Early life.

Ricci was born 6 October 1552 in Macerata, part of the Papal States and today a city in the Italian region of Marche. He made his classical studies in his native town and studied law at Rome for two years. He entered the Society of Jesus in April 1571 at the Roman College. While there, in addition to philosophy and theology, he also studied mathematics, cosmology, and astronomy under the direction of Christopher Clavius. In 1577, he applied for a missionary expedition to the Far East. He sailed from Lisbon, Portugal, in March 1578 and arrived in Goa, a Portuguese colony, the following September. Ricci remained employed in teaching and the ministry there until the end of Lent 1582, when he was summoned to Macau to prepare to enter China. Ricci arrived at Macau in the early part of August.

Ricci in China.

In August 1582, Ricci arrived at Macau, a Portuguese trading post on the South China Sea. At the time, Christian missionary activity in China was almost completely limited to Macau, where some of the local Chinese people had converted to Christianity and lived in the Portuguese manner. No Christian missionary had attempted seriously to learn the Chinese language until 1579 (three years before Ricci's arrival), when Michele Ruggieri was invited from Portuguese India expressly to study Chinese, by Alessandro Valignano, founder of St. Paul Jesuit College (Macau), and to prepare for the Jesuits' mission from Macau into Mainland China.  Once in Macau, Ricci studied the Chinese language and customs. It was the beginning of a long project that made him one of the first Western scholars to master Chinese script and Classical Chinese. With Ruggieri, he traveled to Guangdong's major cities, Canton and Zhaoqing (then the residence of the Viceroy of Guangdong and Guangxi), seeking to establish a permanent Jesuit mission outside Macau.  In 1583, Ricci and Ruggieri settled in Zhaoqing, at the invitation of the governor of Zhaoqing, Wang Pan, who had heard of Ricci's skill as a mathematician and cartographer. Ricci stayed in Zhaoqing from 1583 to 1589, when he was expelled by a new viceroy. It was in Zhaoqing, in 1584, that Ricci composed the first European-style world map in Chinese, called "Da Ying Quan Tu" (). No prints of the 1584 map are known to exist, but, of the much improved and expanded Kunyu Wanguo Quantu of 1602, six recopied, rice-paper versions survive.  It is thought that, during their time in Zhaoqing, Ricci and Ruggieri compiled a Portuguese-Chinese dictionary, the first in any European language, for which they developed a system for transcribing Chinese words in the Latin alphabet. The manuscript was misplaced in the Jesuit Archives in Rome, rediscovered only in 1934, and published only in 2001.  There is now a memorial plaque in Zhaoqing to commemorate Ricci's six-year stay there, as well as a "Ricci Memorial Centre" in a building dating from the 1860s.  Expelled from Zhaoqing in 1588, Ricci obtained permission to relocate to Shaoguan (Shaozhou, in Ricci's account) in the north of the province, and reestablish his mission there.  Further travels saw Ricci reach Nanjing (Ming's southern capital) and Nanchang in 1595. In August 1597, Alessandro Valignano (1539–1606), his superior, appointed him Major Superior of the mission in China, with the rank and powers of a Provincial, a charge that he fulfilled until his death. He moved to Tongzhou (a port of Beijing) in 1598, and first reached the capital Beijing itself on 7 September 1598. However, because of a Chinese intervention against Japanese invasion of Korea at the time, Ricci could not reach the Imperial Palace. After waiting for two months, he left Beijing; first for Nanjing and then Suzhou in Southern Zhili Province.  During the winter of 1598, Ricci, with the help of his Jesuit colleague Lazzaro Cattaneo, compiled another Chinese-Portuguese dictionary, in which tones in Chinese syllables were indicated in Roman text with diacritical marks. Unlike Ricci's and Ruggieri's earlier Portuguese-Chinese dictionary, this work has not been found.  In 1601, Ricci was invited to become an adviser to the imperial court of the Wanli Emperor, the first Westerner to be invited into the Forbidden City. This honor was in recognition of Ricci's scientific abilities, chiefly his predictions of solar eclipses, which were significant events in the Chinese world. He established the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception in Beijing, the oldest Catholic church in the city. Ricci was given free access to the Forbidden City but never met the reclusive Wanli Emperor, who, however, granted him patronage, with a generous stipend and supported Ricci's completion of the "Zhifang Waiji", China's first global atlas.  Once established in Beijing, Ricci was able to meet important officials and leading members of the Beijing cultural scene and convert a number of them to Christianity. One conversion, which he called "extraordinary", occurred in 1602, when Li Yingshi, a decorated veteran of the Japanese/Korean War and a well-known astrologer and "feng shui" expert, became a Christian and provided the Jesuits with a wealth of information. Ricci was also the first European to learn about the Kaifeng Jews, being contacted by a member of that community who was visiting Beijing in 1605. Ricci never visited Kaifeng, Henan Province, but he sent a junior missionary there in 1608, the first of many such missions. In fact, the elderly Chief Rabbi of the Jews was ready to cede his power to Ricci, as long as he gave up eating pork, but Ricci never accepted the position. Ricci died on 11 May 1610, in Beijing, aged 57. By the code of the Ming Dynasty, foreigners who died in China had to be buried in Macau. Diego de Pantoja made a special plea to the court, requesting a burial plot in Beijing, in the light of Ricci's contributions to China. The Wanli Emperor granted this request and designated a Buddhist temple for the purpose. In October 1610, Ricci's remains were transferred there. The graves of Ferdinand Verbiest, Johann Adam Schall von Bell, and other missionaries are also there, and it became known as the Zhalan Cemetery, which is today located within the campus of the Beijing Administrative College, in Xicheng District, Beijing.  Ricci was succeeded as Provincial Superior of the China mission by Nicolò Longobardo in 1610. Longobardo entrusted another Jesuit, Nicolas Trigault, with expanding and editing, as well as translating into Latin, those of Ricci's papers that were found in his office after his death. This work was first published in 1615 in Augsburg as "De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas" and soon was translated into a number of other European languages.

Ricci's approach to Chinese culture.

Ricci could speak Chinese as well as read and write classical Chinese, the literary language of scholars and officials. He was known for his appreciation of Chinese culture in general but condemned the prostitution which was widespread in Beijing at the time. During his research, he discovered that in contrast to the cultures of South Asia, Chinese culture was strongly intertwined with Confucian values and therefore decided to use existing Chinese concepts to explain Christianity. With his superior Valignano's formal approval, he aligned himself with the Confucian intellectually elite literati, and even adopted their mode of dress. He did not explain the Catholic faith as entirely foreign or new; instead, he said that the Chinese culture and people always believed in God and that Christianity is simply the completion of their faith. He borrowed an unusual Chinese term, "Tiānzhǔ" (, "Lord of Heaven") to describe the God of Abraham, despite the term's origin in traditional Chinese worship of Heaven. (He also cited many synonyms from the Confucian Classics.) He supported Chinese traditions by agreeing with the veneration of family ancestors. Dominican and Franciscan missionaries considered this an unacceptable accommodation, and later appealed to the Vatican on the issue. This Chinese rites controversy continued for centuries, with the most recent Vatican statement as recently as 1939. Some contemporary authors have praised Ricci as an exemplar of beneficial inculturation, avoiding at the same time distorting the Gospel message or neglecting the indigenous cultural media.  Like developments in India, the identification of European culture with Christianity led almost to the end of Catholic missions in China, but Christianity continued to grow in Sichuan and some other locations.  Xu Guangqi and Ricci become the first two to translate some of the Confucian classics into a western language, Latin. Ricci also met a Korean emissary to China, Yi Sugwang. He taught Yi the basic tenets of Catholicism and gave him several books concerning the West which were incorporated into his "Jibong Yuseol," the first Korean encyclopedia. Along with João Rodrigues's gifts to the ambassador Jeong Duwon in 1631, Ricci's gifts influenced the creation of Korea's Silhak movement.

Cause of canonization.

The cause of his beatification, originally begun in 1984, was reopened on 24 January 2010, at the cathedral of the Italian diocese of Macerata-Tolentino-Recanati-Cingoli-Treia. Bishop Claudio Giuliodori, the apostolic administrator of the Diocese of Macerata, formally closed the diocesan phase of the sainthood process on 10 May 2013. The cause moved to the Congregation for the Causes of Saints at the Vatican in 2014.

Commemoration.

The following places and institutions are named after Matteo Ricci:  In the run-up to the 400th anniversary of Ricci's death, the Vatican Museums hosted a major exhibit dedicated to his life. Additionally, Italian film director Gjon Kolndrekaj produced a 60-minute documentary about Ricci, released in 2009, titled "Matteo Ricci: A Jesuit in the Dragon's Kingdom", filmed in Italy and China.  In Taipei, the Taipei Ricci Institute and the National Central Library of Taiwan opened jointly the Matteo Ricci Pacific Studies Reading Room and the Taipei-based online magazine "eRenlai", directed by Jesuit Benoît Vermander, dedicated its June 2010 issue to the commemoration of the 400th anniversary of Ricci's death.

Works.

"The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven".

"The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven" (天主實義) is a book written by Ricci, which argues that Confucianism and Christianity are not opposed and in fact are remarkably similar in key respects. It was written in the form of a dialogue, originally in Chinese. Ricci used the treatise in his missionary effort to convert Chinese literati, men who were educated in Confucianism and the Chinese classics. In the Chinese Rites controversy, some Roman-Catholic missionaries raised the question whether Ricci and other Jesuits had gone too far and changed Christian beliefs to win converts.  Peter Phan argues that "True Meaning" was used by a Jesuit missionary to Vietnam, Alexandre de Rhodes, in writing a catechism for Vietnamese Christians. In 1631, Girolamo Maiorica and Bernardino Reggio, both Jesuit missionaries to Vietnam, started a short-lived press in Thăng Long (present-day Hanoi) to print copies of "True Meaning" and other texts. The book was also influential on later Protestant missionaries to China, James Legge and Timothy Richard, and through them John Nevius, John Ross, and William Edward Soothill, all influential in establishing Protestantism in China and Korea.

Matteo Ricci (; ; 6 October 1552 – 11 May 1610), was an Italian Jesuit priest and one of the founding figures of the Jesuit China missions. His 1602 map of the world in Chinese characters introduced the findings of European exploration to East Asia. He is considered a Servant of God by the Catholic Church.

Matteo Ricci (6. října 1552 – 11. května 1610; zjednodušená čínština: 利玛窦; tradiční čínština: 利瑪竇; pinyin: "Lì Mǎdòu"; český přepis: Li Ma-tou) byl italský jezuitský misionář, jeden ze zakladatelů jezuitských misií v Číně. Je autorem prvního portugalsko-čínského slovníku a také vůbec nejstarší dochované mapy světa západního stylu psané v čínštině a zároveň zahrnující i americký kontinent - Kchun-jü wan-kuo čchüan-tchu ("Mapa nesčetných zemí světa").


House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis

Description.

The "badge" of the order was a white-enameled cross pattée, edged in gold. The cross had a blue enameled center medallion with the crowned monogram of the Peter Frederick Louis in gold. Around the center medallion was a red-enameled ring bearing the motto "Ein Gott, Ein Recht, Eine Wahrheit" ("One God, One Law, One Truth"). Both the center medallion and the ring were edged with a gold rim. On the reverse, the coat of arms of Oldenburg were painted on the medallion. Each arm on the reverse carried dates written in a cursive script: "17 Jan. 1775", "6 Juli 1785", "21 Mai 1829", and "27 Nov. 1838". These dates corresponded to the dates of birth, accession to the throne and death of Peter Frederick Louis, as well as the date of the founding of the order.  The "star" of the order was an eight-pointed silver star bearing the medallion of the badge.  The "ribbon" of the order was deep blue with a narrow red stripe near each edge.

Classes.

The order came in seven classes: Grand Cross with Crown ("Großkreuz mit der Krone"), Grand Cross ("Großkreuz"), Grand Commander ("Großkomtur"), Commander ("Komtur"), Officer ("Offizier"), and Knight 1st and 2nd Class ("Ritter 1. und 2. Klasse"). The Grand Cross with Crown and the Grand Cross consisted of a sash badge and breast star. The Grand Commander consisted of a neck badge and breast star, while the Commander was the neck badge without the star. The Officer's Cross, added in 1903, was a pinback breast badge and differed from the other badges by having a blank reverse and no crown. The Knight 1st and 2nd Class were breast badges, and the 2nd Class differed from the 1st class by not having a crown and being in silver instead of gold (the monogram and motto remained gold, however).  A special chapter of the order, the capitular knights, open only to Oldenburgers, had a badge which consisted of the medallion, surrounded by a green enameled wreath of oak leaves. It came in several classes whose badge differed in whether it was gold or silver and whether it was crowned.  Associated with the order were honor crosses for lower-ranking military personnel and civilians. The honor crosses were in gold, silver and iron. In 1910, gold, silver and bronze medals were added as additional lower-ranking awards.  All grades of the order except the medals could be awarded with swords for war merit. The swords were applied diagonally between the arms of the cross. If a recipient of a lower grade with swords received a higher grade without, he wore "swords on ring" on the higher award. These were crossed swords above the badge, usually on the ring from which the badge was suspended (in the case of the Officer's Cross, they were affixed to the top arm). In October 1918, an additional provision was made for a war decoration of a wreath of laurels affixed to the badge and breast star.

The House and Merit Order of Duke Peter Frederick Louis (German: "Haus und Verdienstorden von Herzog Peter Friedrich Ludwig") or proper German Oldenburg House and Merit Order of Duke Peter Frederick Louis (German: "Oldenburgische Haus- und Verdienstorden des Herzogs Peter Friedrich Ludwig") was a civil and military order of the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg, a member state of the German Empire. The order was founded by Grand Duke Augustus of Oldenburg on November 27, 1838, to honor his father, Peter Frederick Louis of Oldenburg. It became obsolete in 1918 after the abdication of the last grand duke.

Domácí a záslužný řád vévody Petra Fridricha Ludvíka () byl oldenburský dynastický záslužný řád. Založil ho dne 27. listopadu 1838 oldenburský velkovévoda August I. na památku návratu Napoleonem svrženého vévody Petra Fridricha Ludvíka na trůn z 27. listopadu 1813. Byl udělován jak za civilní, tak i za vojenské zásluhy a skládal se z kapitulárních (jen oldenburští) a čestných členů. Řád zanikl pádem velkovévodství v roce 1918.


History.

The heart of "encomienda" and "encomendero" lies in the Spanish verb "encomendar", "to entrust". The "encomienda" was based on the "reconquista" institution in which "adelantados" were given the right to extract tribute from Muslims or other peasants in areas that they had conquered and resettled.  The "encomienda" system traveled to America as the result of the implantation of Castilian law over the territory. The system was created in the Middle Ages and was pivotal to allow for the repopulation and protection of frontier land during the reconquista. This system originated in the Catholic South of Spain to extract labor and tribute from Muslims (Moors) before they were exiled in 1492 after the Moors were defeated in the battle in Granada. This system was a method of rewarding soldiers and moneymen who defeated the Moors. The encomienda established a relationship similar to a feudal relationship, in which military protection was traded for certain tributes or by specific work. It was especially prevalent among military orders that were entrusted with the protection of frontier areas. The king usually intervened directly or indirectly in the bond, by guaranteeing the fairness of the agreement and intervening militarily in case of abuse.  The "encomienda" system in Spanish America differed from the Peninsular institution. The "encomenderos" did not own the land on which the natives lived. The system did not entail any direct land tenure by the "encomendero"; native lands were to remain in the possession of their communities. This right was formally protected by the crown of Castile because the rights of administration in the New World belonged to this crown and not to the Catholic monarchs as a whole.

"Encomenderos".

The first grantees of the "encomienda" system, called "encomenderos", were usually conquerors who received these grants of labor by virtue of participation in a successful conquest. Later, some receiving "encomiendas" in New Spain (Mexico) were not conquerors themselves but were sufficiently well connected that they received grants.  In his study of the "encomenderos" of early colonial Mexico, Robert Himmerich y Valencia divides conquerors into those who were part of Hernán Cortés' original expedition, calling them "first conquerors", and those who were members of the later Narváez expedition, calling them "conquerors". The latter were incorporated into Cortes' contingent. Himmerick designated as "pobladores antiguos" (old settlers) a group of undetermined number of "encomenderos" in New Spain, men who had resided in the Caribbean region prior to the Spanish conquest of Mexico.  In the New World, the Crown granted conquistadores as encomendero, which is the right to extract labor and tribute from natives who were under Spanish rule. Christopher Columbus established the "encomienda" system after his arrival and settlement on the island of Hispaniola requiring them to pay tributes or face brutal punishments. Tributes were required to be paid in gold however during this time gold was scarce.  Women and indigenous elites were also "encomenderos". Doña Maria Jaramillo, the daughter of Doña Marina and conqueror Juan Jaramillo, received income from her deceased father's "encomiendas". Two of Moctezuma's daughters, Doña Isabel Moctezuma and her younger sister, Doña Leonor Moctezuma, were granted extensive "encomiendas" in perpetuity by Hernan Cortes. Doña Leonor Moctezuma married in succession two Spaniards, and left the "encomiendas" to her daughter by her second husband. Vassal Inca rulers appointed after the conquest also sought and were granted "encomiendas".  The status of humans as wards of the trustees under the "encomienda" system served to "define the status of the Indian population": the natives were free men, not slaves or serfs. But some Spaniards treated them as poorly as slaves.  The "encomienda" was essential to the Spanish crown's sustaining its control over North, Central and South America in the first decades after the colonization. It was the first major organizational law instituted on the continent, which was affected by war, widespread disease epidemics caused by Eurasian diseases, and resulting turmoil. Initially, the "encomienda" system was devised to meet the needs of the early agricultural economies in the Caribbean. Later it was adopted to the mining economy of Peru and Upper Peru. The "encomienda" lasted from the beginning of the sixteenth century to the seventeenth century.  Philip II, enacted a law on 11 June 1594 to establish the "encomienda" in the Philippines, where he made grants to the local nobles ("principalía"). They used the "encomienda" to gain ownership of large expanses of land, many of which (such as Makati) continue to be owned by affluent families.

Establishment.

In 1501 Queen Isabella declared Native Americans as subjects to the crown, and so, as Castilians and legal equals to Spanish Castilians. This implied that enslaving them was illegal except on very specific conditions. It also allowed the establishment of encomiendas, since the encomienda bond was a right reserved to full subjects to the crown. In 1503, the crown began to formally grant "encomiendas" to conquistadors and officials as rewards for service to the crown. The system of "encomiendas" was aided by the crown's organizing the indigenous into small harbors known as "reducciones", with the intent of establishing new towns and populations.  Each "reducción" had a native chief responsible for keeping track of the laborers in his community. The "encomienda" system did not grant people land, but it indirectly aided in the settlers' acquisition of land. As initially defined, the "encomendero" and his heirs expected to hold these grants in perpetuity. After a major crown reform in 1542, known as the New Laws, encomendero families were restricted to holding the grant for two generations. When the crown attempted to implement the policy in Peru, shortly after the 1535 Spanish conquest, Spanish recipients rebelled against the crown, killing the viceroy, Don Blasco Núñez Vela.  In Mexico, viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza decided against implementing the reform, citing local circumstances and the potential for a similar conqueror rebellion. To the crown he said, "I obey crown authority but do not comply with this order." The "encomienda" system was ended legally in 1720, when the crown attempted to abolish the institution. The "encomenderos" were then required to pay remaining "encomienda" laborers for their work.  The "encomiendas" became very corrupt and harsh. In the neighborhood of La Concepción, north of Santo Domingo, the "adelantado" of Santiago heard rumors of a 15,000-man army planning to stage a rebellion. Upon hearing this, the Adelantado captured the "caciques" involved and had most of them hanged.  Later, a chieftain named Guarionex laid havoc to the countryside before an army of about 3,090 routed the Ciguana people under his leadership. Although expecting Spanish protection from warring tribes, the islanders sought to join the Spanish forces. They helped the Spaniards deal with their ignorance of the surrounding environment.  As noted, the change of requiring the "encomendado" to be returned to the crown after two generations was frequently overlooked, as the colonists did not want to give up the labor or power. The "Codice Osuna", one of many colonial-era Aztec codices (indigenous manuscripts) with native pictorials and alphabetic text in Nahuatl, there is evidence that the indigenous were well aware of the distinction between indigenous communities held by individual encomenderos and those held by the crown.  Once natives committed themselves to Spanish authority, Columbus, and Spanish overlords, they also were forced to get baptized and attend Catholic Church services. Religion allowed conquistadores to label the native population as barbaric and in need of saving. The encomienda system perpetuated because many conquistadores believed they were being altruistic and were doing God’s work. Religion encouraged the expansion of conquest through the encomienda system throughout the New World.  The phrase ""sin indios no hay Indias"" (without Indians, there are no Indies – i.e. America), popular in Spanish America especially in the 16th century, emphasizes the economic importance and appeal of this indentured labor. It was ranked higher than allocations of precious metals or other natural resources. Land awardees customarily complained about how "worthless" territory was without a population of "encomendados".

Abolition.

Previously.

The "encomienda" system was the subject of controversy in Spain and its territories almost from its start. In 1510, an Hispaniola "encomendero" named Valenzuela murdered a group of Native American leaders who had agreed to meet for peace talks in full confidence. The Taíno Cacique Enriquillo rebelled against the Spaniards between 1519 and 1533. In 1538, Emperor Charles V, realizing the seriousness of the Taíno revolt, changed the laws governing the treatment of people laboring in the encomiendas. Conceding to Las Casas's viewpoint, the peace treaty between the Taínos and the "audiencia" was eventually disrupted in four to five years. The crown also actively prosecuted abuses of the "encomienda" system, through the Law of Burgos (1512–13) and the New Law of the Indies (1542).  The priest of Hispaniola and former "encomendero" Bartolomé de las Casas underwent a profound conversion after seeing the abuse of the native people. He dedicated his life to writing and lobbying to abolish the "encomienda" system, which he thought systematically enslaved the native people of the New World. Las Casas participated in an important debate, where he pushed for the enactment of the New Laws and an end to the "encomienda" system. The Laws of Burgos and the New Laws of the Indies failed in the face of colonial opposition and, in fact, the New Laws were postponed in the Viceroyalty of Peru. When Blasco Núñez Vela, the first viceroy of Peru, tried to enforce the New Laws, which provided for the gradual abolition of the "encomienda", many of the "encomenderos" were unwilling to comply with them and revolted against him.

The New Laws of 1542.

When the news of this situation and of the abuse of the institution reached Spain, the New Laws were passed to regulate and gradually abolish the system in America, as well as to reiterate the prohibition of enslaving Native Americans. By the time the new laws were passed, 1542, the Spanish crown had acknowledged their inability to control and properly ensure compliance of traditional laws overseas, so they granted to Native Americans specific protections not even Spaniards had, such as the prohibition of enslaving them even in the case of crime or war. These extra protections were an attempt to avoid the proliferation of irregular claims to slavery. Andrés Reséndez, however, presents a more pessimistic view that such intentions where subsequently corrupted, and shortly after the abolition, tens of thousands of people continued to be worked to death in depopulated islands throughout Hispaniola, and he describes indigenous forced labor as "a set of kaleidoscopic practices suited to different markets and regions.  The 1542 restriction was revoked in 1545. The Spanish crown's formal prohibition of slavery of native people in 1542 gave rise to a number of related institutions, such as encomiendas, repartimientos, the selling of convict labor, and ultimately debt peonage... In other words, formal slavery was replaced by multiple forms of informal labor coercion and enslavement that were extremely difficult to track, let alone eradicate."

Repartimiento.

The "encomienda" system was generally replaced by the crown-managed "repartimiento" system throughout Spanish America after mid-sixteenth century. Like the "encomienda", the new "repartimiento" did not include the attribution of land to anyone, rather only the allotment of native workers. But they were directly allotted to the crown, who, through a local crown official, would assign them to work for settlers for a set period of time, usually several weeks. The "repartimiento" was an attempt "to reduce the abuses of forced labour". As the number of natives declined and mining activities were replaced by agricultural activities in the seventeenth century, the hacienda, or large landed estates in which laborers were directly employed by the hacienda owners ("hacendados"), arose because land ownership became more profitable than acquisition of forced labor.

Deaths, disease, and accusations of ethnocide or genocide.

Raphael Lemkin (coiner of the term genocide) considers Spain's abuses of the native population of the Americas to constitute cultural and even outright genocide including the abuses of the Encomienda system. He described slavery as "cultural genocide par excellence" noting "it is the most effective and thorough method of destroying culture, of desocializing human beings." He considers colonist guilty due to failing to halt the abuses of the system despite royal orders. He also accuses Spanish colonisers of sexual abuse of Native women, referring to it as an acts of "biological genocide." Economic historian Timothy J. Yeager argued the encomienda was deadlier than conventional slavery due to individual laborer's life being disposable in the face of simply being replaced with a laborer from the same plot of land. University of Hawaii historian David Stannard describes the encomienda as a genocidal system which "had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and agonizing deaths."  Yale University's genocide studies program supports this view regarding abuses in Hispaniola. Andrés Reséndez argues that even though the Spanish were aware of the spread of smallpox, they made no mention of it until 1519, a quarter century after Columbus arrived in Hispaniola. Instead he contends that enslavement in gold and silver mines was the primary reason why the Native American population of Hispaniola dropped so significantly and that even though disease was a factor, the native population would have rebounded the same way Europeans did during the Black Death if it were not for the constant enslavement they were subject to. According to anthropologist Jason Hickel, a third of Arawak workers died every six months from lethal forced labor in the mines.

Scope and number of victims.

Yale University's genocide studies program while citing the decline of the Taíno population of Hispaniola in 1492 to 1514 as an example of genocide notes that the indigenous population declined from a population between 100,000 and 1,000,000 to only 32,000 a decline of 68% to over 96%.  The native people of Mexico experienced a series of outbreaks of disease in the wake of European conquest, including a catastrophic epidemic that began in 1545 which killed an estimated 5 million to 15 million people, or up to 80% of the native population of Mexico, followed by a second epidemic from 1576 to 1578 killing an additional 2 to 2.5 million people, or about 50% of the remaining native population. Recent research suggests that these infections appear to have been aggravated by the extreme climatic conditions of the time and by the poor living conditions and harsh treatment of the native people under the encomienda system of New Spain.  Enslavement and the encomienda was a heavy cause of depopulation in Guatemala as Bartolomé de Las Casas writes: ""one could make a whole book... out of the atrocities, barbarities, murders, clearances, ravages and other foul injustices perpetrated... by those that went to Guatemala"" Las Casas wrote to the Crown about the brutal treatment of indigenous peoples and that many were eager to convert therefore they were human, so instead he recommended that they use Africans as slaves. The afflictions of Old World diseases, war and overwork in the mines and encomiendas took a heavy toll on the inhabitants of eastern Guatemala, to the extent that indigenous population levels never recovered to their pre-conquest levels. The main cause of the drastic depopulation of Lake Izabal and the Motagua Delta was the constant slave raids by the Miskito Sambu of the Caribbean coast that effectively ended the Maya population of the region; the captured Maya were sold into slavery in the British colony of Jamaica. Over the course of the Spanish conquest of Guatemala the Spanish exported 50,000 Maya slaves  The most proportionally widespread and deadly use of forced labor by Spain was likely in Nicaragua in which between 450,000 and 500,000 indigenous peoples were deported from Nicaragua as slaves-(though some slave originated from different territories) compared to a total indigenous Nicaraguan population of around 600,000 to 1,000,000. Due to mass infection of foreign diseases and enslavement 99% of the population of western Nicaragua perished in 60 years with 575,000 indigenous Nicaraguans having died overall across the country. The indigenous population of the Izalco region in El Salvador was also among the most exploited for force labor in terms of cacao production; 400,000 indigenous peoples perished from disease, warfare and slavery out of 700,000 to 800,000 native Salvadorans and 150,000 of the 400,000 to 600,000 indigenous Hondurans were enslaved (amounting to 25% to 37.5% of their population)  Peru was a hotspot for native labor due to its large silver reserves. In silver mountains such as Cerro Rico many native workers died due to the harsh conditions of the mine life and natural gases. At such a high altitude, pneumonia was always a concern, and mercury poisoning took the lives of many involved in the refining process. Some writers such as Eduardo Galeano, in his work "Open Veins of Latin America", estimates that up to eight million have died in the Cerro Rico since the 16th century. Though this number has been attributed to the entirety of the Viceroyalty of Peru by Josiah Conder, who added that these numbers also take into account any depopulation of areas around mines. In 1574, the Viceroy of Peru Diego Lopez de Velasco investigated the "encomiendas". He concluded there were 32,000 Spanish families in the New World, 4,000 of whom had "encomiendas". They oversaw 1,500,000 natives paying tribute, and 5 million "civilized" natives. The work of historians such as Peter Bakewell, Noble David Cook, Enrique Tandeter and Raquel Gil Montero portray a more accurate description of the human-labor issue (free and non-free workers) with completely different estimates to Eduardo Galeano alleged number of deaths.  One source claims the Spanish conquest was responsible for 1,400,000 to 2,300,000 deaths explicitly excluding tens of millions of deaths from New World disease; while Rudolph Rummel claims that 2 to 15 million indigenous peoples where killed by what he calls "democide"-(government caused murder) in the colonization of the Americas "mostly" in Latin America-(mostly implying anywhere from just over half to all but 1 so around 1,000,001 to 14,999,999 deaths.)

Skepticism toward alleged demographic declines and accusations of genocide.

Noble David Cook, writing about the Black Legend and the conquest of the Americas wrote, "There were too few Spaniards to have killed the millions who were reported to have died in the first century after Old and New World contact" and instead suggests the near total decimation of the indigenous population of Hispaniola as mostly having been caused by diseases like smallpox.  Since 1960 historians, such as Julián Juderías, Woodrow Borah and Sheburne Cooke have challenged both the numbers and the causes offered by Raphael Lemkin. Brendan D. O'Fallona and Lars Fehren-Schmitz separately estimated a historic native mortality of about 50% loss with a quick recovery and little loss in diversity. Rosenblat estimates a lower number for Mexico and Colombia. Acuna-Soto R, Romero LC, and Maguire JH suggested the rate of mortality from disease in native American populations at around 45%.  Regardless of the specific number, it is widely agreed that the peak in mortality started in 1545 and peaked some years later after the New Laws were put in place, the encomienda system was abolished, and women, and more importantly children, were allowed to migrate. What mortality of the native population did occur was mainly attributable to disease. Most scholars agree that the main culprits were European infantile diseases like smallpox, measles, and chicken pox. Elsa Malvido suggests that the plague caused the hemorrhagic fevers described by the Spanish physicians, while a recent, controversial study recently proposed by microbiologist Rodolfo Acuna-Soto suggests that the diseases that decimated the population were actually a native hemorrhagic plague carried by rats.

The encomienda () was a Spanish labor system that rewarded conquerors with the labor of particular groups of conquered non-Christian people. The laborers, in theory, were provided with benefits by the conquerors for whom they labored, the Catholic religion being a principal benefit. The "encomienda" was first established in Spain following the Christian conquest of Moorish territories (known to Christians as the "Reconquista"), and it was applied on a much larger scale during the Spanish colonization of the Americas and the Spanish Philippines. Conquered peoples were considered vassals of the Spanish monarch. The Crown awarded an "encomienda" as a grant to a particular individual. In the conquest era of the sixteenth century, the grants were considered to be a monopoly on the labor of particular groups of indigenous peoples, held in perpetuity by the grant holder, called the "encomendero", and his or her descendants.

Encomienda je forma společenské a hospodářské instituce, která existovala v raném období iberské conquisty v Jižní a Severní Americe a která byla v během první poloviny 16. století postupně nahrazována repartimientem. Přesto se ale encomienda v některých oblastech zachovala až do 17.století. Základní princip encominedy byl založen na přenosu feudálních vztahů z iberského prostředí do Ameriky, avšak princip odvádění tributu a především mity nebyly cizí ani lokálním společnostem (např. u Inků). Encomendero získal od Koruny pod ochranu určitý počet obyvatelstva. Jeho úkolem bylo zajistit jejich ochranu, výuku španělského jazyka a christianizaci. Výměnou za to mu obyvatelstvo muselo odvádět tribut v podobě zemědělské produkce nebo zlata a dalších surovin a konečně také nucené práce. Systém encomiendy byl tedy také založen na nucené práci ale sociální postavení indiánů neodpovídalo postavení otroka. Encomendero měl naproti tomu vojenskou a daňovou povinnost vůči Koruně.


Castle (1978–1983).

Castle is the first Lego Castle theme, and, like Space, is still very popular. 375 Castle (often called the Yellow Castle) is the most well known set from this theme. Often known by fans as "Original Castle", the knights featured unique movable visor pieces, with eye slits, and a crest that runs backwards from the frontward-facing part of the visor along the helmet. These knights also wore a coat of arms (either a tunic or breastplate) over their body. It was not again until 1990 when knights came with movable visors and armor breastplates, as the knights between 1984-89 had solid grill helmets while their "armor" was just a texture on their body. As there were no horse-specific pieces, horses were built entirely of bricks.

Different factions (1984–1992).

In 1984, LEGO released the first Castle sets that had more realistic castles, knights, and colors (such as gray castles rather than yellow) that more accurately depicted the Middle Ages compared to the Classic Castle sets from the late 1970s and early 1980s.  The 1984 castle sets featured many newly introduced pieces and weapons. Examples are: one-piece horse, horse saddles, new knight helmets with fixed visors, feather plumes (there were three types in five colors: red, blue, yellow, white and black), waving flags and bows and arrows. Many of these new pieces would be included in future castle sets. The 1990 castle sets brought a further changes - as knights now had armor breastplates and helmets with movable visors.

Black Falcons (1984–1992).

The sets that were released during this time period predominantly featured the motif of a black and white bird against a black and white background, split down the middle. The mini-figures that were associated with this symbol almost invariably had black pants, black helmets, and blue torsos with black sleeves, often with the bird emblem on their chests and shields (with a blue or gold border). Fans have labeled these sets as "Black Falcons", though the term only appears once in any official LEGO literature (Black Falcon's Fortress), and faction was never labeled as anything other than "Castle". In 1984, the first "Black Falcons" castle was 6073 Knight's Castle. It came with six minifigures; two archers, two spearmen, and two knights mounted on horses. Like the yellow castle, the set featured special hinge pieces that could open up the castle to take a look inside and get at the interior. The Black Falcons were also featured in other sets the same year such as 6021 Jousting Knights and 6030 Catapult. In 1986, the Knight's Castle was replaced by similar-sized 6074 Black Falcon's Fortress which had the same type of minifigures (including the two mounted knights). The main difference was in the structure as the two defense towers had been moved to the front, and were made with more rounded (octagonal) corner pieces, leaving room in the back for a small roofed residence/chapel with a yellow Tudor wall. 6074 was quite unique because it was the first set to include the octagonal corner pieces and the yellow Tudor wall, as well as the only set to have a blue Black Falcons flag. The Black Falcon's Fortress was known as the Eagle Crest Castle in Canada.  Although no new Black Falcons-specific sets would be released after that, Black Falcon figures would appear as guests in other sets, such as the Black Knights' 6059 Knights Stronghold (1990) and 6057 Sea Serpent (1992). Thus the Black Falcons were one of the longest-lived factions from 1984 to 1994, the latter when the last sets with their minifigures were discontinued.  6059 Knights Stronghold featured the Black Falcons as attacking a gate defended by the Black Knights which implied that the two factions had been at war with each other. 6062 Battering Ram featured the Black Falcons defending a castle wall section from a Crusader siege, also implying armed conflict between these two sides. Catalogue dioramas in the late 1980s also showed the 6074 Black Falcon's Fortress under siege by the Forestmen.  LEGO has re-released some old Black Falcons sets. Examples are 6062 Battering Ram, 6067 Guarded Inn, 6103 Castle Mini Figures, and 6059 Knight's Stronghold. In 2002, at the request of fans, Lego re-released the Black Falcon's Fortress re-numbered (#10039) as a Lego Legend which was almost identical to the 1986 set: the horse saddles had two clips instead of one, the shield ornament on the minifigures' breastplates was slightly different in shape, and the small Black Falcons flag has a slightly different print.

Lion Knights/Crusaders (1984–1992).

The sets that would eventually form the basis of the Lion Knights were released the same year as the Black Falcons in 1984. The Lion Knights shield had either a blue lion against a yellow background or a yellow lion against a blue background, both with a red border. The mini-figures that were associated with these shields invariably had blue or red pants and red torsos with blue sleeves, and their helmets were usually gray. They had shield-like emblems on their torsos, one which was a yellow lion set against blue, while the other emblem had the crossed axes (two black and gold axes crossing each other against a black and gold background, split down the middle, with a red border). A few of these sets were later inducted into the Lion Knight subtheme, so some fans retroactively consider all such sets to be Lion Knight sets. As with the Black Falcons, Lego never officially named this faction for some time, although catalogues in the United States and Australia used the name Lion Knights while Canada used Lion Crest. The 1992 United States and Canadian catalogue officially established the faction as the Crusaders.  Over the years, Lion Knights were included in many sets along with the Black Falcons, Forestmen, and Black Knights. Examples include the 6067 Guarded Inn in 1986, 6103 Castle Mini Figures in 1988, and 6060 Knights' Challenge, a set that was the successor after the 1979 6083 Knights' Tournament, in 1989 (ten years later).  An unusual Lion Knights set was the 6041 Armor Shop in 1986, which was the only set to have the rare black short sword and a Lion Knight Flag.  The first castle under the Lion Knights was 6080 King's Castle. This castle was one of the largest Lego Castle sets produced. Four mounted knights and eight soldiers/guards were included. The walls of the castle could be opened to play inside the castle.  The second and last Lion Knight's castle released was 6081 King's Mountain Fortress in 1990. This was one of the first sets to feature the newly invented knight helmet visor and armor pieces. Crossbows and glow in the dark ghost were also new pieces introduced. The King's Mountain Fortress was also the first Lego castle to be mounted on a raised baseplate which would feature in subsequent Lego castles as well as in Lego Pirates. Two exclusive elements the set included a princess and a black-colored bird. A small Crusader-style set, King's Catapult appears to be the only Lego castle set to be released in 1991. Finally, the last Lion Knight-style set produced was 1463 Treasure Cart released in 1992, another small set that included a soldier pulling a treasure chest on a cart.  In 2001, Lego re-released the well-known Guarded Inn, re-numbered (#10000) as a Lego Legend. The set consisted of two Lion Knight soldiers, a mounted Black Falcon Knight, and an inn keeper. This set was the only structure to include red Tudor walls. One change in the reissue was the horse saddle had two clips instead of one for holding weapons. Since 1984, Lego Castle had horse saddles with a single clip (except the horse barding saddles) at one side until 1992 when that was changed to two clips.  The Lion Knights (like the other knight factions) were in open conflict with the Forestmen, as shown by several catalog dioramas, analogous to the legendary conflict between King John of England versus Robin Hood and his Merry Men of Outlaws. 6062 Battering Ram featured the Black Falcons defending a castle wall section from a Crusader siege, implying armed conflict between these two sides. Sets such as 6060 Knights' Challenge and 1584 Knight's Challenge suggested that the Lion Knights had a respected sporting rivalry with the Black Knights; indeed for 1990 and 1991 the Crusaders were merged with the Black Knights in a combined "Castle" faction (the catalogue combined the lion and wyvern motifs) that was pitted against the Forestmen, analogous to the legend of Prince John's knights against Robin Hood and his Merry Men outlaws. However in 1992 which was their final year of release, the Crusaders reverted to their own faction when the Black Knights were formally launched. The 1992 Canadian catalogue described the Lion Knights (renaming them as Crusaders) as "looking to take over the country's rule" while also establishing the Black Knights as "longtime rulers of the countryside", possibly suggesting that the Crusaders and Black Knights' rivalry could have escalated to war. The 1992 United States catalog in the same year described the Crusaders as "the bravest knights in the kingdom" and "protectors of the innocent and the keepers of justice", while establishing the Black Knights as "a powerful force" that "will not back down from any conflict", while an advertisement in the United Kingdom showed the Crusaders and Black Knights at war allowing the Wolfpack to sneak in.

Forestmen (1987–1992).

The Forestmen theme was introduced in 1987 when Lego Castle released the first Forestmen set 6066 Camouflaged Outpost. This set was a hideout that featured a large tree adjacent to a cave where the Forestmen lived. The interior of the set could be opened to see inside the cave and enabled more play. The set included six Forestmen minifigures, the most Forestmen minifigures in a single set. This set was also one of the first sets to have a brown colored horse. In 1988, the 6054 Forestmen's Hideout was released; it was a small tree hideout that housed two Forestmen. The following year, the 6077 Forestmen's River Fortress, which was the largest Forestmen set, was released. This hideout was an abandoned castle covered with trees, vines and leaves, where it was surrounded by a moat. It included five Forestmen, and a Lion Knight paddling a raft.  In 1990, the last original Forestmen hideout set, 6071 Forestmen's Crossing, was released. This set had a unique baseplate of a small stream printed on it with white dots marked on the studs to indicate where to place the pieces. The set featured an old tower and a large tree which were connected by a rope bridge that ran across the stream. This was the only set to include a Forestwoman minifigure. A few Forestmen were included in other small non-Forestmen Castle sets, such as 6103 Castle Mini Figures. At the end of 1992, the Forestmen were discontinued as a faction, along with the Lion Knights.  The Forestmen were considered the foes to the other factions who had knights and castles, such as the Lion Knights, Black Falcons, and Black Knights. Some have suggested that the Forestmen could be compared to Robin Hood and his outlaws, while the Lion Knights (with their Lion Crest) represented King John and the English throne. (In legends, Robin Hood did support King Richard the Lionhearted who led one of the Crusades, but after Richard's younger brother John succeeded to the throne Hood was declared an outlaw.)  In 1996, a re-make Forestmen subtheme was released called Dark Forest which featured an amoral band of forest outlaws.

Black Knights (1988–1994).

Much like the Lion Knights, the Black Knights were based on earlier, non-subtheme-affiliated sets, some of which were retrospectively included in the faction. Officially launched in 1992, the Black Knights are characterized by a red, yellow, and blue wyvern dragon symbol which is only shown on their shield or flag; unlike the other factions the Black Knights never wore the emblem on their chests.  The first well-known Black Knights-style set released was 6085 Black Monarch's Castle in 1988, which was also the largest Black Knights set ever released. The enormous black castle was effectively an upgraded successor to the Crusaders' 6080 King's Castle, with the same general layout and the same complement of soldiers - four archers, four axe/spearmen, and four knights on horseback. Like 6080, 6085 could be opened and closed using special "hinge" pieces, and snapped closed using a peg and hole mechanism; for 6085 this enabled it to combine with Knight's Stronghold and Black Monarch's Ghost (see below) to create even bigger super-castles. The big difference was that 6085 had black and grey bricks and octagonal turrets, compared to 6080's all-grey scheme and rectangular towers, while 6085 was also among the first sets to include the horse armor barding.  In 1989, three Black Knights-style figures were included in the 6060 Knights' Challenge set. Two more Black Knights-style sets were released in 1990; one was the 6059 Knights Stronghold town gate set that featured one mounted knight, four soldiers, along with a big catapult, and 6034 Black Monarch's Ghost, a set that included a lone mounted knight and a glow-in-the-dark ghost. Like the 6081 King's Mountain Fortress, Knights Stronghold and Black Monarch's Ghost featured the newly invented helmet visor and armor breastplate pieces for the mounted knights. These two sets were also among the last Lego Castle sets to carry the "Legoland" banner. The two 1990 castle sets were re-released in 1992 with the "Lego System" banner on the boxes, but the instruction booklets of the sets still had the "Legoland" banner. The only changes that were made to the 1992 re-release sets were the horse saddles. The saddles were changed from one clip to two clips since 1992 was the year that introduced the altered Lego horse saddle. Interestingly in 1990 and 1991, the Crusaders were merged with the Black Knights in a combined "Castle" faction (the catalogue combined the lion and wyvern motifs) that was pitted against the Forestmen, analogous to the legend of Prince John's knights against Robin Hood and his Merry Men outlaws, however in 1992 the Crusaders reverted to their own faction when the Black Knights were formally launched.  When the Black Knights were "officially" launched in 1992, the 6086 Black Knights Castle (known as Dungeon Master's Castle in Canada and the USA for 1992-93) was released to replace Black Monarch's Castle. Two other main Black Knights sets were released the same year as the Black Knights Castle in 1992. They were the 6057 Sea Serpent (the biggest Lego Castle boat ever released in the 1990s) and 6009 Black Knight, a small set that included a single, full armored knight, along with the new dragon plume and shield accessories. A number of new accessories were created for the three new sets, including a new oval shaped shield with a different dragon design usually carried by mounted knights, new dragon plumes available in four different colors (just like the feather plumes) which added side dragon wing plumes to the movable visors on knight helmets. These sets, along with Wolfpack, were the first castle sets to have minifigures with mustache and beard faces. The older dragon triangular shield was still used in the sets for infantry and guards. Older sets such as the Knights Stronghold and Black Monarch's Ghost were retroactively included as part of the Black Knights.  Like the Black Falcons and Lion Knights/Crusaders, the Black Knights were in conflict with the Forestmen. The Lion Knights and Black Knights were featured together in only one set, the 1584 Knight's Challenge, and were merged into a "Castle" faction in 1990 and 1991 before being separated for 1992. As the 6059 Knights Stronghold and 6057 Sea Serpent featured the Black Falcons, this suggested that the two factions were rivals, particularly in Knights Stronghold where the Black Knights defend the gates against a Black Falcons siege. The Black Knights were also opponents to the Wolfpack Renegades (the 1992 catalogue diorama shows Black Knights soldiers pursuing a Wolfpack Renegade wagon, while the Black Knight's Castle contains a Wolfpack figure as a prisoner) and Dragon Masters (the 1993 catalogue diorama shows Majisto the Wizard on a dragon engaging two mounted Black Knights).  The Black Knights series continued until the end of 1994 when they were superseded by the Royal Knights in 1995. One of the last Black Knights sets released was 1917 King's Catapult in 1993, a miniset that included a knight who manned a tiny catapult. It was re-released in 1998.

Wolfpack Renegades (1992–1993).

The Wolfpack Renegades were a group of bandits in the LEGO Castle world. Only three sets were made, making it the smallest Castle factions. Their main hideout was 6075 Wolfpack Tower that included three renegades and a ghost.  The Wolfpack was one of the official opponents of the Black Knights during its short run, as the 1992 catalogue diorama shows Black Knights soldiers pursuing a Wolfpack Renegade wagon, while the Black Knight's Castle contains a Wolfpack figure as a prisoner. Wolfpack soldiers would also be guests in Dragon Masters sets (see below). Unlike the Forestmen who were never stated as being good or evil, most Lego literature implied that the Wolfpack were amoral outlaws.

Fantasy themes (1993–2000).

Dragon Masters (1993–1995).

The Dragon Masters collection was released in August 1993, making it the first time that Lego Castle had a fantasy faction with magic and mythical creatures. Led by Majisto the Wizard (known as Merlin the Wizard outside of the U.S.) the Dragon Masters organization seemed to have the goal of capturing and taming (for use in battle) fire breathing green dragons with red wings. The new dragon animal figure had points of articulation at the jaw, arms, wings, and the tail, with studs on their back to carry a minifgure as a rider, while a flame could inserted near the tip of its mouth. Dragon Masters also introduced new knight helmets, halberds, faces, and the Wizard's glow-in-the-dark wand. The Dragon Masters shield emblem was identical to the ovoid shields of the Black Knights except they featured a green dragon instead of the blue dragon. The largest Dragon Masters set was the 6082 Fire Breathing Fortress, followed by 6076 Dark Dragon's Den, and then 6048 Majisto's Magical Workshop. Interestingly the total number of dragons included in the entirety of Dragon Masters sets was three; besides 6082 and 6076 the only other set containing a dragon was 6056 Dragon Wagon; due to the inclusion of the dragon these sets featured less minifigures and horses than other similar-sized sets in Lego Castle. In Europe and Asia, a total of seven Dragon Masters sets were released in 1993. But in North America, only four sets were released that same year. The remaining three sets – 6020 Magic Shop, 6043 Dragon Defender, and 6105 Medieval Knights – were released in 1994. One possible reason why this occurred was because in 1994, no new castle sets were planned to be released. Therefore, it was decided that these sets would fill in the gap. Other smaller Dragon Masters sets were released in 1994, such as 1906 Majisto's Tower and 1794 Dragon Master Chariot but they were only mini castle sets. In 1995 the last Dragon Masters set released was 1736 Wizard's Cart that featured Majisto with a treasure chest, which marked the end of the Dragon Masters reign. Nonetheless this faction inspired other castle sets to have magic and fantasy themes such as the Fright Knights.  The Dragon Masters were in conflict with the Black Knights, as shown in the 1993 and 1994 catalogue dioramas, and Wolfpack who were often guests in Dragon Masters sets. In 1995 which was their last year of release the Dragon Masters are seen confronting newly-launched Royal Knights, and the two sides are shown battling each other in the 1996 Lego Idea Book (even though the Dragon Masters were already discontinued).

Royal Knights (1995–1996).

The Royal Knights were the first Lego theme to have skeletons, starting with the first ever skeleton set "Skeleton Surprise". Their leader was the Royal King. Their largest set was the 6090 Royal Knight's Castle. This faction also introduced the fan favorite silver longsword, which is used by the Royal King.

Dark Forest (1996).

The Dark Forest faction is a continuation of Forestmen, with some influence from the Wolfpack Renegades, but is usually considered sub-par to the earlier two factions. With only three sets released it ties with Wolfpack Renegades for the smallest Castle faction ever, and the largest set was 6079 Dark Forest Fortress.

Fright Knights (1997–1998).

The Fright Knights were a faction of soldiers that were not ruled by a king, but instead by Basil, the 6007 Bat Lord. The Fright Knights Lego Sets delved deeper into the supernatural "Fantasy" aspect of Lego, featuring black dragons with fire-colored wings, creepy trap-filled red-and-black castles, crystal balls and Willa the Witch, a dark sorceress who was the real power behind Basil's throne. Their headquarters was the 6097 Night Lord's Castle.

Knights' Kingdom (2000).

Knights' Kingdom centered on a conflict involving the Lions, led by King Leo, and the Bulls, led by outlaw Cedric The Bull. This theme had many small sets with minifigures, and was the first Castle theme to feature two female minifigs, Queen Leonora and Princess Storm. The Lion shields were inspired by the Royal Knights. The Lions castle was 6098 King Leo's Castle, while the Bulls did not have a castle.  A game, titled "", was released in late 2000 by Lego Software and allowed the player to create their own kingdoms based on the theme.  Much like with the Lego Adventurers line, the characters, weapons, castle and others made a special appearance in "", which would be the first island that Pepper Roni would visit outside Lego Island itself. where even the Bulls had their own castle. The set 10176 King's Castle used the shield crests of this theme, but was released in 2006 as part of the Knight's Kingdom II product line.

Knights' Kingdom II (2004–2006).

Knights' Kingdom II, aimed at six to twelve year-olds, was first officially announced in November 2003, in the English version of the LEGO magazine. In spring 2004, the large action figures were released in Europe; several months later, they were released in America. Both continents obtained the playsets in the summer. "Knights' Kingdom" chronicles the legends of the Kingdom of Morcia, a fantasy world, and the adventures that take place within it. The main characters are the knights of the opposing factions. It is a revamped version of an earlier "Knights' Kingdom" LEGO theme, featuring larger, action-figure like characters as well as more colourfully attired mini-figures in the traditional sets. While officially titled "Knights' Kingdom" on its packaging, it is popularly known as "Knights' Kingdom II" in order to differentiate it from the original theme which only included LEGO mini-figures and featured different knight, king, and villain characters. It was also made into a trading card game and book series. 8877 Vladek's Dark Fortress was the largest set of this theme. 10176 King's Castle is part of this product line, but is not in the official storyline.  With the emergence of a new Castle line in 2007, the line was discontinued.

Characters.

This is a list of the characters in the Knights’ Kingdom line.

Morcia.

Morcia is where Knights' Kingdom takes place. It is believed to be a reference to the ancient English kingdom, Mercia. It is the home of the Hero Knights, King Mathias, and Vladek.

Ankoria.

A lost kingdom cursed by the Great Sorcerer, later Lord Vladek's kingdom, land where Knights Kingdom 2 takes place.

Sets.

2006.

Story: Lord Vladek has returned seeking the power of the Mistlands Tower, so that he can take over Morcia. This time he has hired an army of Rogue Knights instead of his usual Shadow Knights. The Rogue Knights are led by Dracus and his lieutenant, Weapons Master Karzon. In Morcia, Jayko, now King after defeating Vladek, hears about Vladek's return and his army of rogue knights, and how he's after the power of the Mistlands Tower. After hearing this, King Jayko teams up with two newly trained knights, Sir Kentis and Sir Adric, who must help King Jayko defend the tower from Lord Vladek and his army of Rogue Knights. In the end, "The Shield of Ages" is reforged by the mysterious Blacksmith (who is hinted as being the first king of Morcia, Orlan), the Shield is used to imprison Lord Vladek in an orb on top of the tower, the Rogue Knights get trapped in a dungeon, and Morcia is saved. As shown in the comic, the old knights did not die. Sir Danju is once again a trainer of knights, and shown as being the trainer of Kentis and Adric.

Castle (2007–2009).

Released in May, 2007, the new Lego Castle line features a human faction led by a King fighting against an opposing undead skeleton faction ruled by an evil Necromancer. This was also the first series to have a royal family including a Queen and a Princess. It also included other minifigs such as a Champion (Gold Knight), a Court Wizard, and even a Jester. The human faction bears the emblem of a crown, leading to being nicknamed by buyers and Lego fans as the "Crownies". Their main color scheme is dark blue, light blue and gold. The undead faction has the emblem of a skull, and the army consists almost entirely of undead skeletons, mostly the normal white kind but also featuring a new black variant. Their color scheme consists of dark red and black. In 2008, Lego Castle introduced sets with orcs, trolls, and dwarves to add to the medieval fantasy theme. Excluding the Chess Set, the largest set of this theme is 10193 Medieval Market Village. The last sets of this incarnation of Castle were released in 2009 and were replaced by a new castle theme, Kingdoms, in 2010.

Kingdoms (2010–2012).

Kingdoms is the name of the new Lego Medieval theme that was released June 2010 and replaced the fantasy-based Castle theme that had been in place since 2007. Kingdoms departs from the concept of a fantasy world inhabited by undead, orcs and dwarves; and returns to a more realistic world modeled after the European Middle Ages. The only fantasy elements are the wizard minifigures. Thus, it features sets that are more reminiscent of the early sets of the classic Castle theme from the 1980s. Indeed, the set 7946 King's Castle is modeled after the 6080 King's Castle set released in 1984.  In Kingdoms, there are two human factions pitted against each other. One side has the role of the attackers, featuring more vehicles and siege engines (The Green Kingdom/Dragon Knights). The other side has the role of the defenders with an emphasis on buildings (The Red Kingdom/Lion Knights). This theme, like the fantasy-era Castle theme of 2007, includes peasants and civilians, instead of concentrating solely on military factions.  Kingdoms is the first theme to include back-printing on the torsos of the minifigures. This theme featured new knight helms, new horse armor (a sleek-silhouette "unicorn" horse battle helmet), goats, and a new portcullis piece. Two unique horse prints are found only in Kingdoms sets: a pair of white horses with printed harnesses (7188 King's Carriage Ambush), and a dappled grey cart horse (7189 Mill Village Raid.) This theme also marked a welcome return to the full-body rampant lion motif, rather than the decapitated lion head used in the Royal Knights, Knight's Kingdom I, and Knight's Kingdom II.  The final Kingdoms-themed sets were 10223 Kingdoms Joust, released on December 26, 2011; and 853373 Kingdoms Chess Set, released in 2012. The Kingdoms theme was discontinued in 2012, replaced by The Lord of the Rings franchise sets.

Castle (2013).

Lego released a new Castle theme in autumn 2013 replacing the previously cancelled Kingdoms theme. It ended up being a very short-lived theme with only five sets released in late 2013 and two battlepacks released in early 2014. The two factions were "King's Knights", which wore blue with a crown insignia on their torsos and lion insignia on their shields and armor; and "Dragon Knights", in red and black. This theme was a fantasy-based theme with a wizard and a large dragon.

LEGO Castle was a Lego medieval and fantasy theme featuring knights and castles. It was introduced in 1978 and was supported almost continuously until ceasing in 2014. The medieval theme was then carried on in the LEGO Knights Kingdoms and later LEGO Kingdoms themes. Lego Castle sets were marketed under the "LEGOLAND" banner until 1991. LEGO decided to change and add "LEGO System" in 1992, but was dropped after 1999.

Lego Castle je podskupina stavebnice Lego. Lego Castle je stavebnice, ze které si můžete postavit hrady (castle = hrad), nechybí ani bojovníci. V Lego Castle tedy probíhá nekonečný boj dobra se zlem, který se odehrává v lego krajině. Od roku 2009 se také vyrábí kromě Lego Castle, také jeho odvětví Lego Kingdoms.V Legu Kingdoms jsou jen dobří a zlí rytíři.


Replacements for holotypes.

Under the ICN, an additional and clarifying type could be designated an epitype under Article 9.8, where the original material is demonstrably ambiguous or insufficient.  A conserved type (ICN article 14.3) is sometimes used to correct a problem with a name which has been misapplied; this specimen replaces the original holotype.  In the absence of a holotype, another type may be selected, out of a range of different kinds of type, depending on the case, a lectotype or a neotype.  For example, in both the ICN and the ICZN a neotype is a type that was later appointed in the absence of the original holotype. Additionally, under the ICZN the Commission is empowered to replace a holotype with a neotype, when the holotype turns out to lack important diagnostic features needed to distinguish the species from its close relatives. For example, the crocodile-like archosaurian reptile "Parasuchus hislopi" Lydekker, 1885 was described based on a premaxillary rostrum (part of the snout), but this is no longer sufficient to distinguish "Parasuchus" from its close relatives. This made the name "Parasuchus hislopi" a "nomen dubium". Texan paleontologist Sankar Chatterjee proposed that a new type specimen, a complete skeleton, be designated. The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature considered the case and agreed to replace the original type specimen with the proposed neotype.  The procedures for the designation of a new type specimen when the original is lost come into play for some recent, high-profile species descriptions in which the specimen designated as the holotype was a living individual that was allowed to remain in the wild (e.g. a new species of capuchin monkey, genus "Cebus", "Marleyimyia xylocopae", or the Arunachal macaque "Macaca munzala"). In such a case, there is no actual type specimen available for study, and the possibility exists that—should there be any perceived ambiguity in the identity of the species—subsequent authors can invoke various clauses in the ICZN Code that allow for the designation of a neotype. Article 75.3.7 of the ICZN requires that the designation of a neotype must be accompanied by "a statement that the neotype is, or immediately upon publication has become, the property of a recognized scientific or educational institution, cited by name, that maintains a research collection, with proper facilities for preserving name-bearing types, and that makes them accessible for study", but there is no such requirement for a holotype.

A holotype is a single physical example (or illustration) of an organism, known to have been used when the species (or lower-ranked taxon) was formally described. It is either the single such physical example (or illustration) or one of several such, but explicitly designated as the holotype. Under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), a holotype is one of several kinds of name-bearing types. In the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and ICZN, the definitions of types are similar in intent but not identical in terminology or underlying concept.

Holotyp (také typový exemplář) je exemplář živočicha, rostliny nebo jiného organismu, podle kterého byl druh nebo jiný taxon popsán. Musí se jednat o typického jedince, na němž jsou patrné odlišnosti od příbuzných druhů (taxonů). Další exempláře, které byly použity pro popis druhu, ale nebyly určeny jako typový exemplář, jsou paratypy.