently possible by modern technology. NASA engineers have begun preliminary research into such technology.  In 2018, the U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency made public a 2010 report that surveyed multiple different approaches to faster-than-light travel. Caltech professor Sean Carroll, who reviewed the report, explained that, while the theories were legitimate, they did not represent "something that's going to connect with engineering anytime soon, probably anytime ever."

A warp drive is a theoretical superluminal spacecraft propulsion system in many science fiction works, most notably "Star Trek" and much of Isaac Asimov's work. A spacecraft equipped with a warp drive may travel at speeds greater than that of light by many orders of magnitude. In contrast to some other fictitious faster-than-light technologies such as a jump drive, the warp drive does not permit instantaneous travel between two points, but rather involves a measurable passage of time which is pertinent to the concept. In contrast to hyperspace, spacecraft at warp velocity would continue to interact with objects in "normal space." The general concept of "warp drive" was introduced by John W. Campbell in his 1931 novel "Islands of Space".

Warp pohon (anglicky "warp drive") je fiktivní technologie vesmírných lodí v univerzu "Star Trek". Byl vyvinut pro cestování nadsvětelnou rychlostí a je tedy nejdůležitějším vynálezem každé vesmírné civilizace. Proto se vesmírné civilizace dělí na předwarpové a warpové. Warp pohon používá subprostorový transport (stejně jako transwarp pohon), kde je integrita lodi držena gravimetrickým polem.


Collection.

The collection is principally based on the personal art collection of Peggy Guggenheim, a former wife of artist Max Ernst and a niece of the mining magnate, Solomon R. Guggenheim. She collected the artworks mostly between 1938 and 1946, buying works in Europe "in dizzying succession" as World War II began, and later in America, where she discovered the talent of Jackson Pollock, among others. The museum "houses an impressive selection of modern art. Its picturesque setting and well-respected collection attract some 400,000 visitors per year", making it "the most-visited site in Venice after the Doge's Palace". Works on display include those of prominent Italian futurists and American modernists. Pieces in the collection embrace Cubism, Surrealism and abstract expressionism. During Peggy Guggenheim's 30-year residence in Venice, her collection was seen at her home in the Palazzo Venier dei Leoni and at special exhibitions in Amsterdam (1950), Zürich (1951), London (1964), Stockholm (1966), Copenhagen (1966), New York (1969) and Paris (1974).  Among the artists represented in the collection are, from Italy, De Chirico ("The Red Tower, The Nostalgia of the Poet") and Severini ("Sea Dancer"); from France, Braque ("The Clarinet"), Metzinger ("Au Vélodrome"), Gleizes ("Woman with Animals"), Duchamp ("Sad Young Man on a Train"), Léger ("Study of a Nude" and "Men in the City" ) Picabia ("Very Rare Picture on Earth"); from Spain, Dalí ("Birth of Liquid Desires"), Miró ("Seated Woman II") and Picasso ("The Poet, On the Beach"); from other European countries, Brâncuși (including a sculpture from the "Bird in Space" series), Max Ernst ("The Kiss, Attirement of the Bride"), Giacometti ("Woman with Her Throat Cut, Woman Walking"), Gorky ("Untitled"), Kandinsky ("Landscape with Red Spots, No. 2, White Cross"), Klee ("Magic Garden"), Magritte ("Empire of Light") and Mondrian ("Composition No. 1 with Grey and Red 1938, Composition with Red 1939"); and from the US, Calder ("Arc of Petals") and Pollock ("The Moon Woman, Alchemy"). In one room, the museum also exhibits a few paintings by Peggy's daughter Pegeen Vail Guggenheim.  In addition to the permanent collection, the museum houses 26 works on long-term loan from the Gianni Mattioli Collection, including images of Italian futurism by artists including Boccioni ("Materia", "Dynamism of a Cyclist"), Carrà ("Interventionist Demonstration"), Russolo ("The Solidity of Fog") and Severini ("Blue Dancer"), as well as works by Balla, Depero, Rosai, Sironi and Soffici. In 2012, the museum received 83 works from the Rudolph and Hannelore Schulhof Collection, which has its own gallery within in the building.

Building and Venice Biennale.

The collection is housed in the Palazzo Venier dei Leoni, which Peggy Guggenheim purchased in 1949. Although sometimes mistaken for a modern building, it is an 18th-century palace designed by the Venetian architect Lorenzo Boschetti. The building was unfinished, and has an unusually low elevation on the Grand Canal. The museum's website describes it thus:  The palazzo was Peggy Guggenheim's home for thirty years. In 1951, the palazzo, its garden, now called the Nasher Sculpture Garden, and her art collection were opened to the public from April to October for viewing. Her collection at the palazzo remained open during the summers until her death in Camposampiero, northern Italy, in 1979; she had donated the palazzo and the 300-piece collection to the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation in 1976. The foundation, then under the direction of Peter Lawson-Johnston, took control of the palazzo and the collection in 1979 and re-opened the collection there in April 1980 as the Peggy Guggenheim Collection.  After the Foundation took control of the building in 1979, it took steps to expand gallery space; by 1985, "all of the rooms on the main floor had been converted into galleries... the white Istrian stone facade and the unique canal terrace had been restored" and a protruding arcade wing, called the barchessa, had been rebuilt by architect Giorgio Bellavitis. Since 1985, the museum has been open year-round. In 1993, apartments adjacent to the museum were converted to a garden annex, a shop and more galleries. In 1995, the Nasher Sculpture Garden was completed, additional exhibition rooms were added, and a café was opened. A few years later, in 1999 and in 2000, the two neighboring properties were acquired. In 2003, a new entrance and booking office opened to cope with the increasing number of visitors, which reached 350,000 in 2007. Since 1993, the museum has doubled in size, from 2,000 to 4,000 square meters.  Since 1985, the United States has selected the foundation to operate the U.S. Pavilion of the Venice Biennale, an exhibition held every other summer. In 1986, the foundation purchased the Palladian-style pavilion, built in 1930.

Management and attendance.

Philip Rylands led the museum for 37 years after Peggy Guggenheim's death, until 2017. He was appointed the first Director of the collection in 2000, and in 2017 he became Director Emeritus. In 2017, Peggy Guggenheim's granddaughter, Karole P.B. Vail, succeeded Rylands after having been a curator at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York since 1997.  As of 2012, the collection was the most visited art gallery in Venice and the 11th most visited in Italy.

Lawsuits.

Since 1992, Peggy Guggenheim's grandson, Sandro Rumney, together with his children and some cousins, have raised several disputes with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation. The disputes concern, in part, the difference in language between Guggenheim's unconditional 1976 deed of gift to the foundation, a 1969 letter, and a 1972 version of her will. The courts have found the deed binding. In 1992, Rumney and two other grandsons, sued the foundation in Paris claiming, among other things, that the modernization of the collection did not comply with the letter and spirit of her wishes. In 1994, the court dismissed the claims and ordered the grandsons to pay the foundation court costs.  Following the gift of approximately 80 works to the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation by Hannelore and Rudolph Schulhof (a former trustee of the foundation) in 2012, some works collected by Guggenheim were removed from the Palazzo to make room for the display of the new works. The Schulhofs' names were inscribed alongside Guggenheim's at both entrances of the museum. Their son, Michael P. Schulhof, has been a trustee of the Guggenheim foundation since 2009. In 2014, several French descendants of Peggy Guggenheim, led by Rumney, sued the foundation for violating her will and agreements with the foundation, which they said require that her collection "remain intact and on display". They also claimed that the resting place of her ashes in the gardens of the Palazzo has been desecrated by the display of sculptures nearby, among other things. The lawsuit requested that the founder's bequest be revoked or that the collections, gravesite and signage be restored. Other descendants of Peggy Guggenheim supported the foundation's position. In 2014, the court dismissed the claims and awarded the foundation legal fees. The court noted that the descendants had attended some of the parties held in the gardens by the foundation. In 2015, the Paris Court of Appeal dismissed the lawsuit and awarded the foundation additional legal fees. Rumney stated his intention to continue to appeal.

The Peggy Guggenheim Collection is a modern art museum on the Grand Canal in the Dorsoduro "sestiere" of Venice, Italy. It is one of the most visited attractions in Venice. The collection is housed in the Palazzo Venier dei Leoni, an 18th-century palace, which was the home of the American heiress Peggy Guggenheim for three decades. She began displaying her private collection of modern artworks to the public seasonally in 1951. After her death in 1979, it passed to the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, which opened the collection year-round from 1980.

Sbírka Peggy Guggenheimové () je malé muzeum podél Canal Grande v Benátkách. Je to jedno z několika muzeí nadace Solomona R. Guggenheima.


Early life.

Pelham, Newcastle's younger brother, was a younger son of Thomas Pelham, 1st Baron Pelham and his wife, the former Grace Pelham, Baroness Pelham of Laughton, the daughter of Gilbert Holles, 3rd Earl of Clare and Grace Pierrepont. He was educated at Westminster School, and matriculated at King's College, Cambridge at Easter 1709, then migrated to Hart Hall, Oxford (the present-day Hertford College), matriculating on 6 September 1710.  As a volunteer he served in Dormer's regiment at the Battle of Preston in 1715 and spent some time on the Continent. He was returned as Member of Parliament for Seaford in Sussex by his brother, the Duke of Newcastle, at a by-election on 28 February 1717 and represented it until 1722.

Career.

Government.

Through strong family influence, and the recommendation of Robert Walpole, he was chosen in 1721 as Lord of the Treasury. At the 1722 general election he was returned as MP for Sussex county. In 1724 he entered the ministry as Secretary at War, but this office he exchanged in 1730 for the more lucrative one of Paymaster of the Forces. He made himself conspicuous by his support of Walpole on the question of the excise. He, Newcastle, and the Prime Minister would often meet at Houghton Hall in Norfolk, where they would draw up much of the country's policy. These meetings became known as the Norfolk Congress. With Walpole, he served as a founding governor of the popular charity the Foundling Hospital when it opened its doors in 1739. Like his brother, the Duke of Newcastle, Pelham was an active freemason of the Premier Grand Lodge of England, active alongside John Theophilus Desaguliers.  In 1742 a union of parties resulted in the formation of an administration in which Pelham became Prime Minister the following year, succeeding the Earl of Wilmington after his death.

Prime minister.

The first year of Pelham's premiership is regarded as a continuation of the Carteret ministry, with Lord Carteret continuing as Secretary of State for the Northern Department with responsibility for foreign affairs; Carteret was close to King George II. Pelham served as First Lord of the Treasury, Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons.  In November 1744, the Pelhams forced Lord Carteret out of the ministry: Pelham bluntly told the king that either Carteret step down, or the Pelhamites would, leaving His Majesty without a government. Thereafter Pelham shared power with his brother, the Duke of Newcastle upon Tyne. Pelham was regarded as the leading figure, but rank and influence made his brother very powerful in the Cabinet. In spite of a genuine attachment, there were occasional disputes between them, which sometimes led to further difficulties.

The Broad Bottomed Administration.

Being strongly in favour of peace, Pelham carried on the War of the Austrian Succession with languor and indifferent success, but the country, wearied of the interminable struggle, was disposed to acquiesce in his foreign policy almost without a murmur. King George II, thwarted in his own favourite schemes, made overtures in February 1746 to Lord Bath, but his purpose was upset by the resignation of the two Pelhams (Henry and Newcastle), who, after a two-day hiatus in which Bath and Carteret (now earl Granville) proved unable to form a ministry, resumed office at the king's request. One of their terms was to insist that the king should have 'total confidence' in a ministry; rather than partial grudging acceptance of the Whigs.  The Augustan era was essential to the development of prime ministerial power as being entirely dependent on a Commons majority, rather than royal prerogative interventions. While the king struggled with his headstrong son, Frederick, Prince of Wales, his son's uncertain constitutional position was high in the Leicester House party set. In 1748 Frederick, a Tory, planned to bring down the Pelhamites at a general election due the following year. The Prime Minister called an early poll in 1748 by asking the king to dissolve parliament in 1747. The prince and his father, the king grew to hate one another with unspeakable animosity. But one consequence was a closer relationship between Henry Pelham and the Sovereign. When he finally died in 1754, the King remarked "Now I shall have no more peace." The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle had been signed in 1748 leading inexorably to a number of cost-cutting budgetary measures.  The Army and Navy spending shrunk from £12 m to £7 million per annum. Pelham promised to reduce interest rates through introduction of a balancing act measure from 4% to 3% by 1757. He also assisted a fund to reduce the National Debt. In 1749, the Consolidation Act was passed, reorganising the Royal Navy. On 20 March 1751, the British calendar was reorganised as well (New Year's Day became 1 January); Britain would adopt the Gregorian calendar one year later. In 1752 he was able to reduce the land tax from 4 s. to 2 s in the pound (an effective reduction from 20% to 10%).  One social consequence of the press gangs going to sea in an expansive navy fleet was to the growth of industrial processes necessary for warfare. In the ports the distillation of gin demonstrated clearly by engravers such as Hogarth in "Gin Lane" the depravity issuing forth from the demon drink. Preachers "fire and brimstone" in favour of temperance, and drunken soldiers and sailors persuaded the administration to introduce the Gin Acts. The 1751 act was the last of four that had largely failed to prevent serious social unrest, including riots in London, reduced the number licensed dealers and sellers of liquor. By restricting supply the consumption dropped and price fell helping to manage the problem.  Two of Pelham's final acts were the Jew Bill of 1753, which allowed Jews to become naturalized by application to Parliament, and the Marriage Act of 1753, which enumerated the minimum age of consent for marriage. Upon his death, his brother (the aforementioned Duke of Newcastle upon Tyne) took over government.

Achievements.

His very defects were among the chief elements of Pelham's success, for one with a strong personality, moderate amount self-respect, or haughty conceptions of statesmanship could not have restrained the discordant elements of the cabinet for any length of time the way he did. Moreover, he possessed tact and a thorough acquaintance with the forms of the House of Commons. Whatever quarrels or insubordination might have existed within the cabinet, they never broke out into open revolt. His foreign policy followed Walpole's model of emphasizing peace and ending wars. His financial policy was a major success once peace had been signed in 1748 to end the War of the Austrian Succession. He demobilized the armed forces, and reduced government spending from £12 million to £7 million. He refinanced the national debt dropping the interest from 4% to 3%. In 1752 he reduced the land tax from four shillings to two shillings in the pound; that is, from 20% to 10%. According to historians Stephen Brumwell and W.A. Speck, his:

Personal life.

Pelham had married Lady Catherine Manners, daughter of the John Manners, 2nd Duke of Rutland, in 1726. They had four daughters:  When Pelham was elevated to Prime Minister, he began construction of a house located at 22 Arlington Street in St. James's, a district of the City of Westminster in central London. He hired the architect William Kent to build the structure in two phases. Kent died in 1748 and the work was completed by Stephen Wright in 1754.  Pelham was buried in All Saints' Church, Laughton, East Sussex.  Pelham's personal papers were inherited by his son-in-law and now form part of the Newcastle (Clumber) Collection held at the department of Manuscripts and Special Collections, The University of Nottingham. Pelham was the first British Prime Minister who never acceded to the peerage in his lifetime.

Pelham in popular culture.

Pelham was played by Roger Allam in the film "".

Henry Pelham (25 September 1694 – 6 March 1754) was a British Whig statesman, who served as Prime Minister of Great Britain from 27 August 1743 until his death. He was the younger brother of Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, who served in Pelham's government and succeeded him as Prime Minister. Pelham is generally considered to have been Britain's third Prime Minister after Sir Robert Walpole and the Earl of Wilmington.

Henry Pelham (25. září 1694 – 6. březen 1754) byl britský státník a premiér od 27. srpna 1743 až do své smrti. Byl mladším bratrem Thomase Pelhhama-Hollese, který nastoupil do funkce předsedy britské vlády po něm.


Geography.

Monte Argentario is a promontory stretching towards the Tyrrhenian Sea in correspondence of the two southernmost islands of the Tuscan Archipelago, Giglio and Giannutri. The promontory was an island in the past, but the sea currents and the Albegna river joined it with the mainland through two so-called tomboli (stretches of land), the Tombolo of Giannella and the Tombolo of the Feniglia.  The highest peak of Monte Argentario is the Punta Telegrafo at above sea level. The landscape and the coast are mainly rocky, with numerous harbors, usually with rock beaches. The municipal seat is in the northern settlement, Porto Santo Stefano. The other main settlement in the township is Porto Ercole.  Argentarola cave lies close to Argentario promontory. The high quality speleothems that have been collected from this cave have allowed scientists to study the 215,000 year history of sea-level oscillations in this region.

History.

The promontory, probably already inhabited by the Etruscans, was a personal property of the Domitii Ahenobarbi family, who obtained it in return for the money they lent to the Roman Republic in the Punic Wars. The current name probably finds its origin here, since "Argentarii" was the name of money lenders in ancient Rome.  Later an imperial possession, it was ceded to the church by Constantine the Great in the 4th century AD. In the Middle Ages, due to the reduced traffic passing on the nearby Via Aurelia, the area was sparsely settled. In the heart of the Middle Ages, the promontory became a possession of the Monastery of San Paolo in Rome. It represented in the so-called Carolingian Gate at the Monastery of St. Anastius outside Rome. Following the history of Orbetello, the promontory was a possession of the Aldobrandeschi, the Orsini, King Ladislaus of Naples and Siena, until Spain acquired it in the late 16th century. The Spaniards heavily fortified the two ports, as the main stronghold of the State of Presidi. In 1815, after Napoleon's defeat, the Argentario was handed over to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, to which it belonged until 1860, when it became part of the newly united Kingdom of Italy.  The painter Michelangelo Merisi, known as Caravaggio, died of a fever at Porto Ercole in 1610.  During World War II, the settlements of Argentario were heavily bombed, with numerous losses. The port of Santo Stefano was destroyed, and was rebuilt only in the 1950s. The railway that connected Orbetello to the mainland was never rebuilt.

Monte Argentario is a "comune" (municipality) and a peninsula belonging to the Province of Grosseto in the Italian region Tuscany, located about south of Florence and about south of Grosseto. The peninsula is connected with the mainland by three spits of land which form two lagoons, the "Laguna di Ponente" on the west side and the "Laguna di Levante" on the east side of the middle dam. The two main villages on Monte Argentario are Porto Santo Stefano, chief town, facing north, and Porto Ercole facing south.

Monte Argentario je italská obec a poloostrov v Toskánsku. Nachází se asi 150 km jižně od Florencie a asi 35 km jižně od Grosseta. S pevninou je poloostrov spojen třemi hrázemi, které jsou vytvářeny dvěma lagunami: Laguna di Ponente a Laguna di Levante. Dvě nejvýznamnější střediska poloostrova jsou přístavy Porto Ercole ležící na jihu a Porto Santo Stefano na severu. Tato luxusní letoviska jsou v létě vyhledávaná turisty. Dalším turistickým lákadlem je silnice Strada Panoramica nabízející krásné výhledy na skalní zátoky, útesy a zálivy.