Etymology.

"Euphemism" comes from the Greek word () which refers to the use of 'words of good omen'; it is a compound of (), meaning 'good, well', and (), meaning 'prophetic speech; rumour, talk'. "Eupheme" is a reference to the female Greek spirit of words of praise and positivity, etc. The term "euphemism" itself was used as a euphemism by the ancient Greeks; with the meaning "to keep a holy silence" (speaking well by not speaking at all).

Purpose.

Avoidance.

Reasons for using euphemisms vary by context and intent. Commonly, euphemisms are used to avoid directly addressing subjects that might be deemed negative or embarrassing, e.g. death, sex, excretory bodily functions. They may be created for innocent, well-intentioned purposes or nefariously and cynically, intentionally to deceive and confuse.

Mitigation.

Euphemisms are also used to mitigate, soften or downplay the gravity of large-scale injustices, war crimes, or other events that warrant a pattern of avoidance in official statements or documents. For instance, one reason for the comparative scarcity of written evidence documenting the exterminations at Auschwitz, relative to their sheer number, is "directives for the extermination process obscured in bureaucratic euphemisms".  Euphemisms are sometimes used to lessen the opposition to a political move. For example, according to linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu used the neutral Hebrew lexical item פעימות "peimót" ("beatings (of the heart)"), rather than נסיגה "nesigá" ("withdrawal"), to refer to the stages in the Israeli withdrawal from the West Bank (see Wye River Memorandum), in order to lessen the opposition of right-wing Israelis to such a move. The lexical item פעימות "peimót", which literally means "beatings (of the heart)" is thus a euphemism for "withdrawal".

Rhetoric.

Euphemism may be used as a rhetorical strategy, in which case its goal is to change the valence of a description.

Identification problematic.

The act of labeling a term as a euphemism can in itself be controversial, as in the following two examples:  There is some disagreement over whether certain terms are or are not euphemisms. For example, sometimes the phrase "visually impaired" is labeled as a politically correct euphemism for "blind". However, "visual impairment" can be a broader term, including, for example, people who have partial sight in one eye, those with uncorrectable mild to moderate poor vision, or even those who wear glasses, groups that would be excluded by the word "blind" or even "partially blind".  The coining and usage of euphemisms reveals what the coiner or speaker/writer considers, perhaps only sub-consciously, to be shameful, and may thus be an indication of prejudices or opinions held.

Formation methods.

Phonetic modification.

Phonetic euphemism is used to replace profanities, diminishing their intensity. Modifications include:

Pronunciation.

To alter the pronunciation or spelling of a taboo word (such as a swear word) to form a euphemism is known as "taboo deformation", or a minced oath. In American English, words that are unacceptable on television, such as "fuck", may be represented by deformations such as "freak", even in children's cartoons. Feck is a minced oath originating in Hiberno-English and popularised outside of Ireland by the British sitcom "Father Ted". Some examples of Cockney rhyming slang may serve the same purpose: to call a person a "berk" sounds less offensive than to call a person a "cunt", though "berk" is short for Berkeley Hunt, which rhymes with "cunt".

Understatement.

Euphemisms formed from understatements include: "asleep" for dead and "drinking" for consuming alcohol. "Tired and emotional" is a notorious euphemism for "drunk", used by British parliamentarians of one another.

Substitution.

Pleasant, positive, worthy, neutral or non-descript terms are substituted for explicit or unpleasant ones, with many substituted terms deliberately coined by socio-political progressive movements, cynically by planned marketing, public relations or advertising initiatives, including:  Over time it becomes socially unacceptable to use the former word, as one is effectively down-grading the matter concerned to its former lower status, and the euphemism becomes dominant, due to a wish not to offend.

Slang.

The use of a term with a softer connotation, though it shares the same meaning. For instance, "screwed up" is a euphemism for "fucked up"; "hook-up" and "laid" are euphemisms for sexual intercourse.

Foreign words.

Expressions or words from a foreign language may be imported for use as a replacement for an offensive word. For example, the French word "enceinte" was sometimes used instead of the English word "pregnant"; "abattoir" for "slaughter-house", although in French the word retains its explicit violent meaning "a place for beating down", conveniently lost on non-French speakers. "Entrepreneur" for "business-man", adds glamour; "douche" (French: shower) for vaginal irrigation device; "bidet" (French: little pony) for "vessel for intimate ablutions". Ironically, whilst in English physical "handicap" is almost always substituted for a modern euphemism, in French the English word "handicap" is used as a euphemism for their problematic words "infirmité" or "invalidité".

Periphrasis/circumlocution.

Periphrasis, or circumlocution, is one of the most common: to "speak around" a given word, implying it without saying it. Over time, circumlocutions become recognized as established euphemisms for particular words or ideas.

Re-naming.

Places which have become associated with unpleasant events may be renamed, for example the English nuclear energy plant Windscale, after a damaging radiation leak was renamed Sellafield.

Doublespeak.

Bureaucracies frequently spawn euphemisms intentionally, as doublespeak expressions. For example, in the past, the US military used the term "sunshine units" for contamination by radioactive isotopes. An effective death sentence in the Soviet Union during the Great Purge often used the clause "imprisonment without right to correspondence": the person sentenced would be shot soon after conviction. As early as 1939, Nazi official Reinhard Heydrich used the term "Sonderbehandlung" ("special treatment") to mean summary execution (most likely by hanging) of persons viewed as "disciplinary problems" by the Nazis even before commencing the systematic extermination of the Jews. Heinrich Himmler, aware that the word had come to be known to mean murder, replaced that euphemism with one in which Jews would be "guided" (to their deaths) through the slave-labor and extermination camps after having been "evacuated" to their doom. Such was part of the formulation of "Endlösung der Judenfrage" (the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question"), which became infamous to the entire world during the Nuremberg Trials.

Lifespan.

Euphemisms frequently over time themselves become taboo words, through the linguistic process known as semantic change (specifically pejoration) described by W. V. O. Quine, and more recently dubbed the "euphemism treadmill" by Harvard professor Steven Pinker. For instance, "toilet" is an 18th-century euphemism, replacing the older euphemism "house-of-office", which in turn replaced the even older euphemisms "privy-house" and "bog-house". The act of human defecation is possibly the most needy candidate for the euphemism in all eras. In the 20th century, where the old euphemisms "lavatory" (a place where one washes) or "toilet" (a place where one dresses) had grown from long usage (e.g. in the United States) too synonymous with the crude act they sought to deflect, they were sometimes replaced with "bathroom" (a place where one bathes) "washroom" (a place where one washes) or "restroom" (a place where one rests) or even by the extreme form "powder-room" (a place where one applies facial cosmetics). The form "water closet", which in turn became euphemised to "W.C.", is a less deflective form.  Another example in American English is the replacement of colored with Negro (euphemism by foreign language), then the "honest" non-euphemistic form "Black" making a brief appearance (due to 1960s political forces attempting to normalise black skin) before being suppressed again by the present euphemistic "African American". Venereal disease, which associated shameful bacterial infection with a seemingly worthy ailment emanating from Venus the goddess of love, soon lost its deflective force in the post-classical education era, as "VD", which has now been replaced by the three-letter acronym "STI".  The word "shit" appears to have originally been a euphemism for defecation in Pre-Germanic, as the Proto-Indo-European root *"", from which it was derived, meant 'to cut off'.

Literal interpretation.

Euphemisms are at risk of being misunderstood and used literally by young children who are acquiring language, and by older people who are learning a foreign language. An example is the "pregnant fireman" type of children's solecism, where a child might hear someone define pregnancy euphemistically as "carrying a child," then mistakenly extend that meaning and refer to a fireman literally carrying a child as pregnant.

In popular culture.

Doublespeak is a term sometimes used for deliberate euphemistic misuse of words to distort or reverse their meaning, as in a "Ministry of Peace" which wages war, and a "Ministry of Love" which imprisons and tortures. It is a portmanteau of the terms "Newspeak" and "doublethink", which originate from George Orwell's novel "Nineteen Eighty-Four".  The word "euphemism" itself can be used as a euphemism. In the animated TV special "Halloween Is Grinch Night" (see Dr. Seuss), a child asks to go to the "euphemism", where "euphemism" is being used as a euphemism for "outhouse". This euphemistic use of "euphemism" also occurred in the play "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?" where a character requests, "Martha, will you show her where we keep the, uh, euphemism?"  The song Makin' Whoopee from the 1928 musical Whoopee! introduced us to a new euphemism for sexual intercourse. The phrase "make whoopee" was often used on the popular game show The Newlywed Game starting in the late 1960s, whenever the host asked a question about sexual relations. This successfully avoided the network censors.  In Wes Anderson's film "Fantastic Mr. Fox", the replacement of swear words by the word "cuss" became a humorous motif throughout the film.  In Tom Hanks's web series "Electric City", the use of profanity has been censored by the word "expletive". "[Expletive deleted]" entered public discourse after its notorious use in censoring transcripts of the Watergate tapes.  In Isaac Asimov's "Foundation" series, the curses of the scientist Ebling Mis have all been replaced with the word "unprintable". In fact, there is only one case of his curses being referred to as such, leading some readers to mistakenly assume that the euphemism is Ebling's, rather than Asimov's. The same word has also been used in his short story "Flies".  George Carlin has stated in audio books and his stand-up shows that euphemisms soften everyday language and take the life out of it.  In "Battlestar Galactica" (2004), use of the words "frak" and "frakking" was directly substituted for the English slang words "fuck" and "fucking", confounding the censors. Other science fiction series have similarly used word substitution to avoid censorship, such as "frell" instead of "fuck" in "Farscape", "gorram" and "rutting" instead of "goddamn" and "fucking" in "Firefly", and "frag" instead of "fuck" in "Babylon 5". "The Good Place" takes this word substitution to its logical extreme, replacing all profanities with similar-sounding English words under the premise that such words may not be spoken in a perfect afterlife in order to avoid making anyone uncomfortable; "son of a bitch" becomes "son of a bench", "bullshit" becomes "bullshirt", and "fuck" becomes "fork".  In "The Sims" series, the word WooHoo is used as a euphemistic slang for various activities of sexual intercourse in the series.

A euphemism () is an innocuous word or expression used in place of one that may be found offensive or suggest something unpleasant. Some euphemisms are intended to amuse, while others use bland, inoffensive terms for concepts that the user wishes to downplay. Euphemisms may be used to mask profanity or refer to taboo topics such as disability, sex, excretion, or death in a polite way.

Eufemismus (řidčeji také eufemie, z řec. "eu - dobře“ a "fēmē - výrok, řeč“) neboli meliorativum je pojmenování, které zmírňuje, zlehčuje, zjemňuje či přikrašluje špatné nebo nepříjemné skutečnosti či zdůrazňuje jejich pozitivní stránku, případně nahrazuje vulgarizmus. Opakem eufemismu je pejorativum neboli dysfemismus.


History.

Together with the Canadian Confederation, the creation of the Canadian Pacific Railway was a task originally undertaken as the National Dream by the Conservative government of Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald (1st Canadian Ministry). He was helped by Sir Alexander Tilloch Galt, who was the owner of the North Western Coal and Navigation Company. British Columbia, a four-month sea voyage away from the East Coast, had insisted upon a land transport link to the East as a condition for joining Confederation (initially requesting a wagon road). The government however proposed to build a railway linking the Pacific province to the Eastern provinces within 10 years of 20 July 1871. Macdonald saw it as essential to the creation of a unified Canadian nation that would stretch across the continent. Moreover, manufacturing interests in Quebec and Ontario wanted access to raw materials and markets in Western Canada. The first obstacle to its construction was political. The logical route went through the American Midwest and the city of Chicago, Illinois (via some Milwaukee Road and Soo Line Railroad trackage that would later be acquired by CP in the late 20th century). In addition to this was the difficulty of building a railway through the Canadian Rockies; an entirely Canadian route would require crossing of rugged terrain across the barren Canadian Shield and muskeg of Northern Ontario. To ensure this routing, the government offered huge incentives including vast grants of land in the West.  In 1873, Sir John A. Macdonald and other high-ranking politicians, bribed in the Pacific Scandal, granted federal contracts to Hugh Allan's Canada Pacific Railway Company (which was unrelated to the current company) rather than to David Lewis Macpherson's Inter-Ocean Railway Company which was thought to have connections to the American Northern Pacific Railway Company. Because of this scandal, the Conservative Party was removed from office in 1873. The new Liberal prime minister, Alexander Mackenzie, ordered construction of segments of the railway as a public enterprise under the supervision of the Department of Public Works led by Sandford Fleming. Surveying was carried out during the first years of a number of alternative routes in this virgin territory followed by construction of a telegraph along the lines that had been agreed upon. The Thunder Bay section linking Lake Superior to Winnipeg was commenced in 1875. By 1880, around was nearly complete, mainly across the troublesome Canadian Shield terrain, with trains running on only of track.  With Macdonald's return to power on 16 October 1878, a more aggressive construction policy was adopted. Macdonald confirmed that Port Moody would be the terminus of the transcontinental railway, and announced that the railway would follow the Fraser and Thompson rivers between Port Moody and Kamloops. In 1879, the federal government floated bonds in London and called for tenders to construct the section of the railway from Yale, British Columbia, to Savona's Ferry, on Kamloops Lake. The contract was awarded to Andrew Onderdonk, whose men started work on 15 May 1880. After the completion of that section, Onderdonk received contracts to build between Yale and Port Moody, and between Savona's Ferry and Eagle Pass.  On 21 October 1880, a new syndicate, unrelated to Hugh Allan's, signed a contract with the Macdonald government and Fleming was dismissed. They agreed to build the railway in exchange for $25 million (approximately $625 million in modern Canadian dollars) in credit from the Canadian government and a grant of of land. The government transferred to the new company those sections of the railway it had constructed under government ownership, on which it had already spent at least $25 million. But its estimates of the cost of the Rocky Mountain section alone was over $60 million. The government also defrayed surveying costs and exempted the railway from property taxes for 20 years. The Montreal-based syndicate officially comprised five men: George Stephen, James J. Hill, Duncan McIntyre, Richard B. Angus and John Stewart Kennedy. Donald A. Smith and Norman Kittson were unofficial silent partners with a significant financial interest. On 15 February 1881, legislation confirming the contract received royal assent, and the Canadian Pacific Railway Company was formally incorporated the next day. Critics claimed that the government gave too large a subsidy for the proposed project but this was to incorporate uncertainties of risk and irreversibility of insurance. The large subsidy also needed to compensate the CPR for not constructing the line in the future, but rather right away even though demand would not cover operational costs.

Freight trains.

Over half of CP's freight traffic is in grain (24% of 2016 freight revenue), intermodal freight (22%), and coal (10%) and the vast majority of its profits are made in western Canada. A major shift in trade from the Atlantic to the Pacific has caused serious drops in CPR's wheat shipments through Thunder Bay. It also ships chemicals and plastics (12% of 2016 revenue), automotive parts and assembled automobiles (6%), potash (6%), sulphur and other fertilizers (5%), forest products (5%), and various other products (11%). The busiest part of its railway network is along its main line between Calgary and Vancouver. Since 1970, coal has become a major commodity hauled by CPR. Coal is shipped in unit trains from coal mines in the mountains, most notably Sparwood, British Columbia, to terminals at Roberts Bank and North Vancouver, from where it is then shipped to Japan. CP hauls millions of tonnes of coal to the west coast each year.  Grain is hauled by the CPR from the prairies to ports at Thunder Bay (the former cities of Fort William and Port Arthur), Quebec City

Passenger trains.

The train was the primary mode of long-distance transport in Canada until the 1960s. Among the many types of people who rode CPR trains were new immigrants heading for the prairies, military troops (especially during the two world wars) and upper class tourists. It also custom-built many of its passenger cars at its CPR Angus Shops to be able to meet the demands of the upper class. The CPR also had a line of Great Lakes ships integrated into its transcontinental service. From 1885 until 1912, these ships linked Owen Sound on Georgian Bay to Fort William. Following a major fire in December 1911 that destroyed the grain elevator, operations were relocated to a new, larger port created by the CPR at Port McNicoll opening in May 1912. Five ships allowed daily service, and included the S.S. "Assiniboia" and S.S. "Keewatin" built in 1908 which remained in use until the end of service. Travellers went by train from Toronto to that Georgian Bay port, then travelled by ship to link with another train at the Lakehead. After World War II, the trains and ships carried automobiles as well as passengers. This service featured what was to become the last boat train in North America. The "Steam Boat" was a fast, direct connecting train between Toronto and Port McNicoll. The passenger service was discontinued at the end of season in 1965 with one ship, the "Keewatin", carrying on in freight service for two more years. It later became a marine museum at Douglas, Michigan, in the United States, before returning to its original homeport of Port McNicoll, Canada in 2013.  After the Second World War, passenger traffic declined as automobiles and airplanes became more common, but the CPR continued to innovate in an attempt to keep passenger numbers up. Beginning 9 November 1953, the CPR introduced Budd Rail Diesel Cars (RDCs) on many of its lines. Officially called "Dayliners" by the CPR, they were always referred to as "Budd Cars" by employees. Greatly reduced travel times and reduced costs resulted, which saved service on many lines for a number of years. The CPR went on to acquire the second largest fleet of RDCs totalling 52 cars. Only the Boston and Maine Railroad had more. This CPR fleet also included the rare model RDC-4 (which consisted of a mail section at one end and a baggage section at the other end with no formal passenger section). On 24 April 1955, the CPR introduced a new luxury transcontinental passenger train, "The Canadian". The train provided service between Vancouver and Toronto or Montreal (east of Sudbury; the train was in two sections). The train, which operated on an expedited schedule, was pulled by diesel locomotives, and used new, streamlined, stainless steel rolling stock.  Starting in the 1960s, however, the railway started to discontinue much of its passenger service, particularly on its branch lines. For example, passenger service ended on its line through southern British Columbia and Crowsnest Pass in January 1964, and on its Quebec Central in April 1967, and the transcontinental train "The Dominion" was dropped in January 1966. On 29 October 1978, CP Rail transferred its passenger services to Via Rail, a new federal Crown corporation that was now responsible for intercity passenger services in Canada. Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney presided over major cuts in Via Rail service on 15 January 1990. This ended service by "The Canadian" over CPR rails, and the train was rerouted on the former "Super Continental" route via Canadian National without a change of name. Where both trains had been daily prior to the 15 January 1990 cuts, the surviving "Canadian" was only a three-times-weekly operation. In October 2012, "The Canadian" was reduced to twice-weekly for the six-month off-season period, and currently operates three-times-weekly for only six months a year. In addition to inter-city passenger services, the CPR also provided commuter rail services in Montreal. CP Rail introduced Canada's first bi-level passenger cars here in 1970. On 1 October 1982, the Montreal Urban Community Transit Commission (STCUM) assumed responsibility for the commuter services previously provided by CP Rail. It continues under the Metropolitan Transportation Agency (AMT). Canadian Pacific Railway currently operates two commuter services under contract. GO Transit contracts CPR to operate six return trips between Milton and central Toronto in Ontario. In Montreal, 59 daily commuter trains run on CPR lines from Lucien-L'Allier Station to Candiac, Hudson and Blainville–Saint-Jérôme on behalf of the AMT. CP no longer operates Vancouver's West Coast Express on behalf of TransLink, a regional transit authority. Bombardier Transportation assumed control of train operations on 5 May 2014. Although CP Rail no longer owns the track nor operates the commuter trains, it handles dispatching of Metra trains on the Milwaukee District/North and Milwaukee District/West Lines in Chicago, on which the CP also provides freight service via trackage rights.

Express.

W. C. Van Horne decided from the very beginning that the CPR would retain as much revenue from its various operations as it could. This translated into keeping express, telegraph, sleeping car and other lines of business for themselves, creating separate departments or companies as necessary. This was necessary as the fledgling railway would need all the income it could get, and in addition, he saw some of these ancillary operations such as express and telegraph as being quite profitable. Others such as sleeping and dining cars were kept in order to provide better control over the quality of service being provided to passengers. Hotels were likewise crucial to the CPR's growth by attracting travellers.  Dominion Express Company was formed independently in 1873 before the CPR itself, although train service did not begin until the summer of 1882 at which time it operated over some of track from Rat Portage (Kenora) Ontario west to Winnipeg, Manitoba. It was soon absorbed into the CPR and expanded everywhere the CPR went. It was renamed Canadian Express Company on 1 September 1926, and the headquarters moved from Winnipeg, to Toronto. It was operated as a separate company with the railway charging them

Special trains.

Silk trains.

Between the 1890s and 1933, the CPR transported raw silk from Vancouver, where it had been shipped from the Orient, to silk mills in New York and New Jersey. A silk train could carry several million dollars' worth of silk, so they had their own armed guards. To avoid train robberies

Funeral trains.

Funeral trains would carry the remains of important people, such as prime ministers. As the train would pass, mourners would be at certain spots to show respect. Two of the CPR's funeral trains are particularly well-known. On 10 June 1891,

Royal trains.

The CPR ran a number of trains that transported members of the Canadian Royal Family when they have toured the country. These trains transported royalty through Canada's scenery, forests, small towns and enabled people to see and greet them. Their trains were elegantly decorated; some had amenities such as a post office and barber shop. The CPR's most notable royal train was in 1939. In 1939, the CPR and the CNR had the honour of giving King George VI and Queen Elizabeth a rail tour of Canada, from Quebec City to

Better Farming Train.

CPR provided the rolling stock for the Better Farming Train which toured rural Saskatchewan between 1914 and 1922

School cars.

Between 1927 and the early 1950s, the CPR ran a school car to reach people who lived in Northern Ontario, far from schools. A teacher would travel in a specially

"Silver Streak".

Major shooting for the 1976 film "Silver Streak", a fictional comedy tale of a murder-ridden train trip from Los Angeles to Chicago, was done on the CPR, mainly in the Alberta area with station footage at Toronto's Union Station. The train set

Holiday Train.

Starting in 1999, CP runs a Holiday Train along its main line during the months of November and December. The Holiday Train celebrates the holiday season and collects donations for community food banks and hunger issues. The Holiday Train also provides publicity for CP and a few of its customers. Each train has a box car stage for entertainers who are travelling along with the train.  The train is a freight train, but also pulls vintage passenger cars which are used as lodging/transportation for the crew and entertainers. Only entertainers and CP employees are allowed to board the train aside from a coach car that takes employees and their

Royal Canadian Pacific.

On 7 June 2000, the CPR inaugurated the Royal Canadian Pacific, a luxury excursion service that operates between the months of June and September. It operates along a route from

Steam train.

In 1998, the CPR repatriated one of its former passenger steam locomotives that had been on static display in the United States following its sale in January 1964, long after the close of the steam era. CPR Hudson 2816 was re-designated "Empress 2816" following a 30-month restoration that cost in excess of $1 million. It was subsequently returned to service to promote public relations. It

Spirit Train.

In 2008, Canadian Pacific partnered with the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games to present a "Spirit Train" tour that featured

CP Canada 150 Train.

In 2017, CP ran the CP Canada 150 Train from Port Moody to Ottawa to celebrate Canada's 150th year since Confederation. The train stopped in 13 cities along its 3-week summer tour, offering a free block party and concert

Non-railway services.

Historically, Canadian Pacific operated several non-railway businesses. In 1971, these businesses were split off into the separate company Canadian Pacific Limited, and in 2001, that company was further split into five companies. CP no longer provides any of these services.

Telegraph.

The original charter of the CPR granted in 1881 provided for the right to create an electric telegraph and telephone service including charging for it. The telephone had barely been invented but telegraph was well established as a means of communicating quickly across great distances. Being allowed to sell this service meant the railway could offset the costs of constructing and maintaining a pole line along its tracks across vast distances for its own purposes which were largely for dispatching trains. It began doing so in 1882 as the separate Telegraph Department. It would go on to provide a link between the cables under the Atlantic and Pacific oceans when they were completed. Before the CPR line, messages to the west could be sent only via the United

Radio.

On 17 January 1930, the CPR applied for licences to operate radio stations in 11 cities from coast to coast for the purpose of organising its own radio network in order to compete with the CNR Radio service. The CNR had built a radio network with the aim of promoting itself as well as entertaining its passengers during their travels. The onset of the Great Depression hurt the CPR's financial plan for a rival

Steamships.

Steamships played an important part in the history of CP from the very earliest days. During construction of the line in British Columbia even before the private CPR took over from the government contractor, ships were used to bring supplies to the construction sites. Similarly, to reach the isolated area of Superior in northern Ontario ships were used to bring in supplies to the construction work. While this work was going on there was already regular passenger service to the West. Trains operated from Toronto Owen Sound where CPR steamships connected to Fort William where trains once again operated to reach Winnipeg. Before the CPR was completed the only way to reach the West was through the United States via St. Paul and Winnipeg. This Great Lakes steam ship service continued as an alternative route for many years and was always operated by the railway. Canadian Pacific passenger service on the lakes ended in 1965.  In 1884, CPR began purchasing sailing ships as part of a railway supply service on the Great Lakes. Over time, CPR became a railway company with widely organized water transportation auxiliaries including the Great Lakes service, the trans-Pacific service, the Pacific coastal service, the British Columbia lake and river service, the trans-Atlantic service and the Bay of Fundy Ferry service. In the 20th century, the company evolved into an intercontinental railway which operated two transoceanic services which connected Canada with Europe and with Asia. The range of CPR services were aspects of an integrated plan. Once the railway was completed to British Columbia, the CPR chartered and soon bought their own passenger steamships as a link to the Orient. These sleek steamships were of the latest design and christened with "Empress" names (e. g., RMS "Empress of Britain", "Empress of Canada", "Empress of Australia", and so forth). Travel to and from the Orient and cargo, especially imported tea and silk, were an important source of

Hotels.

To promote tourism and passenger ridership the Canadian Pacific established a series of first class hotels. These hotels became landmarks famous in their own right. They include the Algonquin in St. Andrews, Château Frontenac in Quebec, Royal York in Toronto, Minaki Lodge in Minaki Ontario, Hotel Vancouver, Empress Hotel in Victoria and the Banff Springs Hotel

Airline.

Canadian Pacific Airlines, also called CP Air, operated from 1942 to 1987 and was the main competitor of Canadian government-owned

Locomotives.

Steam locomotives.

In the CPR's early years, it made extensive use of American-type 4-4-0 steam locomotives, and an example of this is the "Countess of Dufferin". Later, considerable use was also made of the 4-6-0 type for passenger and 2-8-0 type for freight. Starting in the 20th century, the CPR bought and built hundreds of Ten-Wheeler-type 4-6-0s for passenger and freight service and similar quantities of 2-8-0s and 2-10-2s for freight. 2-10-2s were also used in passenger service on mountain routes. The CPR bought hundreds of 4-6-2 Pacifics between 1906 and 1948 with later versions being true dual-purpose passenger and fast-freight locomotives. The CPR built hundreds of its own locomotives at its shops in Montreal, first at the "New Shops", as the DeLorimer shops were commonly referred to, and at the massive Angus Shops that replaced them in 1904. Some of the CPR's best-known locomotives were the 4-6-4 Hudsons. First built in 1929, they began a new era of modern locomotives with capabilities that changed how transcontinental passenger

Diesel locomotives.

In 1937, the CPR acquired its first diesel-electric locomotive, a custom-built one-of-a-kind switcher numbered 7000. This locomotive was not successful and was not repeated. Production-model diesels were imported from American Locomotive Company (Alco) starting with five model S-2 yard switchers in 1943 and followed by further orders. In 1949, operations on lines in Vermont were dieselized with Alco FA1 road locomotives (eight A and four B units), five ALCO RS-2 road switchers, three Alco S-2 switchers and three EMD E8 passenger

Corporate structure.

Canadian Pacific Railway Limited ( ) is a Canadian railway transportation company that operates the Canadian Pacific Railway. It was created in 2001 when the CPR's former parent company, Canadian Pacific Limited, spun off its railway operations. On 3 October 2001, the company's shares began to trade on

Major facilities.

CP owns a large number of large yards and repair shops across their system, which are used for many operations ranging from intermodal terminals to classification yards. Below are some examples of these.

Hump yards.

Hump yards work by using a small hill over which cars are pushed, before being released down a slope and switched automatically

The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), known as CP Rail between 1968 and 1996 and simply Canadian Pacific, is a historic Canadian Class I railway incorporated in 1881. The railway is owned by Canadian Pacific Railway Limited, which began operations as legal owner in a corporate restructuring in 2001.

Kanadská pacifická železnice (anglicky Canadian Pacific Railway, CPR), známá mezi lety 1968 až 1996 i jako "CP Rail", je kanadskou železnicí první třídy, kterou provozuje společnost "Canadian Pacific Railway Limited". Síť kolejí se táhne od Vancouveru až do Montrealu a vlaky společnosti jezdí i do velkých měst v Spojených státech, do Chicaga, Minneapolis a New Yorku. CPR má sídlo v kanadské provincii Alberta, ve městě Calgary.


History.

Ankaray.

The "Ankaray" (from, meaning "Ankara rail"), a light rail system (, which literally translates as "Light Rail", though the line does operate as more of a "light metro" line) was the first phase of the modern rapid transit network of the city. The "Ankaray" was constructed by a consortium headed by Siemens over a period of four years (1992–96). It opened on 20 August 1996. The line runs between AŞTİ ( – Ankara Intercity Bus Terminal) and Dikimevi, covering a distance of, of which is through tunnels. The line has 11 stations.

Ankara Metro.

The "Ankara Metro" has been operating since 29 December 1997, with the opening of its first full metro line, M1, traveling between Kızılay, the city center, and Batıkent. The M2 line, operating from Kızılay, the city center, to Koru, opened 12 February 2014. The M3 line, which serves almost as an extension of the M1 line, operating from Batıkent to Törekent, opened a month later on 13 March 2014. For the first few years of operations on lines M2 and M3, both of them ran separately from the M1 line; since early 2019, the three lines are operated as one continuous service (M1) between Törekent and Koru.  The M4 line, operating from Atatürk Cultural Center to Gazino, opened on 5 January 2017.  In 2019 Turisk defense firm Aselsan began traction and control upgrades on the older Bombardier cars.

Operations.

Lines.

The following table lists the five metro lines (including the Ankaray line) currently in service on the Ankara Metro:

Rolling stock.

The track width on both subway lines is 1435 mm (normal gauge).  Vehicles of the Canadian type Hawker H6 run on the M1. The trains in Ankara are a modification of the almost identical H6 trains that are used on the Toronto subway. The vehicles were manufactured by Bombardier until the early 1990s. The structure is made of riveted stainless steel and has a gray color. There is an orange stripe around the windows. There are four entrances on each side of each car. In the three-car units, the first and third cars are railcars, the middle car has no separate drive.  The underground trains used on the Ankaray line were built by the Italian wagon manufacturer AnsaldoBreda in Naples in cooperation with Siemens. Only one of the three-car units has an engine (railcar), the other two cars are not driven (sidecar). The cars are white with orange applications around the windows.  The trains for the new subway lines under construction are being built by CRRC in China.

Rolling stock.

Ankaray.

"Ankaray" vehicles on the Ankaray line are Siemens-Adtranz-Ansaldobreda, S.P.A. (AnsaldoBreda) M1, M2, and M3 trains, which have a top speed of (operational speed: ), and are equipped with regenerative braking.  The system is served by 11 trainsets. Each trainset comprises 3 sets of 2 cars paired together. Each pair of cars is long, with 60 seats, and can transport a maximum of 308 passengers; thus each trainset is approximately long and can transport 925 passengers per train. The current passenger volume capacity on the Ankaray line is 27,000 passengers per hour per direction (PPHPD).

Ankara Metro.

The original vehicles used on the M1 line are Bombardier Transportation-built modified versions of the sixth-generation H-series trains used on the Toronto subway. The Toronto trains on which they were based on were built in 1986 by the Urban Transportation Development Corporation (UTDC), a company later purchased by Bombardier. There are a total of 108 of these cars, which are usually configured as 18 six-car trainsets. The car's seats are made of rigid plastic, and are all arranged longitudinally. There are no forward- or rear-facing seats, and no seats at the front or rear of each car.  In 2012, a large order of 324 subway cars from CRRC Zhuzhou was placed to supplement the fleet on line M1 and for use on the newer M2, M3 and M4 lines.

Future Service.

Construction of the following metro lines are under construction or planned:

The Ankara Metro () is the rapid transit system serving Ankara, the capital of Turkey. At present, Ankara's rapid transit system consists of two metro lines – the "Batıkent Metrosu (M1)"and the new "Keçiören Metrosu (M4)" line opened in 2017, along with the light rail "Ankaray" line. The Ankaray, the M1 and M4 lines, together transported 104.1 million passengers in 2014. That corresponds to a ridership of approximately 289,155 per day. In February 2019 all the lines that used to run M1, M2 and M3 were merged to create one line, M1.

Metro v Ankaře tvoří čtyři provozované podzemní linky (není-li započítáno lehké metro Ankaray). Ankarské metro bylo otevřeno v roce 1996 a za jeho prvních jedenáct let provozu se rozrostla jeho délka na 14,7 km. Jeho jediná linka spojuje centrum města s čtvrtí Batıkent. Není však celé v podzemí; v tunelu je vedeno pouze 6,5 km tratí, zbytek je povrchový či nadzemní, vedený na estakádě. Cestujícím může sloužit až 36 vlaků (celkem 108 vagonů) a 12 stanic.


History.

Verse narratives are as old as the "Epic of Gilgamesh", the "Iliad", and the "Odyssey", but the verse novel is a distinct modern form. Although the narrative structure is similar to that of a novella, the organisation of the story is usually in a series of short sections, often with changing perspectives. Verse novels are often told with multiple narrators, potentially providing readers with a view into the inner workings of the characters' minds. Some verse novels, following Byron's mock-heroic "Don Juan" (1818–24) employ an informal, colloquial register. "Eugene Onegin" (1831) by Alexander Pushkin is a classical example, and with "Pan Tadeusz" (1834) by Adam Mickiewicz is often taken as the seminal example of the modern genre.  The major nineteenth-century verse novels that ground the form in Anglophone letters include "The Bothie of Toper-na-fuisich" (1848) and "Amours de Voyage" (1858) by Arthur Hugh Clough, "Aurora Leigh" (1857) by Elizabeth Barrett Browning, "Lucile" (1860) by 'Owen Meredith' (Robert Bulwer-Lytton), and "The Ring and the Book" (1868-9) by Robert Browning. The form appears to have declined with Modernism, but has since the 1960s-70s undergone a remarkable revival. Vladimir Nabokov's "Pale Fire" (1962) takes the form of a 999-line poem four cantos, though the plot of the novel unfolds in the commentary. Of particular note, Vikram Seth's "The Golden Gate" (1986) was a surprise bestseller, and Derek Walcott's "Omeros" (1990) a more predictable success. The form has been particularly popular in the Caribbean, with work since 1980 by Walcott, Edward Kamau Brathwaite, David Dabydeen, Kwame Dawes, Ralph Thompson, George Elliott Clarke and Fred D'Aguiar, and in Australia and New Zealand, with work since 1990 by Les Murray, John Tranter, Dorothy Porter, Lisa Jacobson, Chris Orsman, David Foster, Alistair Te Ariki Campbell, and Robert Sullivan. Australian poet-author Alan Wearne's "Night Markets", and sequels, are major verse novels of urban social life and satire.  The Australian poet, C.J. Dennis, had great success in Australia during World War I with his verse novels, "The Songs of a Sentimental Bloke" (1915), and "The Moods of Ginger Mick" (1916). The first tells of an urban ruffian with a heart of gold who marries and becomes a father and a farmer in Melbourne, Australia, shortly before the start of World War I in 1914. The second is the story of another urban ruffian, and good friend of The Bloke, who enlists in the Australian Army, and dies in the early battles at Gallipoli in 1915.  The American author, poet, dramatist, screenwriter and suffragist and feminist, Alice Duer Miller published her verse novel, "Forsaking All Others" (1935), about a tragic love affair, and had a surprising hit with her verse novel, "The White Cliffs" (1940: later dramatised and filmed, but retaining and expanding the poems as voice-over narration, as "The White Cliffs of Dover" (1944). This told the story of a young American woman who goes to England in mid-1914, for a fortnight, falls in love with an American aristocrat, and marries him: he is killed in the last days of the First World War in 1918, and when World War II breaks out in 1939, she must decide whether or not to let her son join the army to fight for England. The story helped sway American sentiment towards helping the British, and was a best-seller. Miller’s poem-chapters were mainly traditional couplets, quatrains, and sonnets. They used several different voices, as well as letters from different characters.  The parallel history of the verse autobiography, from strong Victorian foundation with Wordsworth's "The Prelude" (1805, 1850), to decline with Modernism and later twentieth-century revival with John Betjeman's "Summoned by Bells" (1960), Walcott's "Another Life" (1973), and James Merrill's "The Changing Light at Sandover" (1982), is also striking. The forms are distinct, but many verse novels plainly deploy autobiographical elements, and the recent Commonwealth examples almost all offer detailed representation of the (problems besetting) post-imperial and post-colonial identity, and so are inevitably strongly personal works.  There is also a distinct cluster of verse novels for younger readers, most notably Karen Hesse's "Out of the Dust" (1997), which won a Newbery Medal. Hesse followed it with "Witness" (2001). Since then, many new titles have cropped up, with authors Sonya Sones, Ellen Hopkins, Steven Herrick, Margaret Wild, Nikki Grimes, Virginia Euwer Wolff, Ann Warren Turner, Lorie Ann Grover, Brenda Seabrooke, Paul B. Janeczko, and Mel Glenn all publishing multiple titles. Debut YA authors, Holly Thompson, Cathy Ostlere, Sarah Tregay, and others have added new titles to the shelves in 2011. Thanhha Lai's "Inside Out & Back Again" (2011) won the National Book Award.

Versification.

Long classical verse narratives were in stichic forms, prescribing a metre but not specifying any interlineal relations. This tradition is represented in English letters by the use of blank verse (unrhymed iambic pentameter), as by both Brownings and many later poets. But since Petrarch and Dante complex stanza forms have also been used for verse narratives, including "terza rima" (ABA BCB CDC etc.) and "ottava rima" (ABABABCC), and modern poets have experimented widely with adaptations and combinations of stanza-forms.  The stanza most specifically associated with the verse novel is the Onegin stanza, invented by Pushkin in "Eugene Onegin". It is an adapted form of the Shakespearean sonnet, retaining the three quatrains plus couplet structure but reducing the metre to iambic tetrameter and specifying a distinct rhyme scheme: the first quatrain is cross-rhymed (ABAB), the second couplet-rhymed ("CCDD"), and the third arch-rhymed (or chiasmic, EFFE), so that the whole is ABABCCDDEFFEGG. Additionally, Pushkin required that the first rhyme in each couplet (the A, C, and E rhymes) be unstressed (or "feminine"), and all others stressed (or "masculine"). In the rhyme scheme notation capitalizing masculine rhymes, this reads as }}. Not all those using the Onegin stanza have followed the prescription, but both Vikram Seth and Brad Walker notably did so, and the cadence of the unstressed rhymes is an important factor in his manipulations of tone.

A verse novel is a type of narrative poetry in which a novel-length narrative is told through the medium of poetry rather than prose. Either simple or complex stanzaic verse-forms may be used, but there will usually be a large cast, multiple voices, dialogue, narration, description, and action in a novelistic manner.

Veršovaný román je literární dílo vystavěné jako román, psané však básnickým jazykem a ve verších. Účinek a bohatost děje je kombinován s vytříbeným básnickým jazykem. Kompoziční struktura díla je blízká románu či novele, nicméně časté je dělení díla na podstatně kratší části, častá je změna úhlů pohledu a mnohé lyrické pasáže. Oproti klasickým románům je většinou kladen mnohem větší důraz na psychologickou stránku děje a duševní život jednotlivých postav. Veršovaný román je vlastně delší epická, či spíše lyrickoepická báseň s dějem vystavěným formou románu. Často splývá s poemou či eposem. Klasickým veršovaným románem je Puškinův Evžen Oněgin, nejvýznamnějším veršovaným románem české literatury je Magdalena Josefa Svatopluka Machara. Veršovaný román je velmi populární v modernější anglicky psané literatuře, zde většinou v přímé návaznosti na Oněgina, což se projevuje literární formou (oněginská sloka) i tematikou (například román "The Golden Gate" od Vikrama Setha). Veršovaný román je také Brovningův Prsten a kniha.


Location.

The Lukuga runs along the northern edge of the Katanga Plateau. The river leaves Lake Tanganyika at Kalemie and flows through a gap in the highlands westward through the Tanganyika District to join the Lualaba between Kabalo and Kongolo. Typically the river accounts for 18% of water loss from the lake, with the rest being due to evaporation. The Lukuga is heavily mineralized. The proportions of ionic contents where the Lukuga River leaves the lake, with magnesium and potassium more prevalent than calcium and sodium, are caused by the Albertine Rift's hydrothermal inputs, as seen also at the outlets of Lake Kivu and Lake Edward.  It seems likely that the present hydrological system was established quite recently when the still-active Virunga volcanoes erupted and blocked the northward flow of water from Lake Kivu into Lake Edward, causing it instead to discharge southward into Lake Tanganyika through the Ruzizi River. Before that, Lake Tanganyika, or separate sub-basins in what is now the lake, may have had no outlet other than evaporation.  The Lukuga is of considerable interest to hydrologists, since the volume of water it carries from the lake varies considerably from time to time. The river flow is greatest in May and least in November, corresponding to seasonal fluctuations in the lake level. The river is highly sensitive to longer-term climate variations, such as the Neolithic Subpluvial around 4000 BC. Since 1965 the outflow has tended to increase, although the total outflow of the Congo has been declining.  The Lukuga has formed relatively recently, providing a route through which aquatic species of the Congo Basin could colonize Lake Tanganyika. The river is home to hippopotamus and crocodiles. There are low-grade coal deposits along the river's tributaries north of Kalemie and Moluba.

Early years.

The Lukuga in the north, Lake Tanganyika, the Luvua River to the south and the Lualaba form a territory that was once occupied by the Hemba people in the western part and the Tumbwe people in the more mountainous east. Kasangas of the Tumbwe lineage ruled various small states in this region. The lower Lukuga and the Lualaba were natural lines of communication, and the river valleys were densely populated. Around 1800, in the second half of the rule of the Luba Emperor Ilunga Sungu, Luba forces launched raids over the Lualaba that at one point reached as far as Kalemie. Some of the Luba settled in the region, and the people around Kalemie were subject to the Luba in the following reigns of Kumwimbe Ngombe and Ilunga Kabale.  The Luba evolved the concept of the "fire king" to rule the peripheral areas of their empire such as the Luvua-Lukuga corridor, with the local ruler being a near-equal of the Luba emperor, sending only occasional tributes. The "bamdudye" and "bakasandji" secret societies were introduced into the area, providing genesis myths that helped legitimize the fire kings' position. These myths had been adopted and adapted by the Holoholo people of Kalemie by the late nineteenth century. The Hemba state of Kyombo Mkubwa became the main client state of the Luba Empire. However, by the time Europeans started to penetrate the region, Msiri's son Simbi, advancing from the south and forming alliances with the Hemba rulers against incursions from Tippu Tip, had detached Kyombo Mkubwa from the Luba heartland.

European contacts.

Around 1871 David Livingstone noticed the break in the hills through which the "Logumba" passed, and suggested that the river might be an outlet of Lake Tanganyika, and that there could be other outlets further north. Verney Lovett Cameron reached the river at the point where it left the lake in May 1874 on his journey across Africa from east to west. He confirmed that it was the only outlet of Lake Tanganyika, but was unable to get a guide to accompany him down the river to verify that it flowed into the Lualaba. In 1876 Henry Morton Stanley visited the lake. When he arrived, the lake level was low and he described the Lukuga as no more than a large creek extending westward for a great distance. However, he agreed that as the lake level rose the Lukuga would act as an outlet. It seems that a sandbar had formed across the river mouth, and the river had silted behind the bar.  In 1879 Joseph Thomson came to Kasenge from Pambete, travelling through very rough country. He found that the Lukuga creek was a large and fast-flowing river. He followed the course of the river for a few days, but hostile inhabitants of the region blocked his further explorations. When Hermann von Wissmann reached the river in 1882 he found that the river had become a fast and wide effluent. He also noted that the lake level was below the highest watermark.

Today.

As of 2008, the Lukuga was highly polluted at the point where it entered the Lualaba. In December 2010 the well-known South African kayaker and explorer Hendrik Coetzee was dragged out of his kayak on the Lukuga and killed by a crocodile.

The Lukuga River is a tributary of the Lualaba River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) that drains Lake Tanganyika. It is unusual in that its flow varies not just seasonally but also due to longer term climate fluctuations.

Lukuga je řeka v Demokratické republice Kongo. Je to pravý přítok řeky Lualaba, která je horním tokem Konga. Je 350 km dlouhá. Povodí má rozlohu 271 600 km2.


History.

The city was left without a big side in 1967 when Toulouse FC sold its players and place in the French top flight to Paris outfit Red Star, but three years later a new club, Union Sportive Toulouse, rose from the ashes. Adopting red and yellow jerseys, the club started out in Ligue 2 and in 1979 reclaimed the name Toulouse FC. Now wearing purple and white, "Les Pitchouns" gained top-flight promotion in 1982. A side containing Jacques Santini and Swiss forward Daniel Jeandupeux earned a famous penalty shoot-out victory against Diego Maradona's Napoli in the 1986–87 UEFA Cup, Toulouse's maiden European campaign, but it failed to herald a bright new era. Instead, with goalkeeper Fabien Barthez having made his breakthrough and moved on, Toulouse were relegated in 1994. They subsequently bounced back and forth between Ligues 1 and 2 before slipping to the third flight in 2001 after financial problems. Toulouse were back in the top flight two seasons later, steadily finding their feet before a memorable 2007 campaign when they finished third to earn a place in the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League third qualifying round. The draw was unfavourable, however, and Liverpool overpowered them 5–0 on aggregate.  In the second match of the 2007–08 season, Toulouse beat the Olympique Lyonnais 1–0 at the Stadium Municipal with a goal from Johan Elmander. After the victory against Olympique Lyonnais Toulouse struggled all season to avoid relegation. Their Ligue 1 place was finally secured on the last day of the season with a 2–1 home win against Valenciennes. The 2008–09 season marked unexpected success for Toulouse. The club finished fourth in the Ligue 1 table with 64 points, and secured a spot in the new Europa League. After a difficult season the previous year in which the club struggled to avoid relegation, not much was expected of Toulouse. The 2008–09 season also marked the emergence of striker André-Pierre Gignac, who led all scorers in Ligue 1 with 24 goals and was awarded a call-up to the French national team.  In the 2015–2016 Ligue 1 season, Toulouse avoided relegation to Ligue 2 in the last game of the season. With 12 minutes to go, Toulouse were behind to Angers 2–1 and needed a win to survive. Toulouse then went on to score two late goals and win the match 3–2. Toulouse finished 13th in 2016/2017. In the 2017/2018 season, Toulouse finished 18th which meant the club needed to play in the two legged promotion/relegation playoff with Ligue 2 side Ajaccio. Toulouse ended up winning the tie 4-0 on aggregate.  In the 2018–19 Ligue 1 season, Toulouse finished 16th on the table, just five points above the relegation zone. On 6 January 2020, Toulouse terminated Antoine Kombouaré following the club's humiliating 1–0 loss to Championnat National 2 side Saint-Pryvé Saint-Hilaire FC in the Coupe de France. Under Kombouaré the club had lost ten matches in a row leading him to be dismissed and replaced by Denis Zanko.  On 30 April 2020, Toulouse were relegated to Ligue 2 after the LFP elected to end the season early due to the Coronavirus pandemic. Toulouse were bottom of the table at the time of the decision, and Amiens were sent down along with them. Toulouse president Olivier Sadran labeled the decision as an abuse of power.

Stadium.

Toulouse play their home matches at the Stadium de Toulouse. Built in 1937, the stadium presently has a capacity of 33,150. The stadium was used as a venue for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, 2007 Rugby Union World Cup and UEFA Euro 2016.

Colours.

The violet is a reference to one of two Toulouse nicknames: "la Cité des violettes" (the City of Violets), the second one being "la Ville rose" (the Pink City), which explains the colour of former alternate jerseys. The team's logo displays the gold and blood-red Occitan cross, the symbol of Occitania, of which Toulouse is a historical capital.

Club rivalries.

Derby de la Garonne.

The Derby de la Garonne is a derby match between Girondins de Bordeaux and Toulouse. The derby derives from the fact that Bordeaux and Toulouse are the two major clubs that play in cities that situate themselves along the Garonne River. The consistency and competitiveness of the rivalry developed following Toulouse's return to Ligue 1 after being administratively relegated to the Championnat National in 2001.

Toulouse Football Club is a French professional football club based in Toulouse. The club was founded in 1937 and currently plays in Ligue 1, the first division of French football. Toulouse plays its home matches at the Stadium de Toulouse located within the city.

Toulouse FC ("Toulouse Football Club") je klub francouzské Ligue 1, sídlící ve městě Toulouse. Toulouse FC patří k předním klubům Francie. Klub byl založen roku 1937. Hřištěm klubu je Stadium Municipal s kapacitou 35 472 diváků.


Name.

The word comes from the Portuguese "melaço". Cognates include Ancient Greek μέλι ("méli") (honey), Latin "mel", Spanish "melaza" (molasses), Romanian "miere" or "melasă" and French "miel" (honey).

Cane molasses.

Cane molasses is an ingredient used in baking and cooking. It was popular in the Americas prior to the 20th century, when it was plentiful and commonly used as a sweetener in foods, and an ingredient for brewing beer during Colonial times; even George Washington published a molasses beer recipe.  To make molasses, sugar cane is harvested and stripped of leaves. Its juice is extracted, usually by cutting, crushing, or mashing. The juice is boiled to concentrate it, promoting sugar crystallization. The result of this first boiling is called "first syrup ('A' Molasses"), and it has the highest sugar content. First syrup is usually referred to in the Southern states of the United States as "cane syrup", as opposed to molasses. "Second molasses ('B' Molasses") is created from a second boiling and sugar extraction, and has a slightly bitter taste.  The third boiling of the sugar syrup yields dark, viscous "blackstrap molasses" ("'C' Molasses"), known for its robust flavor. The majority of sucrose from the original juice has crystallized and been removed. The caloric content of blackstrap molasses is mostly due to the small remaining sugar content.  Unlike highly refined sugars, it contains significant amounts of vitamin B and minerals, including calcium, magnesium, iron, and manganese; one tablespoon provides up to 20% of the recommended daily value of each of those nutrients. Blackstrap is also a good source of potassium. Blackstrap molasses has long been sold as a dietary supplement.  Blackstrap molasses is significantly more bitter than "regular" molasses. It is sometimes used in baking or for producing ethanol, as an ingredient in cattle feed, and as fertilizer.  The exaggerated health benefits sometimes claimed for blackstrap molasses were the topic of a 1951 novelty song, "Black Strap Molasses", recorded by Groucho Marx, Jimmy Durante, Jane Wyman, and Danny Kaye.

Sugar beet molasses.

Molasses made from sugar beets differs from sugarcane molasses. Only the syrup left from the final crystallization stage is called molasses. Intermediate syrups are called high green and low green, and these are recycled within the crystallization plant to maximize extraction. Beet molasses is 50% sugar by dry weight, predominantly sucrose, but contains significant amounts of glucose and fructose. Beet molasses is limited in biotin (vitamin H or B) for cell growth; hence, it may be supplemented with a biotin source. The nonsugar content includes many salts, such as calcium, potassium, oxalate, and chloride. It contains betaine and the trisaccharide raffinose. These are a result of concentration from the original plant material or chemicals in processing, and make it unpalatable to humans. So, it is mainly used as an additive to animal feed (called "molassed sugar beet feed") or as a fermentation feedstock.  Extracting additional sugar from beet molasses is possible through molasses desugarization. This exploits industrial-scale chromatography to separate sucrose from non-sugar components. The technique is economically viable in trade-protected areas, where the price of sugar is supported above market price. As such, it is practiced in the U.S. and parts of Europe. Sugar beet molasses is widely consumed in Europe (for example Germany, where it is known as Zuckerrübensirup). Molasses is also used for yeast production.

Unsulfured molasses.

Many kinds of molasses on the market come branded as "unsulfured". Many foods, including molasses, were once treated with sulfur dioxide as a preservative, helping to kill off molds and bacteria. Sulfur dioxide is also used as a bleaching agent, as it helps lighten the color of molasses. Most brands have moved away from using sulfured molasses due to both the relatively stable natural shelf life of untreated molasses, and of the off flavor and trace toxicity of low doses of sulfur dioxide.

Nutrition.

Molasses is composed of 22% water, 75% carbohydrates, and no protein or fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, molasses is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin B6 and several dietary minerals, including manganese, magnesium, iron, potassium, and calcium (table).  The sugars in molasses are sucrose (29% of total carbohydrates), glucose (12%) and fructose (13%) (data from USDA nutrition table).

Other uses.

Food products and additives.

Molasses can be used:

Molasses () or black treacle (British English) is a viscous product resulting from refining sugarcane or sugar beets into sugar. Molasses varies by amount of sugar, method of extraction, and age of plant. Sugarcane molasses is primarily used for sweetening and flavoring foods in the United States, Canada, and elsewhere. Molasses is a defining component of fine commercial brown sugar.

Melasa je zbytek po vykrystalizování cukrové řepy či cukrové třtiny; obsahuje asi 50 % cukru, který však již není schopen pro velký obsah příměsí vykrystalizovat. Je velmi mazlavá a lepkavá.


Life.

Fürnberg was born into a German-speaking Jewish family of textile manufacturers in the Moravian city of Iglau (now Jihlava), then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His mother, Berta, died shortly after his birth. His father, Jakob Fürnberg, moved the family when he married for a second time. Thus, Louis Fürnberg spent his childhood and youth in Karlsbad (now Karlovy Vary). His younger brother, Walter Fürnberg, was born in 1913. After the First World War and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, they became citizens of Czechoslovakia. Fürnberg attended Gymnasium in Karlovy Vary. Following his father's wishes, he began an apprenticeship as an artistic ceramist in Knolls Porzellanfabrik (Knoll's Porcelain Factory) in Fischern (now ), but he had to withdraw in 1926 due to tubercular disease. As a 17 year old, he joined the Socialist Youth. In 1927, he moved to Prague, and joined the German Tradeschool (Deutsche Handelsakademie). There he published his poems in the local German-speaking press.  In 1928 he joined the German section of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. In May 1932, he founded the Agitprop group "Echo von Links"; between 1932 and 1936 he worked as their copywriter. While working on a project for the group in 1936, Fürnberg met Lotte Wertheimer, the daughter of a Jewish entrepreneur from Prague, who despite this was also a Communist. They married in 1937. Until 1939, he was active in the Communist press in Prague, for example since 1934, he had been the editor of the "Arbeiter-Illustrierte-Zeitung (A-I-Z)," after it had to move from Berlin to Prague. He also worked on "Gegenangriff" with Bruno Frei. After his tuberculosis re-occurred in 1936, he went to the spa in Lugano in the hope of a cure. Due to this, "Echo von Links" had to fold.  After the German invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1939, the Fürnbergs attempted to flee to Poland, but were betrayed and captured. While Fürnberg's wife was released after two months and was able to flee to London, Fürnberg remained imprisoned. He was transported to several different prisons and was tortured. His wife's family were later able to bribe the Gestapo and have Fürnberg deported to Italy where he was reunited with his wife as 1939 turned into 1940. They fled further to Yugoslavia; the Fürnberg's son was born in 1940 in Belgrade. They continued to flee further away until 1941, when they reached Palestine. The members of their family who were unable to leave German controlled territory were murdered in the Holocaust. In Palestine, they became friends with Arnold Zweig who was living in Haifa. Fürnberg wrote for magazines such as "Orient" which were aimed at fellow German-speaking exiles.  In 1946, after the end of the Second World War, Fürnberg returned to Prague. In the two years that followed, Fürnberg was again a journalist and correspondent for several newspapers in Prague. In 1947, his daughter Alena was born. He then began to work for the Ministry of Information. From 1949 to 1952, he worked as a cultural attaché in the Czechoslovakian embassy in East Berlin. At the end of this period, he returned to Czechoslovakia. The conspicuous antisemitism of the late-Stalin era of the Soviet Union had a particularly strong effect in Czechoslovakia, under the government of Klement Gottwald. Fürnberg was even put under pressure to change his name to Lubomír Fyrnberg. This was also the time of the purge of the leadership of the Czechoslovakian Communist Party, after the Slánský trial. Several of Fürnberg's friends and acquaintances were affected by the purge, and this had an impact on Fürnberg's health.  In 1953, Fürnberg was awarded the Julius Fucik Prize for his journalism, named for Czechoslovak journalist who was murdered by the Nazis.  In 1954, Fürnberg, his wife and his daughter moved to Weimar. There, he worked as the deputy director of the Klassik Stiftung Weimar and as the associate editor of the. In 1955 he became a member of the "Deutsche Akademie der Künste." In the same year he had a heart attack that he never fully recovered from. At the age of 48 he died in the night of the 23rd of June 1957, and was buried in a grave of honour in the Historische Friedhof, Weimar after a solemn funeral. After his death, his widow, who had worked as a radio editor for many years, led the Louis Fürnberg Archive in Weimar. She herself died there in January 2004 at the age of 92.  In 1961, a memorial to Fürnberg was revealed in the Park an der Ilm. It was made by the sculptors and.  On the 100th anniversary of Fürnberg the "Stiftung Weimarer Klassik" (Foundation for Historical Weimar) honoured the poet with a commemorative ceremony in the city palace. The poet's daughter, Alena, read some of her poetry, and the writer Wulf Kirsten made a speech in the poet's honour. At Buchenwald, the room in which Fürnberg worked was rebuilt, and can now be visited by appointment.

Works.

Fürnberg saw himself as a political poet. His lyrics were often addressed to his comrades in the cause for examples, ""Was ich singe, sing ich den Genossen. Ihre Träume gehen durch mein Lied." (What I sing, I sing to the comrades. Your dreams go through my song.)."  Fürnberg mostly wrote poems, narratives and novels. His novella "'Die Begegnung in Weimar' (The Encounter in Weimar)" deals with the meeting of Adam Mickiewiczs and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Fürnberg's dramas, festival works and cantatas show his communist beliefs, which he held until his death.  Even today, Fürnberg's name is most strongly associated with the song ""Die Partei"" "(The Party is always right)," which he wrote after he was insulted not to be invited to the 9th Congress of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia in May 1949. Due to the fame of the song, his other works are less well known. After the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956, several of his songs were edited to remove references to Stalin as part of the ideological shift of the Soviet Union and associated countries. This included removal of Stalin from the lyrics of "Die Partei", the renaming of the song ""Lied von Stalin"" (Stalin's Song) to ""Lied vom Menschen"" (Song from the People), and the renaming of ""Dieses Lied weihe ich Stalin" (This song I dedicate to Stalin)" to ""Dieses Lied weihe ich den Sowjets" (This song I dedicate to the Soviets)." Other changes include replacing a reference to Stalin and Lenin with a reference to Marx and Engels. Fürnberg's poetry was also altered, and the poems""Stalins Geburt," "Der junge Stalin,"" and ""Der größte Schüler" ("Stalin's Birth", "The Young Stalin", "The Greatest Student")" were removed from collections of his work"."  Fürnberg occasionally used the pseudonyms "Nuntius" or "Nuncius" after 1932.

Cultural references to Fürnberg's work.

German band "Puhdys" referenced Fürnberg's work ""Alt möcht ich werden"" in their 1976 hit song "".

Louis Fürnberg (24 May 1909 in Jihlava, Moravia – 23 June 1957 in Weimar, East Germany) was a Czechoslovakian-German writer, poet and journalist, composer and diplomat. He wrote the "Lied der Partei" ("The Party is always right"), the song that served for years as the official anthem of the East German ruling Socialist Unity Party (SED).

Louis Fürnberg (24. května 1909, Jihlava – 23. června 1957, Výmar) byl německy píšící spisovatel, básník, literární teoretik, překladatel a československý diplomat.


Etymology and meaning of "saga".

The main meanings of the Old Norse word "saga" (plural "sǫgur") are 'what is said, utterance, oral account, notification' and the sense used in this article: '(structured) narrative, story (about somebody)'. It is cognate with the English words "say" and "saw" (in the sense 'a saying', as in "old saw"), and the German "Sage"; but the modern English term "saga" was borrowed directly into English from Old Norse by scholars in the eighteenth century to refer to Old Norse prose narratives.  The word continues to be used in this sense in the modern Scandinavian languages: Icelandic "saga" (plural "sögur"), Faroese "søga" (plural "søgur"), Norwegian "soge" (plural "soger"), Danish "saga" (plural "sagaer"), and Swedish "saga" (plural "sagor"). It usually also has wider meanings such as 'history', 'tale', and'story'. It can also be used of a genre of novels telling stories spanning multiple generations, or to refer to saga-inspired fantasy fiction. Swedish "folksaga" means folk tale or fairy tale, while "konstsaga" is the Swedish term for a fairy tale by a known author, such as Hans Christian Andersen. In Swedish historiography, the term "sagokung", "saga king", is intended to be ambiguous, as it describes the semi-legendary kings of Sweden, who are known only from unreliable sources.

Genres.

Norse sagas are generally classified as follows.

Kings' sagas.

Kings' sagas ("konungasögur") are of the lives of Scandinavian kings. They were composed in the twelfth to fourteenth centuries. A pre-eminent example is "Heimskringla", probably compiled and composed by Snorri Sturluson. These sagas frequently quote verse, invariably occasional and praise poetry in the form of skaldic verse.

Sagas of Icelanders and short tales of Icelanders.

The Icelanders' sagas ("Íslendingasögur"), sometimes also called "family sagas" in English, are purportedly (and sometimes actually) stories of real events, which usually take place from around the settlement of Iceland in the 870s to the generation or two following the conversion of Iceland to Christianity in 1000. They are noted for frequently exhibiting a realistic style. It seems that stories from these times were passed on in oral form till they eventually were recorded in writing as "Íslendingasögur", whose form was influenced both by these oral stories and by literary models in both Old Norse and other languages. The majority — perhaps two thirds of the medieval corpus — seem to have been composed in the thirteenth century, with the remainder in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. These sagas usually span multiple generations and often feature everyday people (e.g. "Bandamanna saga") and larger-than-life characters (e.g. "Egils saga"). Key works of this genre have been viewed in modern scholarship as the highest-quality saga-writing. While primarily set in Iceland, the sagas follow their characters' adventures abroad, for example in other Nordic countries, the British Isles, northern France and North America. Some well-known examples include "Njáls saga", "Laxdæla saga" and "Grettis saga".  The material of the short tales of Icelanders ("þættir" or "Íslendingaþættir") is similar to "Íslendinga sögur", in shorter form, often preserved as episodes about Icelanders in the kings' sagas.  Like kings' sagas, when sagas of Icelanders quote verse, as they often do, it is almost invariably skaldic verse.

Contemporary sagas.

Contemporary sagas ("samtíðarsögur" or "samtímasögur") are set in twelfth- and thirteenth-century Iceland, and were written soon after the events they describe. Most are preserved in the compilation "Sturlunga saga", from around 1270–80, though some, such as "Arons saga Hjörleifssonar" are preserved separately. The verse quoted in contemporary sagas is skaldic verse.

Legendary sagas.

Legendary sagas ("fornaldarsögur") blend remote history, set on the Continent before the settlement of Iceland, with myth or legend. Their aim is usually to offer a lively narrative and entertainment. They often portray Scandinavia's pagan past as a proud and heroic history. Some legendary sagas quote verse — particularly "Vǫlsunga saga" and "Heiðreks saga" — and when they do it is invariably Eddaic verse.  Some legendary sagas overlap generically with the next category, chivalric sagas.

Chivalric sagas.

Chivalric sagas ("riddarasögur") are translations of Latin pseudo-historical works and French chansons de geste as well as Icelandic compositions in the same style. Norse translations of Continental romances seem to have begun in the first half of the thirteenth century; Icelandic writers seem to have begun producing their own romances in the late thirteenth century, with production peaking in the fourteenth century and continuing into the nineteenth.  While often translated from verse, sagas in this genre almost never quote verse, and when they do it is often unusual in form: for example, "Jarlmanns saga ok Hermanns" contains the first recorded quotation of a refrain from an Icelandic dance-song, and a metrically irregular riddle in "Þjalar-Jóns saga".

Saints' and bishops' sagas.

Saints' sagas ("heilagra manna sögur") and bishops' sagas ("biskupa sögur") are vernacular Icelandic translations and compositions, to a greater or lesser extent influenced by saga-style, in the widespread genres of hagiography and episcopal biographies. The genre seems to have begun in the mid-twelfth century.

History.

Icelandic sagas are based on oral traditions and much research has focused on what is real and what is fiction within each tale. The accuracy of the sagas is often hotly disputed.  Most of the medieval manuscripts which are the earliest surviving witnesses to the sagas were taken to Denmark and Sweden in the seventeenth century, but later returned to Iceland. Classical sagas were composed in the thirteenth century. Scholars once believed that these sagas were transmitted orally from generation to generation until scribes wrote them down in the thirteenth century. However, most scholars now believe the sagas were conscious artistic creations, based on both oral and written tradition. A study focusing on the description of the items of clothing mentioned in the sagas concludes that the authors attempted to create a historic "feel" to the story, by dressing the characters in what was at the time thought to be "old fashioned clothing". However, this clothing is not contemporary with the events of the saga as it is a closer match to the clothing worn in the 12th century. It was only recently (start of 20th century) that the tales of the voyages to North America (modern day Canada) were authenticated.  Most sagas of Icelanders take place in the period 930–1030, which is called "söguöld" (Age of the Sagas) in Icelandic history. The sagas of kings, bishops, contemporary sagas have their own time frame. Most were written down between 1190 and 1320, sometimes existing as oral traditions long before, others are pure fiction, and for some we do know the sources: the author of King Sverrir's saga had met the king and used him as a source.  While sagas are generally anonymous, a distinctive literary movement in the 14th century involves sagas, mostly on religious topics, with identifiable authors and a distinctive Latinate style. Associated with Iceland's northern diocese of Hólar, this movement is known as the North Icelandic Benedictine School ("Norðlenski Benediktskólinn").  The vast majority of texts referred to today as "sagas" were composed in Iceland. One exception is "Þiðreks saga", translated/composed in Norway; another is "Hjalmars saga och Hramers", a post-medieval forgery composed in Sweden. While the term "saga" is usually associated with medieval texts, sagas — particularly in the legendary and chivalric saga genres — continued to be composed in Iceland on the pattern of medieval texts into the nineteenth century.

Explanations for saga writing.

Icelanders produced a high volume of literature relative to the size of the population. Historians have proposed various theories for the high volume of saga writing.  Early, nationalist historians argued that the ethnic characteristics of the Icelanders were conducive to a literary culture, but these types of explanations have fallen out of favor with academics in modern times. It has also been proposed that the Icelandic settlers were so prolific at writing in order to capture their settler history. Historian Gunnar Karlsson does not find that explanation reasonable though, given that other settler communities have not been as prolific as the early Icelanders were.  Pragmatic explanations were once also favoured: it has been argued that a combination of readily available parchment (due to extensive cattle farming and the necessity of culling before winter) and long winters encouraged Icelanders to take up writing.  More recently, Icelandic saga-production has been seen as motivated more by social and political factors.  The unique nature of the political system of the Icelandic Commonwealth created incentives for aristocrats to produce literature, offering a way for chieftains to create and maintain social differentiation between them and the rest of the population. Gunnar Karlsson and Jesse Byock argued that the Icelanders wrote the Sagas as a way to establish commonly agreed norms and rules in the decentralized Icelandic Commonwealth by documenting past feuds, while Iceland's peripheral location put it out of reach of the continental kings of Europe and that those kings could therefore not ban subversive forms of literature. Because new principalities lacked internal cohesion, a leader typically produced Sagas "to create or enhance amongst his subjects or followers a feeling of solidarity and common identity by emphasizing their common history and legends". Leaders from old and established principalities did not produce any Sagas, as they were already cohesive political units.  Later (late thirteenth- and fourteenth-century) saga-writing was motivated by the desire of the Icelandic aristocracy to maintain or reconnect links with the Nordic countries by tracing the ancestry of Icelandic aristocrats to well-known kings and heroes to which the contemporary Nordic kings could also trace their origins.

Editions and translations.

The corpus of Old Norse sagas is gradually being edited in the Íslenzk fornrit series, which covers all the "Íslendingasögur" and a growing range of other ones. Where available, the Íslenzk fornrit edition is usually the standard one. The standard edition of most of the chivalric sagas composed in Iceland is by Agnete Loth.  A list, intended to be comprehensive, of translations of Icelandic sagas is provided by the National Library of Iceland's Bibliography of Saga Translations.

Sources.

Primary:  Other:

Further reading.

In Norwegian:

Sagas are prose stories and histories, composed in Iceland and to a lesser extent elsewhere in Scandinavia. The most famous saga-genre is the "Íslendingasögur" (sagas concerning Icelanders), which feature Viking voyages, migration to Iceland, and feuds between Icelandic families. But sagas' subject matter is diverse, including pre-Christian Scandinavian legends; saints and bishops both from Scandinavia and elsewhere; Scandinavian kings and contemporary Icelandic politics; and chivalric romances either translated from Continental European languages or composed locally.

Sága (pochází z islandského slova "saga", množné číslo "sögur") je označení pro příběh s tematikou dávné skandinávské a germánské historie, o prvních vikinských výpravách, osidlování Islandu a krevní msty mezi islandskými rodinami. Většinou jsou psány starou islandštinou nebo starou severštinou.


List.

Population figures as of 1 January 2019. The sum total of the figures in the table is 42,644 km, of which the land area is 42,388 km, so that 256 km of water is included in the figures.

History.

In the first centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the parish (kihelkond) and the county (maakond). The parish consisted of several villages. Nearly all parishes had at least one fortress. The defense of the local area was directed by the highest official, the parish elder. The county was composed of several parishes, also headed by an elder. By the 13th century the following major counties had developed in Estonia: Saaremaa (Osilia), Läänemaa (Rotalia or Maritima), Harjumaa (Harria), Rävala (Revalia), Virumaa (Vironia), Järvamaa (Jervia), Sakala (Saccala), and Ugandi (Ugaunia). Additionally there were several smaller elderships in central Estonia where danger of war was smallerVaiga, Mõhu, Nurmekund and Alempois. The exact number and borders of some elderships are disputed.  The first documented mentioning of Estonian political and administrative subdivisions comes from the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia, written in the 13th Century during the Northern Crusades.  The Autonomy of the Estonia counties and parishes ended after conquered and divided between Denmark, Livonian Order, Bishopric of Dorpat and Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek. The name of Rävala became Reval, replacing the name of an Estonian town Lindanisse, later Tallinn. Ugandi, Sakala and the smaller elderships disappeared from common usage.  In the 1580s, after the Livonian war as Sweden had conquered Northern Estonia, Harju, Järva, Lääne and Viru counties were officially formed there. Southern Estonia, which belonged to Poland 1582–1625, was divided into voivodships of Pärnu and Tartu; the island of Saaremaa belonged to Denmark until 1645. They all became counties as they went under Swedish rule.  This administrative system mostly remained as Estonia went under Russian rule as a result of the Northern War. In 1793 were formed Võru County in the south of Tartumaa, Viljandi County between Tartu and Pärnu counties, and Paldiski County in the west of Harjumaa. In 1796 Paldiski County was joined with Harjumaa again. Until 1888 Võrumaa and Viljandimaa were not completely independent from Tartumaa and Pärnumaa respectively.  Several changes were made to the borders of counties after Estonia became independent, most notably the formation of Valga County (from parts of Võru, Tartu and Viljandi counties) and Petseri County (area acquired from Russia with the 1920 Tartu peace treaty).  During the Soviet rule, Petseri County once again became a part of Russia in 1945. Hiiumaa seceded from Läänemaa in 1946, Jõgevamaa from Tartumaa in 1949 and Jõhvimaa (modern Ida-Virumaa) from Virumaa in 1949. Counties were completely dissolved in 1950 as Estonian SSR was divided into raions ("rajoonid") and (until 1953) oblasts. Until the 1960s the borders of raions changed often until 15 of them were left. Out of them, Põlva and Rapla regions became separate, while the others were roughly corresponding to the pre-1950 counties.  Counties were re-established on 1 January 1990 in the borders of the Soviet-era raions. Due to the numerous differences between the current and historical (pre-1940) layouts, the historical borders are still used in ethnology, representing cultural and linguistic differences better.

Counties (, plural ') are the first-level administrative subdivisions of Estonia. Estonian territory is composed of 15 counties, including 13 on the mainland and 2 on islands. The government (') of each county is led by a'(governor) who represents the national government (') at the regional level. Governors are appointed by the national government for a term of five years.

Estonsko se po celou svou historii členilo v kraje (estonsky maakond, množné číslo maakonnad). Podoba a význam krajů se v průběhu času měnily, ale rámcové členění zůstalo zachováno. V současném Estonsku jsou kraje administrativními jednotkami 1. úrovně.


Van der Waals volume.

The van der Waals volume, "V", also called the atomic volume or molecular volume, is the atomic property most directly related to the van der Waals radius. It is the volume "occupied" by an individual atom (or molecule). The van der Waals volume may be calculated if the van der Waals radii (and, for molecules, the inter-atomic distances and angles) are known. For a single atom, it is the volume of a sphere whose radius is the van der Waals radius of the atom:  For a molecule, it is the volume enclosed by the van der Waals surface. The van der Waals volume of a molecule is always smaller than the sum of the van der Waals volumes of the constituent atoms: the atoms can be said to "overlap" when they form chemical bonds.  The van der Waals volume of an atom or molecule may also be determined by experimental measurements on gases, notably from the van der Waals constant "b", the polarizability "α" or the molar refractivity "A". In all three cases, measurements are made on macroscopic samples and it is normal to express the results as molar quantities. To find the van der Waals volume of a single atom or molecule, it is necessary to divide by the Avogadro constant "N".  The molar van der Waals volume should not be confused with the molar volume of the substance. In general, at normal laboratory temperatures and pressures, the atoms or molecules of a gas only occupy about of the volume of the gas, the rest being empty space. Hence the molar van der Waals volume, which only counts the volume occupied by the atoms or molecules, is usually about times smaller than the molar volume for a gas at standard temperature and pressure.

Van der Waals radius.

The following table shows the Van der Waals radii for the elements. Unless indicated otherwise, the data is given by "Mathematica"'s ElementData function, which is from Wolfram Research, Inc.. The values are in picometers (pm or 1×10 m). The shade of the box ranges from red to yellow as the radius increases; gray indicates lack of data.

Methods of determination.

Van der Waals radii may be determined from the mechanical properties of gases (the original method), from the critical point, from measurements of atomic spacing between pairs of unbonded atoms in crystals or from measurements of electrical or optical properties (the polarizability and the molar refractivity). These various methods give values for the van der Waals radius which are similar (1–2 Å, 100–200 pm) but not identical. Tabulated values of van der Waals radii are obtained by taking a weighted mean of a number of different experimental values, and, for this reason, different tables will often have different values for the van der Waals radius of the same atom. Indeed, there is no reason to assume that the van der Waals radius is a fixed property of the atom in all circumstances: rather, it tends to vary with the particular chemical environment of the atom in any given case.

Van der Waals equation of state.

The van der Waals equation of state is the simplest and best-known modification of the ideal gas law to account for the behaviour of real gases: where p is pressure, "n" is the number of moles of the gas in question and "a" and "b" depend on the particular gas, formula_3 is the volume, R is the specific gas constant on a unit mole basis and T the absolute temperature; "a" is a correction for intermolecular forces and "b" corrects for finite atomic or molecular sizes; the value of "b" equals the Van der Waals volume per mole of the gas. Their values vary from gas to gas.  The van der Waals equation also has a microscopic interpretation: molecules interact with one another. The interaction is strongly repulsive at very short distance, becomes mildly attractive at intermediate range, and vanishes at long distance. The ideal gas law must be corrected when attractive and repulsive forces are considered. For example, the mutual repulsion between molecules has the effect of excluding neighbors from a certain amount of space around each molecule. Thus, a fraction of the total space becomes unavailable to each molecule as it executes random motion. In the equation of state, this volume of exclusion ("nb") should be subtracted from the volume of the container ("V"), thus: ("V" - "nb"). The other term that is introduced in the van der Waals equation, formula_4, describes a weak attractive force among molecules (known as the van der Waals force), which increases when "n" increases or "V" decreases and molecules become more crowded together.  The van der Waals constant "b" volume can be used to calculate the van der Waals volume of an atom or molecule with experimental data derived from measurements on gases.  For helium, "b" = 23.7 cm/mol. Helium is a monatomic gas, and each mole of helium contains atoms (the Avogadro constant, "N"): Therefore, the van der Waals volume of a single atom "V" = 39.36 Å, which corresponds to "r" = 2.11 Å (≈ 200 picometers). This method may be extended to diatomic gases by approximating the molecule as a rod with rounded ends where the diameter is 2"r" and the internuclear distance is "d". The algebra is more complicated, but the relation can be solved by the normal methods for cubic functions.

Crystallographic measurements.

The molecules in a molecular crystal are held together by van der Waals forces rather than chemical bonds. In principle, the closest that two atoms belonging to "different" molecules can approach one another is given by the sum of their van der Waals radii. By examining a large number of structures of molecular crystals, it is possible to find a minimum radius for each type of atom such that other non-bonded atoms do not encroach any closer. This approach was first used by Linus Pauling in his seminal work "The Nature of the Chemical Bond". Arnold Bondi also conducted a study of this type, published in 1964, although he also considered other methods of determining the van der Waals radius in coming to his final estimates. Some of Bondi's figures are given in the table at the top of this article, and they remain the most widely used "consensus" values for the van der Waals radii of the elements. Scott Rowland and Robin Taylor re-examined these 1964 figures in the light of more recent crystallographic data: on the whole, the agreement was very good, although they recommend a value of 1.09 Å for the van der Waals radius of hydrogen as opposed to Bondi's 1.20 Å. A more recent analysis of the Cambridge Structural Database, carried out by Santiago Alvarez, provided a new set of values for 93 naturally occurring elements.  A simple example of the use of crystallographic data (here neutron diffraction) is to consider the case of solid helium, where the atoms are held together only by van der Waals forces (rather than by covalent or metallic bonds) and so the distance between the nuclei can be considered to be equal to twice the van der Waals radius. The density of solid helium at 1.1 K and 66 atm is, corresponding to a molar volume "V" =. The van der Waals volume is given by where the factor of π/√18 arises from the packing of spheres: "V" = = 23.0 Å, corresponding to a van der Waals radius "r" = 1.76 Å.

Molar refractivity.

The molar refractivity "A" of a gas is related to its refractive index "n" by the Lorentz–Lorenz equation: The refractive index of helium "n" = at 0 °C and 101.325 kPa, which corresponds to a molar refractivity "A" =. Dividing by the Avogadro constant gives "V" = = 0.8685 Å, corresponding to "r" = 0.59 Å.

Polarizability.

The polarizability "α" of a gas is related to its electric susceptibility "χ" by the relation and the electric susceptibility may be calculated from tabulated values of the relative permittivity "ε" using the relation "χ" = "ε"–1. The electric susceptibility of helium "χ" = at 0 °C and 101.325 kPa, which corresponds to a polarizability "α" =. The polarizability is related the van der Waals volume by the relation so the van der Waals volume of helium "V" = = 0.2073 Å by this method, corresponding to "r" = 0.37 Å.  When the atomic polarizability is quoted in units of volume such as Å, as is often the case, it is equal to the van der Waals volume. However, the term "atomic polarizability" is preferred as polarizability is a precisely defined (and measurable) physical quantity, whereas "van der Waals volume" can have any number of definitions depending on the method of measurement.

The van der Waals radius, "r", of an atom is the radius of an imaginary hard sphere representing the distance of closest approach for another atom. It is named after Johannes Diderik van der Waals, winner of the 1910 Nobel Prize in Physics, as he was the first to recognise that atoms were not simply points and to demonstrate the physical consequences of their size through the van der Waals equation of state.

Van der Waalsův poloměr atomu je poloměr imaginární tvrdé sféry, který může být použit pro aproximaci velikosti atomu. Van der Waalsův poloměr se zjišťuje měřením vzdálenosti dvou atomů, které nejsou k sobě chemicky vázány, v krystalu.


Life.

He was born in Antwerp, the son of leading Antwerp painter Quinten Matsys and the older brother of Cornelis, who became a painter and engraver. He trained under his father. He was admitted, together with his brother Cornelis, as a master in the Antwerp Guild of St. Luke in 1531, a year after their father's death. It is assumed that he left Antwerp immediately thereafter and worked for a while in Fontainebleau, but these facts are not firmly established. He was back in Antwerp by 1536. He married his cousin Anna van Tuylt in 1538. The couple would have three children.  In 1544 Jan and his brother Cornelis were banned from Antwerp because of their religious beliefs. It is possible that Jan went to Fontainebleau and Germany. It is certain that he spent time in Genoa. He returned to Antwerp before the end of 1555 when the ban imposed on him was ended. He was then involved in a number of court cases with his brothers and sisters over the distribution of inheritances.  He had been sufficiently rehabilitated for the local city council to commission several works from him. These works were destroyed in 1576 when Spanish troops set the city hall on fire during the Spanish Fury and the Sack of Antwerp. Jan Massijs had died the year before, in Antwerp, having been reduced to a state bordering on poverty. His son Quentin had become a master of the Guild of St. Luke in 1574 and would die in Frankfurt in 1589. Jan's daughter Susan emigrated to Italy. It is assumed that Jan's children left Antwerp for religious reasons.  His known pupils are Frans van Tuylt (in 1536), Frans de Witte (in 1543) and Olivier de Cuyper (in 1569).

Work.

It is possible to distinguish three periods in the work of Jan Massys. During the first period before his exile of 1544, he collaborated with and worked in the style of his father. He also completed some works left unfinished at the time of his father's death. The first dated painting from this time is a "St. Jerome in his cell" of 1537, which is completely in his father's style.  From the second period, which coincides with his banishment from Antwerp from 1544 to 1555, only 9 works can be traced. These works seem to show the influence of the School of Fontainebleau. It remains unclear whether Jan Massijs actually went to Fontainebleau or underwent this influence in an indirect manner. During his stay in Italy he painted a portrait of Andrea Doria, which is one of the few instances that he painted portraits. Only two works from this period bear a signature and a date, both from 1552. After his return to Antwerp Jan reached the height of his artistic powers. He developed a distinct style and treated a number of subjects that became characteristic for his work. Remarkable is the important role that the female nude and eroticism play in his work. He frequently used Old Testament figures such as Judith, Susanna, Bathsheba and the daughters of Lot as an excuse to depict the female nude. The sensuality of these figures is reminiscent of the works of the School of Fontainebleau. The principal male characters he depicted were Tobias and Elias.  Jan Massijs is sometimes regarded as one of the pioneers in Netherlandish art of certain secular subjects such as 'unequal love' (depicting a couple of widely different ages) and'merry companies'. In these paintings temptation and purchased love always seem to play the main role. Other subjects he pioneered were the money changer, tax collector and the miser, although others see his father as the creator of this genre. These works are considered to have carried a moralizing purpose.  Jan Massijs also painted a number of landscapes but his work in this genre is not as significant as that of his brother Cornelis.

Jan Massijs or Jan Matsys (c.1510 – 8 October 1575) was a Flemish Renaissance painter known for his history paintings, genre scenes and landscapes. He also gained a reputation as a painter of the female nude, which he painted with a sensuality reminiscent of the school of Fontainebleau.

Jan Matsys, také Massys, Metsys nebo Matsijs (1510, Antverpy – 8. říjen 1575, Antverpy), byl vlámský malíř a syn Quentina Matsyse.