Tennis career.

She began playing tennis at the age of five. In 2001, 12-year-old Karatantcheva won the Orange Bowl tournament for her age group, defeating Alisa Kleybanova in the final. Early in her playing days, she trained for approximately six months at the famous IMG Academy of Nick Bollettieri.

2003-2004: Early career.

Karatantcheva played her first professional tournament in September 2003 in Sofia, Bulgaria at the age of 14. As an unranked qualifier the next week, she defeated the No. 1, 2, and 3 seeds en route to her first professional tournament title at a small ITF tournament in olos, Greece. Karatantcheva went on to win two other ITF titles in 2003. In 2004, Karatantcheva began her season at the WTA tournament in Indian Wells, where she defeated Alexandra Stevenson in the first, and upset the 17th seed Magüi Serna in the second round. In an interview prior to her match against 16th seed Maria Sharapova, Karatantcheva claimed that Sharapova had skipped a hitting session with her a few weeks earlier in Florida, and began a war of words with the Russian. Sharapova then defeated Karatantcheva in three sets in the third round. On April 19, she played her first match for the Bulgaria Fed Cup team. Because of her age, Karatantcheva was restricted in the number of tournaments she was able to play. In August, she reached the quarterfinals of a WTA tournament in Vancouver, British Columbia, and qualified for the US Open, before losing to eventual champion Svetlana Kuznetsova in the first round. Karatantcheva also reached the quarterfinals of the WTA tournament in Québec City, and captured another ITF tournament in December at Palm Beach Gardens.

2005: Breakthrough and first French Open quarterfinal.

2005 was Karatantcheva's breakthrough year. She started off the year at the tournament in Gold Coast, Australia by qualifying, and then defeating the tournament's No. 7 seed Elena Likhovtseva before falling in the quarterfinals. She then qualified for the Australian Open, losing to the No. 4 seed Sharapova in the first round. Her most successful tournament to date was at Roland Garros where Karatantcheva defeated the No. 19 seed Shinobu Asagoe in the second round, and then stunned the world with her victory over the No. 11 seed and former world number one Venus Williams in the third round. After defeating Emmanuelle Gagliardi, she fell to Likhovtseva in the quarterfinals. Karatantcheva became the youngest female to reach the quarterfinals of a Grand Slam tournament since Martina Hingis in 1996. At Wimbledon, she lost to Sharapova once again, being able to win just one game.  In 2005, Karatantcheva also won a European club championship in Rennes as a member of the Cherno More Elite team (Bulgarian: Черно море Елит). Her teammates were Virginiya Trifonova, Maria Penkova and Tsvetana Pironkova.  At the end of the year, Karatantcheva came up eighth in the Bulgarian Sportsperson of the Year rankings, earning 676 points. She was also honoured by the Bulgarian Tennis Federation as the "Best female tennis player of the year".  On December 20, 2005, the French sports newspaper "L'Equipe" reported that Karatantcheva had failed a drug test earlier in the year at Roland Garros (after the 1/4 final match against Likhovtseva), and that she had appeared in front of a three-person panel of judges to explain the results. The newspaper claims that Karatantcheva said she was pregnant at the time of the test, which would explain the high levels of nandrolone in her system. Karatantcheva has denied all allegations, saying "I am shocked. I have not appeared before judges of the international federation."

2006-2007: Doping scandal and two-year suspension.

On 11 January 2006, the ITF issued a two-year ban after two positive drug tests for nandrolone. While Karatantcheva has claimed she was pregnant at the time of one of the tests, another laboratory carried out a pregnancy test on her urine sample, and it tested negative. On 3 July 2006, the Court of Arbitration for Sport denied her appeal to overturn the ban with the argument that said nandrolone was found in concentrations which were inconsistent with the normal levels for that stage of pregnancy.  Karatantcheva did not play any matches in 2006 or 2007 following her drug ban. She mainly trained in Pravets.

2008.

Karatantcheva's first match after the ban was in a pre-qualification tournament for a wildcard into the $25k tournament in Surprise, Arizona. She won three matches in one day to win the event and thus won a wildcard for the qualifying draw, in which she beat Susanna Lingman, Maria Kondratieva, and Kristína Kučová. In the main draw, Karatantcheva beat the fifth seed Sunitha Rao in three sets in the first round, and Robin Stephenson in the second round. In the quarterfinals, Karatantcheva beat Magdaléna Rybáriková in two sets, and in the semifinals she defeated the second seed Viktoriya Kutuzova. In the finals, Sesil played a tough three-set match and overcame the eighth seed American Angela Haynes.  In late January, still unranked, she entered another $25k tournament at La Quinta, and again battled through three rounds of qualifying into the main draw, despite a scare in her qualifying match against American player Stacia Fonseca, who took the first set. Having fended off a spirited challenge from second-seeded Angelika Bachmann in the first round of the main draw, she made light work of subsequent opponents en route to the semifinals, where for the second tournament in succession she was scheduled to play Viktoriya Kutuzova. This time, the match ran to three sets, but Karatantcheva ultimately prevailed in three sets. In the final, Karatantcheva defeated the third seed Sandra Klösel.  Karatantcheva attracted criticism from the Bulgarian tennis federation for competing at La Quinta in preference to participating in Bulgaria's Federation Cup tie scheduled the same week. She was accused of breach of contract and threatened with a fine, but the Bulgarian teenager stood by her decision, which she had taken on the grounds that it was proving extremely difficult for her to gain entry even to low-level tournaments following the loss of all her ranking points and any right to protected ranking status after her ban, so she needed to work at re-establishing herself at least in the mid-hundreds of the WTA rankings as a matter of priority before tending to national team commitments.  In February, the Bulgarian was awarded a wildcard into the $75k Midland event, but her winning streak came to an abrupt end as she was defeated in the first round by qualifier Valérie Tétreault of Canada, who had raced through the three qualifying rounds for the loss of just nine games, five of them against former top 50 star Mirjana Lučić. Karatantcheva then attempted to qualify for the WTA Tier III event in Memphis but lost in the first round of qualifying to Hana Šromová of the Czech Republic.  In early March, she qualified for the $50k Las Vegas event including victories over Amber Liu and Elena Bovina. However, she lost in the first round of the main draw to wildcarded American Madison Brengle. She also received a wildcard into the qualifying event for the Tier I event at Indian Wells but lost in the first round of qualifying to Evgeniya Rodina. Her luck changed however, when, at the end of March, she managed to qualify and reach the final of the $50k event in Latina, losing to Iveta Benešová in straight sets.  In April, she reached the quarterfinals of the $25k event at Civitavecchia, losing to Betina Jozami of Argentina in straight sets. Her route through to the final of the $25,000 event in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida, included a victory over seventh-seeded Lauren Albanese. Argentinian Soledad Esperón beat her in two sets in the final.  In May, she played her first WTA main-draw match since her suspension in Fes, Morocco against Elena Baltacha which she won in straight sets. In June, Sesil reached the quarterfinals of the $75k tournament in Marseille. In the qualifications of Wimbledon, she lost in the second round to Magdaléna Rybáriková from Slovakia.

2009: Representing Kazakhstan.

On 10 January 2009, it was announced that Karatantcheva would take Kazakh citizenship and compete for the Kazakhstan Fed Cup team. She did not participate in Fed Cup competitions for Kazakhstan during 2009.  In tournament play in January, she reached the second round (as a qualifier) at the Brisbane International defeating top 50 player Iveta Benešová along the way and then backed it up by playing (and winning) her first main-draw Grand Slam match (again as a qualifier) at the Australian Open. She then lost in the second round to Peng Shuai. This was to be her last main tournament playing for Bulgaria until 2015.

2010: First WTA semifinal.

At the PTT Pattaya Open, Karatantcheva reached her first WTA semifinal, before losing to Tamarine Tanasugarn. Karatantcheva qualified for the Aegon Classic tournament in Birmingham where she reached the quarterfinals winning five matches in a row, upsetting Yaroslava Shvedova in straight sets in the second round, before losing to second seed Maria Sharapova.

2011.

Karatantcheva failed to qualify in Brisbane, Melbourne, Pattaya, and Monterrey. She reached the final of a $25k event in Clearwater, Florida, losing to Ajla Tomljanović. At the French Open, she lost to Olga Govortsova in the final round of qualifying. After barely missing out on qualifying for the Aegon Classic, Karatantcheva fell to Arina Rodionova in the first round of qualifying of Wimbledon. She took a two-week break following Wimbledon.  She returned at the WTA Palermo, where she qualified for the main draw. She drew second seed Roberta Vinci in the first round. Although Karatantcheva played well she was beaten in straight sets. She then competed in two $100k events – in Bucharest and Astana, losing in the early round of both tournaments.  She then failed to qualify for the US Open, marking the first year since 2009 that she had not competed in the main draw of a major. Her poor form continued, losing in the first or second rounds of four more ITF tournaments.  She began to improve her game by advancing to the semifinals of a $50k event in Troy, Alabama. She then competed in a $25k tournament in Rock Hill, losing in the quarterfinals. Karatantcheva then played at the $50k event in Grapevine, Texas, where she advanced to the final, losing to 8th seed Kurumi Nara in three sets. Following her performance in Grapevine, Sesil achieved her best result of the year by winning a $75k tournament, the Goldwater Women's Tennis Classic, in Phoenix, Arizona, the biggest title of her career. She won the title dropping only two sets the entire tournament, defeating a seeded player along the way. Karatantcheva's recent change in form has propelled her well back inside the top 200 and she established herself as one of the leading Kazakh players.

2012.

Karatantcheva began the year ranked World No. 139. She failed to qualify in Brisbane and at the Australian Open. She then competed in the $100,000 tournament in Cali. Unseeded, she advanced to the semifinals before losing to Mandy Minella. She then played at the Copa Sony Ericsson Colsanitas and Monterrey Open. Although she qualified for both, she lost in the first round to Catalina Castaño and Yaroslava Shvedova, respectively. Sesil then qualified for the Abierto Mexicano Telcel. Although she put up a fight, Sesil was defeated by 6th seed Johanna Larsson in three sets, in the first round. Karatantcheva committed 18 double faults during the match – almost an all-time high in WTA history. Karatantcheva then competed at the BNP Paribas Open and the Sony Ericsson Open, losing in the first round of qualifying for both tournaments. Despite the losses, she rebounded and reached the final of a $50k event, losing to Arantxa Rus.  Karatantcheva headed to Portugal for the Estoril Open. In the first round of qualifications, she drew Italian Maria Elena Camerin, whom she defeated in three tough sets. In the second round of qualifying, however, she was defeated by Mariana Duque-Marino, despite the fact she was leading with a break in the deciding set. Karatantcheva then lost in the first round of qualifying of the Mutua Madrid Open. At the French Open, Karatantcheva lost in the final round of qualifying to Alexa Glatch. However, she was offered a spot in the main draw after the withdrawal of Vera Zvonareva. She played Tímea Babos in the first round and won in two easy sets. This was Karatantcheva's first Grand Slam tournament main-draw appearance in almost 2 1/2 years.  She opened her grass-court season at the Aegon Classic in Birmingham. She entered the qualifying draw and defeated local girl Francesca Stephenson, but fell to Thailand's Noppawan Lertcheewakarn in the final round. However, she was offered a place in the main draw as a lucky loser due to the withdrawal of another player. She faced another Thai player, Tamarine Tanasugarn, defeating her in straight sets. Her run was ended in the second round by eighth seed Ekaterina Makarova. She then lost in the final round of qualifying at Wimbledon. Despite the loss, her ranking climbed due to her improved result from 2011.  Karatantcheva then played at the Bank of the West Classic. She fell in the first round of qualifying. She then qualified for the Premier-level Mercury Insurance Open in Carlsbad. She was points away from winning, but was finally beaten by Melinda Czink in the first round. She then competed at the second annual Citi Open in Washington, D.C. She lost to American Sloane Stephens in the first round. She then continued her hard-court season at the Rogers Cup in Montreal. As the 18th seed in qualifying, she won three matches for a place in the main draw. In the first round she dismantled Sorana Cîrstea, without losing a single game, in only 43 minutes. Karatantcheva lost to 16th seed Lucie Šafářová in the second round in straight sets. Her ranking climbed to No. 92, her highest ranking since 2005. Karatantcheva then played at the Western & Southern Open, qualifying into the main draw by beating world No. 64 Arantxa Rus and Olga Govortsova. In the first round of the main draw, she won against fellow qualifier Kiki Bertens, but was soundly beaten by former world No. 1 Caroline Wozniacki in the second round. Her next tournament was the US Open. Ranked world No. 85, she was given direct entrance into the main draw. She lost to Lourdes Domínguez Lino in the first round.  Following the US Open, Karatantcheva competed in Québec and Seoul, losing in the first round of both tournaments. She continued by then losing in the qualifying draw of the next four events in Tokyo, Beijing, Linz, and Moscow. Her final tournament of the year was in Phoenix, where she was the defending champion and second seed. She suffered a shock straight set loss to world No. 217 Shelby Rogers in the first round. Despite the loss, she ended the year at No. 93, her first year-end ranking inside the top 100 since 2005.

2013.

Karatantcheva began the season at the Australian Open, losing to 6th seed Li Na in the first round. She next played for Kazakhstan in Fed Cup. Placed in the Asia/Oceania Zone Group I in Astana, Karatantcheva played with Galina Voskoboeva to beat Rutuja Bhosale and Ankita Raina, securing Kazakhstan's 3–0 sweep over India. Following Kazakhstan's win over Thailand, they defeated Uzbekistan in the Group I promotional play-off. Their win over Uzbekistan has catapulted Kazakhstan into the World Group II play-offs in April for the first time ever. Karatantcheva then played at the WTA 125,000 event in Cali, losing in the quarterfinals to Catalina Castaño in three sets. She then lost in Memphis qualifying before losing to Francesca Schiavone in the second round at Acapulco. Karatantcheva then qualified for the BNP Paribas Open, but lost to Lara Arruabarrena in the first round. At the Sony Open, she entered the qualifying draw and defeated Anastasia Rodionova in the first round, saving two match points and battling almost three hours before winning. She lost in the final round to Silvia Soler Espinosa. Karatantcheva closed the hard court season with a first round loss in Osprey to Olga Puchkova.  Karatantcheva opened her clay court season by falling in the qualifying rounds in Charleston and Oeiras. She then won only two matches in her next four tournaments before heading to Wimbledon, where she lost in the final round of qualifying to Austrian Yvonne Meusburger in a close three-set match. Following Wimbledon, Karatantcheva played two more clay-court events in Budapest and Båstad, losing to Simona Halep and Serena Williams, respectively.  After skipping the first week of the US Open Series, Karatantcheva entered the Southern California Open in Carlsbad. She played the qualifying draw and won three consecutive matches against Chieh-yu Hsu, Katalin Marosi, and Ivana Lisjak for a spot in the main draw. There, she drew Julia Görges and defeated the world No. 42 in straight sets. She advanced to the second round but lost to eventual champion Samantha Stosur, winning only five games. Despite the loss, her win over Görges was the biggest win of her season. Her next tournament was the Rogers Cup in Toronto where she fell in the first round of qualifying. Her ranking plummeted to No. 163 as a result of her failure to defend 2012's second round points. At the US Open, Karatantcheva played the qualifying draw and won two matches before losing out to Mirjana Lučić-Baroni in straight sets.  Following the US Open, Karatantcheva played at the Challenge Bell, again entering the qualifying draw. She beat Élisabeth Fournier, Petra Rampre, and CoCo Vandeweghe to enter the main draw. She played fellow qualifier Amra Sadiković and beat the Swiss in straight sets. In the second round, she lost to fifth seeded local hope Eugenie Bouchard. She returned to the United States to compete in two ITF Circuit events in Albuquerque and Las Vegas, losing in the first round of both tournaments. Her final events of the season saw her lose in Linz qualifying, bow out to Karin Knapp in the first round of the BGL Luxembourg Open, and lose in the first round of an ITF event in Nantes.

2014.

Karatantcheva made her 2014 debut at the Hobart International, losing in the first round of qualifying to Belgian Alison Van Uytvanck. At the Australian Open, she was seeded 22nd in the qualifying draw and lost there in the first round to Duan Yingying in straight sets. For Kazakhstan in 2014 Fed Cup in the Group I final position play-off, Karatantcheva played Liu Fangzhou and defeated the Chinese in three sets, ultimately sending Kazakhstan into third place in the Asia/Oceania Group I Zone. After that, Karatantcheva competed in Midland, losing out to young American Victoria Duval, and then traveled to Brazil to compete at the Rio Open and Brasil Tennis Cup. In Rio, she fell in the qualifying competition to Verónica Cepede Royg. In Florianopolis, however, she was more successful with qualifying wins over world No. 95 Anabel Medina Garrigues and Alexandra Panova, the latter match lasting over three hours. Her run was ended in the first round by Kiki Bertens.  Karatantcheva proceeded to compete in Osprey, but lost to Gioia Barbieri in the first round. At the Family Circle Cup, she played qualifying and overcame Sanaz Marand before bowing out to Alla Kudryavtseva. She next played at the Dothan Pro Tennis Classic, but suffered another loss, going down to world No. 125 Michelle Larcher de Brito in the first round. Karatantcheva's final clay-court event in the United States was in Charlottesville, in which she was able to pick up form by reaching the quarterfinals. For the second consecutive year, she entered the Nürnberger Versicherungscup, but was defeated in the qualifying draw by German Nina Zander. At the French Open, she won one match in the qualifying draw but would progress no further, as she was eliminated by Laura Siegemund in what was a tough three-set match. She would then compete in Marseille, advancing to the quarterfinals before going down to Johanna Larsson in a final-set tiebreak. Karatantcheva elected to skip all grass court events before Wimbledon, and suffered another Grand Slam defeat, this time at the hands of young Estonian Anett Kontaveit in the second round of qualifying.  She entered the inaugural Bucharest Open, winning three qualifying matches before losing to Silvia Soler Espinosa in the first round. Karatantcheva then played qualifying at the İstanbul Cup but was beaten in the first round by Ana Konjuh of Croatia. She returned to the ITF circuit at the $50k Powiat Poznański Open in Sobota, advancing to the final having only dropped a set, but suffered a disappointing three-set loss there after winning the first set. It was her first final since April 2012. At US Open qualifying she was beaten in the first round by Melanie Oudin.  Karatantcheva returned to action at the Coupe Banque Nationale as a direct entrant in the main draw. She began with a win over Sanaz Marand in the first round and squared off against third seeded Kristina Mladenovic in the second, edging the Frenchwoman in a match that lasted over two-and-a-half hours. Karatantcheva subsequently moved on to the quarterfinals but was defeated there by Mirjana Lučić-Baroni, who would go on to win the tournament.  In October Karatantcheva announced, that she had decided to play for her home country Bulgaria again. She and her father first made the decision known to the Bulgarian public in an interview for TV7. Her switch back to Bulgaria was finalized a few weeks later and she reappeared under the Bulgarian flag in the 20 October WTA rankings.

2015: Representing Bulgaria once again.

Karatancheva's first tournament of the year was the ASB Classic, where she has started from qualifications, losing in the third round of the qualifying competition to Urszula Radwańska after previously defeating two opponents. Karatancheva failed to qualify to the Australian Open, after losing in the second qualifying round to Alexandra Panova. In February Karatantcheva participated at the Abierto Mexicano Telcel, where she started from qualifications. She was defeated in straight sets in the third qualifying round by Lucie Hradecká, but nonetheless reached the main tournament as a lucky loser. Karatantcheva then eliminated Marie Bouzková, Kiki Bertens and Monica Puig to secure herself a place in the semifinals for the second time in her career. She subsequently lost to fifth seed Timea Bacsinszky in two sets. Next, she played at Monterrey Open, where she lost in the first round of qualifications. Despite the setback, Karatantcheva was nonetheless able to stay on course towards improving her ranking by qualifying for the main phase of the BNP Paribas Open shortly after that. In the first round, she managed a two-set victory over compatriot and friend Tsvetana Pironkova. This was the first time since 2000 that two Bulgarian women had met in the main draw of a WTA tournament. Karatantcheva then suffered a defeat in straight sets to CoCo Vandeweghe. Next, Karatantcheva qualified for the main draw of Miami Open, where she reached the second round, defeating Lauren Davis then ranked No. 61, in the first round in straight sets, and losing to 21st seed Garbiñe Muguruza. Her ranking improved to 109. Next, at the Family Circle Cup in Charleston, she qualified for the main draw, beating Arantxa Rus and Louisa Chirico along the way, and lost in the first round to ninth seed Samantha Stosur. At the French Open, Karatantcheva was seeded 3rd in the qualifying draw and she qualified for the main draw. In the first round she defeated former world No. 1, Jelena Janković, in straight sets, which allowed her to return to the top 100 in the WTA rankings. Then, she lost in the second round to Irina Falconi in three sets. Due to her improved ranking, Karatantcheva began directly from the main draw at the Wimbledon Championships. In the first round she lost to Silvia Soler Espinosa in a tight three-setter match. At the US Open, Karatantcheva suffered a 1–6, 2–6 loss to Belinda Bencic from Switzerland.

2016.

The new season began with a disappointment at Brisbane, where she lost in the first round of the qualifying draw. She played at Sydney, starting once again from the qualifications, defeating Yaroslava Shvedova (after taking a 4–1 lead in the first set and her opponent retiring) in the first round, but then succumbing in straight sets to Magdaléna Rybáriková. At the qualifying competition for the Australian Open Karatantcheva was seeded fourth. However, she was unable to pass the first hurdle, being defeated 6–2, 6–0 by American Jessica Pegula. Karatantcheva did not manage to reach the main draw of the 2016 French Open, losing to Maryna Zanevska in three sets after taking the first one in the second round of qualifying, for which she was not among the seeds. Her downturn in fortunes continued in Wimbledon, where she suffered elimination in the first round of the qualifying competition at the hands of Shérazad Reix in a hard-fought match that was decided in three sets. At the qualifying competition for the US Open, Karatantcheva posted a win in three sets against Rebecca Šramková in the first round, but was then defeated by Elise Mertens in another three-setter match.

2017.

Karatantcheva did not get past the first hurdle at the qualifying tournament for the Australian Open, being on the receiving end of a 6–3, 6–2 defeat by Anna Blinkova. After not participating in the qualifying competitions for the French Open and Wimbledon, in late August 2017 she entered the one for the US Open, where she convincingly defeated Arantxa Rus in the first round, but then lost in a dramatic three-setter match (that was decided by a tiebreak) against American Claire Liu. In September 2017, Karatantcheva won the title at the Red Rock Pro Open in Las Vegas, defeating compatriot Elitsa Kostova in the final by a score of 6–4, 4–6, 7–5.

2018.

Karatantcheva participated in the qualifying competition for the Australian Open, but had to exit in the first round after losing 5–7, 6–3, 5–7 to Irina Bara. She was also eliminated in the earliest possible stage at the qualifying tournament for the French Open, being on the receiving end of a 1–6, 6–2, 2–6 loss against Ons Jabeur. The negative trend continued in her first qualifying match for Wimbledon, in which she emerged second best to Mayo Hibi by a score of 6–1, 3–6, 1–6. The qualifying event for the US Open saw a repeat of her previous performances, as Karatantcheva did not get past the first round, being defeated 6–3, 2–6, 6–4 by Italian Martina Trevisan.

2019.

Karatantcheva entered the qualifying tournament for the Australian Open, taking the first set against American Asia Muhammad, but eventually losing the other two, thus going out in the first round. Her luck didn't change during the qualifying competition for Wimbledon where she was defeated in straight sets by Romanian Elena-Gabriela Ruse.

Personal life.

She is the daughter of former rower and member of parliament as part of the Bulgarian Business Bloc, Radoslav Karatantchev. He is currently a member of the Bulgarian Socialist Party and also acts as Karatatcheva′s coach.  She has three sisters, one of whom, Gabriel Karatantcheva, was active as a professional tennis player from 2014 to 2017. Karatantcheva married long-time boyfriend and former footballer Georgi Dolmov in November 2017.

Fed Cup participation.

Sesil Karatantcheva debuted for the Bulgaria Fed Cup team in 2004, winning her singles match in the tie against the Estonia Fed Cup team. Between 2010 and 2014 she competed for the Kazakhstan Fed Cup team. She maintains a 12–5 singles record and a 7–8 doubles record (19–13 overall). In January 2017, Karatantcheva was recalled to the Bulgarian team for the February 2017 Europe/Africa Zone (Group I) matches.

Sesil Radoslavova Karatantcheva (; born 8 August 1989) is a Bulgarian tennis player. She has won seven singles titles on the ITF Women's Circuit. On 7 November 2005, she reached her best singles ranking of world No. 35. On 19 April 2010, she peaked at No. 154 in the doubles rankings.

Sesil Karatančevová bul. "Сесил Каратанчева" (* 8. srpna 1989 v Sofii, Bulharsko) je současná kazachstánská profesionální tenistka, která do 2. února 2009 reprezentovala Bulharsko. Hraje pravou rukou, bekhendem obouruč. Jejím nejvyšším umístěním na žebříčku WTA ve dvouhře bylo 35. místo (7. listopad 2005) a ve čtyřhře 165. místo (15. únor 2010). Na okruhu WTA dosud nevyhrála žádný turnaj, ale na okruhu ITF již zvítězila na 6 turnajích ve dvouhře.


Processing flow.

When a Shuttle mission was completed, the orbiter was towed from the Shuttle Landing Facility to its assigned OPF where it spent several months (typically less than 100 days) being prepared for the next mission. Any remaining payloads from the previous mission were removed and the vehicle was fully inspected, tested, and refurbished.  Prior to rollout to the Vehicle Assembly Building, several weeks before scheduled launch, the orbiter was prepared for the next mission by installing mission flight kits, payloads, consumable fluids and gases where possible. Remaining payloads, fuels and fluids were installed on the pad closer to launch day. The last step before rollover to the VAB was weighing the orbiter to determine its center of gravity.

Current status.

OPF-1 was closed following "Atlantis"'s rollout on June 29, 2012. OPF-2 is now inactive following "Atlantis"s departure on October 18, 2012. OPF-3 was under lease to Boeing for the manufacture and testing of their CST-100 Starliner spacecraft.  On 8 October 2014, NASA confirmed that Boeing X-37B vehicles would be housed at Kennedy Space Center in OPF-1 and 2, hangars previously occupied by the Space Shuttle. Boeing had said the space planes would use OPF-1 in January 2014, and the Air Force had previously said it was considering consolidating X-37B operations, housed at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California, nearer to their launch site at Cape Canaveral. NASA also stated that the program had completed tests to determine whether the X-37B, one-fourth the size of the Space Shuttle, could land on the former Shuttle runways. NASA furthermore stated that renovations of the two hangars would be completed by the end of 2014; the main doors of OPF-1 were marked with the message "Home of the X-37B" by this point.

Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF) is a class of hangars where U.S. Space Shuttle orbiters underwent maintenance between flights. They are located west of the Vehicle Assembly Building, where the orbiter was mated with its External Tank and Solid Rocket Boosters before transport to the launch pad. OPF-1 and OPF-2 are connected with a low bay between them, while OPF-3 is across the street.

Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF) ( „vystrojovací hala“) je název hangáru, ve kterém procházejí americké raketoplány údržbou mezi jednotlivými lety. NASA vlastní 3 tyto hangáry.


Production.

Sulfamic acid is produced industrially by treating urea with a mixture of sulfur trioxide and sulfuric acid (or oleum). The conversion is conducted in two stages:  In this way, approximately 96,000 tonnes were produced in 1995.

Structure and reactivity.

The compound is well described by the formula HNSO, not the tautomer HNSO(OH). The relevant bond distances are 1.44 Å for the S=O and 1.77 Å for the S–N. The greater length of the S–N is consistent with a single bond. Furthermore, a neutron diffraction study located the hydrogen atoms, all three of which are 1.03 Å distant from the nitrogen. In the solid state, the molecule of sulfamic acid is well described by a zwitterionic form.  Aqueous solutions of sulfamic acid are unstable and slowly hydrolyze to ammonium bisulfate, but the crystalline solid is indefinitely stable under ordinary storage conditions. Its behavior resembles that of urea, (HN)CO. Both feature amino groups linked to electron-withdrawing centers that can participate in delocalized bonding. Both liberate ammonia upon heating in water ; however, the sulfamic acid reverts back to sulfuric acid, in place of the CO that urea would release, according to the following reaction :

Acid–base reactions.

Sulfamic acid is a moderately strong acid, "K" = 0.101 (p"K" = 0.995). Because the solid is not hygroscopic, it is used as a standard in acidimetry (quantitative assays of acid content).  Double deprotonation can be effected in ammonia solution to give the anion.

Reaction with nitric and nitrous acids.

With nitrous acid, sulfamic acid reacts to give nitrogen: while with nitric acid, it affords nitrous oxide:

Reaction with hypochlorite.

The reaction of excess hypochlorite ions with sulfamic acid or a sulfamate salt gives rise reversibly to both "N"-chlorosulfamate and "N","N"-dichlorosulfamate ions.  Consequently, sulfamic acid is used as hypochlorite scavenger in the oxidation of aldehydes with chlorite such as the Pinnick oxidation.

Reaction with alcohol.

Upon heating sulfamic acid will react with alcohols to form the corresponding organosulfates. It is more expensive than other reagents for doing this, such as chlorosulfonic acid or oleum, but is also significantly milder and will not sulfonate aromatic rings. Products are produced as their ammonium salts. Such reactions can be catalyzed by the presence of urea.  Without the presence of any catalysts, sulfamic acid will not react with ethanol at temperatures below 100°C.

Applications.

Sulfamic acid is mainly a precursor to sweet-tasting compounds. Reaction with cyclohexylamine followed by addition of NaOH gives CHNHSONa, sodium cyclamate. Related compounds are also sweeteners, such as acesulfame potassium.  Sulfamates have been used in the design of many types of therapeutic agents such as antibiotics, nucleoside/nucleotide human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) reverse transcriptase inhibitors, HIV protease inhibitors (PIs), anticancer drugs (steroid sulfatase and carbonic anhydrase inhibitors), antiepileptic drugs, and weight loss drugs.

Cleaning agent.

Sulfamic acid is used as an acidic cleaning agent, sometimes pure or as a component of proprietary mixtures, typically for metals and ceramics. It is frequently used for removing rust and limescale, replacing the more volatile and irritating hydrochloric acid, which is cheaper. It is often a component of household descaling agents, for example, Lime-A-Way Thick Gel contains up to 8% sulfamic acid and has pH 2.0–2.2, or detergents used for removal of limescale. When compared to most of the common strong mineral acids, sulfamic acid has desirable water descaling properties, low volatility, and low toxicity. It forms water-soluble salts of calcium and ferric iron.  Sulfamic acid is preferable to hydrochloric acid in household use, due to its intrinsic safety. If erroneously mixed with hypochlorite based products such as bleach, it does not form chlorine gas, whereas the most common acids would; the reaction (neutralization) with ammonia, produces a salt, as depicted in the section above.  It also finds applications in the industrial cleaning of dairy and brewhouse equipment. Although it is considered less corrosive than hydrochloric acid, corrosion inhibitors are often added to the commercial cleansers of which it is a component. It can be used for descaling home coffee and espresso machines and in denture cleaners.

Silver polishing.

According to the label on the consumer product, the liquid silver cleaning product TarnX contains thiourea, a detergent, and sulfamic acid.

Sulfamic acid, also known as amidosulfonic acid, amidosulfuric acid, aminosulfonic acid, and sulfamidic acid, is a molecular compound with the formula HNSO. This colorless, water-soluble compound finds many applications. Sulfamic acid melts at 205 °C before decomposing at higher temperatures to water, sulfur trioxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen.

Kyselina amidosulfonová (též amidosírová; IUPAC název je kyselina sulfamová) je anorganická sloučenina se vzorcem HNSO. Tato bezbarvá, ve vodě rozpustná látka má široké možnosti použití.


Concept and development.

Prior to working on "Star Trek", Gene Roddenberry had been developing a variety of television pilots for Screen Gems. One actress he auditioned was Majel Leigh Hudec, later to use the name Majel Barrett. Later when he created the drama series "The Lieutenant", he cast her in the episode "In the Highest Tradition". They quickly became friends, and entered into a romantic relationship although Roddenberry was married at the time. During the development of the first pilot for "" (""), Roddenberry wrote the part of Number One (the ship’s second in command) specifically for Barrett. There was reluctance from the NBC executives to agree to an actress who was almost unknown. Roddenberry did see other actresses for the part, but no one else was considered.  Executive producer Herbert Franklin Solow attempted to sell them on the idea that a fresh face would bring believability to the part, but they were aware that she was Roddenberry's girlfriend. Despite this they agreed to her casting, not wanting to upset Roddenberry at this point in the production. After the pilot was rejected, a second pilot was produced. While it was generally explained that the network disliked a female character as the second-in-command of the "Enterprise", Solow had a different opinion of events. He explained that "No one liked her acting... she was a nice woman, but the reality was, she couldn't act." "Where No Man Has Gone Before" successfully took "Star Trek" to a series order. Barrett had been given the role of voicing the computer on the USS "Enterprise", but was demanding that Roddenberry write her into the main cast.  After seeing the initial proposal for "What Are Little Girls Made Of?", Barrett felt that she could play the woman who went into space to find her fiancé. She dyed her hair blonde in an attempt to fit the role. Barrett sought to surprise Roddenberry at his office, but he walked right past her, not recognizing who she was. It was only when he came back out give his secretary some papers that he realized it was Barrett. They had the idea that it might get her past the NBC executives and back onto the show. The character of Christine Ducheaux was subsequently changed to Christine Chapel by Roddenberry, as a play on the Sistine Chapel. No other actresses were considered for the role.  At the same time, story editor John D.F. Black wrote the initial script for "The Naked Time", also early in the. The story featured a virus being transmitted among the ship's crew, which removed their inhibitions. One element of Black's story featured the addition of a nurse in sickbay, working to Doctor Leonard McCoy. Chapel was written into both these episodes by Roddenberry. The deception didn't work, with NBC executive Jerry Stanley commenting simply "Well, well – look who's back" to Solow. Roddenberry saw to it that the character of Christine Chapel would become a recurring one throughout the series, on-par with Uhura. She remained unsatisfied with the role, but appreciated that since NBC had already fired her once, Roddenberry couldn't expand the role.  For "", Barrett was initially set to reprise the role of Chapel as well as voicing Uhura. Likewise James Doohan was to voice both his own Scotty as well as Hikaru Sulu. However, following the intervention of Leonard Nimoy, Nichelle Nichols and George Takei were both brought back to voice their own characters. Barrett returned in "" as Chapel, which she described as a "very minimal role", saying that "If no one had called me Commander Chapel, the audience wouldn't really know that I was there." Barrett said in the film franchise Chapel got lost along the way, not appearing in the or films despite her view that she was a main character in "The Original Series". Nimoy brought back the character for "", and Barrett was grateful for his decision. The character was subsequently mentioned in the 2009 film "Star Trek", which saw the characters from "The Original Series" re-cast. Chapel was one of the suggested possibilities for Alice Eve to play in the sequel, "Star Trek Into Darkness". It was later revealed that she was portraying Carol Marcus.

Appearances.

In "What Are Little Girls Made Of?", it is explained that Chapel abandoned a career in bio-research for a position in Starfleet. She had hoped that this would reunite her with her fiancé Dr. Roger Korby (Michael Strong), incommunicado following his expedition to the planet Exo III. Five years after Korby's disappearance, Chapel was assigned to the USS "Enterprise", under the command of Captain James T. Kirk. She served as head nurse, working under Dr. McCoy (DeForest Kelley).  While on board the ship, she began to develop feelings for Spock (Leonard Nimoy), admitting as such in "The Naked Time". Her actions in that episode resulted in the Psi 2000 intoxication unwittingly being further spread among the crew. The ship reached Exo III in "What Are Little Girls Made Of?". Captain Kirk (William Shatner) and Chapel beam down and discover Korby had been exploiting a sophisticated android manufacturing technology on the planet. After Chapel is horrified to find out that Korby had transplanted his personality into an android replica, he kills himself in despair. Roddenberry later co-wrote in "The Making of Star Trek" that the actions of that episode resulted in Chapel breaking her ties to Earth devoting herself to Starfleet service.  After Korby's death, Chapel doubted if she should stay aboard, but elected to remain with the "Enterprise" throughout the five-year mission. Chapel's feelings for Spock were revisited and alluded to only a few times in the series, most notably in "Plato's Stepchildren". In the episode, the Platonians telekinetically force Chapel and Spock to kiss passionately. This humiliates Chapel despite her long-standing feelings for him. In the episode "Amok Time", she brings Spock some soup to help him through a sacred Vulcan ritual, the Pon farr. He angrily refuses the soup and throws it at the wall, but later thanks Chapel for her thoughtfulness.  Chapel appeared in two of the "Star Trek" films featuring "The Original Series" cast. In "Star Trek: The Motion Picture", Chapel had become a doctor on board the "Enterprise". Her second appearance was in "Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home", where she and Janice Rand (Grace Lee Whitney) were stationed in Starfleet Headquarters in San Francisco. In the 2009 film "Star Trek", a Nurse Chapel is mentioned by McCoy (Karl Urban). In the 2013 film "Star Trek Into Darkness", Carol Marcus (Alice Eve) tells Kirk (Chris Pine) that after being with him, Chapel left to become a nurse.

Reception.

Cast and crew.

Executive producer Robert H. Justman didn't care for Chapel; he described her as a "wimpy, badly written, and ill-conceived character." He added that the additional camera lenses used by director Jerry Finnerman in that episode for close-ups of her quivering lip only "served to emphasize the lack of character written into the character." He had complained to Roddenberry of Barrett's acting skills, but stopped when he became aware of their relationship. It was only after Barrett's first appearance as Lwaxana Troi in the "" episode "", that he came to realize that it was the Chapel character he disliked, not Barrett herself and told her that his opinion had changed. Barrett also didn't care for the character of Chapel, saying "I've never been a real aficionado of Nurse Chapel, I figured she was kind of weak and namdy-pamdy."  Writer David Gerrold, who worked with the staff of "The Original Series" following his work on the episode "The Trouble with Tribbles", described Chapel as being one of a second-tier set of characters including Uhura, Scotty and Sulu, who were not given as much exposure during the series as the main characters of Kirk, Spock and McCoy. He explained that she was the only one of the second level of characters whose motivations were explored, however, her primary focus on board the ship was simply to be in love with Spock. Gerrold explained that there was a need to demonstrate the "aloofness" of the Vulcan character, and so this resulted in a character whose love of him needed to be rebuffed, thus giving Chapel her purpose. He suggested that this caused the fandom to dislike Chapel because "Female fans saw her as a threat to their own fantasies and male fans saw her as a threat to Spock's Vulcan stoicism." Gerrold added that those fans were surprised when they met Barrett at science fiction conventions, as they found her likable in person. By the time of the 2009 film "Star Trek", the character had become more popular among fans, who were asking if she would appear in the new films.

Critical reception.

In her essay "The Audience as Auteur. Women, "Star Trek" and 'Vidding'" in the book "Gene Roddenberry's Star Trek: The Original Cast Adventures", Francesca Coppa said that she saw the switch from Number One to Chapel for Barrett as "degradation on every level: role, status and image". The role was described as "consolation" in Cary O'Dell's book "June Cleaver Was a Feminist!: Reconsidering the Female Characters of Early Television", but it was felt that Barrett "made the most of it". The position of a nurse was described by O'Dell as a traditional female role, but that Chapel would stand up to McCoy's orders when required. Her promotion to Doctor in "The Motion Picture" was praised by author Gladys L. Knight in her book "Female Action Heroes: A Guide to Women in Comics, Video Games, Film, and Television".  Reviewer were critical of her relationship with Spock, with Jan Johnson-Smith describing Chapel in "American Science Fiction TV" as "a woman condemned to forever lust after the elusive Vulcan", and that she was one of several female characters in the series who were "depicted as recognisable stereotypes". Coppa also discussed this, calling the character as being a typical damsel in distress, existing "merely to pine". But the relationship was also seen positively, with Torie Atkinson, at Tor.com, said of Chapel in "Amok Time" that "her affection is so transparent and sweet." In "The Making of Star Trek" by Roddenberry and Stephen E. Whitfield, her feelings towards Spock are said to not be unique as they are shared by many of the female crew on board the "Enterprise". It is also further explained that McCoy is aware of her feelings, but displays "fatherly affection" towards her and never "childes" her for this.  Her appearances in episodes were commented on, with Wei Ming Dariotis critical that the single-mindedness of the plot for "Amok Time" in not allowing Spock to have sex with Chapel, or any other woman, and thus solve the problem of his Pon farr. But Eugene Myers at Tor.com praised Chapel, saying that the most interesting part of "What Are Little Girls Made Of?" was that it was based primarily on her, while Keith DeCandido said that this resulted in the episode being the "Kirk-and-Chapel show" to the detriment of the other characters.  In 2016, Nurse Christine Chapel was ranked as the 60th most important character of Starfleet within the "Star Trek" science fiction universe by "Wired" magazine, out of 100 characters.

Christine Chapel is a fictional character who appears in all three seasons of the American science fiction television series "", as well as "" and the films "" and "". Portrayed by Majel Barrett, she was the ship's nurse on board the Starfleet starship USS "Enterprise". Barrett had previously been cast under her real name as Number One in the first pilot for the series, "", during her romantic relationship with the series creator Gene Roddenberry. But following feedback from network executives, she was not in the cast for the second pilot.

Christine Chapelová je fiktivní postava ze sci-fi světa "Star Trek"u. Působí jako zdravotní sestra na hvězdné lodi USS "Enterprise". Představitelkou Christine Chapelové byla Majel Barrettová, která jej hrála v původním seriálu "Star Trek" (1966–1969). Roli si zopakovala i ve stejnojmenné animovaném seriálu z let 1973–1974 a v následujících dvou celovečerních snímcích, "" (1979) a "" (1986). V rebootové filmové sérii se Chapelová neobjevila, i když byla několikrát zmíněna.


History.

The community was initially formed as an urban kibbutz in Givat Michael near Ness Ziona by immigrants from Polish Republic (who were members of the "BaMesilah" group from which the kibbutz takes its name) and Bulgaria (members of the "Bulgaria - Tel Hai group"), with both groups belonging to the Hashomer Hatzair movement.  The kibbutz itself was established on 22 December 1938 as a tower and stockade settlement. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the kibbutz was bombed by an Iraqi aeroplane. One member of the kibbutz was killed in the bombing, and some other members were injured.  On 16 April 1957 two guards of the kibbutz were killed by Palestinian terrorists who came from the West Bank, then part of Jordan.

Economy.

Mesilot is the home of Wire Ropes Works Messilot Ltd., one of the largest producers of wire rope in Israel and the Middle East. The kibbutz also engages in various forms of agriculture, including livestock (milking cows and raising chickens), a fishery, an orchard, plantings of olives and dates, and other vegetables.

Education.

1st to 6th grade.

The children of the kibbutz are educated in the regional school within the kibbutz, which also serves children from the nearby kibbutzim Reshafim, Nir David, Beit Hashita, Sde Nahum and Beit Alfa.

School for children with autism.

Next to the elementary school, based on the donation of Yehudit ben Moshe (who was a member of Mesilot and the first principal of its school), a special school was founded for children with autism.

7th to 12th grade.

Healthy children from grades 7 through 12 used to be educated at the Gilboa School, which was founded next to Kibbutz Beit Alfa and was run jointly by Mesilot, Reshafim, Nir David and Beit Alfa. In 2005 this school was closed, so the students of Mesilot transferred to the regional school at Neve Eitan.

Sports.

The club was home to a football team, which was sponsored by the local Wire Works factory and played under the name Hapoel Kvalim Mesilot. In 2009 the team was merged with Hapoel Beit She'an to form Hapoel Beit She'an Mesilot, which play its home games in nearby Beit She'an.

Messilot (, "lit." Tracks) is a kibbutz in northern Israel. Located in the Beit She'an Valley near the city of Beit She'an, it falls under the jurisdiction of Valley of Springs Regional Council. In it had a population of.

Mesilot ( מְסִלּוֹת nebo מסילות, doslova „"Cesty"“, Mesilot, v oficiálním seznamu sídel Mesillot) je vesnice typu kibuc v Izraeli, v Severním distriktu, v Oblastní radě Emek ha-Ma'ajanot.


2009–10 UEFA Champions League knockout phase

Liga mistrů UEFA 2009/10 - vyřazovací část

Round of 16.

The draw for the competition's round of 16 was held on 18 December 2009. The first legs of the round of 16 were played on 16, 17, 23 and 24 February, and the second legs were played on 9, 10, 16 and 17 March 2010.

Second leg.

"Arsenal won 6–2 on aggregate."  "Fiorentina 4–4 Bayern Munich on aggregate. Bayern Munich won on away goals."  "Lyon won 2–1 on aggregate."  "Manchester United won 7–2 on aggregate."  "CSKA Moscow won 3–2 on aggregate."  "Internazionale won 3–1 on aggregate."  "Barcelona won 5–1 on aggregate."  "Bordeaux won 3–1 on aggregate."

Quarter-finals.

The draw for the quarter-finals took place in Nyon, Switzerland, on 19 March 2010. There was no seeding and no country protection, meaning that it was an entirely random draw.  The first legs were played on 30 and 31 March 2010, and the second legs were played on 6 and 7 April 2010.

Second leg.

"Internazionale won 2–0 on aggregate."  "Barcelona won 6–3 on aggregate."  "Lyon won 3–2 on aggregate."  "Bayern Munich 4–4 Manchester United on aggregate. Bayern Munich won on away goals."

Semi-finals.

The draw for the semi-finals took place immediately after the draw for the quarter-finals. The first legs were played on 20 and 21 April 2010, with the second legs on 27 and 28 April 2010. There were fears that the first legs would have to be postponed due to the eruptions of the volcano at Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland. On 18 April, UEFA issued a statement that the matches would go ahead and that the teams would have to make alternate travel arrangements.

Second leg.

"Bayern Munich won 4–0 on aggregate."  "Internazionale won 3–2 on aggregate."

Final.

The 2010 UEFA Champions League Final was the fourth to be held at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in Madrid, Spain, after the 1957, 1969 and 1980 finals. It also was the first to be held on a Saturday.

The knockout phase of the 2009–10 UEFA Champions League began on 16 February and concluded on 22 May 2010 with the final won by Internazionale against Bayern Munich 2–0 at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in Madrid. The knockout phase involves the sixteen teams who finished in the top two in each of their groups in the group stage.

Vyřazovací fáze Ligy mistrů UEFA 2009/10 začala 16. února 2010 a skončila závěrečným finále na stadionu Estadio Santiago Bernabéu v Madridu dne 22. května 2010, kde Inter Milán porazil FC Bayern Mnichov. Vyřazovací fáze zahrnovala šestnáct týmů, které skončily na prvních dvou místech v každé skupině ve skupinové fázi.


Early life.

At the age of three, Afonso suffered an illness that left him paralyzed on the left side of his body, also leaving him mentally unstable. His father created him 10th Duke of Braganza.  After the death of his eldest brother Teodósio, Prince of Brazil in 1653, Afonso became the heir apparent to the throne of the kingdom. He received also the crown-princely title 2nd Prince of Brazil.

Succession.

He succeeded his father (João IV) in 1656 at the age of thirteen. His mother, Luisa of Medina-Sidonia, was named regent in his father's will. His mental instability and paralysis, plus his lack of interest in government, left his mother as regent for six years, until 1662. Afonso oversaw decisive military victories over the Spanish at Elvas (14 January 1659), Ameixial (8 June 1663) and Montes Claros (17 June 1665), culminating in the final Spanish recognition of sovereignty of Portugal's new ruling dynasty, the House of Braganza, on 13 February 1668 in the Treaty of Lisbon.

Colonial affairs.

Colonial affairs saw the Dutch conquest of Jaffnapatam, Portugal's last colony in Portuguese Ceylon (1658) and the cession of Bombay and Tangier to England (23 June 1661) as dowry for Afonso's sister, Catherine of Braganza, who had married King Charles II of England. English mediation in 1661 saw the Netherlands acknowledge Portuguese rule of Brazil in return for uncontested control of Ceylon.  In 1662, the Count of Castelo Melhor saw an opportunity to gain power at court by befriending the king. He managed to convince the king that his mother was out to steal his throne and exile her in Portugal. As a result, Afonso sent his mother to a convent.

Marriage.

Afonso married Marie Françoise of Nemours, the daughter of the Duke of Savoy in 1666, but the marriage was short-lived. Marie Françoise, or Maria Francisca in Portuguese, filed for an annulment in 1667 based on the impotence of the king. The Church granted her the annulment, and she married Afonso's brother, Pedro, Duke of Beja (the future Peter II).

Downfall.

That same year, Pedro managed to gain enough support to force Afonso to relinquish control of the government to him, and he became Prince Regent in 1668. While Pedro never formally usurped the throne, Afonso was king in name only for the rest of his life. (The proceedings which the annulment of Afonso's marriage involved formed the basis of João Mário Grilo's 1989 film, "The King's Trial" ["O Processo do Rei"].) For seven years after Pedro's coup, Afonso was kept on the island of Terceira in the Azores. His health broken by this captivity, he was eventually permitted to return to the Portuguese mainland, but he remained powerless and kept under guard. At Sintra he died in 1683.  The room where he was imprisoned is preserved at Sintra National Palace.

Afonso VI (; 21 August 164312 September 1683), known as "the Victorious" (), was the second King of Portugal of the House of Braganza from 1656 until his death. He was initially under the regency of his mother, Luisa of Medina-Sidonia, until 1662, when he removed her to a convent and took power with the help of his favourite, the Count of Castelo Melhor.

Alfonso VI. Portugalský, zvaný "el Victorioso (Vítězný)" (21. srpna 1643 - 12. září 1683) byl v letech 1656-1675 portugalský král, druhý z dynastie Braganza.


Signs and symptoms.

If symptoms of histoplasmosis infection occur, they will start within 3 to 17 days after exposure; the average is 12–14 days. Most affected individuals have clinically silent manifestations and show no apparent ill effects. The acute phase of histoplasmosis is characterized by non-specific respiratory symptoms, often cough or flu-like. Chest X-ray findings are normal in 40–70% of cases. Chronic histoplasmosis cases can resemble tuberculosis; disseminated histoplasmosis affects multiple organ systems and is fatal unless treated.  While histoplasmosis is the most common cause of mediastinitis, this remains a relatively rare disease. Severe infections can cause hepatosplenomegaly, lymphadenopathy, and adrenal enlargement. Lesions have a tendency to calcify as they heal.  Presumed ocular histoplasmosis syndrome (POHS) causes chorioretinitis, where the choroid and retina of the eyes are scarred, resulting in a loss of vision not unlike macular degeneration. Despite its name, the relationship to "Histoplasma" is controversial. Distinct from POHS, acute ocular histoplasmosis may rarely occur in immunodeficiency.

Complications.

In absence of proper treatment and especially in immunocompromised individuals, complications can arise. These include recurrent pneumonia, respiratory failure, fibrosing mediastinitis, superior vena cava syndrome, pulmonary vessel obstruction, progressive fibrosis of lymph nodes. Fibrosing mediastinitis is a serious complication and can be fatal. Smokers with structural lung disease have higher probability of developing chronic cavitary histoplasmosis.  After healing of lesions, hard calcified lymph nodes can erode the walls of airway causing hemoptysis.

Mechanisms.

"H. capsulatum" grows in soil and material contaminated with bird or bat droppings (guano). The fungus has been found in poultry house litter, caves, areas harboring bats, and in bird roosts (particularly those of starlings). The fungus is thermally dimorphic: in the environment it grows as a brownish mycelium, and at body temperature (37 °C in humans) it morphs into a yeast. Histoplasmosis is not contagious, but is contracted by inhalation of the spores from disturbed soil or guano. The inoculum is represented principally by microconidia. These are inhaled and reach the alveoli.  In the alveoli, macrophages ingest these microconidia. They survive inside the phagosome. As the fungus is thermally dimorphic, these microconidia are transformed into yeast. They grow and multiply inside the phagosome. The macrophages travel in lymphatic circulation and spread the disease to different organs.  Within the phagosome the fungus has an absolute requirement for thiamine. Cell-mediated immunity for histoplasmosis develops within 2 weeks. If the patient has strong cellular immunity, macrophages, epithelial cells and lymphocytes surround the organisms and contain them, and eventually calcify. In immunocompromised individuals, the organisms disseminate to different organs such as bone, spleen, liver, adrenal glands and mucocutaneous membranes, resulting in progressive disseminated histoplasmosis. Chronic lung disease can manifest.

Diagnosis.

Clinically, there is a wide spectrum of disease manifestation, making diagnosis somewhat difficult. More severe forms include: (1) the chronic pulmonary form, often occurring in the presence of underlying pulmonary disease; and (2) a disseminated form, which is characterized by the progressive spread of infection to extra-pulmonary sites. Oral manifestations have been reported as the main complaint of the disseminated forms, leading the patient to seek treatment, whereas pulmonary symptoms in disseminated disease may be mild or even misinterpreted as flu. Histoplasmosis can be diagnosed by samples containing the fungus taken from sputum (via bronchoalveolar lavage), blood, or infected organs. It can also be diagnosed by detection of antigens in blood or urine samples by ELISA or PCR. Antigens can cross-react with antigens of African histoplasmosis (caused by Histoplasma duboisii), blastomycosis, coccidioidomycosis, paracoccidioidomycosis, and talaromycosis infection. Histoplasmosis can also be diagnosed by a test for antibodies against "Histoplasma" in the blood. "Histoplasma" skin tests indicate whether a person has been exposed, but do not indicate whether they have the disease. Formal histoplasmosis diagnoses are often confirmed only by culturing the fungus directly. Sabouraud agar is one type of agar growth media on which the fungus can be cultured. Cutaneous manifestations of disseminated disease are diverse and often present as a nondescript rash with systemic complaints. Diagnosis is best established by urine antigen testing, as blood cultures may take up to 6 weeks for diagnostic growth to occur and serum antigen testing often comes back with a false negative before 4 weeks of disseminated infection.

Types.

Histoplasmosis may be divided into the following types:

Prevention.

It is not practical to test or decontaminate most sites that may be contaminated with "H. capsulatum", but the following sources list environments where histoplasmosis is common, and precautions to reduce a person's risk of exposure, in the three parts of the world where the disease is prevalent. Precautions common to all geographical locations would be to avoid accumulations of bird or bat droppings.  The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) provides information on work practices and personal protective equipment that may reduce the risk of infection. This document is available in English and Spanish.  A review paper exists which includes information on locations in which histoplasmosis has been found in Africa (in chicken runs, on bats, in the caves bats infest, and in soil), and a thorough reference list including English, French, and Spanish language references.

Treatment.

In the majority of immunocompetent individuals, histoplasmosis resolves without any treatment. Antifungal medications are used to treat severe cases of acute histoplasmosis and all cases of chronic and disseminated disease. Typical treatment of severe disease first involves treatment with amphotericin B, followed by oral itraconazole.  Liposomal preparations of amphotericin B are more effective than deoxycholate preparations. The liposomal preparation is preferred in patients that might be at risk of nephrotoxicity, although all preparations of amphotericin B have risk of nephrotoxicity. Individuals taking amphotericin B are monitored for renal function. Liposomal amphotericin B is better at treating people with progressive disseminated histoplasmosis and underlying HIV when compared to deoxycholate amphotericin B. Meanwhile, fluconazole performs poorly when compared to other azoles.  Treatment with itraconazole will need to continue for at least a year in severe cases, while in acute pulmonary histoplasmosis, 6 to 12 weeks treatment is sufficient. Alternatives to itraconazole are posaconazole, voriconazole, and fluconazole. Individuals taking itraconazole are monitored for hepatic function.

Prognosis.

90% of patients with normal immune system will gain health without any intervention. Less than 5% will need serious treatments.

Epidemiology.

"Histoplasmosis capsulatum" is found throughout the world. It is endemic in certain areas of the United States, particularly in states bordering the Ohio River valley and the lower Mississippi River. The humidity and acidity patterns of soil are associated with endemicity. Bird and bat droppings in soil promote growth of "Histoplasma". Contact with such soil aerosolizes the microconidia, which can infect humans. It is also common in caves in southern and East Africa. Positive histoplasmin skin tests occur in as many as 90% of the people living in areas where "H. capsulatum" is common, such as the eastern and central United States.  In Canada, the St. Lawrence River Valley is the site of the most frequent infections, with 20–30 percent of the population testing positive.  A review of reported cases in 2018 showed disease presence throughout South East Asia  In India, the Gangetic West Bengal is the site of most frequent infections, with 9.4 percent of the population testing positive. "Histoplasma capsulatum capsulatum" was isolated from the local soil proving endemicity of histoplasmosis in West Bengal.

History.

"Histoplasma" was discovered in 1905 by Samuel T. Darling, but only in the 1930s was it discovered to be a widespread infection. Before then, many cases of histoplasmosis were mistakenly attributed to tuberculosis, and patients were mistakenly admitted to tuberculosis sanatoriums. Some patients contracted tuberculosis in these sanatoriums.

Histoplasmosis is a disease caused by the fungus "Histoplasma capsulatum". Symptoms of this infection vary greatly, but the disease affects primarily the lungs. Occasionally, other organs are affected; this is called disseminated histoplasmosis, and it can be fatal if left untreated.

Retikuloendoteliózy představují skupinu zatím nedostatečně epizootologicky i symptomatologicky definovaných patologických syndromů u domácí drůbeže, vyvolávaných retikuloendoteliózními viry (REV) z čeledi "Retroviridae". Biologickými vlastnostmi se liší od ptačích leukózních virů i viru lymfoproliferativní nemoci krůt. Způsobují různé chorobné syndromy u drůbeže a pernaté zvěře, včetně subklinických infekcí.


Geology.

During the 1960s, rectified images of Mare Orientale by Gerard Kuiper at the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory gave rise to the notion of it being an impact crater. The structure, with the flat plain of the mare in the center, is about across and was formed by the impact of an asteroid-sized object, possibly in diameter and travelling at. Compared with most other lunar basins, Mare Orientale is less flooded by mare basalts, so that much of the basin structure is visible. The basalt in the central portion of the Orientale basin is probably less than in thickness which is much less than mare basins on the Earth-facing side of the Moon. The collision caused ripples in the lunar crust, resulting in the three concentric circular features. The innermost rings of this vast, multi-ringed crater are the inner and outer Montes Rook, and the outermost ring are the Montes Cordillera, in diameter. Outward from here, ejecta extend some from the foot of the mountains and form a rough surface with hummocks and with features radially aligned towards the center.  The Apollo program did not sample rocks from Mare Orientale so its precise age is not known. However, it is the Moon's most recent impact basin, probably rather younger than the Imbrium Basin, which is about 3.85 billion years old. The surrounding basin material is of the Lower Imbrian epoch with the mare material being of the Upper Imbrian epoch.  Located at the antipode of Mare Orientale is Mare Marginis.  A mass concentration (mascon), or gravitational high, was identified in the center of Mare Orientale from Doppler tracking of the five Lunar Orbiter spacecraft in 1968. The mascon was confirmed and mapped at higher resolution with later orbiters such as Lunar Prospector and GRAIL.

Discovery and name.

Mare Orientale is difficult to observe from Earth, as it lies at the extreme western edge of the near side. All that can be seen are the rough mountain ranges—the Montes Rook and the Montes Cordillera—and some glimpses of the dark mare material beyond them. However, the Moon's libration means that on rare occasions Mare Orientale is turned slightly more toward the Earth, and becomes a little more discernible.  Although various astronomers had observed hints of the mare, it was first fully described by the German astronomer Julius Franz in his 1906 book "Der Mond" ("The Moon"). Franz also gave the mare its name, the "Eastern Sea", as it was located on what the convention at the time considered was the eastern side of the Moon as viewed from Earth, though it is the western side as viewed by an astronaut walking on the Moon. In 1961, however, the International Astronomical Union adopted the astronautic convention for East and West on the Moon and this limb became the western edge.  The first detailed study of the Mare Orientale was by Hugh Percy Wilkins, who called it "Lunar Mare X". Franz's discoveries were not well known, and in the 1976 edition of his book "Guide to the Moon", Patrick Moore claims that he and Wilkins discovered and named Mare Orientale in 1946. However, Moore credits Franz as discoverer in his "2009 Yearbook of Astronomy" (p. 133-135).

Mare Orientale (Latin "orientāle", the "eastern sea") is a lunar mare. It is located on the western border of the near side and far side of the Moon, and is difficult to see from an Earthbound perspective. Images from spacecraft have revealed it to be one of the most striking large scale lunar features, resembling a target ring bullseye.

Mare Orientale (česky Moře východní nebo Východní moře) je měsíční moře a zároveň i nížina. Nachází se rozhraní přivrácené a odvrácené strany Měsíce tak, že je ze Země téměř nepozorovatelné. Z malé části je viditelné jen díky měsíčním libracím. Německý astronom Julius Heinrich Franz nazval moře Východním, protože v době jeho objevu se moře nacházelo v oblasti, která byla dle tehdejších zvyklostí považována za východní část Měsíce a tedy toto moře leželo na východě. V roce 1961 rozhodla Mezinárodní astronomická unie, že východ bude určen z pohledu pozorovatelů na Měsíci, tzn. že Slunce pro pozorovatele na měsíčním povrchu bude vycházet na východě. Proto dnes můžeme říci, že Mare Orientale je na západním okraji přivrácené strany Měsíce.


Human overpopulation.

David Attenborough described the level of human population on the planet as a multiplier of all other environmental problems. In 2013, he described humanity as "a plague on the Earth" that needs to be controlled by limiting population

Human overconsumption.

Overconsumption is a situation where resource use has outpaced the sustainable capacity of the ecosystem. It can be measured by the ecological footprint, a resource accounting approach which compares human demand on ecosystems with the amount of planet matter ecosystems can renew. Estimates indicate that humanity's current demand is 70% higher than the regeneration rate of all of the planet's ecosystems combined. A prolonged pattern of overconsumption leads to environmental degradation and the eventual loss of resource bases.  Humanity's overall impact on the planet is affected by many factors, not just the raw number of people. Their lifestyle (including overall affluence and resource utilization) and the pollution they generate (including carbon footprint) are equally important. In 2008, "The New York Times" stated that the inhabitants of the developed nations of the world consume resources like oil and metals at a rate almost 32 times greater than those of the developing world, who make up the majority of the

Fishing and farming.

The environmental impact of agriculture varies based on the wide variety of agricultural practices employed around the world. Ultimately, the environmental impact depends on the production practices of the system used by farmers. The connection between emissions into the environment and the farming system is indirect, as it also depends on other climate variables such as rainfall and temperature.  There are two types of indicators of environmental impact: "means-based", which is based on the farmer's production methods, and "effect-based", which is the impact that farming methods have on the farming system or on emissions to the environment. An example of a means-based indicator would be the quality of groundwater that is affected by the amount of nitrogen applied to the soil. An indicator reflecting the loss of nitrate to groundwater would be effect-based.  The environmental impact of agriculture involves a variety of factors from the soil, to water, the air, animal and soil diversity, plants, and the food itself. Some of the environmental issues that are related to agriculture are climate change, deforestation, genetic engineering, irrigation problems, pollutants, soil degradation, and waste.

Fishing.

The environmental impact of fishing can be divided into issues that involve the availability of fish to be caught, such as overfishing, sustainable fisheries, and fisheries management; and issues that involve the impact of fishing on other elements of the environment, such as by-catch and destruction of habitat such as coral reefs.  These conservation issues are part of marine conservation, and are addressed in fisheries science programs. There is a growing gap between how many fish are available to be caught and humanity's desire to catch them, a problem that gets worse as the world population grows.  Similar to other environmental issues, there can be conflict between the fishermen who depend on fishing for their livelihoods and fishery scientists who realize that if future fish populations

Irrigation.

The environmental impact of irrigation includes the changes in quantity and quality of soil and water as a result of irrigation and the ensuing effects on natural and social conditions at the tail-end and downstream of the irrigation scheme.  The impacts stem from the changed hydrological conditions owing to the installation and operation of the scheme.  An irrigation scheme often draws water from the river and distributes it over the irrigated area. As a hydrological result it is found that: These may be called direct effects.  Effects on soil and water quality are indirect and complex, and subsequent impacts on natural,

Agricultural land loss.

Lal and Stewart estimated global loss of agricultural land by degradation and abandonment at 12 million hectares per year. In contrast, according to Scherr, GLASOD (Global Assessment of Human-Induced Soil Degradation, under the UN Environment Programme) estimated that 6 million hectares of agricultural land per year had been lost to soil degradation since the mid-1940s, and she noted that this magnitude is similar to earlier estimates by Dudal and by Rozanov et al. Such losses are attributable not only to soil erosion, but also to salinization, loss of nutrients and organic matter, acidification, compaction, water logging and subsidence. Human-induced land degradation tends to be particularly serious in dry regions. Focusing on soil properties, Oldeman estimated that about 19 million square kilometers of global land area had been degraded; Dregne and Chou, who included degradation of vegetation cover as well as soil, estimated about 36 million square kilometers degraded in the world's dry regions. Despite estimated losses of agricultural land, the amount of arable land used in crop production globally increased by about 9% from 1961 to 2012, and is estimated to have been 1.396 billion hectares in 2012.

Meat production.

Environmental impacts associated with meat production include use of fossil energy, water and land resources, greenhouse gas emissions, and in some instances, rainforest clearing, water pollution and species endangerment, among other adverse effects. Steinfeld et al. of the FAO estimated that 18% of global anthropogenic GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions (estimated as 100-year carbon dioxide equivalents) are associated in some way with livestock production. FAO data indicate that meat accounted for 26% of global livestock product tonnage in 2011.  Globally, enteric fermentation (mostly in ruminant livestock) accounts for about 27% of anthropogenic methane emissions, Despite methane's 100-year global warming potential, recently estimated at 28 without and 34 with

Ecosystem impacts.

Environmental degradation.

Human activity is causing environmental degradation, which is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution. It is defined

Habitat Fragmentation.

According to a 2018 study in "Nature", 87% of the oceans and 77% of land (excluding Antarctica) have been altered by anthropogenic activity, and 23% of the planet's landmass remains as wilderness.  Habitat fragmentation is the reduction of large tracts of habitat leading to habitat loss. Habitat fragmentation and loss are considered as being the main cause of the loss of biodiversity and degradation of the ecosystem all over the world. Human

Mass extinction.

Biodiversity generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth, and is represented by the number of different species there are on the planet. Since its introduction, Homo sapiens (the human species) has been killing off entire species either directly (such as through hunting) or indirectly (such as by destroying habitats), causing the extinction of species at an alarming rate. Humans are the cause of the current mass extinction, called the Holocene extinction, driving extinctions to 100 to 1000 times the normal background rate. Though most experts agree that human beings have accelerated the rate of species extinction, some

Decline in biodiversity.

Defaunation is the loss of animals from ecological communities.  It is estimated that more than 50 percent of all wildlife has been lost in the last 40 years. It is estimated that by 2020, 68% of the world's wildlife will be lost. In South America, there is believed to be a 70 percent loss. A May 2018 study published in "PNAS" found that 83% of wild mammals, 80% of marine mammals, 50% of plants and 15% of fish have been lost since the dawn of human civilization. Currently, livestock make up 60% of the biomass of all mammals on earth, followed by humans (36%) and wild mammals (4%). According to the 2019 global

Invasive species.

Introductions of species, particularly plants into new areas, by whatever means and for whatever reasons have brought about major and permanent changes to the environment over large areas. Examples include the introduction of Caulerpa taxifolia into the Mediterranean,

Death of coral reefs.

Because of human overpopulation, coral reefs are dying around the world. In particular, coral mining, pollution (organic and non-organic), overfishing, blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems. Coral reefs also face high dangers from pollution, diseases, destructive fishing practices and warming oceans. In order to find answers for these problems, researchers study the various

Pollution by wastewater.

Domestic, industrial and agricultural wastewater makes its way to wastewater plants for treatment before being released into aquatic ecosystems. Wastewater at these treatment plants contains a cocktail of different chemical and biological contaminants which may influence surrounding ecosystems. For example, the nutrient rich water supports large populations of pollutant-tolerant Chironomidae, which in-turn attract insectivorous bats. These insects accumulate toxins in their exoskeletons and pass them on to insectivorous birds and bats.

Climate change impacts.

Global warming is the result of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations which is caused primarily by the combustion of fossil energy sources such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas, and to an unknown extent by destruction of forests, increased methane, volcanic activity and cement production. Such massive alteration of the global carbon cycle has only been possible because of the availability and deployment of advanced technologies, ranging in application from fossil fuel exploration, extraction, distribution, refining, and combustion in power plants and automobile engines and advanced farming practices. Livestock contributes to climate change both through the production of greenhouse gases and through destruction of carbon sinks such as rain-forests. According to the 2006 United Nations/FAO report, 18% of all greenhouse gas emissions found in the atmosphere are due to livestock. The raising of livestock and the land needed to feed them has resulted in the destruction of millions of acres of rainforest and as global demand for meat rises, so too will the demand for land. Ninety-one percent of all rainforest land deforested since 1970 is now used for livestock. Potential negative environmental impacts caused by increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations are rising global air temperatures, altered hydrogeological cycles resulting in more frequent and severe droughts, storms, and floods, as well as sea level rise and ecosystem disruption.

Acid Deposition.

The fossils that are burned by humans for energy usually come back to them in the form of acid rain. Acid rain is a form of precipitation which has high sulfuric and nitric acids which can occur in the form of a fog or snow. Acid rain has numerous

Ozone depletion on Vegetation.

Ozone depletion damages plants all over the world and this includes both the plants in the natural ecosystems and the agricultural crops. It damages vegetation by entering through the leaf’s stomata and burning that plant tissue during the respiration process. Ground-level ozone is known for causing more plant

Disruption of the nitrogen cycle.

Of particular concern is NO, which has an average atmospheric lifetime of 114–120 years, and is 300 times more effective than CO as a greenhouse gas. NO produced by

Technology impacts.

The applications of technology often result in unavoidable and unexpected environmental impacts, which according to the I = PAT equation is measured as resource use or pollution generated per unit GDP. Environmental impacts caused by the application of technology are often perceived as unavoidable for several reasons. First, given that the purpose of many technologies is to exploit, control, or otherwise “improve” upon nature for the perceived benefit of humanity while at the same time the myriad of processes in nature have been optimized and are continually adjusted

Mining industry.

The environmental impact of mining includes erosion, formation of sinkholes, loss of biodiversity, and contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water by chemicals from mining processes. In some cases, additional forest logging is done in the vicinity of mines to increase the available room for the storage of the created debris and soil.  Even though plants need some heavy metals for their growth, excess of these metals is usually toxic to them. Plants that are polluted with heavy metals usually depict reduced growth, yield and performance. Pollution

Energy industry.

The environmental impact of energy harvesting and consumption is diverse. In recent years there has been a trend towards the increased commercialization of various renewable energy sources.  In the real world, consumption of fossil fuel resources leads to global warming and climate change. However, little change is being made in many parts of the world. If the peak oil theory proves true, more explorations of viable alternative energy sources, could be more friendly to the environment.  Rapidly advancing technologies can achieve a transition of energy generation, water and waste management, and food production towards better environmental and energy usage practices using methods of systems ecology and industrial ecology.

Biodiesel.

The environmental impact of biodiesel includes energy use, greenhouse gas emissions and some other kinds of pollution. A joint life cycle analysis by the US Department of Agriculture and the US Department of Energy found that substituting 100% biodiesel for petroleum diesel in buses reduced life cycle consumption of petroleum by 95%. Biodiesel reduced net emissions of carbon dioxide by 78.45%, compared with petroleum diesel.

Coal mining and burning.

The environmental impact of coal mining and -burning is diverse. Legislation passed by the US Congress in 1990 required the United States Environmental

Electricity generation.

The environmental impact of electricity generation is significant because modern society uses large amounts of electrical power. This power

Nuclear power.

The environmental impact of nuclear power results from the nuclear fuel cycle processes including mining, processing, transporting and storing fuel and radioactive fuel waste. Released radioisotopes pose a health danger to human populations, animals and plants as radioactive particles enter organisms through various transmission routes.  Radiation is a carcinogen and causes numerous effects on living organisms and systems. The environmental impacts of nuclear power plant disasters such as the

Oil shale industry.

The environmental impact of the oil shale industry includes the consideration of issues such as land use, waste management, water and air pollution caused by the extraction and processing of oil shale. Surface mining of oil shale deposits causes the

Petroleum.

The environmental impact of petroleum is often negative because it is toxic to almost all forms of life. Petroleum, a

Reservoirs.

The environmental impact of reservoirs is coming under ever increasing scrutiny as the world demand for water and energy increases and the number and size of reservoirs increases.  Dams and the reservoirs can be used to supply drinking water, generate hydroelectric power, increasing the water supply for irrigation, provide recreational opportunities and flood control. However, adverse environmental and sociological impacts have also been identified during and after many reservoir constructions. Although the impact varies greatly between different dams and reservoirs, common criticisms include preventing sea-run

Wind power.

Compared to the environmental impact of traditional energy sources, the environmental impact of wind power is relatively minor. Wind powered electricity generation consumes no fuel, and emits no air pollution, unlike fossil fuel power sources. The energy consumed to manufacture and transport the materials used to build a wind power plant is equal to the new energy produced by the plant within a few months. While a wind

Manufacturing.

Cleaning agents.

The environmental impact of cleaning agents is diverse.

Nanotechnology.

Nanotechnology's environmental impact can be split into two aspects: the potential for nanotechnological innovations to help improve the environment, and the possibly novel type

Paint.

The environmental impact of paint is diverse. Traditional painting materials and processes can have harmful effects on the environment, including those from the use of lead and other additives. Measures can be

Paper.

The environmental impact of paper is significant, which has led to changes in industry and behaviour at both business and personal levels. With the use of modern technology such as the printing press and the

Plastics.

Some scientists suggest that by 2050

Pesticides.

The environmental impact of pesticides is often greater than what is intended by those who use them. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, including nontarget species, air, water, bottom sediments, and food. Pesticide contaminates land and water when it escapes from production sites and storage tanks, when it runs off from fields, when it is discarded,

Pharmaceuticals.

The environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is largely speculative. PPCPs are substances used by individuals for personal health or cosmetic reasons and the products used by

Transport.

The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy, and burns most of the world's petroleum. This creates air pollution, including nitrous oxides and particulates, and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide, for which transport is the fastest-growing emission sector. By subsector, road transport is the largest contributor to global warming.  Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicles emission; however, this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles, and more use of each vehicle. Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied. Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes, causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport, and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency.  Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl, which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands. By reducing transportation emissions globally, it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth's air quality, acid rain, smog and climate change.  The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern. A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth.

Aviation.

The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit noise, particulates, and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming. Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines, the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to

Roads.

The environmental impact of roads includes the local effects of highways (public roads) such as on noise, light pollution, water pollution, habitat destruction/disturbance and local air

Shipping.

The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions and oil pollution. In 2007, carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were estimated at 4 to 5% of the global total, and estimated by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) to rise by up to 72% by 2020 if no action is taken. There is also a potential for introducing invasive

Military.

General military spending and military activities have marked environmental effects. The United States military is considered one of the worst polluters in the world, responsible for over 39,000 sites contaminated with hazardous materials. Several studies have also found a strong positive correlation between higher military spending and higher carbon emissions where increased military spending has a larger effect on increasing carbon emissions in the Global North than in the Global South. Military activities also affect

Light pollution.

Artificial light at night is one of the most obvious physical changes that humans have made to the biosphere, and is the easiest form of pollution to observe from space. The main environmental impacts of artificial light are due to light's use as an information source (rather than an energy source). The hunting efficiency of visual predators generally increases under artificial light, changing predator prey interactions. Artificial light also affects dispersal, orientation, migration, and hormone levels, resulting in disrupted circadian rhythms.

Human impact on the environment or anthropogenic impact on the environment includes changes to biophysical environments and ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural resources caused directly or indirectly by humans, including global warming, environmental degradation (such as ocean acidification), mass extinction and biodiversity loss, ecological crisis, and ecological collapse. Modifying the environment to fit the needs of society is causing severe effects, which become worse as the problem of human overpopulation continues. Some human activities that cause damage (either directly or indirectly) to the environment on a global scale include population growth, overconsumption, overexploitation, pollution, and deforestation, to name but a few. Some of the problems, including global warming and biodiversity loss pose an existential risk to the human race, and human overpopulation causes those problems.

Vliv člověka na životní prostředí nebo antropogenní vliv na životní prostředí jsou změny v životním prostředí, ekosystémech, biodiverzitě a přírodních zdrojích způsobené přímo nebo nepřímo člověkem, jako jsou globální oteplování, environmentální degradace (např. okyselování oceánů), hromadné vymírání organizmů, ztráta biodiverzity mimo jiné.


Transmission.

No evidence of transmission from birds to humans has been identified. The virus is mainly spread horizontally by the oro-fecal route, but vertical transmission can occur in serogroup 1. Once it has infected the bird the virus may remain latent until a period of stress, when it may then cause clinical disease.

Clinical signs and diagnosis.

Infections are normally subclinical, however clinical disease can occur—especially in young birds as maternal antibody levels begin to wane.  Clinical signs are related to the organ affected.  Signs of gastrointestinal disease (Haemorrhagic Enteritis) include diarrhea, anorexia, melena and hematochezia. Anaemia and dehydration may develop secondary to this haemorrhagic enteritis. Signs of reproductive disease (Egg Drop Syndrome) include low egg production/hatching and the laying of abnormal eggs (size, shape, colour, texture). Adenovirus infection may infect other organs, causing a splenitis, inclusion body hepatitis, bronchitis, pulmonary congestion ventriculitis, pancreatitis, or oedema, depending on the species of bird infected.  Diagnosis of aviadenovirus is by histopathology, electron microscopy, viral isolation, ELISA and PCR. In addition, virus antigen can be detected double immunodiffusion. Postmortem examination may reveal a variety of clinical signs relating directly to the organ affected. Specifically, Egg Drop Syndrome can be diagnosed by hemagglutinin inhibition and the virus causes haemagglutination in chickens and ducks.

Treatment and control.

Vaccines for HE and EDS are available (ATCvet codes: for the inactivated vaccine, for the live vaccine, plus various combinations). Disease incidence may be reduced by minimising stress levels, using appropriate hygiene measures and providing adequate nutrition.

Taxonomy.

The following species are recognized:

Structure.

Viruses in Aviadenovirus are non-enveloped, with icosahedral geometries, and T=25 symmetry. The diameter is around 90 nm. Genomes are linear and non-segmented, around 35–36kb in length and have a guanine/cytosine content of 53–59%. The genome codes for 40 proteins.

Life cycle.

Viral replication is nuclear. Entry into the host cell is achieved by attachment of the viral fiber glycoproteins to host receptors, which mediates endocytosis. Replication follows the DNA strand displacement model. DNA-templated transcription, with some alternative splicing mechanism is the method of transcription. The virus exits the host cell by nuclear envelope breakdown, viroporins, and lysis. Birds serve as the natural host.

Aviadenoviruses are adenoviruses that affect birds—particularly chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys and pheasants. There are currently fourteen species in this genus including the type species Fowl aviadenovirus A. Viruses in this genus cause specific disease syndromes such as Quail Bronchitis (QB), Egg Drop Syndrome (EDS), Haemorrhagic Enteritis (HE), Pheasant Marble Spleen Disease (MSD), Falcon adenovirus A and Inclusion Body Hepatitis (IBH). Avian adenoviruses have a worldwide distribution and it is common to find multiple species on a single farm. The most common serogroups are serogroup 1, 2 and 3.

Příslušníci čeledi "Adenoviridae" tvoří definovanou skupinu DNA virů o průměrné velikosti 70-90 nm, s ikozaedrální symetrií kapsidy, bez lipoproteinového obalu a s vláknitými projekcemi na vrcholových kapsomerách. Adenoviry jsou rezistentní na organická rozpouštědla, značně termostabilní a změnu pH snášejí v širokém rozsahu (pH 3-9). Zatímco morfologické a fyzikálně-chemické vlastnosti příslušníků čeledi Adenoviridae jsou téměř shodné, antigenní složení a biologická aktivita ptačích adenovirů (rod "Aviadenovirus") se liší od savčích ("Mastadenovirus").