Origin.

The Tanguts are typically regarded by Chinese scholars to be synonymous with or at least related to the Qiang or Dangxiang (). Historically, "Qiang" was a collective term for the multiple ethnic groups who lived on the western borderlands of China. The name Tangut first appears in the Orkhon inscriptions of 735. In their own Tangut language, the Tanguts called themselves "Mi-niah" (Miñak). The Tanguts eventually migrated from their homeland in northeastern Tibet to the eastern Ordos region under pressure from the Tibetan Empire. By the time of the An Lushan Rebellion the Tanguts were the most dominant local power in the region. There they established the first and only Tangut state to have ever existed--Western Xia. Until the 19th century, the term Minjak was stil used to refer to the area inhabited by Qiang people in today's Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture.

Appearance.

According to William of Rubruck, the Tanguts were valiant and had big men among them, in contrast to the Uyghurs who were "of medium size, like us."

Culture.

Tangut society was divided into two classes: the "Red Faced" and the "Black Headed". The Red Faced Tanguts were seen as commoners while the Black Headed Tanguts made up the elite priestly caste. Although Buddhism was extremely popular among the Tangut people, many Tangut herdsmen continued to practice a kind of shamanism known as Root West. The black caps worn by Root West shamans give the Black Headed caste its name. According to Tangut myth, the ancestor of the Black Headed Tanguts was a heavenly white crane, while the ancestor of the Red Faced Tanguts was a monkey. Tangut kings went by the title of Wuzu.  According to sources in the Tangut language, the Tangut state known now as the Western Xia was named translated as "Great State of White and Lofty" ("phôn1 mbın2 lhi̯ə tha2"). Although the Chinese translation of this name () was occasionally used in Tangut sources, the state was most commonly referred to as the "Great Xia" (大夏) in Chinese-language sources of the Tangut or as the "Xia State" () to the Song. In later historiography and in modern Chinese the Tangut state is referred to as the "Western Xia" ("Xī Xià" 西夏). The Mongols and other steppe tribes referred to the Tangut kingdom as "Qashi" or "Qashin", which was derived from the Middle Chinese name for the region the Tanguts controlled ().

History.

In 881 the Tanguts assisted the Tang in suppressing the Huang Chao rebellion. As a reward the Tang granted the Tangut general Li Sigong the three prefectures of Xia (, Tangut: ), Sui (, Tangut: ), and Yin (, Tangut: ) as hereditary titles under the Dingnan Jiedushi. From there the Tanguts expanded their realm southwest towards their old homelands. In 1002 they conquered Ling Prefecture and set up their first capital there under the name of Xiping. By 1036 they had annexed the Guiyi Circuit and the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom, even pushing into Tibetan territory and conquering Xining. The state of Western Xia was proclaimed in 1038.  Since the Tangut's founder, Li Deming, was not a particularly conservative ruler, the Tangut people began to absorb the Chinese culture that surrounded them, but never lost their actual identity, as is proven by the vast amount of literature which survived the Tangut state itself.  Li Deming's more conservative son, Li Yuanhao, enthroned as Emperor Jingzong, sought to restore and strengthen the Tangut identity by ordering the creation of an official Tangut script and by instituting laws that reinforced traditional cultural customs. One of the laws he mandated called for citizens to wear traditional ethnic apparel and another required men to wear their hair short or shaved as opposed to the Chinese custom of wearing hair long and knotted. Rejecting the common Chinese surname of "Li" given to the Tuoba by the Tang court and that of "Zhao" given by the Song court, he adopted a Tangut surname, rendered in Chinese as "Weiming" (). He made Xingqing (, modern Yinchuan) his capital city.  In the thirteenth century, Genghis Khan unified the northern grasslands of Mongolia and led his troops in six rounds of attacks against the Western Xia over a period of twenty-two years (1205, 1207, 1209–10, 1211–13, 1214–19, 1225–27). During the last spate of the Mongol attacks, Genghis died in Western Xia territory. The official Mongol history attributes his death to illness, whereas legends claim that he died from a wound inflicted in these battles.  In 1227, the capital of Western Xia was overrun by the Mongols, who devastated its buildings and written records: all was burnt to the ground except its monastery. The last emperor was killed and tens of thousands of civilians massacred. However, many Tangut families joined the Mongol Empire. Some of them led Mongol armies, e.g. Cha'an, into the conquest of China. After the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) was established, the Tangut troops were incorporated into the Mongol army in their subsequent military conquests in central and southern China. The Tangut were considered Semu under the Yuan class system, thus separating them from the North Chinese. As late as the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), there was evidence of small Tangut communities in Anhui and Henan provinces. The people including members of the royal clan emigrated to western Sichuan, northern Tibet, even possibly northeast India, in some instances becoming local rulers.

Religion.

The Tanguts were primarily Buddhists. Tangut Buddhism was influenced by external elements. The entire Chinese Buddhist canon was translated into the Tangut language over a span of 50 years and published around 1090 in about 3700 fascicles. Buddhism in the Tangut state is believed to be an amalgamation of Tibetan and Chinese traditions, among which the Huayan-Chan tradition of Guifeng Zongmi (Chinese: 圭峰宗密, 780–841) and his master Huayan Chengguan was the most influential. A number of texts previously believed to be of native Tangut origin turned out to be translations of Khitan source texts. The degree of Tibetan impact on the formation of Tangut Buddhism still remains unexplored, especially in the light of new discoveries showing that Tangut Buddhism owed more to the local culture in North China than to pure Tibetan or Chinese influences. Texts belonging to the Tibetan Mahamudra tradition demonstrate that Tangut Buddhism initially evolved along the Karma Kagyu rather than Sakya lines of Buddhist transmission.  A number of Tangut Buddhist institutions, such as "Imperial Preceptor" survived the Tangut State itself and could be found during the Yuan dynasty. One of the more definite sources of Tangut Buddhism was Mount Wutai, where both Huayan and Chinese Esoteric Buddhism flourished from the late Tang dynasty up to the time of the Mongol conquest.  Solonin (2005: unpaginated) links the Tanguts, the Helan Mountains and the Chan teachings of both Kim Hwasang and Baotang Wuzhu: Worship of Confucianism also existed in the Western Xia, which has led to some claims that the Tangut religion was rooted in Confucianism, but this was incomparable with the degree of popularity of Buddhism. Tangut literature is dominated by Buddhist scriptures while secular teachings including the Chinese classics were rarely available in the Tangut language.  The Tangut state enforced strict laws pertaining to the teaching of religious beliefs and rigorously screened potential teachers. Before he was allowed to teach, a newcomer entering the state from Tibet or India first had to seek the approval of local authorities. Doctrines taught and methods used were carefully supervised to ensure there was no possibility that the Tangut people might misunderstand the teachings. Anyone found to be a fortune-teller or charlatan faced immediate persecution. Deeming it contrary to Buddhist ethical beliefs, the Tangut state strictly forbade religious teachers from accepting compensation or reward for their teaching services.  Although the state did not support an official school of Buddhism, it did protect all religious sites and objects within the country's boundaries.  As in China, becoming a Buddhist monk required government approval and anyone found to have taken the vows of a monk without such government oversight faced severe punishment. Remarkably for the time, women played a role in Tangut religious practices by serving as nuns, a position that could only be held by a woman who had been widowed or who was an unmarried virgin.  Suchan (1998) traces the influence of the first several Karmapas upon the Yuan and Ming courts as well as the Western Xia, and mentions Düsum Khyenpa, 1st Karmapa Lama: After the fall of the Western Xia, the influx of refugees into Tibet led to the adoption of the Pehar deity into Tibetan Buddhism, eventually in the important role as the state oracle, the Nechung Oracle.

The Tangut people (Tangut:, "mjɨ nja̱" or, "mji dzjwo"; Chinese: 党項, dǎngxiàng) were a Tibeto-Burman tribal union that inhabited Western Xia. The group lived under Tuyuhun authority and moved to Northwest China sometime before the 10th century to found the Western Xia or Tangut Empire (1038–1227). They spoke the Tangut language, one of the Qiangic languages that belong to the Tibeto-Burman family.

Tanguti nebo Tangutové ( "Miniag", 党项 pchin-jinem "Dǎngxiàng" nebo "Fan", : plurál → "Tangutlar") je název středověkého lidu kteří koncem 9. století založili stát či dynastii Západní Sia, také známý jako Tangutská říše v oblasti současní severozápadní Číny. Čínští historici je tradičně považovali za součást Čchiangského národa (Kuo-ti), nicméně současná zjištění naznačují genealogické propojení zakladatele státu Li Jüan-chaoa se starověkým lidem Sien-piů a jeho vládnoucího klanu Toba čili Tabgačů.


Route description.

Route of the E59 starts in Prague, Czech Republic, and proceeds southeast along the D1 motorway towards Jihlava, where it leaves the motorway and turns south along the route 38, a regular road comprising at-grade intersections. The route passes near Moravské Budějovice and Znojmo. It crosses from the Czech Republic to Austria between Chvalovice and Haugsdorf as it switches to Austrian B303 state road, representing another two-lane road with at-grade intersections. South of Hollabrunn, the E59 transfers to the S3 expressway until it reaches Stockerau and the A22 which carries the E59 east to Vienna. Within the city, the E59 turns south once again in Donaustadt, transferring to the A23 taking it to the southern outskirts of the city. There it proceeds further south along the A2 motorway taking the route past Wiener Neustadt to the city of Graz. Graz itself is bypassed by the motorway and the E59 switches there to the A9 motorway marking the final southbound leg of the E59 through Austria until it reaches Spielfeld/Šentilj border crossing to Slovenia. South of the border crossing the E59 route follows the Slovenian A1 motorway to the south of Maribor where the E59 leaves the A1 route and joins the A4 taking it to Gruškovje/Macelj border crossing to Croatia. South of the border, the E59 follows Croatian A2 motorway running past Krapina to Zagreb. The E59 terminates at Jankomir interchange of the Zagreb bypass, where southbound E59 traffic defaults to the eastbound A3 motorway. Originally the E59 extended further south past Zagreb, to Bihać, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Split at the Adriatic Sea coast, however, that segment of the route was subsequently transferred to the European route E71. Nonetheless, the E59 shares segments of the route with a number of other European routes. A part of the E59 spanning Prague and Vienna corresponds to the Pan-European Corridor IV, and the segment spanning Graz and Zagreb corresponds to the Pan-European Corridor Xa.

Toll.

Various sections of the E59 are tolled, using a range of toll collection systems. In Czech Republic, vehicles exceeding using the D1 motorway are charged toll using an electronic toll collection (ETC) system, while other vehicles are required to have a vignette displayed. The same applies to Austrian motorways. Slovenia has a similar system in place, although vehicles exceeding the weight limit are provided with a number of payment options. The Croatian A2 is also a tolled motorway, using a ticket system. As of August 2011, the toll charged along the A2 route between various toll plazas at each motorway exit and two mainline toll plazas, varies depending on the length of route travelled and the vehicle classification in Croatia. The toll is payable in either Croatian kuna or euros and by major credit and debit cards. A prepaid toll collection system is also used.

History.

UNECE was formed in 1947, and their first major act to improve transportation was a joint UN declaration no. 1264, the Declaration on the Construction of Main International Traffic Arteries, signed in Geneva on September 16, 1950, which defined the first E-road network. This declaration was amended several times before November 15, 1975, when it was replaced by the European Agreement on Main International Traffic Arteries or "AGR", which set up a route numbering system and improved standards for roads in the list. The AGR went through several changes, with the last one, as of 2011, in 2008. Reorganization of the E-roads network of 1975 and 1983 redefined the E71 designation previously associated with Hanover–Bremen–Bremerhaven road and assigned it to Košice–Budapest–Zagreb route. The same documents assigned the Zagreb–Bihać–Split section to the E59, as the E71 terminated in Zagreb at the time, however, the most recent revision of the E-network truncated the E59 in Zagreb, and transferred its former southern leg to the E71, shortening the E59 considerably.

European route E 59 is a north-south Class-A intermediate European route. It begins in Prague, Czech Republic, passes through Vienna, Austria and Maribor, Slovenia, ending near Zagreb, Croatia. The total length of the route is. The E59 largely consists of motorways but some sections are developed either as expressways or two-lane roads with at-grade intersections. The motorway sections are generally tolled through varying systems and rates. Individual segments of the E59 route are shared with several other European routes. Originally, the route extended through Bihać, Bosnia and Herzegovina to Split, Croatia.

Evropská silnice E59 je evropskou silnicí 1. třídy ve směru sever-jih. Začíná v Praze, prochází Vídní, Mariborem a končí v Záhřebu. Celá trasa měří 644 kilometrů. E59 je z větší části vedena po dálnicích. Některé úseky jsou vedeny buď jako rychlostní silnice, nebo jako dvouproudé silnice s úrovňovými křižovatkami. Úseky probíhající po dálnicích jsou obecně zpoplatněny prostřednictvím různých systémů a sazeb. Jednotlivé segmenty trasy E59 jsou sdíleny s dalšími evropskými silnicemi. Původně vedla E59 skrz Bihać v Bosně a Hercegovině do Splitu v Chorvatsku.


Taxonomy.

This species looks similar to, and is closely related to, "Glaucus marginatus", which is now understood to be not one species, but a cryptic species complex of four separate species that live in the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean. It shares the common name "Blue Dragon" with "Pteraeolidia ianthina".

Description.

At maturity "Glaucus atlanticus" can be up to in length. It is silvery grey on its dorsal side and dark and pale blue ventrally. It has dark blue stripes on its head. It has a flat, tapering body and six appendages that branch out into rayed, finger-like cerata.  Cerata, also known as papillae, extend laterally from three different pairs of peduncles. The papillae are placed in a single row (uniseriate) and may be up to 84 inches total, (Forster, 1777).  The radula of this species bears serrated teeth.

Buoyancy and coloration.

With the aid of a gas-filled sac in its stomach, "G. atlanticus" floats at the surface. Due to the location of the gas sac, this species floats upside down. The upper surface is actually the foot (the underside in other slugs and snail), and this has either a blue or blue-white coloration. The true dorsal surface (carried downwards in "G. atlanticus") is completely silver-grey. This coloration is an example of countershading, which helps protect it from predators that might attack from below and from above. The blue coloration is also thought to reflect harmful UV sunlight.

Distribution and habitat.

This nudibranch is pelagic, and there is some evidence that it occurs throughout the world's oceans, in temperate and tropical waters. It has been recorded from the east and south coasts of South Africa, European waters, the east coast of Australia, and Mozambique. The G. atlanticus species geographical range increased northward by 150 km in the Gulf of California.  "Glaucus atlanticus" was recently found in the Humboldt Current ecosystem in Peru in 2013, and off Andhra Pradesh in India in 2012. This is in line with the known habitat characteristics of the species: they live in warm temperate climates in the Southern Pacific, and in circumtropical and Lusitanian environments. Before finding "Glaucus atlanticus" off Andhra Pradesh, these nudibranchs were documented as having been seen in the Bay of Bengal and off the coast of Tamil Nadu, India, over 677 kilometers apart. "Glaucus atlanticus" was also recently found off Bermuda in January 2016.  Although these sea slugs live on the open ocean, they sometimes accidentally wash up onto the shore, and therefore they may be found on beaches.

Life history and behavior.

"G. atlanticus" preys on other larger pelagic organisms. The sea slugs can move toward prey or mates by using their cerata to make slow swimming movements.  "G. atlanticus" is able to feed on the Portuguese man o' war due to its immunity to the venomous nematocysts. The slug consumes the entire organism and appears to select and store the most venomous nematocysts for its own use against future prey. The nematocysts are collected in specialized sacs (cnidosacs) at the tip of the animal's cerata, the thin feather-like "fingers" on its body. Because "Glaucus" concentrates the venom, it can produce a more powerful and deadly sting than the Man o' War on which it feeds.  Like almost all heterobranchs, "Glaucus" is a hermaphrodite, having both male and female reproductive organs. Unlike most nudibranchs, which mate with their right sides facing, sea swallows mate with ventral sides facing. After mating, both animals produce egg strings. Studies have indicated that the "G. atlanticus" is not globally panmictic but is localized within ocean basins. Gene flow among Afro-Eurasian and American populations is thus hindered by physical obstructions and water temperatures in the Arctic and Southern Oceans.

Sting.

The "Glaucus atlanticus" is able to swallow the venomous nematocysts from siphonophores such as the Portuguese man o' war, and store them in the extremities of its finger-like cerata. Picking up the animal can result in a painful sting, with symptoms similar to those caused by the Portuguese man o' war. The symptoms that may appear after being stung are nausea, pain, vomiting, acute allergic contact dermatitis, erythema, urticarial papules, potential vesicle formation and post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation.

Glaucus atlanticus (common names include the sea swallow, blue angel, blue glaucus, dragon slug, blue dragon, blue sea slug and blue ocean slug) is a species of small, blue sea slug, a pelagic aeolid nudibranch, a shell-less gastropod mollusk in the family Glaucidae.

Glaukus atlantský ("Glaucus atlanticus") je druh nevelkého mořského plže. Je ale blízce příbuzný s druhem "Glaucilla marginata". Glaukus atlantský má zužující se zploštělé tělo, které dosahuje délky až 5 cm. Barva je stříbřitě šedá na jeho hřbetní straně a tmavě a světle modrá ventrálně. Podél okraje nohou se táhnou tmavé pruhy.


Process.

The term digitization is often used when diverse forms of information, such as an object, text, sound, image or voice, are converted into a single binary code. The core of the process is the compromise between the capturing device and the player device so that the rendered result represents the original source with the most possible fidelity, and the advantage of digitization is the speed and accuracy in which this form of information can be transmitted with no degradation compared with analog information.  Digital information exists as one of two digits, either 0 or 1. These are known as bits (a contraction of "binary digits") and the sequences of 0s and 1s that constitute information are called bytes.  Analog signals are continuously variable, both in the number of possible values of the signal "at" a given time, as well as in the number of points in the signal "in" a given period of time. However, digital signals are discrete in both of those respects – generally a finite sequence of integers – therefore a digitization can, in practical terms, only ever be an approximation of the signal it represents.  Digitization occurs in two parts: In general, these can occur at the same time, though they are conceptually distinct.  A series of digital integers can be transformed into an analog output that approximates the original analog signal. Such a transformation is called a DA conversion. The sampling rate and the number of bits used to represent the integers combine to determine how close such an approximation to the analog signal a digitization will be.

Examples.

The term is used to describe, for example, the scanning of analog sources (such as printed photos or taped videos) into computers for editing, 3D scanning that creates 3D modeling of an object's surface, and audio (where sampling rate is often measured in kilohertz) and texture map transformations. In this last case, as in normal photos, the sampling rate refers to the resolution of the image, often measured in pixels per inch.  Digitizing is the primary way of storing images in a form suitable for transmission and computer processing, whether scanned from two-dimensional analog originals or captured using an image sensor-equipped device such as a digital camera, tomographical instrument such as a CAT scanner, or acquiring precise dimensions from a real-world object, such as a car, using a 3D scanning device.  Digitizing is central to making digital representations of geographical features, using raster or vector images, in a geographic information system, i.e., the creation of electronic maps, either from various geographical and satellite imaging (raster) or by digitizing traditional paper maps or graphs (vector).  "Digitization" is also used to describe the process of populating databases with files or data. While this usage is technically inaccurate, it originates with the previously proper use of the term to describe that part of the process involving digitization of analog sources, such as printed pictures and brochures, before uploading to target databases.  Digitizing may also used in the field of apparel, where an image may be recreated with the help of embroidery digitizing software tools and saved as embroidery machine code. This machine code is fed into an embroidery machine and applied to the fabric. The most supported format is DST file. Apparel companies also digitize clothing patterns

Analog signals to digital.

Analog signals are continuous electrical signals; digital signals are non-continuous. Analog signals can be converted to digital signals by using an analog-to-digital converter.  Nearly all recorded music has been digitized. About 12 percent of the 500,000+ movies listed on the Internet Movie Database are digitized on DVD.  The handling of an analog signal becomes easy when it is digitized because the signal is digitized before modulation and transmission. The conversion process of analog to digital consists of two processes: sampling and quantizing.  Digitization of personal multimedia, such as home movies, slides, and photographs is a popular method of preserving and sharing older repositories. Slides and photographs may be scanned using an image scanner, but videos are more difficult. Slides can be digitized with different film scanner by Nikon such as the Nikon Coolscan 5000ED.  Another examples of digitization is VisualAudio process of the Swiss "Fonoteca Nazionale" in Lugano, that extract and reconstruct the sound from a high-resolution picture of a record.

Analog texts to digital.

At most 1 in 20 texts have been digitized as of 2006.  Older print books are being scanned and optical character recognition technologies have been applied by academic and public libraries, foundations, and private companies like Google.  Unpublished text documents on paper, which have some enduring historical or research value are being digitized by libraries and archives, though frequently at a much slower rate than for books (see digital libraries). In many cases, archives have replaced microfilming with digitization as a means of preserving and providing access to unique documents.

Implications.

This shift to digitization in the contemporary media world has created implications for traditional mass media products. However, these "limitations are still very unclear". The more technology advances, the more converged the realm of mass media will become with less need for traditional communication technologies. For example, the Internet has transformed many communication norms, creating more efficiency for not only individuals, but also for businesses. However, McQuail suggests traditional media have also benefited greatly from new media, allowing more effective and efficient resources available.

Library preservation.

In the context of libraries, archives, and museums, digitization is a means of creating digital surrogates of analog materials, such as books, newspapers, microfilm and videotapes, offers a variety of benefits, including increasing access, especially for patrons at a distance; contributing to collection development, through collaborative initiatives; enhancing the potential for research and education; and supporting preservation activities. Digitization can provide a means of preserving the content of the materials by creating an accessible facsimile of the object in order to put less strain on already fragile originals. For sounds, digitization of legacy analogue recordings is essential insurance against technological obsolescence. A fundamental aspect of planning digitization projects is to ensure that the digital files themselves are preserved and remain accessible; the term "digital preservation," in its most basic sense, refers to an array of activities undertaken to maintain access to digital materials over time.  The prevalent Brittle Books issue facing libraries across the world is being addressed with a digital solution for long term book preservation. Since the mid-1800s, books were printed on wood-pulp paper, which turns acidic as it decays. Deterioration may advance to a point where a book is completely unusable. In theory, if these widely circulated titles are not treated with de-acidification processes, the materials upon those acid pages will be lost. As digital technology evolves, it is increasingly preferred as a method of preserving these materials, mainly because it can provide easier access points and significantly reduce the need for physical storage space.  Cambridge University Library is working on the Cambridge Digital Library, which will initially contain digitised versions of many of its most important works relating to science and religion. These include examples such as Isaac Newton's personally annotated first edition of his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica as well as college notebooks and other papers, and some Islamic manuscripts such as a Quran from Tipu Sahib's library.  Google, Inc. has taken steps towards attempting to digitize every title with "Google Book Search". While some academic libraries have been contracted by the service, issues of copyright law violations threaten to derail the project. However, it does provide – at the very least – an online consortium for libraries to exchange information and for researchers to search for titles as well as review the materials.

Digitization versus digital preservation.

There is a common misconception that to digitize something is the same as digital preservation. To digitize something is to convert something from an analog into a digital format. An example would be scanning a photograph and having a digital copy on a computer. This is essentially the first step in digital preservation. To digitally preserve something is to maintain it over a long period of time.  Digital preservation is more complicated because technology changes so quickly that a format that was used to save something years ago may become obsolete, like a 5 1/4" floppy drive. Computers are no longer made with them, and obtaining the hardware to convert a file from an obsolete format to a newer one can be expensive. As a result, the upgrading process must take place every 2 to 5 years, or as newer technology becomes affordable, but before older technology becomes unobtainable. The Library of Congress provides numerous resources and tips for individuals looking to practice digitization and digital preservation for their personal collections.  Digital preservation can also apply to born-digital material. An example of something that is born-digital is a Microsoft Word document saved as a.docx file or a post to a social media site. In contrast, digitization only applies exclusively to analog materials. Born-digital materials present a unique challenge to digital preservation not only due to technological obsolescence but also because of the inherently unstable nature of digital storage and maintenance. Most websites last between 2.5 and 5 years, depending on the purpose for which they were designed.  Many libraries, archives, and museums, as well as other institutions struggle with catching up and staying current in regards to both digitization and digital preservation. Digitization is a time-consuming process, particularly depending on the condition of the holdings prior to being digitized. Some materials are so fragile that undergoing the process of digitization could damage them irreparably; light from a scanner can damage old photographs and documents. Despite potential damage, one reason for digitizing some materials is because they are so heavily used that digitization will help to preserve the original copy long past what its life would have been as a physical holding.  Digitization can also be quite expensive. Institutions want the best image quality in digital copies so that when they are converted from one format to another over time only a high-quality copy is maintained. Smaller institutions may not be able to afford such equipment. Manpower at many facilities also limits how much material can be digitized. Archivists and librarians must have an idea of what their patrons wish to see most and try to prioritize and meet those needs digitally.  Labour resources and funding also limit digital preservation in many institutions. The cost of upgrading hardware or software every few years can be prohibitively expensive. Training is another issue, since many librarians and archivists do not have a computer science background. Intellectual control of digital holdings presents yet another issue which sometimes occurs when the physical holdings have not yet been entirely processed. One suggested timeframe for completely transcribing digital holdings was every ten to twenty years, making the process an ongoing and time-consuming one.

Digital reformatting.

Digital reformatting is the process of converting analogue materials into a digital format as a surrogate of the original. The digital surrogates perform a preservation function by reducing or eliminating the use of the original. Digital reformatting is guided by established best practices to ensure that materials are being converted at the highest quality.

Digital reformatting at the Library of Congress.

The Library of Congress has been actively reformatting materials for its American Memory project and developed best standards and practices pertaining to book handling during the digitization process, scanning resolutions, and preferred file formats. Some of these standards are:  A list of archival standards for digital preservation can be found on the ARL website.  The Library of Congress has constituted a Preservation Digital Reformatting Program. The Three main components of the program include:

Audio digitization and reformatting.

Audio media offers a rich source of historic ethnographic information, with the earliest forms of recorded sound dating back to 1890. According to the International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives (IASA), these sources of audio data, as well as the aging technologies used to play them back, are in imminent danger of permanent loss due to degradation and obsolescence. These primary sources are called “carriers” and exist in a variety of formats, including wax cylinders, magnetic tape, and flat discs of grooved media, among others. Some formats are susceptible to more severe, or quicker, degradation than others. For instance, lacquer discs suffer from delamination. Analog tape may deteriorate due to sticky shed syndrome.  Archival workflow and file standardization have been developed to minimize loss of information from the original carrier to the resulting digital file as digitization is under way. For most at-risk formats (magnetic tape, grooved cylinders, etc), a similar workflow can be observed. Examination of the source carrier will help determine what, if any, steps need to be taken to repair material prior to transfer. Similar inspection must be undertaken for the playback machines. If satisfactory conditions are met for both carrier and playback machine, transfer can take place, moderated by an analog-to-digital converter. The digital signal is then represented visually for the transfer engineer by a digital audio workstation, like Audacity, WaveLab, or ProTools. Reference access copies can be made at smaller sample rates. For archival purposes, it is standard to transfer at a sample rate of 96 kHz and a bit depth of 24 bits per channel.

Lean philosophy.

The broad use of internet and the increasing popularity of lean philosophy has also increased the use and meaning of "digitizing" to describe improvements in the efficiency of organizational processes. Lean philosophy refers to the approach which considers any use of time and resources, which does not lead directly to creating a product, as waste and therefore a target for elimination. This will often involve some kind of Lean process in order to simplify process activities, with the aim of implementing new "lean and mean" processes by digitizing data and activities. Digitization can help to eliminate time waste by introducing wider access to data, or by implementation of enterprise resource planning systems.

Fiction.

Works of science-fiction often include the term digitize as the act of transforming people into digital signals and sending them into digital technology. When that happens, the people disappear from the real world and appear in a virtual world (as featured in the cult film "Tron", the animated series "", or the late 1980s live-action series "Captain Power and the Soldiers of the Future"). In the video game "Beyond Good & Evil", the protagonist's holographic friend digitizes the player's inventory items. One Super Friends cartoon episode showed Wonder Woman and Jayna freeing the world's men (including the male super heroes) onto computer tape by the female villainess Medula.

Digitization is the process of converting information into a digital (i.e. computer-readable) format, in which the information is organized into bits. The result is the representation of an object, image, sound, document or signal (usually an analog signal) by generating a series of numbers that describe a discrete set of points or samples. The result is called "digital representation" or, more specifically, a "digital image", for the object, and "digital form", for the signal. In modern practice, the digitized data is in the form of binary numbers, which facilitate computer processing and other operations, but, strictly speaking, digitizing simply means the conversion of analog source material into a numerical format; the decimal or any other number system that can be used instead.

Digitalizace signálu (z angl. "digital", číslicový) obecně je převod analogového (spojitého) signálu (např. hlasový projev) do nespojité posloupnosti digitálních (číselných) údajů, obvykle kódovaných v binární soustavě.


Recording and promotion.

In 2007, a benefit concert to commemorate the life of music executive Ahmet Ertegun was staged with a reunited Led Zeppelin as the main act. They played several of their most famous songs to an enthusiastic crowd and coordinated a professional recording of the show with 16 cameras, with the prospect of a home video release. Rumours immediately circulated that the recording would become available, but the following year, band member Jimmy Page said that release wasn't certain and that it required mixing and would be a "massive job to embark on." Bassist John Paul Jones agreed that he would like to see it released commercially, but that there was no timeline. Even through 2010, Page was uncertain of the status of the album. On 9 September 2012, the band updated its Facebook page, which led to widespread speculation that the release was finally ready. Details leaked over the following days, with theatre web sites announcing airings of the film slated for the following month.  On 13 September, the band revealed that the film would hit theatres on 17 October, with premieres in Berlin, London, Los Angeles, New York City, and Tokyo and that the home video was scheduled for 19 November. The surviving members of the band appeared at a press event on 21 September to promote the release. They debuted the film at the Odeon West End and answered questions afterward; when queried about more reunion performances, the trio were coy.  Like the 2007 greatest hits album "Mothership", the cover and promotional art were designed by Shepard Fairey. Alan Moulder worked with Jimmy Page on mixing the album but used only a minimal amount of overdubs and corrections, as both the performance itself and the recording were of high quality.

Release and reception.

The album was released in a standard edition consisting of one DVD or Blu-ray bundled with two soundtrack CDs. A triple vinyl LP was initially announced to be released on 10 December 2012 but distribution started in the middle of February 2013. The deluxe edition includes bonus video from the Shepperton rehearsals and news footage from the BBC. Additionally, there is an audio-only Blu-ray with DTS-HD MA 48 kHz/24-bit sound and no video.

Concert.

The concert performance was well received. "NME" published that the show "prove[d] that they can still perform to the level that originally earned them their legendary reputation." Writing for "The New Yorker", Sasha Frere-Jones opined, "the failed gigs of the nineteen-eighties and nineties have been supplanted by a triumph, and the band should be pleased to have done Ertegun proud with such a spirited performance."

Film.

The film has also received acclaim from critics. Marc Lee of "The Daily Telegraph" gave it five out of five stars and concluded that ""Celebration Day" is a celebration of rock 'n' roll at its most moving, magical and magnificent." The initial screening opened to over 1,500 screens in 40 countries and grossed over USD$2 million, leading to further showings worldwide. In 2013, it won a Classic Rock Roll of Honours Award for Film of the Year.

Album.

The album has received generally positive reviews from critics; it holds an 85% normalized score from review aggregator Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim".  In terms of sales, it debuted on the "Billboard" 200 at #9. According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), "Celebration Day" was the 13th-best-selling album globally of 2012 with sales of 1.8 million copies.  The album won the Grammy Award for Best Rock Album at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards, and the rendition of "Kashmir" featured on the album was nominated for the award for Best Rock Performance.

Track listing.

All songs administered by WB Music Corp. (ASCAP)  Set  First encore  Second encore  Video bonus features

Personnel.

Led Zeppelin  Additional personnel

Celebration Day is a concert film by the English rock band Led Zeppelin, recorded at the Ahmet Ertegun Tribute Concert on 10 December 2007, in The O Arena, London. The film was given a limited theatrical release starting on 17 October 2012, and was released on several home audio and video formats on 19 November 2012. The performance, the film, and album releases have been widely praised.

Celebration Day je koncertní film a koncertní album britské rockové skupiny Led Zeppelin. Jeho nahrávání probíhalo při koncert na poctu Ahmetu Ertegünovi v prosinci 2007 v londýnské O2 Aréně. Skupina se zde představila ve své klasické sestavě mimo zesnulého bubeníka Johna Bonhama, kterého nahradil jeho syn Jason Bonham. Album vyšlo 19. listopadu 2012.


Early life.

Stephen Amell was born May 8, 1981 in Toronto, Ontario, the son of Sandra Anne Bolté and Thomas J. Amell. He is a first cousin of actor Robbie Amell. He attended St. Andrew's College, a private independent school for boys.

Acting career.

Amell appeared in two episodes of the fourth season of "Queer as Folk" as the Liberty Ride spinning instructor in 2004. Amell played Adam in the first season of the television series "Dante's Cove"; he was replaced in the second season by Jon Fleming. In 2007, Amell won a Gemini Award for his guest-starring role on "ReGenesis". The same year he was also nominated for a Gemini Award in the Best Ensemble Cast Category for "Rent-a-Goalie".  He had recurring roles in the TV series "Da Kink in My Hair" and "Heartland". On December 3, 2010, Amell joined the cast of "The Vampire Diaries" as werewolf 'Brady' for season 2.  Amell starred as the real life criminal Joran van der Sloot in the Lifetime film "Justice for Natalee Holloway" which originally aired in May 2011.  On October 2, 2011, season 3 of HBO's series "Hung" premiered with Amell starring as busboy-turned-prostitute Jason, a younger rival "ho" to Thomas Jane's Ray Drecker. He also appeared as Jim in the fourth season of "90210".  Amell announced on October 28, 2011, that he had just finished filming the Christmas episode of "New Girl" with Zooey Deschanel and Max Greenfield. He touches on the experience of filming his first "network half-hour comedy" in an interview with "Daemon's TV". On November 9, 2011, Amell was announced for the recurring role of Scottie, a paramedic on ABC's "Private Practice". He also played the role of Travis McKenna in Blue Mountain State  In January 2012, Amell was cast as Oliver Queen, the Green Arrow in The CW series "Arrow", based on the DC Comics superhero of the same name. This series and role led to Amell appearing as the character on other superhero series on the network as part of the growing Arrowverse on shows such as "The Flash", "Legends of Tomorrow" and "Supergirl", as well as the CW Seed webseries "Vixen".  Amell co-starred in the film "", released on June 3, 2016, as vigilante Casey Jones.  Amell announced in May 2017 that he would be participating on a special celebrity edition of "American Ninja Warrior". Amell demonstrated great physical abilities which was reflective of his athleticism in his portrayal of Oliver Queen.  In 2017, Amell took part in the directorial debut of former "Heartland" co-star Michelle Morgan, a short film entitled "Mi Madre, My Father", playing the estranged father of a six-year-old girl. Morgan raised funds for the production through a crowdfunding campaign. The film premiered at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival.  In March 2019, Amell announced the end of "Arrow" with its eighth and final season set to air in late 2019. His first post-"Arrow" project was announced the following August: "Heels", a Starz drama series set in the world of independent professional wrestling.

Professional wrestling.

WWE (2015).

As an avid professional wrestling fan, Amell campaigned for a guest appearance on WWE's weekly "Raw" program. In May 2015 it was reported that he was tentatively set to wrestle Stardust (Cody Rhodes) at WWE's SummerSlam pay-per-view in August. Amell made his first WWE appearance on the May 25 episode of "Raw", where he had a confrontation with Stardust. Amell returned to "Raw" in early August; after being assaulted in the audience by Stardust, Amell got into the ring to attack him until being contained by security. Following a backstage segment with Triple H, it was announced that Neville would team with Amell to face Stardust and King Barrett at SummerSlam. At the event on August 23, 2015, Amell and Neville defeated Barrett and Stardust in a tag team match. Amell participated in the wrestling, and, behind the scenes, wrestlers were said to have been impressed with Amell's performance. Amell became friends with Rhodes, with whom he later also worked on "Arrow". On December 21, 2015, Amell was awarded a Slammy for the "Celebrity Moment of the Year" for his dive onto Stardust during the match.

Ring of Honor (2017).

Amell returned to professional wrestling for Ring of Honor on November 17, 2017, at Survival of the Fittest. On the day of the show, Amell joined the Bullet Club faction, and teamed with Cody Rhodes, Kenny Omega, and The Young Bucks (Matt and Nick Jackson) in a five-on-four tag team match. They defeated The Addiction (Christopher Daniels and Frankie Kazarian), Flip Gordon, and Scorpio Sky, and Amell again participated in the wrestling, including being put through a table by The Addiction.

All In (2018).

On August 6, 2018, it was announced that Amell would be competing at All In, in his first-ever singles match, where he was defeated by Christopher Daniels.

Philanthropy.

Amell has hosted a number of successful fundraising campaigns via the crowd funded merchandise platform Represent.com. In 2014, Amell partnered with the charity Fuck Cancer to raise almost a million dollars with the release of a T-shirt featuring his face on the front (with a Post-it note on his forehead, and featuring the organization's name). He ended up selling over 60,000 shirts from this campaign. In January 2015, Amell launched his second Represent.com campaign featuring a word he made up, "Sinceriously", to benefit two mental health charities: Paws and Stripes, and Stand For The Silent. In August 2015, Amell used his guest appearance on "WWE Raw" with Stardust to raise funds via his third campaign for children's hospice Emily's House in Toronto. The campaign raised $300,000, and Amell and Stardust presented a cheque together at Emily's House. During the Red Nose Day special of "American Ninja Warrior", Amell donated $35,000 for completing all six obstacles, and an extra obstacle, the Salmon Ladder.

Personal life.

Amell married his first wife, fellow Canadian Carolyn Lawrence, on December 8, 2007, in Toronto. The couple divorced in 2010. Amell married actress and model Cassandra Jean on December 25, 2012, in a private ceremony in the Caribbean, and for a second time in New Orleans on May 26, 2013. The couple have a daughter born in October 2013.

Stephen Adam Amell (born May 8, 1981) is a Canadian actor and producer best known for playing Oliver Queen / Green Arrow on The CW superhero series "Arrow", the show that started the Arrowverse. A lifelong professional wrestling fan, he has made appearances in major professional wrestling promotions, including working a match for WWE in 2015 and for Ring of Honor in 2017, joining the stable Bullet Club and later The Elite.

Stephen Amell (* 8. května 1981, Toronto, Ontario, Kanada) je kanadský televizní a filmový herec, známý z titulní role Olivera Queena v seriálu stanice CW "Arrow".


Introduction.

Lions Clubs International, a service membership organization of over 1.4 million members worldwide, was founded in Evansville, Indiana on 24 October 1916 by Dr. William Perry Woods and subsequently evolved as an international service organization under the guidance and supervision of its Secretary, Melvin Jones.  In 1917, Melvin Jones was a 38-year-old Chicago business leader who told members of his local business club they should reach beyond business issues and address the betterment of their communities and the world. Jones' group, the Business Circle of Chicago, agreed. After contacting similar groups around the United States, an organizational meeting was held on June 7, 1917, in Chicago, Illinois, US. The Business Circle subsequently joined one of the invited groups, the "International Association of Lions Clubs" and at a national convention held in Dallas, Texas, later that year, those who were assembled: (1) adopted a Constitution, By-Laws, Code of Ethics and an Emblem; (2) established as a main tenet "unselfish service to others", (3) unanimously elected Dr. William Perry Woods as its first President effectively securing his leadership for the first two years of the existence of the International Association of Lions, and (4) selected Melvin Jones to serve as the Organization's Secretary-Treasurer. The Lions motto is "We Serve". Local Lions Club programs include sight conservation, hearing and speech conservation, diabetes awareness, youth outreach, international relations, environmental issues, and many other programs. The discussion of politics and religion is forbidden. The LIONS acronym also stands for Liberty, Intelligence, Our Nations' Safety.

Aims.

The stated purposes of Lions Clubs International are:

Focus of Lions.

Service projects.

Lions Clubs plan and participate in a wide variety of service projects that meet the international goals of Lions Clubs International as well as the needs of their local communities. Examples include donations to hospices, or community campaigns such as "Message in a bottle", a United Kingdom and Ireland initiative which places a plastic bottle with critical medical information inside the refrigerators of vulnerable people. Money is also raised for international purposes. Some of this is donated in reaction to events such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2013 Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) where Lions and LCIF provided disaster relief locally and from around the world, with donations and commitments surpassing US$1 million. Other money is used to support international campaigns, coordinated by the Lions Clubs International Foundation (LCIF), such as Sight First and Lions World Sight Day, which was launched in 1998 to draw world media attention to the plight of sight loss in the developing world. Lions take on all sorts of various fundraisers to fund these projects. For example, the Dublin, Virginia Lions Club host two flea markets a year, and sell their famous Lion Dog, a fresh prepared variation of a corn dog.  Lions focus on work for the blind and visually impaired began when Helen Keller addressed the international convention at Cedar Point, Ohio, on 30 June 1925 and charged Lions to be "Knights of the Blind".  Lions also have a strong commitment to community hearing- and cancer-screening projects. In Perth, Western Australia, they have conducted hearing screening for over 30 years and provided seed funding for the Lions Ear and Hearing Institute established September 9, 2001, a center of excellence in the diagnosis, management, and research of ear and hearing disorders. In Perth, Lions have also been instrumental in the establishment of the Lions Eye Institute. In Brisbane, Queensland, the Lions Medical Research Foundation provides funding to a number of researchers. Ian Frazer's initial work, leading to the development of a HPV vaccine for the human papillomavirus which could lead to cervical cancer, was funded by the Lions Medical Research Foundation.  Lions Clubs International has supported the work of the United Nations since that organization's inception in 1945, when it was one of the non-governmental organizations invited to assist in the drafting of the United Nations Charter in San Francisco, California.

Lions Clubs International Foundation.

Lions Clubs International Foundation is "Lions helping Lions serve the world". Donations provide funding in the form of grants to financially assist Lions districts with large-scale humanitarian projects that are too expensive and costly for Lions to finance on their own. The Foundation aids Lions in making a greater impact in their local communities, as well as around the world. Through LCIF, Lions ease pain and suffering and bring healing and hope to people worldwide. Major initiatives of the foundation include the following:

SightFirst.

Upon endorsing the biggest ever collaborative disease eradication programme called the London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases launched on 30 January 2012 in London, the organization has implemented SightFirst program by which it aims to eradicate blindness due to trachoma, one of the neglected tropical diseases. It has allocated over US$11 million in 10 countries for eye surgeries, medical training, distribution of Zithromax and tetracycline, and sanitary services. It has also announced US$6.9 million funding to support the Government of China for the same cause.

Membership.

Membership in the Lions Club is by "invitation only" as mandated by its constitution and by-laws. All member applicants need a sponsor who is an active member and of good standing in the club they intend to join. While sponsorship may be obtained by an applicant in order to become a legitimate member, sponsorship is no guarantee of membership. Acceptance of membership is still subject to the approval of the majority of the club's board of directors. Several clubs are even difficult for applicants to join in. A Lions Club chooses its members diligently as it requires time and financial commitments. Prospective applicants must be a person of good moral character in his or her community. Attendance at meetings is encouraged on a monthly or fortnightly basis. Due to the hierarchical nature of Lions Clubs International, members have the opportunity to advance from a local club to an office at the zone, district, multiple district, and international levels.  In 1987 the constitution of Lions Clubs International was amended to allow for women to become members. Since then many clubs have admitted women, but some all-male clubs still exist. In 2003, 8 out of 17 members at the Lions Club in Worcester, England, resigned when a woman joined the club. Despite this setback the club has managed to rebuild and now has 19 members, 7 of whom are women. Women's membership numbers continue to grow throughout the association. Lions club 318d is also a member of the international club.  Among the famous and noteworthy members of Lions International are former U.S. President, Jimmy Carter; Her Royal Highness Sophie, Countess of Wessex, a member of the Wokingham Lions Club and Royal Patron of the Lions Clubs of the British Isles and Ireland; Amelia Earhart, pioneer U. S. aviator, author, and advocate for women's rights; Richard E. Byrd, deputy admiral of the United States Navy, aviator, pioneer and polar explorer; and Helen Keller, American writer, lecturer and social activist.

Awards.

Lions Clubs International gives various awards for outstanding merits.

Medal of Merit.

The Medal of Merit (MM) is the highest award from "Lions Clubs International" to non-members for outstanding contributions to Lions Clubs International and its goals.

District Governor Award.

The District Governor Award (DGA) is one of the highest awards from Lions Clubs International to its members having done exceptional services.

President's Appreciation Award.

The President's Appreciation Award (PAA) is the highest award that can be awarded to an outstanding club.

Melvin Jones Fellowship.

The Melvin Jones Fellowship (MJF) Award is the highest recognition from the "Lions Clubs International Foundation" being given to members who have rendered outstanding community services.

Spread of Lions.

Lions Clubs around the world.

The organization became international on 12 March 1920, when the first club in Canada was established in Windsor, Ontario. In 1937, it was founded in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Lions Clubs have since spread across the globe and have a current membership roster of 1.4 million members worldwide.

Extensions of the Lions family.

In addition to adult Lions Clubs, the Lions family includes Lioness Clubs, Leo Clubs, Campus Lions Clubs and Lion Cubs. These divisions are parts of Lions Clubs International.

Lioness Clubs.

Lioness Club Membership is generally for women, with exceptions of men also becoming Lioness members nowadays. They are formed under a parent Lions Club. The Lions Club thus becomes the Parent Club for the Lioness Club. Naming of the Club is also like that of the Lions Club—e.g., Lions Club of Satara United Dist 323D-1 forming and sponsoring a Lioness Club Satara United District 323D-1. In many areas, particularly the United States, Lioness clubs have disbanded and merged into their parent clubs to make a more effective club as a whole.

Leo Clubs.

Leo Clubs are an extension of the Lions service organization which aims to encourage community service and involvement from a young age. Much like Lioness Clubs, Leo Clubs are sponsored by a parent Lions Club. Leo Clubs are a common school-based organization with members between the ages of 12 and 18 from the same school, these are commonly referred to as "Alpha Leo Clubs". Community based clubs also exist; these generally cater for 18- to 30-year-olds, and are referred to as "Omega Leo Clubs". Leo Clubs are required to have a Leo Club Advisor, a member of the sponsoring Lions Club who attends meetings and provides general advice to the club. Lions International includes more than 250,000 Leo club members in over 150 countries.

Campus Lions Clubs.

Many Leos join a Campus Lions Club if they attend a university or college after high school graduation. There are more than 600 Campus Lions clubs in the world including nearly 13,000 members on college and university campuses in Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, England, Ethiopia, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Mongolia, Nepal, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Uganda, United States, Venezuela, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Legon Lions Club in University of Ghana, KNUST Campus Lions and the University of KwaZulu-Natal Campus Lions Club which is the only active Campus Lions Club currently operating in the Republic of South Africa.  Specialty Lions Clubs These are chartered to focus on a specific need. For instance, Diabetes Clubs, Champion Lions Clubs (Special Olympics), Vision, hearing, homeless/hunger etc. Specialty clubs may also be ethnic based or its members may have similar interestes - for instance a gardening Lions Club whose members all have interests in gardening.

Lion Cubs.

Lion Cubs is a youth service organization for the elementary aged students (ages eight to twelve). The first club was chartered in the Owen J. Roberts School District in Pottstown, Pennsylvania, United States. It was developed for students in 4th through 6th grade, and therefore too young to be a Leo Club member. The clubs (one club in each of five elementary schools) started their meetings and activities in September 2008 and were officially chartered March 24, 2009. The club is sponsored by the Coventry Lions Club of District 14P. The Lion Cubs first year (2008–09) had 179 charter members.

International convention.

An international convention is held annually in cities across the globe for members to meet other Lions, elect the coming year's officers, and partake in the many activities planned. At the convention, Lions can participate in elections and parades, display and discuss fundraisers and service projects, and trade pins and other souvenirs. The first convention was held in 1917, the first year of the club's existence, in Dallas, Texas. The 2006 convention was due to be held in New Orleans, but damage sustained during Hurricane Katrina meant that the convention had to be relocated to Boston.

Conspiracy theories.

Indonesian Islamic hardliners have called for a ban on the Lions Club, saying it is part of a Zionist conspiracy. The club has been called an "infidel" front for Freemasonry and the world Zionist movement and threatened Islam in the world's most populous Muslim country.  Given that many Freemasons are members of Lions Clubs, and its founder, Melvin Jones, was also a Freemason, modern conspiracy theories have claimed that the Lions are connected to and act cohesively with Freemasonry. One example is found on Martha F. Lee's "Conspiracy Rising: Conspiracy Thinking and American Public Life". It says that the "Freemasons are apparently in cahoots with the Lions Clubs and involved in plots ranging from the distribution of aspartame to control the human mind, to the death of John Paul I, to an apparent plot to spread Zionism."  This perception, according to a Freemasonry website, can be traced to John Robison and the Abbé Barruel's unfounded writings on the causes of the French Revolution, Léo Taxil's late 19th-century hoax and the debunked "Protocols of the Elders of Zion".  While there is no direct link between the Lions and the Masons, they are compatible and may have overlapping membership, as evidenced by a speech delivered in 2004 to a Lions Club by a Mason named James F. Kirk-White. The topic of the talk was "Sharing Freemasonry Within Your Community". Their compatibility, moreover, is evidenced by the Masons in Albion, New York offering space for the Lions at a Masonic Lodge. Others also believe that the Lions Clubs actually are a "secret society" that has a great deal of secret ritual within its structure. According to them the Lions are one of those social groups belonging to a secret society that demand an oath of allegiance to join.  Controversial German Author, Jan Udo Holey, often known by his penname Jan van Helsing, wrote in his 1995 book "Geheimgesellschaften und ihre Macht im 20. Jahrhundert" (Secret Societies and Their Power in the 20th Century) that the Lions was founded by the B'nai B'rith in Chicago in 1917 and that, like the Freemasons and other secret societies, 90% of its members are used by the elites and have no inkling of what happens in the upper echelons. Holey explained that in the lower degrees of the hierarchy these organizations are much into social work and present really good programs.

Lions Clubs International (LCI) is an international non-political service organization established originally in 1917 in Chicago, Illinois, by Melvin Jones. It is now headquartered in Oak Brook, Illinois., it had over 46,000 local clubs and more than 1.4 million members (Lions & LEO) in more than 200 countries around the world.

Lions Clubs International (LCI) je jedna z největších mezinárodních humanitárních organizací. Jednou z hlavních oblastí, ve které se angažuje, je pomoc zrakově postiženým v rámci programu péče o zrak, jeho ochranu a obnovu Sight First (Zrak především). Organizace byla založena v roce 1917, dnes sdružuje téměř 1,45 milionu členů na celém světě. LCI je jako jediná nevládní organizace na světě již od roku 1947 členem OSN, konkrétně Hospodářské a sociální rady. Od roku 1978 se každoročně pravidelně koná „Den Lionů" společně s OSN, na kterém se setkávají vrcholní zástupci LCI a OSN za účasti Světové zdravotnické organizace WHO.


History.

Farum BK (1991–2003).

Established on 1 January 1991, from the merger of two football clubs, Farum Idræts Klub (formed in 1910) and Stavnsholt Boldklub af 1974, both from the then Farum municipality (now consolidated with Værløse as the Furesø municipality), Farum BK would become one of the few merger success stories in Danish football, but not without controversy. The club was an initiative local Farum residence and of then local mayor Peter Brixtofte, whom took a personal interest in the club, as well as garnered sponsorship for the team. The club kit colours became a combination of the two merged clubs, the red and white of Stavnsholt with the yellow and blue of F.I.K. combined into a kit with yellow and red striped shirts and dark blue shorts and socks, which is still used in some form to this day. Colours were not the only thing the newly formed club inherited, as Thomas Andreasen who had been with Stavnsholt BK was carried over into the new Farum squad, Andreasen would go on to make a record 295 appearances, playing from the Denmark Series all the way to the Danish Superliga, until his departure from the club in 2007.  Farum BK was placed in the second group of the Denmark Series, the fourth tier in the Danish football pyramid, though it gained promotion to the first group after the club's maiden season. Jørgen Andersen, a former goalkeeper for Hvidovre, took over as the club's first head coach in 1992; the club stayed in the Denmark Series first group for six years. Under the guidance of manager Jørgen Tideman, who took over in 1994, Farum qualified for promotion into the 2nd Division in the 1997–98 season and subsequently turned professional for the first time in club history.  Farum's first full season as a professional club was a fruitful one, edging out Aalborg Chang and Skive to fifth place by one point, gaining promotion for the second time in two years into the 1st Division. The club's meteoric rise was slowed at first with the new challenge of playing in the Danish second tier, though it was not stopped however, ending the 1999–2000 campaign with a respectable eighth-place finish, winning the same number of games as it lost. Farum, however, remained unable to make any sort of impact in the Danish Cup, having lost in the first round for the last three years since making its debut in the tournament in the 1997–98 season. The following year saw some progression in both the league and cup, improving on the previous year's finish by finishing fifth, three spots and nine points behind second-placed promotion winners Vejle, as well as breaking out of the first round of the Danish Cup to eventually fall to Fremad Amager in the third round following a 2–1 loss.  With the 2001–02 season, unconventional coach Christian Andersen was brought in to manage the team, building on the gradual footholds the club had been making in the 1st Division. Jeppe Tengbjerg played a pivotal role, brought in from B.93 the previous year; he scored 16 goals, becoming Farum's top goalscorer of the season and third overall in the league. The team went on to earn promotion into the Superliga after finishing in second place, 11 points clear of third-placed Sønderjylland, one point behind first-place winners Køge, scoring a team total of 69 goals, the highest that season and losing only four games.  Farum's 2002–03 appearance in the top flight of Danish football would be its first and last under the Farum BK name. it ended the season in third place, thus qualifying for the UEFA Cup for the first time in its history. The club's achievement, however, was overshadowed by the controversy involving Peter Brixtofte, who had helped form and fund the club, with deals involving his municipality deliberately overpaying for welfare services bought from private companies who in return would sponsor the Farum football team. Brixtofte was forced to step down as chairman and the club became close to bankruptcy.

FC Nordsjælland (2003–present).

In March 2003, Farum BK was bought by AKP Holding, the holdings company of local businessman Allan K. Pedersen, and in an effort to distance the club from the Brixtofte scandal, Farum BK was re-branded as FC Nordsjælland, named after the North Zealand (Danish: Nordsjælland) region to clarify the club was to represent both the region as well as the town in which the club is based. To reinforce the status as a regional team, a network of local football clubs from the surrounding area was created, consisting of around 66 teams, with the aim to highlight young talent in the region and bring it to national attention via FC Nordsjælland. The network is known as Fodbold Samarbejde Nordsjælland (FSN).  The club's second year in the Superliga, first as Nordsjælland, struggled to improve on the previous year's outing. With its worst goal difference since turning professional, not one FCN player ended in the top ten goal scorers, fighting to avoid relegation for most of the season, ending the campaign in ninth place. The "Wild Tiger" fans, however, were rewarded with European football with the club's first appearance in the UEFA Cup; it beat Armenian team Shirak 6–0 on aggregate in the qualifying round, but were eliminated in the first round by Greek team Panionios. Christian Andersen was sacked at the end of the 2003–04 season, replaced by Johnny Petersen as head coach.  The following two years under Johnny Petersen were spent avoiding relegation, with no success to speak of in either the Superliga or Danish Cup. Petersen's reign was not completely amiss, as he was noted for creating a good young team and the emergence of players Mads Junker and Anders Due. For the 2006–07 season, Morten Wieghorst was promoted from assistant to head coach, a position the former Celtic player would retain for five years.  Wieghorst's first dilemma in charge of FCN was to fill the gap left by top scorer Mads Junker, sale to Dutch side Vitesse the previous winter. Morten Nordstrand came in on a free from nearby Lyngby after scoring 29 goals in the 1st Division that previous season. Nordstrand would go on to make an instant impact, topping the goal scorers charts for the first half of the 2006–07 season and earning himself a call up to the Denmark national team. Helping the club to a fifth-place finish, Nordstrand ended the season with 18 goals after appearing in every league match that season. Danish champions Copenhagen purchased the player at the end of the season for a then record 15 million Danish kroner, becoming the largest transfer fee ever paid for a player between two Danish clubs.  With lower-than-average attendance and issues still arising from the Brixtofte scandal, chairman Allan Kim Pedersen confirmed there had been discussions to move the club north to Hillerød, where it would be able expand to other sports such as ice hockey and basketball. The move, however, never materialized.  Nordsjælland would find itself in a similar position the following season, again having sold its star striker Martin Bernburg to Copenhagen. The team only managed a ninth-place finish, yet qualified for the UEFA Cup for the second time via the UEFA Respect Fair Play rankings. 2008–09 would become a good year for the "Wild Tigers" in terms of cup competitions, making it to the quarter-finals in the Danish Cup for the second time in its history, and improving on its previous European outing with wins over TVMK Tallinn and Queen of the South, though later being knocked out by Greek side Olympiacos 0–7 aggregate.  In October 2008, Allan K. Pedersen sold FC Nordsjælland from AKP Holding to himself for a reported 500,000 Danish kroner, shortly before his holding company went bankrupt, a price Pedersen, however, denies. Following an investigation from his creditors, it was found that the sale was forced through without the bank's consent, and that the value for which the club was sold was too low, which ultimate reduced the finances the creators received for the sale. FCN was reevaluated to be worth 35 million kroner at the time of sale. The case has gone to the Supreme Court and is yet to be resolved; it speculated that it could take one-to-four years.  The 2009–10 season saw Nordsjælland lift its first trophy, the Danish Cup. FCN was not drawn against another Superliga team until the quarter-final meeting with Silkeborg, where it won 3–1 in extra time. The team would go on to face Midtjylland in Nordsjælland's first cup final, winning in extra time 2–0 with goals from new signing Nicolai Stokholm and Bajram Fetai, and qualifying for European competition in the newly remodeled UEFA Europa League. The team would repeat this feat the following season, facing Midtjylland once again in the finals of the Danish Cup and winning the trophy for the second time with a 3–2 win. This would be Morten Wieghorst's last trophy with the "Wild Tigers", however; he moved to manage the Denmark under-21 national team at the end of the 2010–11 campaign.  Kasper Hjulmand was named Wieghorst's successor in June 2011, promoted from the coaching staff. In preparation for the 2011–12 season, the former Lyngby head coach brought in two Danish internationals in Mikkel Beckmann (from relegated Randers) and Patrick Mtiliga (on a free from Málaga). FCN sought to improve on the previous season's sixth-place finish and to defend its Danish Cup title for the second year running. It would go on to play in the Europa League for second year in a row, exiting the competition in the third qualifying round after losing to Sporting CP 2–1 aggregate, which had also eliminated Nordsjælland from Europe the previous season.  FCN started the new season in good form, peaking as high as second in the Superliga, and an undefeated run at home in all competitions until the 30 October, including an impressive 0–0 draw with Portuguese side Sporting CP, making the start of the 2011–12 campaign one of its best starts in recent years. For the first time in club history, a total of five players were called up to the Denmark national team to face Sweden and Finland in November: Mikkel Beckmann, Andreas Bjelland and debutantes Tobias Mikkelsen, Jesper Hansen and Jores Okore. FCN ended the season as Superliga champions for the first time in its history.  In 2012–13, for the first time FCN participated in the UEFA Champions League, where it was drawn into a difficult group alongside defending champions Chelsea, Serie A champions Juventus and Ukrainian Premier League champions Shakhtar Donetsk. FCN played all its home matches at the Danish national stadium, Parken. It gained one point from the group stage – playing 1–1 against Juventus at home thanks to a direct free-kick goal from Mikkel Beckmann. In the last group match, a controversial goal became the talking point of the match, where Shakhtar Donetsk forward Luiz Adriano scored after a fair play situation to level the score; he received a one match ban from UEFA after the match.

Players.

Club captains.

Since 2001, seven players have held the position as club captain for Farum BK or FC Nordsjælland. The first recorded captain was Michael Elbæk. All recorded captains to date have been of Danish nationality. The captain to have lifted the most trophies for FCN is Nicolai Stokholm, who won the Danish Cup on two occasions. Stokholm is also the current and longest-serving captain, having taken over from Henrik Kildentoft when the former arrived at the club in 2009.

Stadium.

Nordsjælland plays its home matches in Right to Dream Park, which has a capacity of 10,100 attendances (9,800 seated). The stadium is the first in Denmark with artificial turf.

FC Nordsjælland in European competition.

FC Nordsjælland's first competitive European match was on August 14, 2003, in the 2003–04 UEFA Cup, beating Shirak F.C. 4–0 at home. In total, the club has participated in European competitions in seven different seasons, reaching as far as the Group stage of the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League. However as of August 2018, they have never qualified for the group stage after starting from a qualifying round.

Fodbold Samarbejde Nordsjælland.

The Fodbold Samarbejde Nordsjælland ("Football Cooperation North Zealand or FSN" in short) is a network of affiliated clubs headed by FC Nordsjælland, in which to highlight talent, youth development, cooperation and community in the North Zealand region. Where clubs participating receive benefits from FCN such as loan moves, friendlies, tickets to games, merchandise, coach visits, training camps and coaching courses. In return, FC Nordsjælland get access to a large scouting network of youth players, which has helped develop many young talent to become youth internationals, who have gone on to play professionally in the Danish Superliga and beyond. FSN has also played an important role in the attendance rise in Farum Park.

Football Club Nordsjælland, commonly known as FC Nordsjælland, Nordsjælland () or FCN, is a professional Danish football team from the North Zealand town of Farum. Founded as "Farum Boldklub" from the merger of the town's two football clubs Farum IK and Stavnsholt BK in 1991, the club changed its name to FC Nordsjælland in 2003.

Football Club Nordsjælland (Dánsky: ['noʁɕɛlɑnˀ], zkráceně jako FC Nordsjælland nebo FCN) je profesionální dánský fotbalový klub, sídlící ve městě Farum v oblasti ostrova Sjælland, největšího z dánských ostrovů. Momentálně působí v nejvyšší dánské ligové soutěži, zvané Superligaen, a je jejím úřadujícím mistrem ze sezony 2011/12. Domácím stadionem klubu je "Farum Park" s kapacitou 10.100 diváků.


Description.

The basic plot of a romantic comedy is that two characters meet, part ways due to an argument or other obstacle, then ultimately realize their love for one another and reunite. Sometimes the two leads meet and become involved initially, then must confront challenges to their union. Sometimes they are hesitant to become romantically involved because they believe that they do not like each other, because one of them already has a partner, or because of social pressures. However, the screenwriters leave clues that suggest that the characters are, in fact, attracted to each other and that they would be a good love match. The protagonists often separate or seek time apart to sort out their feelings or deal with the external obstacles to their being together, only to later come back together.  While the two protagonists are separated, one or both of them usually realizes that they love the other person. Then, one party makes some extravagant effort (sometimes called a "grand gesture") to find the other person and declare their love. This is not always the case as sometimes there is an astonishing coincidental encounter where the two meet again. Or one plans a sweet romantic gesture to show that they still care. Then, perhaps with some comic friction or awkwardness, they declare their love for each other and the film ends on a happy note. Even though it is implied that they live a happily ever after, it does not always state what that happy ending will be. The couple does not necessarily get married, or even live together for it to be a "happily ever after". The ending of a romantic comedy is meant to affirm the primary importance of the love relationship in its protagonists' lives, even if they physically separate in the end (e.g. "Shakespeare in Love", "Roman Holiday"). Most of the time the ending gives the audience a sense that if it is true love, it will always prevail no matter what is thrown in the way.  There are many variations on this basic plot line. Sometimes, instead of the two lead characters ending up in each other's arms, another love match will be made between one of the principal characters and a secondary character (e.g., "My Best Friend's Wedding" and "My Super Ex-Girlfriend"). Alternatively, the film may be a rumination on the impossibility of love, as in Woody Allen's film "Annie Hall." The basic format of a romantic comedy film can be found in much earlier sources, such as Shakespeare plays like "Much Ado About Nothing" and "A Midsummer Night's Dream".  Some comedy films, such as "Knocked Up", combine themes of romantic comedies and stoner comedies, creating a new subgenre that can be more appealing to men, as it already may be to women. Often known as "bromance", such films usually use sexual elements which bring the two characters together. Films in this genre include "American Pie 2" and even "Wedding Crashers". Having sexual elements in the movie is starting to become more popular in romantic comedy movies. In almost all of Nicholas Spark's movies there is some type of sexual scene even though these movies are aimed more towards women. They can be considered to be aimed more towards women because of the hopeless romantic love scenes that are usually present in his works.  The convention underlying a romance book or film is there is two people, normally male and a female, who fall in love with each other. They have a good situation going on for a while, but then the couple finds a major obstacle in their way, which usually starts to pull them apart or makes one of them leave. Before they can overcome this obstacle, one (or both) realizes that they are perfect for each other and proclaims their love for the other. The films usually end with the couple either getting married, engaged, or giving some indication that they live "happily ever after".

Evolution and subgenres.

Over the years, romantic comedies have slowly been becoming more popular to both males and females. They have begun to spread out of their conventional and traditional structure into other territory. This territory explores more subgenres and more complex topics. These films still follow the typical plot of "a light and humorous movie, play, etc., whose central plot is a happy love story" but with more complexity. These are a few ways romantic comedies are adding more subtlety and complexity into the genre. Two ways they are adding to the complexity are through the general obstacles that come between the couple and the general morals that the characters feel throughout the entire film.

Extreme circumstances.

Some romantic comedies have adopted extreme or strange circumstances for the main characters, as in "Warm Bodies" where the protagonist is a zombie who falls in love with a human girl after eating her boyfriend. The effect of their love towards each other is that it starts spreading to the other zombies and even starts to cure them. With the zombie cure, the two main characters can now be together since they don't have that barrier between them anymore. Another strange set of circumstances is in "Zack and Miri Make a Porno" where the two protagonists are building a relationship while trying to make a porno together. Both these films take the typical story arc and then add strange circumstances to add originality.

Flipping conventions.

Other romantic comedies flip the standard conventions of the romantic comedy genre. In films like "500 Days of Summer", the two main interests do not end up together, leaving the protagonist somewhat distraught. Other films like "Adam" have the two main interests end up separated but still content and pursuing other goals and love interests.

Reversing gender roles.

Some romantic comedies use reversal of gender roles to add comedic effect. These films contain characters who possess qualities that diverge from the gender role that society has imposed upon them, as seen in "Forgetting Sarah Marshall" in which the male protagonist is especially in touch with his emotions, and "Made of Honor" in which the female bridesmaids are shown in a negative and somewhat masculine light in order to advance the likability of the male lead.

Serious elements.

Other remakes of romantic comedies involve similar elements, but explore more adult themes such as marriage, responsibility, or even disability. Two films by Judd Apatow, "This Is 40" and "Knocked Up", deal with these issues. "This Is 40" chronicles the mid-life crisis of a couple entering their 40s, and "Knocked Up" addresses unintended pregnancy and the ensuing assuming of responsibility. "Silver Linings Playbook" deals with mental illness and the courage to start a new relationship.  All of these go against the stereotype of what romantic comedy has become as a genre. Yet the genre of romantic comedy is simply a structure, and all of these elements do not negate the fact that these films are still romantic comedies.

Contrived romantic encounters: the "meet cute".

One of the conventions of romantic comedy films is the entertainment factor in a contrived encounter of two potential romantic partners in unusual or comic circumstances, which film critics such as Roger Ebert or the Associated Press' Christy Lemire have called a "meet-cute" situation. During a "meet-cute", scriptwriters often create a humorous sense of awkwardness between the two potential partners by depicting an initial clash of personalities or beliefs, an embarrassing situation, or by introducing a comical misunderstanding or mistaken identity situation. Sometimes the term is used without a hyphen (a "meet cute"), or as a verb ("to meet cute").  Roger Ebert describes the "concept of a Meet Cute" as "when boy meets girl in a cute way." As an example, he cites "The Meet Cute in "Lost and Found" [which] has Jackson and Segal running their cars into each other in Switzerland. Once recovered, they Meet Cute again when they run into each other while on skis. Eventually... they fall in love."  In many romantic comedies, the potential couple comprises polar opposites, two people of different temperaments, situations, social statuses, or all three ("It Happened One Night"), who would not meet or talk under normal circumstances, and the meet cute's contrived situation provides the opportunity for these two people to meet.

Use of "meet cute" situations.

Certain movies are entirely driven by the meet-cute situation, and contrived circumstances throw the couple together for much of the screenplay. However, movies in which the contrived situation is the main feature, such as "Some Like It Hot", rather than the romance being the main feature, are not considered "meet-cutes".  The use of the meet-cute is less marked in television series and novels, because these formats have more time to establish and develop romantic relationships. In situation comedies, relationships are static and meet-cute is not necessary, though flashbacks may recall one ("The Dick Van Dyke Show", "Mad About You") and lighter fare may require contrived romantic meetings.  The heyday of "meet cute" in films was during the Great Depression in the 1930s; screwball comedy films made a heavy use of contrived romantic "meet cutes", perhaps because the more rigid class consciousness and class divisions of this period made cross-social class romances into tantalizing fantasies.

History.

The "Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms" defines romantic comedy as "a general term for comedies that deal mainly with the follies and misunderstandings of young lovers, in a light‐hearted and happily concluded manner which usually avoids serious satire". This reference states that the "best‐known examples are Shakespeare's comedies of the late 1590s, "A Midsummer Night's Dream", "Twelfth Night", and "As You Like It" being the most purely romantic, while "Much Ado About Nothing" approaches the comedy of manners and "The Merchant of Venice" is closer to tragicomedy."  Comedies since ancient Greece have often incorporated sexual or social elements.  It was not until the creation of romantic love in the western European medieval period, though, that "romance" came to refer to "romantic love" situations, rather than the heroic adventures of medieval Romance. These adventures, however, often revolved about a knight's feats on behalf of a lady, and so the modern themes of love were quickly woven into them, as in Chrétien de Troyes's "Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart".  Shakespearean comedy and Restoration comedy remain influential. The creation of huge economic social strata in the Gilded Age, combined with the heightened openness about sex after the Victorian era and the celebration of Sigmund Freud's theories, and the birth of the film industry in the early twentieth century, gave birth to the screwball comedy. As class consciousness declined and World War II unified various social orders, the savage screwball comedies of the twenties and thirties, proceeding through Rock Hudson–Doris Day-style comedies, gave way to more innocuous comedies. In the 1970s What's Up, Doc? was a success, although the film follows the conventions of the screwball comedy, as its tagline confirms: "A Screwball Comedy. Remember them?". The more sexually charged "When Harry Met Sally" had a successful box office run in 1989, paving the way for a rebirth for the Hollywood romantic comedy in the mid-1990s.  The French film industry went in a completely different direction, with less inhibitions about sex. Virginia Woolf, tired of stories that ended in 'happily ever after' at the beginning of a serious relationship, called "Middlemarch" by George Eliot, with its portrayal of a difficult marriage, "one of the few English novels written for grown-up people."

Effects.

On society today.

With the increase of romantic comedy movies, there has been an apparent change in the way society views romance. Researchers are asking whether the romances projected in romantic comedies are preventing true love in real life. The increase in use of technology has also led the society to spend a great amount of time engaging in mediated reality and less time with each other. Even though researchers have only started to explore the impact of romantic comedy films on human romance, the few studies conducted have already shown correlation between romantic comedies and the love delusion. Romantic comedies are very popular. They depict relationships that some scholars think affect how people view relationships outside of this virtual world.

The illusion of love.

In the past, love has not always been the real reason for people coming together. In some cultures, arranged marriages were common to adhere to and propagate caste systems or to join kingdoms. Today, love is the root of all romance, and it is over-emphasized through these films. It tells viewers that love conquers all and will ultimately bring a never-ending happiness that is rarely affected by any conflict. When people do not experience the romance portrayed in these movies, they often wonder what they are doing wrong. Although people should be able to tell between an overly romanticized love and realistic love, they are often caught up in constantly trying to echo the stories they see on screen. While most know that the idea of a perfect relationship is unrealistic, some perceptions of love are heavily influenced by media portrayals.

Conducted research.

A study was conducted at Heriot Watt University in Edinburgh to understand this phenomenon. They studied 40 top box-office films released between 1995 and 2005 to establish common themes. Then they asked hundreds of people to complete a questionnaire to describe their beliefs and expectations in romantic relationships. Researchers found that people who enjoyed movies such as "You’ve Got Mail", "The Wedding Planner", and "While You Were Sleeping" often failed to communicate with their partners effectively. They also believe that if someone is meant to be with you, then they should know your needs without you telling them. Although this study is just one of a handful, it shows a correlation of how people's expectations are distorted through watching romantic comedies.

Romantic comedy (also known as romcom or rom-com) is a subgenre of comedy and slice-of-life fiction, focusing on lighthearted, humorous plot lines centered on romantic ideas, such as how true love is able to surmount most obstacles. One dictionary definition is "a funny movie, play, or television program about a love story that ends happily". Another definition suggests that its "primary distinguishing feature is a love plot in which two sympathetic and well-matched lovers are united or reconciled".

Romantická komedie, nebo též známý jako „rom-coms“, je jeden z filmových žánrů. Obsahem romantické komedie jsou prvky komediálního a romantického žánru, které se kombinují — žánr chce docílit divákova dojetí kombinací lásky a humoru.


Integrins.

Integrins function as the major cell receptor for extracellular matrix protein. These receptors comprise an α and β transmembrane subunit, which are noncovalently bound. Collagen binding is primarily provided by integrins α1β1, α2β1, α10β1 and α11β1. Integrin α1β1 binds to collagen via the MIDAS motif in the α subunit I domain. It preferentially binds collagens IV, VI and type XIII collagen, but also fibril-forming collagens. Specific binding sites in collagen I and IV have been identified. This receptor is situated mainly on mesenchymal cells. Functions include: fibroblast proliferation; regulation of collagen synthesis and MMP expression; response to renal injury. Integrin α2β1 preferentially binds fibril-forming collagens. Specific binding sites in collagen I and III have been identified. Integrin α2β1 is expressed mainly on epithelial cells and platelets. Functions include: platelet adhesion - the most abundant receptor for collagen in platelets; branching morphogenesis; mast cell activation; keratinocyte adhesion and it is the main regulator of cell migration.  Integrin α10β1 preferentially binds collagens IV and VI, but also collagen II. It is expressed on chondrocytes and cardiac muscle. Involved in growth plate morphogenesis and function. Integrin α11β1 is expressed by mesenchymal cells in some parts of embryo during its development and also in muscles in adults: it preferably binds fibrillar collagen. Integrin receptors capable of collagen binding could, according to results of (Garnotel R et al. 2000), include integrin α10β2, which is situated on monocytes and binds type I collagen.

Discoidin domain receptors.

Discoidin domain receptors form a subgroup of receptor tyrosine kinases. Receptor activation happens when collagen binds into preformed DDR dimers on cell membrane, when collagen is bound, a conformational change probably occurs, which causes cytosolic kinases to rotate to face each other, and their autophospohorylation. The exact way of receptor activation is unknown so far. Unlike other tyrosine-kinase receptors, maximal activation of receptors occurs 18 hours after collagen stimulation. They function as receptors for different collagen types, they recognize many fibrillar collagens and they are capable of binding some nonfibrillar collagens as well. Nevertheless, the native conformation of collagen is a requirement for receptor binding, denatured collagen is not bound. DDRs are expressed widely already during development and level of expression is high in adults as well.  DDR1 is a homodimer. Its ectodomain consists of a collagen-binding discoidin domain followed by ~200 residues of unknown structure. It binds fibril-forming collagens and primarily type IV collagen, but also collagen of types I, VI, VIII. It is expressed mainly in epithelial cells and leukocytes and expression rate changes due to cell cycle phase. Functions include: mammary gland development; arterial wound repair; regulation of cell proliferation, cell adhesion and MMP expression; kidney function, differentiation and function of leukocytes.  DDR2 structure as above. Binds fibril-forming collagens, collagen of types I, II, III and X. A specific binding site in collagen II has been identified. It is specific for mesenchymal cells. Functions include: Chondrocyte proliferation and bone growth; regulation of cell proliferation, cell adhesion and induction of MMP expression.

Immunoglobulin-like receptors.

Glycoprotein VI Receptor GPVI belongs to immunoglobulin family of glycoproteins. It consists of two extramembrane immunoglobulin domains, which are associated with extracellular glycosylated mucine and together they form a stalk. Another part of the receptor consists of transmembrane helix with a short cytosolic domain. A FcRγ chain with ITAM (immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif) domain is associated with the transmembrane domain. The short cytosolic domain interacts with calmodulin and Src kinases Lyn and Fyn. These Src kinases phosphorylate tyrosine in ITAM domain and activate a signalling cascade. Glycoprotein VI belongs to collagen receptors that are primarily expressed on platelets surface. Together with integrin receptor α2β1 they provide coagulation cascade activation when a blood-vessel is damaged. When damage occurs, endotelial collagen is uncovered and is bound by GPVI receptor on platelets. This interaction activates signalling cascades leading to coagulation factors release. Mainly fibrillar collagens type I and III serve as ligands. Functions include: Platelet adhesion and activation - the most important platelet collagen receptor in terms of signaling. LAIR1(Leukocyte-associated IG-like receptor) works as inhibition signal for different immune cells. Lair-1 consists of Ig domain, transmembrane helix and a short cytosolic domain, which includes two inhibition motifs (ITIMs), which can block tyrosine domain when activated. A ligand of Lair-1 receptor is type XVII transmembrane collagen, it binds type I and III collagen as well. Collagen binding inhibits Lair-1 function.

Mannose receptors.

Mannose receptor provide reception of extracellular ligands. To the family of mannose receptors belong: mannose receptor, M-phospholipase A2 receptor (PLA2R), Dec-205, Endo180/uPARAP. They share and extracellular domain, which contains N-terminal domain rich in cystein, F2 fibronectin type II domain and several C-lectin domains. From this mannose family, collagen is specifically bound by mannose receptor, M-phospholipase A2 receptor and Endo180 receptor. Binding of collagen or denatured collagen (gelatin) is provided by F2 domain and partly by C-terminal domain (aa 1000-1453), which binds type I collagen triple helix. Inability to internalize collagen and reduced ability of adhesion and related increased migration in collagen matrix was observed in fibroblast population with nonfunctional Endo180 receptor. The exact principal of collagen binding to mannose receptor is not known so far. Endo180 receptor is expressed on fibroblasts, endotelial cells and macrophages.

References.

Vogel, W.F., 2001. Collagen-receptor signaling in health and disease. European Journal of Dermatology 11, 506-514.  White, D.J., Puranen, S., Johnson, M.S., Heino, J., 2004. The collagen receptor subfamily of the integrins. International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology 36, 1405-1410.

Collagen receptors are membrane proteins that bind the extracellular matrix protein collagen, the most abundant protein in mammals. They control mainly cell proliferation, migration and adhesion, coagulation cascade activation and they affect ECM structure by regulation of MMP (matrix metalloproteinases).

Mezi kolagenové receptory patří integrinové receptory, některé receptory manosové rodiny, dále DDR receptory, glykoprotein VI a receptor Lair-1. Tyto receptory zajišťují kontakt buněk s extracelulární matrix (ECM). Podílejí se hlavně na řízení proliferace, migrace, adheze buněk, aktivaci koagulační kaskády a také zpětně ovlivňují strukturu ECM pomocí regulace aktivity MMP (matrix metalloproteináz).