Architecture.

The largest area of the square on the south side, Resselpark, is named after the inventor Josef Ressel. To the east is the Karlskirche, located in front of a water pool with a sculpture by Henry Moore with the building of the Vienna Museum (formerly the Historical Museum of Vienna) and the Winterthur Insurance building. On the west side of it is the main building of the Technische Universität Wien (Vienna Technical University) and the Protestant school. In Resselpark, monuments and busts are of famous people such as the inventor Siegfried Marcus and Josef Madersperger, as well as the composer Johannes Brahms. On the north side of the Otto Wagner in Art Nouveau style building erected inclusion of the former station Karlsplatz the Vienna Stadtbahn.  Separated from the plaza to the north are the buildings of the Wiener Musikverein (Vienna Music Society), the Künstlerhaus (art house), and the Handelsakademie (business school). A Video of the plaza and an eventlist are available on the Website of the association "karlsplatz.org Verein zur Förderung d. kulturellen Belebung öffentlicher Räume".  In the west limit the Secession and the Novomatic Forum (formerly the Office Building), the place that here in the area of the Naschmarkt passes. Near the library building of the University consists Rosa Mayreder Park with the project space Karlsplatz a branch of the Kunsthalle Wien.

Traffic.

Karlsplatz is one of the most important traffic-points of the city, five different traffic flows form a node here:

Planning.

Before the Karlsplatz was built, there was the decorative Elizabeth Era bridge, built in 1854 and named after the young bride of the Emperor ("Sisi"). The bridge was fitted in 1867 with still images, which now presides over the City Hall stand. On April 20, 1897, it was blocked and subsequently demolished.  Following this, the rescheduling of the bridging of the Vienna River caused long square and fitted with new landmark buildings. On 7 May 1901 the city council established an architectural competition over the new design.  In the spring of 1903, two dimensional models made and publicly displayed by Otto Wagner to the mayor Karl Lueger. In a press conference on 3 November 1907, he praised Wagner's project, but spoke out against the nature of the Post Office Savings Bank. He then mobilized Princess Pauline Metternich's conservative members of the nobility against the project, the petition within a short 6000 signatures of support received. In January 1910, it came at the Karlsplatz still drawing up a facade segment in Wagner's original size. After the death of Lueger's council decided on 14 July 1911, the establishment of the City Museum on the design - but ultimately this did not come about.  In the interwar period occurred on the Karlsplatz mainly temporary buildings (such as a shopping center on the site of today's Vienna Museum), after 1945 was dominated by considerations of transport planning (although it did not come to the by George Lippert other and proposed elevated highway solutions). Karlsplatz architectural competitions in question were 1946, 1966, 1969 (relating to underground construction), 1971 (relating to the Garden Making). The realized design with the Swedish garden architect Sven Ingvar Anderson designed oval pond encountered 1976-77 sharpest criticism - Clemens Holzmeister appeared as "shocked" over the water surface in front of the Karlskirche, the media spoke of the "chaos space". Notwithstanding this very negative press echos the acceptance of significantly increased green space Resselpark (and their pond) today. In the course of 2006 by Jakob Fina redesigned planting of greenery of the Karlsplatz were the Esperanto Park and Park Girardi created.

Arts and culture.

In 2004, representatives of the Municipality of Vienna, presented the project "Karlsplatz Art Space Presented". The goals were, among other things a redesign of the park in terms of gardening, light and space and routing concept, called an improvement of the traffic situation for pedestrians and cyclists and the promotion of art projects on the Karlsplatz.  Following the redesign of the park and the opening of Rosa Mayreder, Girardi and Esperanto Park in 2006, Vienna Holding commissioned a 100% subsidiary of Vienna, with the continuation of the project. On 1 August 2006, the project group karlsplatz.org consisting of Gabriela Hegedüs and Christoph Möderndorfer that since 2004 the organization of literary festivals sound bites in the Museum Quarter are responsible, and Peter Melichar, also implementing. It is through networking of the various surround the square settled institutions in the fields of arts, culture and education (among other things, House of Artists, the project space of the Kunsthalle, Vienna Museum, University of Technology) of the space into an area of cultural exchange, and thus, despite the traffic-technically difficult able to be revived.  On the Karlsplatz the exhibition of the United Buddy Bears was shown in 2006. The exhibition was opened by Christiane Hörbiger, Film actress and UNICEF Ambassador, together with Michael Häupl, Mayor of Vienna and, Mayor of Berlin.  In the summer of 2008, parallel to the 2008 European Football Championship in Austria and Switzerland was, of karlsplatz.org the Karlsplatz Art Zone aligned. On a "floating stage" in the pond in front of the Karlskirche took it daily for several concerts, especially Austrian musicians from the area of the singer-songwriter, the more experimental pop and contemporary Viennese song instead scene, on a "tree stage" performances by performance artists. Since 2010, takes place on the premises in Karlsplatz and some surrounding institutions at the beginning of the summer open-air season, the multi-day Popfest place.

Drug culture.

In Austria itself, the word "Karlsplatz" is a synonym for an open drug scene. For this reason, there was the first police-monitored protection zone for the Security Police Act (SPG) was established.

Karlsplatz () is a town square on the border of the first and fourth districts of Vienna. It is one of the most frequented and best connected transportation hubs in Vienna. The Karlskirche is located here.

Karlovo náměstí ve Vídni (německy Karlsplatz) je rozsáhlé náměstí, které leží v těsné blízkosti historického centra Vídně. Zasahuje na území vídeňských obvodů Vnitřní Město a Wieden a je důležitou křižovatkou veřejné dopravy.


Origin and name.

Börek was a popular element of Ottoman cuisine, and may have been invented at the Ottoman court, though there are also indications it was made among Central Asian Turks; other versions may date to the Classical era of the eastern Mediterranean.  The word "börek" comes from Turkish and refers to any dish made with "yufka". Tietze proposes that the word comes from the Turkic root "bur-" 'to twist'. Sevortyan offers various alternative etymologies, all of them based on a fronted vowel /ö/ or /ü/. Tietze's proposed source "bur-" (with a backed vowel /u/) for büräk/börek (with fronted vowels) is not included, because sound harmony would dictate a suffix "-aq" with a harmonised, backed /q/. Turkic languages in Arabic orthography, however, invariably write ك and not ق which rules out "bur-" which has a backed vowel /u/ at its core.  Börek may have its origins in Turkish cuisine and may be one of its most significant and, in fact, ancient elements of the Turkish cuisine, having been developed by the Turks of Central Asia before their westward migration to Anatolia in the late Middle Ages, or it may be a descendant of the pre-existing Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Anatolian dish "en tyritas plakountas" (Byzantine Greek: εν τυρίτας πλακούντας) "cheesy placenta", itself a descendant of "placenta", the classical baked layered dough and cheese dish of Ancient Roman cuisine.  Recent ethnographic research indicates that börek was probably invented separately by the nomadic Turks of central Asia some time before the seventh century.

Distribution and variants.

Börek is very popular in the cuisines of the former Ottoman Empire, especially in North Africa and throughout the Balkans. The South also feature derivatives of the börek. Börek is also part of Mizrahi and Sephardic Jewish traditions. They have been enthusiastically adopted by the Ottoman Jewish communities, and have been described, along with boyos de pan and "bulemas", as forming "the trio of preeminent Ottoman Jewish pastries".

Turkey.

Turkey enjoys a wide variety of regional variations of börek among the different cultures and ethnicities composing it, including:  Most of the time, the word "börek" is accompanied in Turkish by a descriptive word referring to the shape, ingredients of the pastry, for the cooking methods or for or a specific region where it is typically prepared, as in the above "kol böreği", "su böreği", "talaş böreği" or "Sarıyer böreği".  "Tatar böreği" (Tatar börek) is an alternative name for the cheese and mint filled dumpling dish known as "mantı".

Albanian byrek or lakror.

In Albania, this dish is called "byrek" or "lakror". In Kosovo and few other regions byrek is also known as "pite". The most common fillings include: cheese (especially "gjizë", salted curd cheese), ground meat and onions (ragù style filling), spinach and eggs, milk and eggs with pre-baked dough layers, but it can also be made with tomato and onions, peppers and beans, potato or a sweet filling of pumpkin, nettles (known as "byrek me hithra"), etc. Lakror generally would have a filling of greens, "lakër" being an Albanian word for cabbage but in this context an abbreviation of "lakër e egër", a term which describes a family of green leaf vegetables i.e. sorrel, dandelion, scarole, catsear, etc.  Byrek is traditionally made with several layers of dough, resembling the layers of a cabbage hence its name in Albania is lakror, that have been thinly rolled out by hand. The final form can be small, individual triangles, especially from street vendors called 'Byrektore' which sell byrek and other traditional pastries and drinks. It can also be made as one large byrek that is cut into smaller pieces. There are different regional variations of byrek. It can be served cold or hot.

Eastern Arabian börek.

Arab börek is often stuffed with minced or diced lamb or beef, or a mixture of the two. Various herbs and spices are used to flavour the meat, including; turmeric, fresh parsley and nutmeg, and concentrated pomegranate juice, which gives the mixture a unique sweet and tangy taste. Fried or caramelised onions are usually added to the meat, as well as the traditional Arab staple of fried almonds and sultanas or raisins. Traditional Arab cheeses, including "Jibin Baladi" and "Jibin Arab" are often used instead of, or together with the meat. The mixture is wrapped in a sheet of dough, and then fried or deep-fried until crisp, and resembles a large egg roll. While most börek are made with phyllo, some traditional cooks and those in the tribal areas prefer a hand-kneaded dough.  Arab börek are most often served with other "dry" foods including kibbeh, with a jajik dip (yogurt, cucumber and garlic dip) forming an integral part of a traditional meze meal.  It can be founded in Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and among Assyrian people

Armenian byorek.

In Armenia, "byorek" (բյորեկ) or borek (բորեկ), consists of dough, or phyllo dough, folded into triangles and stuffed with cheese, spinach or ground beef, and the filling is typically spiced. A popular combination is spinach, feta, cottage cheese (or pot cheese) and a splash of anise-flavoured liquor (such as raki).

Assyrian burek.

Assyrian "burek" is usually stuffed with spiced ground beef, finely chopped onion, paprika, parsley and spices. The stuffing is placed on a thin layer of rolled out dough, then sealed, resembling a half moon or an empanada. Lastly, it is oven-baked or fried.

Bulgarian byurek.

The Bulgarian version of the pastry, locally called "byurek" (Cyrillic: бюрек), is typically regarded as a variation of "banitsa" (баница), a similar Bulgarian dish. Bulgarian byurek is a type of "banitsa" with "sirene" cheese, the difference being that byurek also has eggs added.  In Bulgarian, the word "byurek" has also come to be applied to other dishes similarly prepared with cheese and eggs, such as "chushka byurek" (чушка бюрек), a peeled and roasted pepper filled with cheese, and "tikvichka byurek" (тиквичка бюрек), blanched or uncooked bits of squash with eggs filling.

Greek bouréki, bourekáki, bougatsa, and pita.

In Greece, "boureki" (μπουρέκι ) or "bourekaki" (μπουρεκάκι, the diminutive form of the word), and Cyprus "poureki" (πουρέκι, in the Greek dialects of the island) are small pastries made with phyllo dough or with pastry crust. Pastries in the börek family are also called "pita" (pie): "tiropita", "spanakopita" and so on. The traditional filling for spanakopita comprises chopped spinach, feta cheese, onions or spring onions, egg, and seasoning.  A special type of boureki is found in the local cuisine of Crete and especially in the area of Chania. It is a pie filled with sliced zucchini, sliced potatoes, mizithra or feta cheese and spearmint, and may be baked with or without a thick top crust of phyllo. Bougatsa (Greek μπουγάτσα ) is a Greek variation of a börek which consists of either semolina custard, cheese, or minced meat filling between layers of phyllo, and is said to originate in the city of Serres, an art of pastry brought with the immigrants from Constantinople and is most popular in Thessaloniki, in the Central Macedonia region of Northern Greece. The Greek city of Serres achieved the record for the largest puff pastry on 1 June 2008. It weighed 182.2kg, was 20 metres long, and was made by more than 40 bakers.  In Venetian Corfu, boureki was also called "burriche", and filled with meat and leafy greens.  Galaktoboureko is a syrupy phyllo pastry filled with custard, common throughout Greece and Cyprus. In the Epirus, σκερ-μπουρέκ (derives from the Turkish şeker-börek, "sugar-börek") is a small rosewater-flavoured marzipan sweet.  The Pontian Greek piroski (πιροσκί) derives its name from börek too. It's almost identical in name and form to pirozhki (Russian: пирожки), which is of Slavic origin, and popular in Russia and further east.

Israel.

In Israel, "bourekas" () became popular as Sephardic Jewish immigrants who settled there cooked the cuisine of their native countries. Bourekas can be made from either phyllo dough or puff pastry filled with various fillings. The most popular fillings are salty cheese and mashed potato, with other fillings including mushrooms, ground meat, sweet potato, chickpeas, olives, spinach, eggplant and pizza-flavour. Most bourekas in Israel are made with margarine-based doughs rather than butter-based doughs so that (at least the non-cheese filled varieties) can be eaten along with either milk meals or meat meals in accordance with the kosher prohibition against mixing milk and meat at the same meal.  Israeli bourekas come in several shapes and are often sprinkled with seeds. The shapes and choice of seeds are usually indicative of their fillings and have become fairly standard among small bakeries and large factories alike.  For example, Salty cheese (Bulgarian cheese)-filled as well as Tzfat cheese (from the city of Safed) with Za'atar-filled bourekas are usually somewhat flat triangles with white sesame seeds on top. Less salty cheese-filled are semi-circular and usually made with puff pastry. Potato-filled are sesame topped, flat squares or rectangles made with phyllo and tend to be less oily than most other versions. Mushroom-filled are bulging triangles with poppy seeds. Tuna-filled are bulging triangles with nigella seeds. Eggplant-filled are cylindrical with nigella seeds. Bean sprout-filled are cylindrical without seeds. Spinach-filled are either cylindrical with sesame seeds or made with a very delicate, oily phyllo dough shaped into round spirals. Bourekas with a pizza sauce are often round spirals rising toward the middle or sometimes cylindrical without seeds, differentiated from the bean sprout-filled cylinders without seeds by the red sauce oozing out the ends.  Bourekas can also be found with mashed chickpeas, tuna and chickpea mix, pumpkin and even small cocktail frankfurters. Another variation filled with meat (beef, chicken or lamb), pine nuts, parsley and spices are eaten mainly as a main dish but sometimes as meze. The North African version, Brik can also be found in Israel.  Bourekas come in small, "snack" size, often available in self-service bakeries, and sizes as large as four or five inches. The larger ones can serve as a snack or a meal, and can be sliced open, and stuffed with hard-boiled egg, pickles, tomatoes and Sahawiq, a spicy Yemenite paste. Supermarkets stock a wide selection of frozen raw-dough bourekas ready for home baking. Bakeries and street vendors dealing exclusively in bourekas can be found in most Israeli cities. Small coffee-shop type establishments as well as lottery and sports betting parlors serving bourekas and coffee can also be found.  Meat bourekas are less common at bakeries and are considered something which is to be made at home. Meat bourekas are made from lamb, beef or chicken mixed with onion, parsley, coriander, or mint, pine nuts and spices, They are served as hot meze.  The use of margarine in bourekas has caused some controversy in Israel due to a general trend of moving away from trans fats, which are found in many margarines.  Bourekas have given their name to Bourekas films, a peculiarly Israeli genre of comic melodramas or tearjerkers based on ethnic stereotypes.

Italy.

In certain Italian towns of Emilia-Romagna that were formerly city-states such as Ferrara and Modena, there can still be encountered a half-moon shaped sweet pastry called "burriche" or "burricche" which has been described as a mediaeval relic of the Ottoman inspired cuisine of the Jewish communities that lived in certain towns of the area. There can be distinguished the "burriche ferraresi", to which grappa is being added and which are often filled with mandarin marmelade and which are sometimes called in Ferrarese Ladino "burichitas". They resemble in shape and taste the Greek kourabiedes, which are pâte brisée like shortbreads that differ from their Middle Eastern counterparts by having also alcohol such as brandy or mastika added to them.

Former Yugoslavia.

In the nations established or reestablished in the stead of the territories of the former Yugoslavia, burek is regularly available at most bakeries, and usually eaten as "fast food". It is often consumed with yogurt. Apart from being sold at bakeries, burek is served in specialised stores selling burek (or pitas) and yogurt exclusively ("Buregdžinica"). As of 2019, these terms seem to be virtually synonymous to one another, the reason being that Buregdžinica style shops would diversify and sell other pastries as well.

Bosnian burek.

In the former Yugoslavia, "burek", also known as "pita" in Bosnia and Herzegovina exclusively, is an extremely common dish, made with yufka and the Bosnian variant is arguably the most regionally prominent.  It may be eaten for any meal of the day. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the burek is a meat-filled pastry, traditionally rolled in a spiral and cut into sections for serving.  The same spiral filled with cottage cheese is called "sirnica", with spinach and cheese "zeljanica", with potatoes "krompiruša", and all of them are generically referred to as "pita". Eggs are used as a binding agent when making "sirnica" and "zeljanica".  This kind of pastry is also popular in Croatia, where it was imported by Bosnian Croats, and is usually called "rolani burek" (rolled burek).  In Serbian towns, Bosnian pastry dishes were imported by war refugees in the 1990s, and are usually called "sarajevske pite" or "bosanske pite" (Sarajevo pies or Bosnian pies). Similar dishes, although somewhat wider and with thinner dough layers, are called "savijača" or just "pita" in Serbia. These are usually homemade and not traditionally offered in bakeries.  In 2012, Lonely Planet included the Bosnian burek in their "The World's Best Street Food" book.

Round burek in Serbia, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Kosovo and Slovenia.

In Serbia, Albania, Kosovo, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Slovenia, "burek" is made from layers of dough, alternating with layers of other fillings in a circular baking pan and then topped with a last layer of dough. Traditionally it may be baked with no filling ("prazan", meaning empty), with stewed minced meat and onions, or with cheese. Modern bakeries offer cheese and spinach, apple, sour cherries, potato, mushroom, and other fillings.  The recipe for "round" burek was developed in the Serbian town of Niš. In 1498, it was introduced by a famous Turkish baker, Mehmed Oğlu from Istanbul. Eventually burek spread from the southeast (southern Serbia, Kosovo and North Macedonia) to the rest of Yugoslavia. Niš hosts an annual burek competition and festival called "Buregdžijada". In 2005, a 100 kg (220 lbs) burek was made, with a diameter of 2 metres (≈6 ft) and it is considered to have been the world biggest burek ever made.  In Slovenia, burek is one of the most popular fast-food dishes, but at least one researcher found that it is viewed negatively by Slovenes due to their prejudices towards immigrants, especially those from other countries of Former Yugoslavia. A publication of a diploma thesis on this at the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Ljubljana in 2010 stirred controversy regarding the appropriateness of the topic. The mentor of the student that had written the thesis described the topic as legitimate and burek as denoting primitive behavior in Slovenia in spite of it being a sophisticated food. He explained the controversy as a good example of the conclusions of the student. Actually, already in 2008, an employee of the Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts (SRC SASA) had attained his PhD degree with a thesis on meta-burek at the University of Nova Gorica.

Crimea.

"Çibörek", a national dish of the Crimean Tatars, is made from unleavened dough filled with ground lamb, onions and spices, fried in oil. It is a common street food in countries that were once part of the USSR. "Cheburek" is the Russian pronunciation of çibörek, which means "delicious burek" or "raw börek".

Romania.

In Romania, the food falls under the name "plăcintă" and is most often made with cheese or cheese and spinach. In Dobrogea, eastern territory that used to be a Turkish province, one can find both the Turkish influence - plăcintă dobrogeana either filled with cheese or with minced meat and served with sheep yoghurt or the Tatar street food Suberek - a deep fried half Moon cheese filled dough.

Moldova.

The regional cuisine of the Moldavian West bank of the Pruth still yields a type of dumpling-like food called "burechiuşe" (sometimes called "burechiţe") which is described as dough in the shape of a ravioli-like square which is filled with mushrooms such as Boletus edulis, and sealed around its edges and then tossed and subsequently boiled in borscht like soups or chorbas. They are traditionally eaten in the last day of fasting at the time of the Christmas Eve. It is not clear if the "burechiuşe" derive their name from the Turco-Greek "börek" (which is a distinct possibility given the fact that Ottoman Moldavia was ruled for many decades by dynasties of Greek Phanariotes who encouraged Greek colonists to settle in the area), so at the receiving end of cultural and culinary influences coming from them, or it takes its name from that of the mushroom Boletus ("burete" in its Romanian language rhotacised version, and it meant "mushroom" as well as "sponge") by the pattern of the ravioli, which were named after the Italian name of the turnip with which they were once filled.

Tunisian and Algerian brik.

Brik (pronounced breek) is a Tunisian and Algerian derivative of the börek consisting of thin malsouka pastry around a filling, commonly deep fried. The best-known version is the egg brik, a whole egg in a triangular pastry pocket with chopped onion, tuna, harissa and parsley.  Brik pastry (malsouqa or warka) is made by slapping a sticky lump of dough onto a hot non stick surface in overlapping circles to produce the desired size and cooked for a minute or two. Typical fillings include tuna, ground meat, chopped boiled egg, chicken, shrimp, or anchovies garnished with a fried egg and harissa, capers, or cheese.  The Tunisian tradition is that the bride-to-be's mother makes a brik for the potential bridegroom. If the bridegroom eats it without spilling any of the egg yolk he may marry the bride.  The dough sheets themselves, are also referred to as malsouka or warka.

Börek (; also burek and other variants) is a family of baked filled pastries made of a thin flaky dough such as phyllo or yufka, of Ottoman origin, and also found in the cuisines of the Balkans, the South Caucasus, the Levant, and other parts of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. A börek may be prepared in a large pan and cut into portions after baking, or as individual pastries. The top of the börek is occasionally sprinkled with sesame or nigella seeds.

Burek je skupina plněného pečeného nebo smaženého pečiva, z tenkého listového těsta známého jako filo (nebo yufka). Muže být plněný sýrem (často fetou), sirenem nebo kaşarem, mletým masem nebo zeleninou. Pravděpodobně mohl být vyvinutý v oblasti, kde dnes leží moderní Turecko, v antalijských provinciích Osmanské říše v jejím raném období (15. nebo 16. stol.), aby se stal populární součástí osmanské kuchyně. Burek může být připravován na velké pánvi a po dopečení nakrájen na porce, nebo jako jednotlivé pečivo. Seshora může být burek posypán sezamovými semínky.


Mountain pass.

Geography.

Juyongguan (pass) is in the -long Guangou Valley. The pass is one of the three greatest mountain passes of the Great Wall of China. The other two are Jiayuguan and Shanhaiguan (passes). Juyongguan Pass has two'sub-passes,' one at the valley's south and the other at the north. The southern one is called "Nan (pass)" and the northern is called "Badaling".

History.

The pass had many different names during former Chinese dynasties. However, the name "Juyongguan" was used by more than three dynasties. It was first used in the Qin Dynasty when Emperor Qinshihuang ordered the building of the Great Wall. Juyongguan pass was connected to the Great Wall in the Southern and Northern Dynasties era.  The present pass route was built in the Ming Dynasty and received much renovation later. It was a very important strategic place connecting the inner land and the area near the northern border of China. It was also used to defend the ancient city of Beijing.

Cloud Platform.

History.

In the middle of the Juyongguan (pass) and Guangou Valley, there is the Cloud Platform gate, also known as the "Crossing Street Tower". It was built in 1342 during the Yuan Dynasty, and made of white marble with a height of. There were originally three white pagodas atop the platform, giving it the name of "Crossing Street Tower". They were each destroyed in the transitional period between the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasties. In the early Ming Dynasty, a Buddhist Tai'an Temple hall was built on the platform. It was destroyed in 1702 during the Qing Dynasty.

Platform.

The Yuan era Cloud Platform remains. Around the top of the platform are elements such as stone balustrades and a watch post. They remain in the original Yuan style. On the platform are carvings of Buddhist figures and symbols, as well as Buddhist texts written in six languages and scripts:

Portal.

In the middle of the platform's base there is an arched portal - where people, carts, horsemen, and palanquins could pass through. Many images of people and animals were carved inside the arched gate tunnel and around the portal.

Juyong Pass () is a mountain pass located in the Changping District of Beijing Municipality, over from central Beijing. The Great Wall of China passes through, and the Cloud Platform was built here in the year 1342.

Průsmyk Ťü-jung () je průsmyk na území Pekingu, hlavního města Čínské lidové republiky. Leží v obvodě Čchang-pching zhruba padesát kilometrů od centra města. Je jedním ze tří velkých průsmyků, kterými vede Velká čínská zeď, zbylé dva jsou Šan-chaj-kuan a Ťia-jü-kuan.


History of boots.

1800s: During the 19th century football became extremely popular in Britain. People who played would wear their heavy and hard work boots to play. These were the first ever boots with the steel toe cap at the front, long laces and ankle support. These boots also had metal studs or tacks put in the sole the bottom so the players would have more stability on the pitch. In the later part of the 19th century the first ever football-specific boot was designed, made of thick and heavy leather which ran right to the ankle for increased protection; the first boot weighed and would double in weight when it was wet.  1900–1940: During this period the style of football boots stayed very basic. They remained so during the inter-war years, despite many famous football boot producers, such as Gola, Hummel and Valsport becoming evermore popular.  1940–1960: After the Second World War, the designs of the football boot changed dramatically. The South Americans designed a lighter and more flexible boot. This design was focused on increasing good control and better kicking power rather than a more protective boot. In 1954 Adi Dassler introduced screw-in studs which gave the German team a tangible advantage during a rain-lashed World Cup that year. That Dassler was the first to come up with screw-in studs is disputed by his older brother, Rudolf Dassler, founder of Puma.  1960s: In the 1960s many football boots were designed with a lower cut. These enabled the best players in Europe and South America to move faster and change direction quicker. Mitre, Joma and Asics joined the fray.  1970s: The 1970s and the 1980s saw many large advances and changes in the football boot design. These included lighter boots and a variety of colours. Boot sponsorship also became more widespread. Adidas was the market leader in this period. At the end of the decade, in 1979, it cemented its status by releasing what has gone on to become the best selling boot of all time, the Copa Mundial. During this time period, some of the most common types of natural leather came into production: kangaroo leather, calfskin and full-grain/cow leather. Diadora entered the market in this decade.  1980s: Umbro, Lotto and Kelme joined the market in this decade.  1990–2000s: New types of sole were introduced to increase the balance of the player. The Adidas Predator, designed by Australian Craig Johnston in the late 1980s, was released in 1994 and enjoyed instant success. In the first decade of the 21st century laser technology was introduced to produce the first fully customised football boot in 2006.  2010s: In the era of the modern game that sees the tempo of matches becoming faster and players more technically inclined, manufacturers introduce new advances in technology including lighter footwear made from alternative materials.

Different styles for different sports.

Depending on the type of surface, kind of sport and even the wearer's position or role in the game, different cuts of boot and particularly stud arrangements are available. For hard pitches, amateur participants may wear a sneaker shoe or a plastic-stud boot (known as a "moulded sole"); in most sports and positions this is adequate, although on a well-grassed or sodden field, screw-in studs are recommended for more grip; these may be metal, rubber or plastic. When playing on this kind of pitch, some players favor using a boot with screw-in studs in their non-dominant (supporting) foot to provide grip, and a boot with short rubber or plastic studs in the dominant (kicking/passing) foot to provide accuracy.  For indoor football, indoor boots are used. These come with rubber soles, meant to maximize grip on the floor. Some are built on the design of firm-ground football boots, and some are specifically designed for the indoor game. For football on turf or artificial grass, some players wear regular firm ground football boots. But wearing regular football boots on turf greatly reduces the life of the boot, so companies such as Nike have developed football boots for artificial grass (AG).  For rugby union, the screw-in stud is preferred, especially in the positions of prop, hooker, and lock, where more grip is required for contested scrums. These screw-in studs have to be of a maximum length of 21 mm. These boots are often heavier than appropriate for other types of football. One of the more obvious differences between association football and rugby boots is the formation of the studs - rugby boots typically have no fewer than nine studs whilst those worn for soccer can have a minimum of six. Also, some rugby boots tend to have a high cut around the ankles but this type is becoming less popular, especially at elite level. There are several types of rugby boot, meant for players in different positions.  Screw-in studs have been banned in some Australian rules football leagues since the 1990s due to the frequency of severe injuries to players as a result of contact with the metal. In football, referees must now check all boots prior to kick off to check for damage to studs, to prevent injury. Before this time, preference between the screw-in stud was based primarily on weather conditions.  More recently, moulded soles with specially designed boots known as "blades" have moulded soles facing in multiple directions, theoretically to maximise grip and minimise ankle injury. Recently, however, "bladed" football boots have faced criticism from some UK sporting bodies for causing potentially serious injuries to players. English football club Manchester United have even banned their players from wearing boots with bladed studs after players like Wayne Rooney and David Beckham suffered repeated metatarsal injuries.

Football markets and brands.

Originally, football boots were available only in black, but in more recent years have become available in various colours such as blue, green, red, white, yellow, silver, gold and even pink. Big name companies such as Nike, Adidas, Puma and the like have made an impact on the market with record sales. Nike's flagship shoes are the Hypervenoms, Magistas, Tiempos and The Nike Mercurial worn by Cristiano Ronaldo and others. German company Adidas are responsible for the Predator range worn by David Beckham, Gary Neville, and Steven Gerrard, as well as the long-surviving Copa Mundial. The entire German national side wore Adidas boots during the 2006 FIFA World Cup. Another German firm Puma flagship shoes are the Kings, Evospeed, Evopower and Evotouch worn by Sergio Agüero, Marco Reus, Cesc Fàbregas and Antoine Griezmann. The Puma King soccer cleat have been worn by legendary players such as Pelé, Eusébio, Johan Cruyff and Diego Maradona.  In recent times, the most successful companies are Nike and Adidas, and their products enjoy great popularity among professional footballers; among Nike's endorsers are two-time FIFA World Player of the Year Ronaldinho, aforementioned duo Wayne Rooney and Cristiano Ronaldo, striker Ronaldo, Wesley Sneijder, Zlatan Ibrahimović, and other popular players. Adidas, which has been providing football boots with screw-in studs to the German national side since the 1954 FIFA World Cup, have made their impact on the modern market by signing big name players as endorsers: players such as David Beckham, former France captain Zinedine Zidane, Frank Lampard, six-time world player of the year Lionel Messi, David Villa, Steven Gerrard and other successful players.

Customization.

Many players use personalisation around the world to improve the look of their boots and to make them easily identifiable in the club dressing room. It is now very common to have football boots fully personalised with either a name, initials, number or club logo. Many retailers offer various options and colours to personalise football boots by using the embroidery machinery.

Football boots, called cleats or soccer shoes in North America, are an item of footwear worn when playing football. Those designed for grass pitches have studs on the outsole to aid grip. From simple and humble beginnings football boots have come a long way and today find themselves subject to much research, development, sponsorship and marketing at the heart of a multi-national global industry. Modern "boots" are not truly boots in that they do not cover the ankle - like most other types of specialist sports footwear, their basic design and appearance has converged with that of sneakers since the 1960s.

Kopačky jsou specializovaná sportovní obuv určená pro míčovou hru fotbal a sporty z něj odvozené. K výrobě se používá Kůže (materiál) či syntetické materiály. Rozdělené jsou také do skupin podle typu povrchu, na němž se mají používat.


Plot.

Lisa needs a new saxophone reed for the school talent show. Homer agrees to buy her one but visits Moe's Tavern first. When he arrives at the music shop next door, it has closed for the night. Dejected, Homer returns to the bar, where he finds the shop's owner. Moe convinces him to re-open his store, but when Homer reaches the school with the new reed, Lisa has already butchered her performance. Humiliated and dejected, she ignores her father's attempts to appease her. While watching old family videos, Homer realizes how much he has neglected Lisa over the years.  After Homer's attempts to mend his relationship with Lisa fail, he buys her a pony with a loan through the power plant credit union. Lisa awakes one morning to find the pony lying next to her in bed. She is delighted with it, which she names Princess, and forgives her father. Homer is glad Lisa respects him again, but Marge is upset when he ignores her warning that they cannot afford a horse.  To pay for Princess's stabling, Homer takes a second job at the Kwik-E-Mart, which exhausts him over time. Marge tells the children about the sacrifices their father is making, but says Lisa must decide for herself whether to part with Princess. After watching Bart take advantage of a sleep-deprived Homer at the Kwik-E-Mart, Lisa shares a heartbreaking goodbye with her pony. She tells Homer there is a "big dumb animal" she loves even more than Princess: her father. When Homer quits his job at the Kwik-E-Mart, Apu admits he was one of his best employees, despite being crude and lazy.

Production.

"Lisa's Pony" was written by Al Jean and Mike Reiss, who were show runners of "The Simpsons" when the episode was produced. According to Reiss, being a show runner is a stressful job as he has to supervise all the processes the episodes go through. Jean and Reiss were working approximately 80–100 hours a week when they were assigned to write an episode on top of their regular job. "Lisa's Pony" was written between 10.00 p.m. and 1.00 a.m. every night after they had finished their 12- to 14-hour workday. They came up with idea for it while going through a list of Lisa's interests, and Jean told Reiss, "Lisa likes ponies; we [should] give her a pony." While writing down ideas for the story, they decided to explore the consequences of having a pony in a suburban house.  Carlos Baeza served as animation director for the episode. "The Simpsons" creator Matt Groening said animating horses is "the most difficult thing to do". The animators used Eadweard Muybridge's famous and other photo references as models for Princess. In the talent show scene, Lisa is lit up by a spotlight when she performs with her saxophone. After the episode came back from the animation studio in Korea, the staff noticed the light was colored blue, making Lisa look like "a Smurf". The scene had to be re-animated in the United States, and the spotlight effect was reduced.  The woman who sells the pony to Homer is based on actress Katharine Hepburn. Cast member Tress MacNeille provided the voice for the character. Lunchlady Doris, a recurring character on "The Simpsons", made her first appearance on the show in this episode as one of the judges in the talent show. She was voiced by the show's script supervisor Doris Grau, who had a "beautiful, tobacco-cured voice" the staff thought was perfect for the role. Following Grau's death in 1995, the characters she voiced were retired out of respect, with the exception of Lunchlady Doris, who stayed on the show without speaking roles.

Cultural references.

The beginning of the episode, in which Homer has a dream of himself as an ape, is a reference to the sequence from the 1968 science fiction film "". "The Simpsons" director David Silverman had difficulties with making the ape resemble Homer and struggled with the design for several hours. After hurting Lisa's feelings at talent show, Homer watches old home movies of him and Lisa, including one in which a young Homer is seen watching "Fantasy Island" on television instead of paying attention to Lisa's taking her first steps. The scene in which Lisa wakes up in her bed and discovers the pony lying next to her is a reference to a scene in the 1972 film "The Godfather", in which Jack Woltz awakens to discover the severed head of his favorite horse placed in his bed. The musical chords used in the episode are the same as in the film but shortened. While driving home from the Kwik-E-Mart, Homer falls asleep behind the wheel and dreams that he is in Slumberland, drawn in the style of Winsor McCay's "Little Nemo in Slumberland". The song "Golden Slumbers" by The Beatles plays during the sequence.  One of the children at the talent show performs the song "My Ding-a-Ling" by Chuck Berry. According to Jean, it was a "huge difficulty" to clear the rights for the song so it could be used on the show. John Boylan, who produced the album "The Simpsons Sing the Blues", personally appealed to Berry to clear the song for them. The lyrics to "My Ding-a-Ling", with their sly tone and innuendo, caused many radio stations to ban the song. This is parodied in the episode when Principal Skinner rushes the child off the stage before he is able to finish the first line of the refrain. The man who owns the music shop Homer visits is based on actor Wally Cox.

Reception.

In its original American broadcast, "Lisa's Pony" finished 35th in the ratings for the week of November 4–10, 1991, with a Nielsen rating of 13.8, equivalent to approximately 12.7 million viewing households. It was the highest-rated show on Fox that week. "Lisa's Pony" was released with the episode "Treehouse of Horror II" on a VHS collection in 1999, called "Best of the Simpsons". Homer's voice actor, Dan Castellaneta, received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performance in 1992 for his performance in the episode.  Since airing, the episode has received positive reviews from television critics.  Niel Harvey of "The Roanoke Times" called the episode a "classic bit of Simpsonia," and "The Baltimore Sun"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Kevin Valkenburg named it one of the "truly classic" "The Simpsons" episodes.  The authors of the book "I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide", Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, called the episode "good stuff" and praised the "nice flashbacks to Lisa as a baby".  Cinema Blend's Bryce Wilson called "Lisa's Pony" one of the best Lisa episodes, and added that the only words to describe it are "funny as hell". Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed rated the episode a5 (of 5), praising it for its references to "The Godfather" and "2001: A Space Odyssey" which "film buffs will find uproarious". Meyers added that Homer's and Lisa's relationship is "the heart of the episode, showing Homer to be more than just a brute".  The episode's reference to "The Godfather " was named the seventh greatest film reference in the history of the show by "Total Film"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Nathan Ditum. "The Star-Ledger" named this episode's reference to "2001: A Space Odyssey" one of their favorite references to Stanley Kubrick on "The Simpsons".  "The Guardian"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s David Eklid said episodes such as "Lisa's Pony" and "Stark Raving Dad" make season three "pretty much [the] best season of any television show, ever". Molly Griffin of "The Observer" commented that "Lisa's Pony" is one of the third season's episodes that "make the show into the cultural force it is today".  Bill Gibron of DVD Verdict said "Lisa's Pony" is a "priceless part" of the show because of its "meshing of old storylines with new experiences, combined with some of the best jokes in the series". Gibron gave the episode a perfect score of 100.  DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson, however, gave the episode a less positive review, commenting that episodes "in which Homer has to redeem himself to others aren't a rarity, and 'Lisa's Pony' falls in the middle of that genre's pack. Homer's escapades at the Kwik-E-Mart definitely add life to the proceedings, and some of his other antics make the show good. I like 'Lisa's Pony' but don't consider it to offer a great program."  According to Greg Suarez of The Digital Bits, "Lisa's Pony" is considered a fan favorite. In a list of the show's top 10 episodes, compiled by the webmaster of the fan site The Simpsons Archive and published by "USA Today", this episode was listed in seventh place.  Paul Cantor, a professor of English at the University of Virginia, utilized "Lisa's Pony" as an example that "The Simpsons" does not promote negative morals and values, which some critics have criticized the show for.

"Lisa's Pony" is the eighth episode in the third season of the American animated television series "The Simpsons". It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 7, 1991. In this episode, Homer goes drinking at Moe's Tavern instead of buying a new reed for Lisa's saxophone, making her flop at the school talent show. Desperate to win back his daughter's love, Homer gives Lisa the one thing she has always wanted: a pony. Homer struggles with two jobs to cover the cost of sheltering and feeding it. After seeing the sacrifices he endures to pay for it, Lisa decides to part with her pony.

Cena lásky (v angličtině Lisa's Pony) je 8. díl 3. řady seriálu Simpsonovi. V USA se tento díl vysílal 7. listopadu 1991.


Flux density received from an unresolvable "point source".

For the flux density received from a remote unresolvable "point source", the measuring instrument, usually telescopic, though not able to resolve any detail of the source itself, must be able to optically resolve enough details of the sky around the point source, so as to record radiation coming from it only, uncontaminated by radiation from other sources. In this case, spectral flux density is the quantity that describes the rate at which energy transferred by electromagnetic radiation is received from that unresolved point source, per unit receiving area facing the source, per unit wavelength range.  At any given wavelength "λ", the spectral flux density, F, can be determined by the following procedure:  Spectral flux density is often used as the quantity on the "y"-axis of a graph representing the spectrum of a light-source, such as a star.

Flux density of the radiative field at a measuring point.

There are two main approaches to definition of the spectral flux density at a measuring point in an electromagnetic radiative field. One may be conveniently here labelled the'vector approach', the other the'scalar approach'. The vector definition refers to the full spherical integral of the spectral radiance (also known as the specific radiative intensity or specific intensity) at the point, while the scalar definition refers to the many possible hemispheric integrals of the spectral radiance (or specific intensity) at the point. The vector definition seems to be preferred for theoretical investigations of the physics of the radiative field. The scalar definition seems to be preferred for practical applications.

Vector definition of flux density - 'full spherical flux density'.

The vector approach defines flux density as a vector at a point of space and time prescribed by the investigator. To distinguish this approach, one might speak of the 'full spherical flux density'. In this case, nature tells the investigator what is the magnitude, direction, and sense of the flux density at the prescribed point. For the flux density vector, one may write where formula_2 denotes the spectral radiance (or specific intensity) at the point formula_3 at time formula_4 and frequency formula_5, formula_6 denotes a variable unit vector with origin at the point formula_3, formula_8 denotes an element of solid angle around formula_6, and formula_10 indicates that the integration extends over the full range of solid angles of a sphere.  Mathematically, defined as an unweighted integral over the solid angle of a full sphere, the flux density is the first moment of the spectral radiance (or specific intensity) with respect to solid angle. It is not common practice to make the full spherical range of measurements of the spectral radiance (or specific intensity) at the point of interest, as is needed for the mathematical spherical integration specified in the strict definition; the concept is nevertheless used in theoretical analysis of radiative transfer.  As described below, if the direction of the flux density vector is known in advance because of a symmetry, namely that the radiative field is uniformly layered and flat, then the vector flux density can be measured as the 'net flux', by algebraic summation of two oppositely sensed scalar readings in the known direction, perpendicular to the layers.  At a given point in space, in a steady-state field, the vector flux density, a radiometric quantity, is equal to the time-averaged Poynting vector, an electromagnetic field quantity.  Within the vector approach to the definition, however, there are several specialized sub-definitions. Sometimes the investigator is interested only in a specific direction, for example the vertical direction referred to a point in a planetary or stellar atmosphere, because the atmosphere there is considered to be the same in every horizontal direction, so that only the vertical component of the flux is of interest. Then the horizontal components of flux are considered to cancel each other by symmetry, leaving only the vertical component of the flux as non-zero. In this case some astrophysicists think in terms of the astrophysical flux (density), which they define as the vertical component of the flux (of the above general definition) divided by the number. And sometimes the astrophysicist uses the term Eddington flux to refer to the vertical component of the flux (of the above general definition) divided by the number.

Scalar definition of flux density - 'hemispheric flux density'.

The scalar approach defines flux density as a scalar-valued function of a direction and sense in space prescribed by the investigator at a point prescribed by the investigator. Sometimes this approach is indicated by the use of the term 'hemispheric flux'. For example, an investigator of thermal radiation, emitted from the material substance of the atmosphere, received at the surface of the earth, is interested in the vertical direction, and the downward sense in that direction. This investigator thinks of a unit area in a horizontal plane, surrounding the prescribed point. The investigator wants to know the total power of all the radiation from the atmosphere above in every direction, propagating with a downward sense, received by that unit area. For the flux density scalar for the prescribed direction and sense, we may write where with the notation above, formula_12 indicates that the integration extends only over the solid angles of the relevant hemisphere, and formula_13 denotes the angle between formula_6 and the prescribed direction. The term formula_15 is needed on account of Lambert's law. Mathematically, the quantity formula_16 is not a vector because it is a positive scalar-valued function of the prescribed direction and sense, in this example, of the downward vertical. In this example, when the collected radiation is propagating in the downward sense, the detector is said to be "looking upwards". The measurement can be made directly with an instrument (such as a pyrgeometer) that collects the measured radiation all at once from all the directions of the imaginary hemisphere; in this case, Lambert-cosine-weighted integration of the spectral radiance (or specific intensity) is not performed mathematically after the measurement; the Lambert-cosine-weighted integration has been performed by the physical process of measurement itself.

Net flux.

In a flat horizontal uniformly layered radiative field, the hemispheric fluxes, upwards and downwards, at a point, can be subtracted to yield what is often called the net flux. The net flux then has a value equal to the magnitude of the full spherical flux vector at that point, as described above.

Comparison between vector and scalar definitions of flux density.

The radiometric description of the electromagnetic radiative field at a point in space and time is completely represented by the spectral radiance (or specific intensity) at that point. In a region in which the material is uniform and the radiative field is isotropic and homogeneous, let the spectral radiance (or specific intensity) be denoted by, a scalar-valued function of its arguments,,, and, where denotes a unit vector with the direction and sense of the geometrical vector from the source point to the detection point, where denotes the coordinates of, at time and wave frequency. Then, in the region, takes a constant scalar value, which we here denote by. In this case, the value of the vector flux density at is the zero vector, while the scalar or hemispheric flux density at in every direction in both senses takes the constant scalar value. The reason for the value is that the hemispheric integral is half the full spherical integral, and the integrated effect of the angles of incidence of the radiation on the detector requires a halving of the energy flux according to Lambert's cosine law; the solid angle of a sphere is.  The vector definition is suitable for the study of general radiative fields. The scalar or hemispheric spectral flux density is convenient for discussions in terms of the two-stream model of the radiative field, which is reasonable for a field that is uniformly stratified in flat layers, when the base of the hemisphere is chosen to be parallel to the layers, and one or other sense (up or down) is specified. In an inhomogeneous non-isotropic radiative field, the spectral flux density defined as a scalar-valued function of direction and sense contains much more directional information than does the spectral flux density defined as a vector, but the full radiometric information is customarily stated as the spectral radiance (or specific intensity).

Collimated beam.

For the present purposes, the light from a star, and for some particular purposes, the light of the sun, can be treated as a practically collimated beam, but apart from this, a collimated beam is rarely if ever found in nature, though artificially produced beams can be very nearly collimated. The spectral radiance (or specific intensity) is suitable for the description of an uncollimated radiative field. The integrals of spectral radiance (or specific intensity) with respect to solid angle, used above, are singular for exactly collimated beams, or may be viewed as Dirac delta functions. Therefore, the specific radiative intensity is unsuitable for the description of a collimated beam, while spectral flux density is suitable for that purpose. At a point within a collimated beam, the spectral flux density vector has a value equal to the Poynting vector, a quantity defined in the classical Maxwell theory of electromagnetic radiation.

Relative spectral flux density.

Sometimes it is more convenient to display graphical spectra with vertical axes that show the relative spectral flux density. In this case, the spectral flux density at a given wavelength is expressed as a fraction of some arbitrarily chosen reference value. Relative spectral flux densities are expressed as pure numbers without any units.  Spectra showing the relative spectral flux density are used when we are interested in comparing the spectral flux densities of different sources; for example, if we want to show how the spectra of blackbody sources vary with absolute temperature, it is not necessary to show the absolute values. The relative spectral flux density is also useful if we wish to compare a source's flux density at one wavelength with the same source's flux density at another wavelength; for example, if we wish to demonstrate how the Sun's spectrum peaks in the visible part of the EM spectrum, a graph of the Sun's relative spectral flux density will suffice.

In spectroscopy, spectral flux density is the quantity that describes the rate at which energy is transferred by electromagnetic radiation through a real or virtual surface, per unit surface area and per unit wavelength (or, equivalently, per unit frequency). It is a radiometric rather than a photometric measure. In SI units it is measured in W m, although it can be more practical to use W m nm (1 W m nm = 1 GW m = 1 W mm) or W m μm (1 W m μm = 1 MW m), W·m·Hz, Jansky or solar flux units. The terms irradiance, radiant exitance, radiant emittance, and radiosity are closely related to spectral flux density.

Spektrální intenzita záření je spektrální radiometrická veličina, která pro danou vlnovou délku (resp. frekvenci) záření vyjadřuje, jaký zářivý tok na jednotku vlnové délky (resp. frekvence) prochází jednotkou plochy. Odpovídající integrální radiometrická veličina udávající součet přes celé spektrum je intenzita záření.


Gameplay.

SimPort.

SimPort allows players to send Star performers on tour to perform special shows in their friends' towns if you have internet connection and friends who play the game. They can also invite your friends to send their Sims to perform for you and customize the stage in venues with special themed backgrounds, props, lights, and special effects. Players can throw objects at performers – ranging from flowers to lettuce. Choosing not to use SimPort will not change gameplay with any interactions that do not require SimPort. A player can unlock backgrounds, props, and costumes for their Sim if they choose to use SimPort. Sims who visit a player's town via SimPort will default to the traits, clothes and objects that they have locally in their game. Players can message other players while their Sims are performing in other towns. Note, there are 3 versions: the regular, the Limited Edition, and the Katy Perry edition. These versions do not have much difference other than special venues, stages, and clothing.

Starlight Shores.

Starlight Shores is a new world that is included in "Showtime". It is loosely based on a Californian-type urban area (Downtown Los Angeles). It has a park, a coffee house and show venues in which Sims can perform. There is also a beach with houses along the coastline. SimFests are held in Starlight Shores. These allow singers, acrobats and magicians to compete in front of an audience.

Stages.

Players will be able to set up their own stage when their magicians, acrobats, and singers perform at a venue. The set up stage option appears up to 2 hours prior to a live show and will prompt buy mode's "Props" section. Players will have a variety of items to choose from and are be able to choose a "Previously Saved" prop default, or create a brand new one. There is also the option to use the venue's pre set prop stage. Props serve as home decor and furniture as well. Lighting effects, flames, butterflies and other effects are also available as props. When a Sim has finished performing, they will get reviews on their performances. Sims can have anywhere from awesome to terrible shows. Moodlets reflect their performances.

Careers.

Rise to Stardom—Venture into a new world and live the dream as a singer, acrobat, magician, or DJ. Watch your Sims rise to fame—or go down in flames as they perform for other Sims.

New Objects.

The expansion pack includes pool tables, karaoke machines, DJ booths, new guitars, batons, microphones, spotlights, speaker systems, pull up bars, jukeboxes, an electro-dance sphere, domino table, skeeball game, photo booth, a golf driving range, portable MP3 players and new lighting. As with all previous expansion packs, "Showtime" includes new clothing and hairstyles. Also includes new stage props and statues to use on your stages.

Release.

Limited Collector's Edition.

A special Katy Perry edition entitled "The Sims 3 Showtime: Katy Perry Collector's Edition" included Katy Perry themed objects, hair styles, and venue based on her concept for her album "Teenage Dream". The Collector's Edition includes a downloadable venue, plus a Katy Perry themed hairstyle, guitar, exclusive poster, 2 fruit costumes, and 3 fruit-themed stage props that include banana, cherry, and watermelon statues.

Reception.

Abigail Holden of "Lazygamer.net" gave it 8.5 praising its new additions and careers but criticizing the game for some bugs.

The Sims 3: Showtime is the sixth expansion pack for "The Sims 3" on OS X and Windows. It was released on March 2012. A limited collector's edition includes exclusive in-game content such as a stage and two costumes along with a poster based on American singer Katy Perry.

The Sims 3: Showtime z dílny studia The Sims, vám poskytne možnost provázet svého Simíka na cestě z absolutního amatéra po profesionála prken, jež znamenají svět a dělit se o své zážitky se svými přáteli. S pomocí nových a inovativních sociálních prvků, jako je například individuální novinkový kanál, budou hráči v kontaktu dosud nevídaným způsobem. Předávání a výměna zážitků a zkušeností s přáteli či dalšími spoluhráči "The Sims" se odehrává zcela bez nutnosti opouštět prostředí hry. Hráči budou moci vejít do nového světa a splnit si svůj sen stát se zpěváky, akrobaty, kouzelníky nebo diskžokeji.


Service history.

World War II.

1943.

Departing Philadelphia, on 29 August 1943, "Cowpens" arrived at Pearl Harbor on 19 September to begin the active and distinguished war career which was to earn her a Navy Unit Commendation. She sailed with Task Force 14 for the strike on Wake Island on 5–6 October, then returned to Pearl Harbor to prepare for strikes on the Marshall Islands preliminary to invasion. She sortied from Pearl Harbor 10 November to launch air strikes on Mille and Makin atolls from 19 to 24 November, and Kwajalein and Wotje on 4 December, returning to her base on 9 December.

1944.

Joining Task Force 58, "Cowpens" sailed from Pearl Harbor on 16 January 1944 for the invasion of the Marshalls. Her planes pounded Kwajalein and Eniwetok the last 3 days of the month to prepare for the assault landing on 31 January. Using Majuro as a base, the force struck at Truk on 16–17 February and the Mariana Islands on 21–22 February before putting into Pearl Harbor on 4 March. Returning to Majuro, Task Force 58 based here for attacks on the western Carolines; "Cowpens" supplied air and antisubmarine patrols during the raids on Palau, Yap, Ulithi, and Woleai from 30 March to 1 April. After operating off New Guinea during the invasion of Hollandia from 21 to 28 April, "Cowpens" took part in the strikes on Truk, Satawan and Ponape from 29 April to 1 May, returning to Majuro on 14 May for training.  From 6 June to 10 July 1944, "Cowpens" operated in the Marianas operation. Her planes struck the island of Saipan to aid the assault troops, and made supporting raids on Iwo Jima, Pagan Island, Rota, and Guam. They also took part in the Battle of the Philippine Sea on 19–20 June, accounting for a number of the huge tally of enemy planes downed. After a brief overhaul at Pearl Harbor, "Cowpens" rejoined the fast carrier task force at Eniwetok on 17 August. Then, on 29 August, she sailed for the pre-invasion strikes on the Palaus, whose assault was an essential preliminary for the return to the Philippines. From 13 to 17 September, she was detached from the force to cover the landings on Morotai, then rejoined it for sweep, patrol, and attack missions against Luzon from 21 to 24 September. "Cowpens", with her task group, sent air strikes to neutralize Japanese bases on Okinawa and Formosa from 10 to 14 October, and when and were hit by torpedoes, "Cowpens" provided air cover for their safe withdrawal, rejoining her task group on 20 October. En route to Ulithi, she was recalled when the Japanese Fleet threatened the Leyte invasion, and during the Battle of Surigao Strait phase of the decisive Battle for Leyte Gulf on 25–26 October, provided combat air patrol for the ships pursuing the fleeing remnant of the Japanese fleet. Continuing her support of the Philippines advance, "Cowpens"' planes struck Luzon repeatedly during December. During the disastrous Typhoon Cobra on 18 December, "Cowpens" lost a man: ship's air officer Lieutenant Commander Robert Price, several planes, and some equipment, but skillful work by her crew prevented major damage, and she reached Ulithi safely on 21 December to repair her storm damage.

1945.

From 30 December 1944 to 26 January 1945, "Cowpens" was at sea for the Lingayen Gulf landings. Her planes struck targets on Formosa, Luzon, the Indochinese coast and the Hong Kong-Canton area and Okinawa during January. On 10 February, "Cowpens" sortied from Ulithi for the Iwo Jima operation, striking the Tokyo area, supporting the initial landings from 19 to 22 February, and hitting Okinawa on 1 March.  On 13 June, following an overhaul at San Francisco and training at Pearl Harbor, "Cowpens" sailed on for San Pedro Bay, Leyte. Along the way she struck Wake Island on 20 June. Rejoining Task Force 58, "Cowpens" sailed from San Pedro Bay on 1 July to join in the final raids on the Japanese mainland. Her planes pounded Tokyo, Kure, and other cities of Hokkaidō and Honshū until 15 August. "Cowpens" was the first American carrier to enter Tokyo Harbor. Remaining off Tokyo Bay until the occupation landings began on 30 August, "Cowpens" launched photographic reconnaissance missions to patrol airfields and shipping movements, and to locate and supply prisoner-of-war camps. Men from "Cowpens" were the first Americans to set foot on the Japanese mainland, and were largely responsible for the emergency activation of Yokosuka airfield for Allied use and the liberation of a POW camp near Niigata. From 8 November 1945 to 28 January 1946 "Cowpens" made two voyages to Pearl Harbor, Guam, and Okinawa to return veterans on "Magic Carpet" runs.

Post-War.

On 3 December 1946, "Cowpens" was placed in commission reserve at Mare Island. On 15 May 1959, she was reclassified as an aircraft transport, with a new hull number, AVT-1. Then, on 1 November, she was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register and sold for scrap.

Awards.

In addition to her Navy Unit Commendation, "Cowpens" received 12 battle stars for World War II service.

Commemoration.

Each year, the town of Cowpens, South Carolina, holds a 4-day festival honoring veterans of "Cowpens". "The Mighty Moo Festival" was first held in 1977, with one crewmember of CVL-25 attending. Since then, as many as 115 CVL-25 veterans have attended the festival at once. Also, since the launch and commissioning of the in 1991, the festival has included actively serving crewmen or women of CG-63 sent by the ship's commanding officer, as well as previously serving veterans of CG 63. The festival is held from Wednesday through Saturday preceding Father's Day each June. During the 1980s, the town of Cowpens, South Carolina, actively petitioned Congress to name another ship "Cowpens", which may have played a direct role in choosing this name for CG-63.

USS "Cowpens" (CV-25/CVL-25/AVT-1), nicknamed "The Mighty Moo", was an 11,000-ton Independence class light aircraft carrier that served the United States Navy from 1943 to 1947.

USS "Cowpens" (CVL-25) byla lehká letadlová loď Námořnictva Spojených států, která působila ve službě v letech 1943–1947. Jednalo se o čtvrtou jednotku třídy "Independence".


Early life and education.

McGinn was born in West Hartlepool, a town in County Durham, England. Several of his relatives, including both grandfathers, were miners. His father, Joseph, left school to become a miner but put himself through night school and became a building manager instead. McGinn was the eldest of three children, all sons. When he was three, the family moved to Gillingham, Kent, and eight years later to Blackpool, Lancashire. Having failed his 11-plus, he attended a technical school in Kent, then a secondary modern in Blackpool, but did well enough in his O-levels to be transferred to the local grammar school for his A-levels.  In 1968, he began a degree in psychology at the University of Manchester, obtaining a first-class honours degree in 1971 and an MA in 1972, also in psychology. He was admitted in 1972 to Jesus College, Oxford, at first to study for a Bachelor of Letters postgraduate degree, but switched to the Bachelor of Philosophy (BPhil) postgraduate programme on the recommendation of his advisor, Michael R. Ayers. In 1973, he was awarded the university's prestigious John Locke Prize in Mental Philosophy; one of the examiners was A.J. Ayer. He received his BPhil in 1974, writing a thesis under the supervision of Michael R. Ayers and P. F. Strawson on the semantics of Donald Davidson.

Teaching career.

Posts.

McGinn taught at University College London for 11 years, first as a lecturer in philosophy (1974–1984), then as reader (1984–1985). In 1985, he succeeded Gareth Evans as Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy at the University of Oxford, a position he held until 1990. He held visiting professorships at the University of California, Los Angeles (1979), University of Bielefeld (1982), University of Southern California (1983), Rutgers University (1984), University of Helsinki (1986), City University of New York (1988) and Princeton University (1992). In 1990, he joined the philosophy department at Rutgers as a full professor, working alongside Jerry Fodor. He stayed at Rutgers until 2005, joining the University of Miami in 2006 as Professor of Philosophy and Cooper Fellow.

Sexual-harassment complaint.

McGinn resigned his position at the University of Miami in January 2013, effective at the end of the calendar year, after a female graduate student complained that he had been sexually harassing her, including by text and email. These documents have since been released and include explicit references to McGinn's desire to have sex with the student. He denied any wrongdoing.  Represented by Ann Olivarius, the student complained in April 2014 to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission that the university had mishandled the case. She filed a lawsuit in October 2015 against the university, McGinn, and Edward Erwin, another philosopher at Miami. The complaint accused McGinn of sexual harassment, civil assault and defamation, and Erwin of defamation. It alleged that the university had violated Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 (which requires that women have equal access to education) by failing to investigate the student's complaint adequately and by failing to protect her from retaliation, including from McGinn on his blog before his resignation came into effect. McGinn's lawyer, Andrew Berman, said that McGinn denied the claim. The lawsuit was settled in October 2016. All parties are prohibited from disclosing the terms of the settlement.  The incident triggered a debate about the extent to which sexism remains prevalent in academia, particularly in academic philosophy, and the effect on students and teachers of harassment and harassment-related complaints. In 2014 McGinn was offered a visiting professorship by the philosophy department at East Carolina University, but the offer was reversed by university administrators. McGinn blamed the sexual-harassment allegations for East Carolina's decision.

Writing.

Philosophy of mind.

McGinn has written extensively on philosophical logic, metaphysics, and the philosophy of language but is best known for his work in the philosophy of mind. He is known in particular for the development of the idea that human minds are incapable of solving the problem of consciousness, a position known as new mysterianism. In addition to his academic publications on consciousness – including "The Character of Mind" (1982), "The Problem of Consciousness" (1991) and "Consciousness and Its Objects" (2004) – he has written a popular introduction, "The Mysterious Flame: Conscious Minds in a Material World" (1999).  Owen Flanagan introduced the term "new mysterians" in 1991 (named after Question Mark & the Mysterians, a 1960s band) to describe McGinn's position and that of Thomas Nagel, first described in Nagel's "What is it like to be a bat?" (1974). McGinn introduced his position in "Can We Solve the Mind-Body Problem?" ("Mind", 1989), and in "The Problem of Consciousness" (1991), arguing that the human mind is incapable of comprehending itself entirely. Mark Rowlands writes that the 1989 article was largely responsible for reviving the debate about phenomenal consciousness, or the nature of experience. McGinn argued in the paper for the idea of cognitive closure: A type of mind M is cognitively closed with respect to a property P (or theory T), if and only if the concept-forming procedures at M's disposal cannot extend to a grasp of P (or an understanding of T). Conceiving minds come in different kinds, equipped with varying powers and limitations, biases and blindspots, so that properties (or theories) may be accessible to some minds but not to others. What is closed to the mind of a rat may be open to the mind of a monkey, and what is open to us may be closed to the monkey.... But such closure does not reflect adversely on the reality of the properties that lie outside the representational capacities in question; a property is no less real for not being reachable from a certain kind of perceiving and conceiving mind.  Although human beings might grasp the concept of consciousness, McGinn argues that we cannot understand its causal basis: neither direct examination of consciousness nor of the brain can identify the properties that cause or provide the mechanism for consciousness, or how "technicolour phenomenology [can] arise from soggy grey matter." Thus, his answer to the hard problem of consciousness is that the answer is inaccessible to us.  New, or epistemological, mysterianism is contrasted with the old, or ontological, form, namely that consciousness is inherently mysterious or supernatural. The new mysterians are not Cartesian dualists. The argument holds that human minds cannot understand consciousness, not that there is anything supernatural about it. The mind-body problem is simply "the perimeter of our conceptual anatomy making itself felt." McGinn describes this as existential naturalism.

Animal rights.

McGinn is a supporter of animal rights, calling our treatment of non-humans "deeply and systematically immoral." His position is that we make the mistake of seeing the non-human only in relation to the human, because of "species solipsism": the farmer sees animals as food, the pet owner as companions for humans, the activist as victims of humans, the evolutionary biologist as "gene survival machines." But "their "esse" is not human "percipi"" – "The rhino looks at us with the same skewed solipsism we bring to him," McGinn writes, "and surely we do not want to be as limited in our outlook as he is." He argues that "we need to improve our "manners"" toward animals by recognizing that they have their own lives, and that those lives ought to be respected.

Novels and articles.

Outside his work in philosophy, McGinn has regularly contributed reviews and short stories to the "London Review of Books" and "The New York Review of Books", and has written occasionally for "Nature", "The New York Times", "The Guardian", "The Wall Street Journal", "The Times" and "The Times Literary Supplement". He has also written two novels, "The Space Trap" (1992) and "Bad Patches" (2012).

Radio and television.

In 1984, McGinn discussed John Searle's Reith lectures on BBC Radio Three with Searle, Richard Gregory and Colin Blakemore. The following year, he and Sir Andrew Huxley debated animal rights with Bernard Williams as the moderator. He was interviewed for Jonathan Miller's documentary mini-series, "" (2003), later broadcast as "The Atheism Tapes" (2004). He has also appeared in eleven episodes of "Closer to Truth" hosted by Robert Lawrence Kuhn, discussing consciousness, personal identity, free will, and materialism.

Further reading.

Colin McGinn (born 10 March 1950) is a British philosopher. He has held teaching posts and professorships at University College London, the University of Oxford, Rutgers University and the University of Miami.

Colin McGinn (* 10. březen 1950) je anglický filozof. Zaobírá se především filozofií mysli. Je ústředním představitelem tzv. Nového mysterianismu ("New mysterianism"), který tvrdí, že není v lidských možnostech vyřešit záhadu vědomí a subjektivity, neboť lidská mysl nemůže plně odstoupit od sama sebe, aby se prozkoumala (pojem new mysterianism vymyslel roku 1991 Owen Flanagan, aby popsal právě McGinnův - a Nagelův - přístup k tématu mysli a vědomí). Mysterianismus však v McGinnově pojetí neznamená přitakání mystice či nadpřirozenu, naopak McGinn se hlásí k ateismu. Krom filozofických prací píše i prózu ("The Space Trap", "Bad Patches"). V létě roku 2013 byl přinucen odejít z Univerzity v Miami kvůli obvinění ze sexuálního obtěžování, to když se ukázalo, že si vyměňoval s jednou studentkou korespondenci se sexuálním obsahem. Na jeho obranu se neúspěšně postavil Steven Pinker.


History.

Early experimental psychology.

Wilhelm Wundt.

Experimental psychology emerged as a modern academic discipline in the 19th century when Wilhelm Wundt introduced a mathematical and

Charles Bell.

Charles Bell was a British physiologist, whose main contribution was research involving the nervous system. He wrote a pamphlet summarizing his research on rabbits. His research concluded that sensory nerves enter at the posterior (dorsal) roots of the spinal

Ernst Heinrich Weber.

Weber was a German physician who is credited with being one of the founders of experimental psychology. Weber's main interests were the sense of touch and kinesthesis. His most memorable contribution to the field of experimental psychology is the suggestion that judgments of sensory differences are relative and not absolute. This relativity is expressed

Gustav Fechner.

Fechner published in 1860 what is considered to be the first work of experimental psychology, "Elemente der Psychophysik." Some historians date the beginning of experimental psychology from the publication of "Elemente." Weber was not a psychologist, and it was Fechner who realized

Oswald Külpe.

Oswald Külpe is the main founder of the Würzburg School in Germany. He was a pupil of Wilhelm Wundt for about twelve years. Unlike Wundt, Külpe believed experiments were possible

Würzburg School.

The work of the Würzburg School was a milestone in the development of experimental psychology. The School was founded by a group of psychologists led by Oswald Külpe, and it provided an alternative to the structuralism of Edward Titchener and Wilhelm Wundt. Those in the School focused mainly on mental operations such as mental set ("Einstellung") and imageless thought. Mental set affects perception and problem solving without the awareness of the individual; it can be

George Trumbull Ladd.

Experimental psychology was introduced into the United States by George Trumbull Ladd, who founded Yale University's psychological laboratory in 1879. In 1887, Ladd published "Elements of Physiological Psychology", the

Charles Sanders Peirce.

With his student Joseph Jastrow, Charles S. Peirce randomly assigned volunteers to a blinded, repeated-measures design to evaluate their ability to discriminate weights. Peirce's experiment inspired other researchers in psychology and education, which developed a research tradition of randomized experiments in laboratories and specialized textbooks in the 1800s. The Peirce–Jastrow experiments were conducted as part of Peirce's pragmatic program to understand human perception; other studies considered perception of light, etc. While Peirce was making advances in experimental psychology and psychophysics, he was also developing a theory of statistical inference, which was

20th century.

In the middle of the 20th century, behaviorism became a dominant paradigm within psychology, especially in the United States. This led to some neglect of mental phenomena within experimental psychology. In Europe this was less the case, as European psychology was influenced by psychologists such as Sir Frederic Bartlett, Kenneth Craik, W.E. Hick and Donald Broadbent, who focused on topics such as thinking, memory and attention. This laid the foundations for the subsequent development of cognitive psychology.  In the latter

Methodology.

Sound methodology is essential to the study of complex behavioral and mental processes, and this implies, especially, the careful definition and control of experimental variables.

Some underlying assumptions of psychological science.

As a scientific endeavor, experimental psychology shares several assumptions with most other sciences. Among these are the following.

Empiricism.

Perhaps the most basic assumption of science is that factual statements about the world must ultimately be based on observations

Testability.

Closely related to empiricism is the idea that, to be useful, a scientific law or theory must be testable with available research methods. If a theory cannot be tested in any conceivable way

Determinism.

Experimental psychologists, like most scientists, accept the notion of determinism. This is the assumption that any state of an object or event is determined by prior

Parsimony.

Another guiding idea of science is parsimony, the search for simplicity. For example, most scientists agree that if two theories handle a set of empirical observations equally well,

Operational definition.

Some well-known behaviorists such as Edward C. Tolman and Clark Hull popularized the idea of operationism, or operational definition. Operational definition implies that a concept be defined in terms of concrete, observable procedures. Experimental psychologists attempt to define currently unobservable phenomena, such as mental events, by connecting them to observations by chains of reasoning.

Experiments.

In experiments, human participants often respond to visual, auditory or other stimuli, following instructions given by an experimenter; animals may be similarly "instructed" by rewarding appropriate responses. Since the 1990s, computers have commonly been used to automate stimulus presentation and behavioral measurement in the laboratory. Behavioral experiments with both humans and animals typically measure reaction time, choices among two or more alternatives, and/or response rate or strength; they may also record movements, facial expressions, or other behaviors. Experiments with humans may also obtain written responses before, during, and after experimental procedures. Psychophysiological experiments, on the other hand, measure brain or (mostly in animals) single-cell activation during the presentation of a stimulus using methods such as fMRI, EEG, PET or similar.  Control of extraneous variables, minimizing the potential for experimenter bias, counterbalancing the order of experimental tasks, adequate sample size, the use of operational definitions, emphasis on both the reliability and validity of results, and proper statistical analysis are central to experimental

Reliability and Validity.

Reliability.

Reliability measures the consistency or repeatability of an observation. For example, one way to assess reliability is the "test-retest" method, done by measuring a group of participants at one time and then testing them a second time to see if the results are

Validity.

Validity measures the relative accuracy or correctness of conclusions drawn from a study. To determine the validity of a measurement quantitatively, it must be compared with a criterion. For example, to determine the validity of a test of academic ability, that test might be given to a group of students and the results correlated with the grade-point averages of the individuals in that group. As this example suggests, there is often controversy in the selection of appropriate criteria for a given measure. In addition, a conclusion can only be valid to the extent that the observations upon which it is based are reliable.  Several types of validity have been distinguished, as follows:

Scales of measurement.

Measurement can be defined as "the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to rules." Almost all psychological experiments involve some sort of measurement, if only to determine the reliability and validity of results, and of course measurement is essential if results are to be relevant to quantitative theories.  The rule for assigning numbers to a property of an object or event is called a "scale". Following are the basic scales used in psychological measurement.

Nominal measurement.

In a nominal scale, numbers are used simply as labels – a letter or name would do as well. Examples are the numbers on the

Ordinal measurement.

An ordinal scale arises from the ordering or ranking objects, so that A is greater than B, B is greater than C, and so on. Many psychological experiments yield numbers of this sort; for example, a participant might be able to

Interval measurement.

An interval scale is constructed by determining the equality of differences between the things measured. That is, numbers form an interval scale when the differences between the numbers correspond to differences between the properties measured. For instance, one can say that the difference between 5 and 10 degrees on a

Ratio measurement.

A ratio scale is constructed by determining the equality of ratios. For example, if, on a balance instrument, object A balances two identical objects B, then one can say that A is twice as heavy as B and can give them appropriate numbers, for example "A weighs 2 grams" and "B weighs 1 gram". A key idea is that such ratios remain the same regardless of the scale units used; for example, the ratio of A to B remains the same whether grams or ounces are used. Length, resistance, and Kelvin temperature are other things that can be measured on ratio scales. Some psychological properties such as the loudness of a sound can be measured on a ratio scale.

Research design.

One-way designs.

The simplest experimental design is a one-way design, in which there is only one independent variable. The simplest kind of one-way design involves just two-groups, each of which receives one value of the independent variable. A two-group design typically consists of an

Factorial designs.

One-way designs are limited in that they allow researchers to look at only one independent variable at a time, whereas many phenomena of interest are dependent on multiple variables. Because of this, R.A Fisher popularized the use of factorial designs. Factorial designs contain two or more independent variables that are

Main effects and interactions.

The effects of independent variables in factorial studies, taken singly, are referred to as main effects. This refers to the overall effect of an independent variable, averaging across all levels of the other independent variables. A main effect is the only effect detectable in a one-way design. Often more important than main effects are "interactions", which occur

Within- and between-subjects designs.

Two basic approaches to research design are within-subjects design and between-subjects design. In within-subjects or repeated measures designs, each participant serves in more than one or perhaps all of the conditions of a study. In between-subjects designs each participant serves in only one condition of an experiment. Within-subjects designs have significant advantages over between-subjects designs, especially when it comes to complex factorial designs that have many conditions. In particular, within-subjects designs eliminate person confounds, that is, they get rid of effects caused by differences among subjects that are irrelevant to the phenomenon under study. However, the within-subject design has the serious disadvantage of possible sequence effects. Because each participant serves in more than one condition, the passage of time or the performance of an earlier task may affect the performance of a later task. For example, a participant might learn something from the first task that affects the second.

Experimental instruments.

Instruments used in experimental psychology evolved along with technical advances and with the shifting demands of experiments. The earliest instruments, such as the Hipp Chronoscope and the kymograph, were originally used for other purposes. The list below exemplifies some of the different instruments used over the years.

Hipp chronoscope / chronograph.

This instrument, invented by Matthäus Hipp around 1850, uses a vibrating reed to tick off time in 1000ths of a second. Originally designed for

Stereoscope.

The first stereoscope was invented by Wheatstone in 1838. It presents two slightly different images, one to each eye, at the same time. Typically the images are photographs

Kymograph.

Developed by Carl Ludwig in the 19th century, the kymograph is a revolving drum on which a moving stylus tracks the size of some measurement as a function of time. The kymograph

Photokymographs.

This device is a photographic recorder. It used mirrors and light to record the photos. Inside a small box with a slit for light

Galvanometer.

The galvanometer is an early instrument used to measure the strength of an electric current. Hermann von Helmholtz

Audiometer.

This apparatus was designed to produce several fixed frequencies at different levels of intensity. It could either deliver the tone to a

Colorimeters.

These determine the color composition by measuring its tricolor characteristics

Algesiometers and algometers.

Both of these are mechanical stimulations of pain. They have a sharp needle-like

Olfactometer.

An olfactometer is any device that is used to measure the sense of smell. The most basic type in early studies was placing a subject in a room containing a specific measured amount of an odorous substance. More

Mazes.

Probably one of the oldest instruments for studying memory would be the maze. The common goal is to get from point A to point B, however the mazes can vary in size and complexity. Two types of mazes commonly used with rats are the radial arm maze and

Electroencephalograph (EEG).

The EEG is an instrument that can reflect the summed electrical activity of neural cell assemblies in the brain. It was

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).

The fMRI is an instrument that can detect changes in blood oxygen levels over time. The increase in blood

Positron emission tomography (PET).

PET is also used to look at brain activity. It can detect drugs binding neurotransmitter receptors in the brain. A down side

Some research areas that employ experimental methods.

The use of experimental methods was perhaps the main characteristic by which psychology became distinguishable from philosophy in the late 19th century. Ever since then experiments have been an integral part of most psychological research. Following is a sample of some major areas that use experimental methods.

Cognitive psychology.

Some of the major topics studied by cognitive psychologists are memory, learning, problem solving, and attention. Most cognitive experiments are done in a lab instead of a social setting; this is done mainly to provide maximum control of experimental variables and minimal interference from irrelevant events and other aspects of the situation. A great many experimental methods are used; frequently used methods are described on the main pages of the topics just listed. In addition to studying behavior, experimenters may use fMRI or PET so they are able to see what areas of the brain are active during cognitive processing.

Animal cognition.

Animal cognition refers to the mental capacities of non-human animals, and research in this field often focuses on matters similar to those of interest to cognitive psychologists using human participants. Cognitive studies using animals can often control conditions more closely and use methods not open to research with humans. In addition, processes such as conditioning my appear in simpler form in animals, certain animals display unique capacities (such as echo location in bats) that clarify important cognitive functions, and animal studies often have important implications for the survival and evolution of species.

Sensation and perception.

Experiments on sensation and perception have a very long history in experimental psychology (see History above). Experimenters typically manipulate stimuli affecting vision, hearing, touch, smell, taste and proprioception. Sensory measurement plays a large role in the field, covering

Behavioral psychology.

The behavioristic approach to psychology reached its peak of popularity in the mid twentieth century but still underlies much experimental research and clinical application. Its founders include such figures as Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner. Pavlov's experimental study

Social psychology.

Social psychologists use experimental methods, both within and outside the laboratory, in an attempt to understand human social interaction. Two widely cited experiments in social psychology experiment are the Stanford prison experiment conducted by Philip Zimbardo in

Institutional review board (IRB).

In the United States, Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) play an important role in monitoring the conduct of psychological experiments. Their presence is required by law at institutions such a universities where psychological research occurs. Their purpose is to make sure that experiments do not violate ethical codes or legal requirements; thus they protect human subjects from physical or

Criticism.

There have been several criticisms of experimental psychology.

Frankfurt school.

One school opposed to experimental psychology has been associated with the Frankfurt School, which calls its ideas "Critical Theory." Critical psychologists claim that experimental psychology approaches humans as entities independent of the cultural, economic, and historical context in which

Experimental psychology refers to work done by those who apply experimental methods to psychological study and the processes that underlie it. Experimental psychologists employ human participants and animal subjects to study a great many topics, including (among others) sensation & perception, memory, cognition, learning, motivation, emotion; developmental processes, social psychology, and the neural substrates of all of these.

Elementová psychologie (někdy též experimentální) byla psychologickým směrem odvozeným ze strukturalismu a současně psychologickou disciplínou, rozšířenou zejména na konci 19. a na začátku 20. století. Oblast jejího zkoumání dnes spadá spíše do obecné psychologie. Zkoumala základní části psychiky - počitky, pocity a volní akty. Jejím zakladatelem byl Wilhelm Wundt (1874 - kniha "Základy fyziologické psychologie").


Background.

After the defeat of Greece by the Turkish National Movement (the "Asia Minor Disaster" of 1922), the defeated army revolted against the royal government. King Constantine I was forced to abdicate in 1922, and died in exile in 1923. His eldest son and successor, King George II, was soon after asked by the parliament to leave Greece so the nation could decide what form of government it should adopt. In a 1924 referendum, Greeks voted to create a republic.  In 1935, Prime Minister Georgios Kondylis, a former pro-Venizelos military officer, became the most powerful political figure in Greece. On 10 October, he compelled Panagis Tsaldaris to resign as Prime Minister and took over the government, suspending many constitutional provisions in the process. Kondylis, who had now joined the Conservatives, decided to hold a referendum in order to re-establish the monarchy, despite the fact that he used to be a supporter of the anti-monarchist wing of Greek politics.  The referendum was scheduled to take place on 3 November per resolution "on the abolition of the republic" of 10 October 1935 (ΦΕΚ Α ́ 456).

Conduct.

Observers of the time expressed serious doubts about the vote's legitimacy. Besides the implausibly high "yes" vote, the vote was held in far-from-secret circumstances. Voters dropped a blue piece of paper into the ballot box if they supported the king's return, or a red paper to retain the republic. Anyone who cast a red paper risked being beaten up.

A referendum on restoring the monarchy was held in Greece on 3 November 1935. The proposal was approved by 97.9% of voters.

Referendum o obnově monarchie v Řecku se konalo 3. listopadu 1935. Návrh podpořilo 97.9% řeckého obyvatelstva. Král Jiří II. se vrátil z exilu a znovu usedl na trůn 30. listopadu 1935.