Early life and career.

Josep (or José) Borrell Fontelles was born on 24 April 1947 in the village of La Pobla de Segur, province of Lleida, near the Pyrenees, son of Joan Borrell (father) and Luisa Fontelles Doll (mother). He also grew up in the village, where his father owned a small bakery. His paternal grandparents were Catalan migrants to Argentina, who established a bakery in the city of Mendoza, close to the General San Martín Park. They returned to Spain when Joan Borrell was 8 years old. Borrell's father arrival to Spain took place just before the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War and afterwards he would never leave his village of La Pobla de Segur.  After completing primary education, the remote location of his village led Josep Borrell to be home-schooled with aid from his mother and a retired teacher, taking the official Baccalaureate exams at the Lleida high school. He continued his higher education thanks to several scholarships, including from the March Foundation and the Fulbright Program. In 1964 he moved to Barcelona to study industrial engineering, but left after a year in 1965 to study aeronautical engineering at the Technical University of Madrid (UPM), graduating in 1969. In the summer of 1969 Borrell worked as volunteer at the Gal On kibbutz in Israel, where he met his future French wife Caroline Mayeur, from whom he is now divorced. During this time he also began to study a bachelor's degree and later a PhD in Economics at the Complutense University of Madrid (UCM). Borrell also holds a master's degree in applied mathematics (operations research) from Stanford University in Palo Alto (California, US), and a postgraduate in energy economics from the French Institute of Petroleum in Paris (France). In May 1976 Borrell defended his PhD thesis in economics at the UCM.  From 1972 to 1982 he lectured in mathematics at the Higher Technical School of Aeronautical Engineering of the UCM. In 1982 he was appointed associate professor of Business Mathematics at the University of Valladolid. From 1975 to 1982 he also worked for Cepsa, employed at the company's Department of Systems and Information Engineering; he combined this activity with the teaching of university classes and involvement in local politics.

Political career.

Involvement in local politics.

Borrell joined the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) in 1975 and started his political activity during Spain's transition to democracy in the Socialist Grouping of Madrid along with Luis Solana and Luis Carlos Croissier. He ran for office as the number 5 in the PSOE list for the 1979 municipal election in Majadahonda, becoming city councillor. Borrell also became a member of the 1979−1983 corporation of the Provincial Deputation of Madrid and managed the Financial Department of the provincial government body in the pre-autonomic period.

Role during the González's governments.

In the 1982 general election the PSOE won a landslide victory, returning the socialists to power for the first time since the years of the Second Republic. Under Prime Minister Felipe González, Borrell was appointed to several prominent positions within the Ministry of Economy and Finance, first as General Secretary for the Budget and Public Spending (1982–1984), and then as Secretary of State for Finance (1984–1991). During his tenure as Secretary of State for Finance, Spain joined the European Economic Community in 1986. He became known for his actions seeking to combat fraud and tax evasion, going after the rich and famous, including celebrities such as Lola Flores, Marujita Díaz or Pedro Ruiz. In the 1986 general election he was for the first time elected to the Congress of Deputies, remaining as an MP representing Barcelona until 2004.  In 1991 he joined the Council of Ministers as Minister of Public Works and Transport.  He took a role in the process of liberalization of telecommunications in Spain, promoting the 1991–2001 National Plan of Telecommunications (PNT); in 1993, Borrell threatened nonetheless the European Commission with blocking the liberalization unless the concession of a moratory Spain was given, as Borrell deemed imperative to achieve first the universalization of service before the complete liberalization.  Following the 1993 general election, Borrell continued with a seat at the Council of Ministers, assuming the portfolio of Minister of Public Works, Transports and Environment in the last government presided by Felipe González. He left the office after the arrival to power of the People's Party in 1996, remaining as an MP for Barcelona in the Spanish Congress.

Brief spell as leader of the opposition.

In 1998 Borrell decided to run against the PSOE's then party leader Joaquín Almunia in the first national primary election ever held in the PSOE since the Second Republic, intended to determine who the party would nominate as its prime ministerial candidate vis-à-vis the 2000 general election. Borrell ran as the underdog, campaigning as the candidate of the socialist base against the party establishment, and surprisingly won the voting, commanding 114,254 of the member's votes (54.99%), versus the 92,860 (44.67%) obtained by Almunia. Thus began an uneasy relationship and power-sharing —the "bicefalia" ("duumvirate")— between the official party leader, Almunia, and the prime ministerial candidate elected by the members in the primaries, Borrell. However, in May 1999, a fraud investigation was launched into two officials who, several years earlier, Borrell had appointed to senior posts in the finance ministry. Though not involved in the inquiry into property purchases, Borrell resigned from the role of Prime Ministerial candidate, stating that he did not want the affair to damage his party's chances in the upcoming local and general elections.

Involvement in European politics.

Amid the 6th term of the Cortes Generales, Borrell was elected to chair the Joint Congress-Senate Committee for the European Union in October 1999, replacing Pedro Solbes. Reelected as MP for Barcelona in the 2000 general election, Borrell repeated as president of the Joint Committee for the European Union for the full 7th parliamentary term. Then, in 2001, Borrell was also appointed the Spanish parliament's representative on the Convention on the Future of Europe. In 2011 he was awarded Spain's medal of the Order of Constitutional Merit in recognition of his participation in this convention, which drafted the European Constitution that eventually led to the Treaty of Lisbon. During his time at the convention, he unsuccessfully pushed for a mention to a "federal model" in the draft, as well as he advocated for the explicit mention of the equality between women and men. A laicist, he also opposed then the inclusion of the notion of a "Christian heritage" in the text.  In 2004, prime minister and PSOE's leader José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero proposed Borrell to lead the Socialist Ticket in the 2004 European elections. The PSOE won the elections with 6,6 million votes (43,30%), obtaining 25 MEP seats, although turnout was relatively low at 46%. Borrell sat with the Party of European Socialists (PES) group, and served as leader of the Spanish delegation.  In July 2004 Borrell was elected President of the European Parliament, as a result of an agreement between the EPP and the Socialists, becoming the third Spaniard to hold this position after Enrique Barón and José María Gil-Robles. In the presidential vote, out of 700 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) he received an absolute majority with 388 votes at the first ballot. The other two candidates were the Polish Liberal Bronisław Geremek (208 votes) and the French communist Francis Wurtz (51 votes). He was the first newly elected MEP to hold the post since direct elections were held in 1979. As part of a deal with the conservative faction in the parliament, the EPP, he was succeeded as president of the parliament by the German conservative politician Hans-Gert Pöttering in the second part of the five-year term.  In his capacity as president, Borrell also chaired the Parliament's temporary committee on policy challenges and budgetary means of the enlarged Union 2007–2013. From 2007 until leaving the Parliament in 2009, he served as chairman of the Committee on Development. In addition to his committee assignments, he was a member of the Parliament's delegation to the ACP–EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly.

Step back from the political front.

Borrell was nominated president of the European University Institute on 12 December 2008, and assumed this position in January 2010. In 2012, he was forced to resign in the face of allegations of a conflict of interest.  In 2012, the University of Lleida appointed Borrell to a professorship of competition and regional development sponsored by energy company Repsol. He also held the Jean Monnet Chair at the Institute of International Studies at Complutense University of Madrid.  Borrell collaborated along other prominent PSOE figures such as Cristina Narbona, José Félix Tezanos and Manuel Escudero in the making of "Somos socialistas. Por una nueva socialdemocracia" ("We are socialists. For a new social-democracy"), a manifesto in support of Pedro Sánchez's successful bid to the leadership of the PSOE in the May 2017 PSOE primary election prior to the 39th Federal Congress of the party.  He also stood out as one of the most outspoken opponents of Catalan secessionism. Borrell co-authored "Las cuentas y los cuentos de la independencia" ("The calculations and tales behind independence"), a 2015 essay that vowed to dismantle the economic arguments laid out by the pro-independence movement. He also took a leading role in a mass rally defending the unity of Spain held in Barcelona on 8 October 2017, in which Borrell gave an impassionated speech demanding "not to bring up more frontiers" while displaying a European Union flag that he called "our "estelada"" (starred flag), bringing him back to the media first line. He also took part on a second mass rally on 29 October 2017 under the slogan "We are all Catalonia".

Foreign Minister, 2018–2019.

Following the 2018 successful motion of no confidence on Mariano Rajoy and subsequent investiture of Pedro Sánchez as new prime minister, Borrell was revealed on 5 June as the Sánchez's choice for the post of foreign minister in his new government. 22 years after the end of his last tenure as member of the Government of Spain, Borrell assumed the portfolio of Foreign Affairs, European Union and Cooperation on 7 June along the rest of the new cabinet in La Zarzuela. The new ministry relocated some of the high-rank officials appointed by the government of Mariano Rajoy with a diplomatic background to ambassadorial posts, including secretaries of State and, most notably, the former foreign minister (Alfonso Dastis) and the primer minister's chief of staff (Jorge Moragas).  Borrell decided to reformulate the High Commissioner for the 'Marca España' (Spain Brand), a one-person body functionally dependent directly on the presidency of the Government but organically included within the Foreign Office structure) to the post of Secretary of State for Global Spain. The officeholder responsible for the 'Marca España' appointed by Rajoy, Carlos Espinosa de los Monteros y Bernaldo de Quirós, was replaced by Irene Lozano.  In June 2018 Borrell and King Felipe VI made an official visit to the US. Borrell had a meeting with Mike Pompeo, where the Spanish delegation showed concern for the US protectionist drift and discrepancies between the two countries were found in regards to their approach to migration policies.  In September 2018 the Comisión Nacional del Mercado de Valores (CNMV) settled a disciplinary action against Borrell opened in 2017 due to the later's insider trading in the sale of stocks of Abengoa (whose board of directors Borrell was a member of) in November 2015, sanctioning him with a fine of €.  Regarding the negotiations with the United Kingdom on Gibraltar in the context of Brexit, Borrell avowed to prioritise improvement of the living conditions in the neighbouring Campo de Gibraltar (he had reportedly considered the reality of the "3rd territory with the highest GDP per capita in the World"—Gibraltar—surrounded by "a flatland of underdevelopment"—the Campo de Gibraltar—as something unacceptable). In the other hand, he renounced to include the longstanding bid for sovereignty as an element of the negotiations. He highlighted this soft approach was the same stance as his predecessor, Dastis, outlining a continuity in the negotiations with the former government, with the ministry keeping the same negotiating team before and after the government change. In November 2018 he signed the four MoUs negotiated with the United Kingdom settling aspects of the future relationship with the British Overseas Territory.  Given the aggravation of the political crisis in Nicaragua, in December 2018 Borrell pressed the High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, Federica Mogherini, for an EU-wide involvement in the situation.  In May 2019 the Spanish Embassy in Caracas lodged Venezuelan dissident Leopoldo López as guest following the Venezuelan "uprising", as the later had been freed from domiciliary imprisonment by forces endorsing Juan Guaidó. However, Borrell warned Spain was not going "to allow that the embassy becomes a centre of political activism", avowing to restrict the political activities of López as guest.  For the 2019 European Parliament election in Spain, Borrell ran first in the PSOE list. During the electoral campaign he appealed to the unity of Europe and stressed the need for the EU member states to pool sovereignty in order to survive as civilization. Shortly after his election, he gave up his newly won seat before the inaugural session of the legislature, arguing that acting Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez and he had agreed that, amid the uncertainty regarding the second investiture of Sánchez, the post of foreign minister should not be left vacant for an indefinite period.  In October 2019 Borrell condemned the Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria against Syrian Kurds, saying that "We don't have magic powers" to stop the Turkish invasion.  He stepped down from the office on 29 November 2019 and was succeeded "ad interim" by the Minister of Defence, Margarita Robles.

European Union High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.

On 2 July 2019, President of the European Council Donald Tusk announced that the European Council would nominate Josep Borrell as High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. The portfolio had been reportedly beefed up with additional responsibilities in humanitarian aid, support of development policies in Africa and the external dimension of immigration. Also in July 2019 he announced the acquisition of double Argentine-Spanish citizenship, assumed on 18 July 2019, thus gaining the citizenship his father was born with.  He passed the hearing before the EP Committee on Foreign Affairs (AFET) on 7 October 2019. His nomination was green-lighted the next day through a vote by members of the AFET.  To counter its negative image, China has sent medical aid and supplies to EU countries affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Borrell warned that there is "a geo-political component including a struggle for influence through spinning and the ‘politics of generosity’. He also said that "China is aggressively pushing the message that, unlike the US, it is a responsible and reliable partner."  On 9 April 2020, Josep Borrell on behalf of the EU on the release of the first report of the Investigation and Identification Team to the Executive Council of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons and to the Secretary General of the United Nations on 8 April 2020, declared that "We fully support the report’s findings and note with great concern its conclusions. The European Union strongly condemns the use of chemical weapons by the Syrian Arab Air Force as concluded by the report. Those identified responsible for the use of chemical weapons must be held accountable for these reprehensible acts."  On April 24 the EU’s foreign security policy agency, the European External Action Service (EEAS), published a report on disinformation around the coronavirus pandemic. The New York Times reported that the language had been toned down amid criticism from China. The final report differed in key areas from both an internal version and an earlier draft that had been planned for public release. At a parliamentary hearing on April 30, Josep Borrell, acknowledged that China had expressed concerns about the report after it leaked but denied that the EU had bowed to pressure and that the report had been revised. Josep Borrell said that there were two separate reports, one for internal consumption and one for publication.Responding to questions from members of the European Parliament, Borrell accused staff of damaging the EU by leaking. He also appeared to suggest that analysts’ views were biased and cast doubt on their credibility.  “I cannot accept that the personal belief or feeling of a member of staff leaking mails — maybe being written to be leaked — created damage to the credibility of the institution," he said, later asking MEPs why “more credibility” was being given “to the personal opinion of a member of a staff”.  Multiple EU officials told BuzzFeed News and the NY Times that they were left angry and disappointed by Borrell’s focus on leaks and, in particular, his singling out of junior staff members.

Personal life.

Borrell was first married with French sociologist Carolina Mayeur. The marriage had two sons in common, Joan, a diplomat, and Lionel, an aircraft pilot. Borrell and Mayeur divorced in the 1990s. Since 1998, Borrell has been in a relationship with Cristina Narbona, current president of the PSOE and former Minister of Environment (2004–2008). The couple, resident in Valdemorillo since 2001, married in July 2018.  In 2019 he acquired Argentine citizenship through descent, stating that he wished to honor the memory of his father, who grew up in Mendoza, Argentina.  Borrell speaks Spanish, Catalan, Italian, French and English.  He has been a keen participant in the annual festivity in his native Pobla de Segur descending the Noguera Pallaresa river, in which the stream is rowed down by the partakers as log drivers ("raiers").

Josep Borrell Fontelles (; born 24 April 1947) is a Spanish politician, current High Representative of the European Union since 1 December 2019. A member of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), he served as Minister of Foreign Affairs, European Union and Cooperation of the Government of Spain from 2018 to 2019, having previously served under Felipe González as Minister of Public Works from 1991 to 1996.

Josep Borrell Fontelles (* 24. dubna 1947 La Pobla de Segur, provincie Lleida) je španělský socialistický politik, od prosince 2019 vysoký představitel Unie pro zahraniční věci a bezpečnostní politiku.


History.

The first trolleybus projects in Słupsk date back to the 1930s, when one trolleybus line was planned. It was to connect Kobylnica with Brusków Wielki. This plan was not implemented.  At the end of the 1970s, the voivodeship transport company WPKM Słupsk developed a project of Słupsk trolleybus system. The plan assumed the construction of five trolleybus lines, including one to Ustka, 18 km away from Słupsk. First construction works began in April 1985.  The opening of the first line, marked with A, took place on 20 July 1985. The line was served by ten ZiU-9 trolleybuses purchased from the USSR. The next two lines were launched on 11 November 11 1986 (B) and 27 June 1987 (C). Bad economic situation does not allowed the opening of lines D and E.  In the early 1990s, eleven functional trolleybuses were scrapped. This caused rolling stock problems and forced trolleybuses to be supported by buses. However, three buses were converted into trolleybuses.  In July 1997, MZK Słupsk exchanged seven operational trolleybuses for seven buses from Tychy. The remaining vehicles were not enough to fully serve the system. The network's profitability has dropped dramatically. Until 1999, only seven trolleybuses were able to operate. It started first voice opinions about the network closure. Pro-decommission arguments were as follows:  In May 1999 began dismantling of the overhead lines at Hubalczyków street, meaning the end of lines B and C. On 18 October 1999, the last A-line trolleybuses went into the streets.

Lines.

Lines as of 1987:

The Słupsk trolleybus system was a trolleybus network operated by MPK Słupsk in Słupsk, Poland between 20 July 1985 and 18 October 1999. The system measured at the most 19.1 km on three lines.

Trolejbusová doprava v polském městě Słupsk byla v provozu mezi lety 1985 a 1999. Projekt na vybudování trolejbusové sítě ve Słupsku byl vytvořen na konci 70. let 20. století. Počítal s pěti tratěmi, včetně jedné, která měla vést do 18 km vzdáleného města Ustka. Realizace první z těchto tratí začala v květnu 1985.


Synopsis.

Overview.

The series follows Ava Gregory (Lori Loughlin), a fashion designer, and her house mates and niece and nephews as they learn to cope with a life-changing event and each other. After the death of their parents, Bradin (Jesse McCartney), Nikki (Kay Panabaker), and Derrick Westerly (Nick Benson) leave their home in Kansas to live with their Aunt Ava in Playa Linda, California. They live with three other house mates: Johnny Durant (Shawn Christian), Ava's ex-boyfriend; Susannah Rexford (Merrin Dungey), Ava's best friend and business partner; and Jay Robertson (Ryan Kwanten), an Australian surfer who owns a local surf shop. The show follows the struggles that these friends and family face as they adapt to their new lives together. Jay has an on-again-off-again relationship with Erika Spalding (Taylor Cole), who becomes Bradin's surfing instructor. Cameron Bale (Zac Efron) is Nikki's boyfriend and classmate.

Cast.

Main.

"Summerland" initially featured a main cast of eight characters. In the second season, after appearing as a recurring member in the first season, Zac Efron was added to the main cast. This brought the total number of main characters to nine.

Production.

Music.

Each episode of the show features a number of songs from various artists in addition to an original score. The music is usually used as a background element and is non-diegetic, although occasionally the music comes from a diegetic source. In the second-season episode "Where There's a Will, There's a Wave" Christy Carlson Romano stars as a fictional pop star and performs her song "Dive In".  Other artists heard in the show include The Beach Boys, The Penguins, Howie Day, John Mayer, Ryan Adams, Blink-182, Maroon 5, and Lifehouse.

Soundtrack.

On March 19, 2005, a soundtrack was released featuring music from both seasons of the show. It included the opening theme as well as a song by cast member Jesse McCartney, "Get Your Shine On", which also appeared on his first album and was released as a single.

Broadcast history.

Cancellation.

On May 15, 2005, The WB released early information on their 2005–2006 season. "Summerland", along with eight other shows, were canceled. Jesse McCartney responded to the cancellation in an interview, saying the show was "in a crazy time slot and...the writers were having trouble, and it was just a bad call."

Syndication.

The series has been syndicated on The N and Ten Network in Australia, Living in the United Kingdom and Ireland, TV2 in Norway, and on MBC 4 in the Middle East. In Spain, "Summerland" (which retains its English language title) has been used as a filler during the summer months. In July 2008, Telecinco aired all of the episodes again in the 9 a.m. time slot, the same time slot in which it aired in the summer of 2007. It is currently airing on Sweden's channel 5, kanal5, however only on weekend mornings.

Summerland is an American drama television series created by Stephen Tolkin and Lori Loughlin. It is centered on a clothing designer in her 30s, Ava Gregory (Loughlin), raising her niece and nephews after their parents die in a tragic accident. They live with three of Ava's friends who also help raise the kids in the fictional city of Playa Linda, California.

Kalifornské léto (v anglickém originále Summerland) je americký televizní seriál vysílaný v letech 2004 až 2005 na síti The WB. V Česku jej vysílala TV Nova.


History.

In 1987 Israeli Foreign Affairs Minister Shimon Peres and King Hussein tried secretly to arrange a peace agreement in which Israel would concede the West Bank to Jordan. The two signed an agreement defining a framework for a Middle Eastern peace conference. The proposal was not consummated due to Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir's objection. The following year Jordan abandoned its claim to the West Bank in favor of a peaceful resolution between Israel and the PLO.  Discussions began in 1994. Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Foreign Minister Shimon Peres informed King Hussein that after the Oslo Accords with the PLO, Jordan might be "left out of the big game". Hussein consulted with Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak and Syrian President Hafez al-Assad. Mubarak encouraged him, but Assad told him only to "talk" and not sign any accord. U.S. President Bill Clinton pressured Hussein to start peace negotiations and to sign a peace treaty with Israel and promised him that Jordan's debts would be forgiven. The efforts succeeded and Jordan signed a nonbelligerency agreement with Israel. Rabin, Hussein and Clinton signed the Washington Declaration in Washington, DC, on 25 July 1994. The Declaration says that Israel and Jordan ended the official state of enmity and would start negotiations in order to achieve an "end to bloodshed and sorrow" and a just and lasting peace.

Signing.

On 26 October 1994, Jordan and Israel signed the peace treaty in a ceremony held in the Arava valley of Israel, north of Eilat and near the Jordanian border. Prime Minister Rabin and Prime Minister Abdelsalam al-Majali signed the treaty and the President of Israel Ezer Weizman shook hands with King Hussein. Clinton observed, accompanied by US Secretary of State Warren Christopher. Thousands of colorful balloons released into the sky ended the event.  Egypt welcomed the agreement while Syria ignored it. The Lebanese militia group Hezbollah resisted the treaty and 20 minutes prior to the ceremony launched mortar and rocket attacks against northern Galilee towns. Israeli residents, who were forced to evacuate the towns for the safety of shelters, took with them transistor radios and mobile TVs in order not to miss the historical moment of signing a second peace treaty with an Arab state.

Content.

The Peace treaty consists of a preamble, 30 articles, 5 annexes, and agreed minutes. It settles issues about territory, security, water, and co-operation on a range of subjects.  Annex I concerns borders and sovereignty. Section "Annex I (a)" establishes an "administrative boundary" between Jordan and the West Bank, occupied by Israel in 1967, without prejudice to the status of that territory. Israel recognises Jordan's sovereignty over the Naharayim/Baqura area (including Peace Island) and the Tzofar/Al Ghamr area. Annex II concerns water and related matters. Pursuant to Article 6 of the Treaty, Jordan and Israel agreed to establish a ""Joint Water Committee"" (Article VII). Annex III concerns crime and drugs. Annex IV concerns environment. Annex V concerns Border Crossings, passports and visas. Article 6 stipulates that "′′Each Party has the right to refuse entry to a person, in accordance with its regulations′′". The Agreed Minutes of the treaty give some details about the implementation of the peace treaty.

Follow-up.

Following the agreements, Israel and Jordan opened their borders. Several border-crossings were erected, allowing tourists, businessmen and workers to travel between the two countries. Israeli tourists started to visit Jordan, many to see the "sela ha'adom" ("Red Rock") of Petra – a stone-carved Nabatean city which had fascinated Israelis during the 1950s and 1960s, often luring adventurers to visit it secretly.  On 4 November 1995 the Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated by a Jewish extremist, who aimed to undermine Rabin's peace efforts with the Palestinians. Due to the close relationship forged with Rabin during the negotiations of the treaty, Hussein was invited to give a speech during Rabin's funeral in Jerusalem. This was the first time Hussein had been in Jerusalem since the 1967 war. Hussein drew parallels between Rabin's assassination and his grandfather's assassination in 1951: "We are not ashamed, nor are we afraid, nor are we anything but determined to continue the legacy for which my friend fell, as did my grandfather in this city when I was with him and but a boy."  Jordan's signing of a peace treaty with Israel, and other issues, were met with disdain by Syria's president Hafez Al-Assad. The CIA handed the King a detailed report in December 1995 warning him of a Syrian plot to assassinate him and his brother Hassan. A month later, the CIA sent Hussein another report warning Jordan of Iraqi plots to attack Western targets in Jordan to undermine Jordan's security due to its support for the Iraqi opposition. In Israel, Shimon Peres of the leftist Labor Party and Benjamin Netanyahu of the right-wing Likud party, were competing for the post of prime minister. Hussein's popularity in Israel had peaked after the peace treaty was signed, and he was expected to express support for a candidate. Hussein initially remained neutral, but later expressed support for Netanyahu. Efraim Halevy, then head of the Israeli intelligence agency (Mossad), claims that Hussein had preferred Netanyahu over Peres as he had deeply mistrusted the latter. The Israeli general election held on 29 May 1996 witnessed Netanyahu's ascension to the prime ministry.  Hussein's support for Netanyahu soon backfired. Israel's actions during the 1996 Qana massacre in Southern Lebanon, the Likud government's decision to build settlements in East Jerusalem, and the events at the Temple Mount where clashes between Palestinian and Israeli police ensued after Israeli tunnel diggings around the Mount, generated an uproar of criticism for Netanyahu in the Arab World. On 9 March 1997 Hussein sent Netanyahu a three-page letter expressing his disappointment. The King lambasted Netanyahu, with the letter's opening sentence stating: "My distress is genuine and deep over the accumulating tragic actions which you have initiated at the head of the Government of Israel, making peace – the worthiest objective of my life – appear more and more like a distant elusive mirage."  Four days later, on 13 March, a Jordanian soldier patrolling the borders between Jordan and Israel in the north near the Island of Peace, killed seven Israeli schoolgirls and wounded six others. The King, who was on an official visit to Spain, returned home immediately. He travelled to the Israeli town of Beit Shemesh to offer his condolences to the grieving families of the Israeli children killed. He went on his knees in front of the families, telling them that the incident was "a crime that is a shame for all of us. I feel as if I have lost a child of my own. If there is any purpose in life it will be to make sure that all the children no longer suffer the way our generation did." His gesture was received very warmly in Israel, and Hussein sent the families $1million in total as compensation for the loss of life. The soldier was determined to be mentally unstable by a Jordanian military tribunal and was sentenced to 20years in prison, which he served entirely.  Clashes between Israeli forces and Palestinian militant groups in Gaza and the West Bank surfaced. Hussein's wife, Queen Noor, later claimed her husband was having trouble sleeping: "Everything he had worked for all his life, every relationship he had painstakingly built on trust and respect, every dream of peace and prosperity he had had for Jordan's children, was turning into a nightmare. I really did not know how much more Hussein could take."  On 27 September 1997 eight Mossad agents entered Jordan using fake Canadian passports and attempted to assassinate Jordanian citizen Khaled Mashal, head of the militant Islamist Palestinian group Hamas. Hussein was preparing for a 30-year Hamas-Israel truce three days prior to the attempt, after Hamas had launched two attacks in Jerusalem. Two Mossad agents followed Mashal to his office and injected poison into his ears, but they were caught by Mashal's bodyguard. The two agents were then held by the Jordanian police, while the six other agents hid in the Israeli embassy. Furious, Hussein met with an Israeli delegate who attempted to explain the situation; the King said in a speech about the incident that he felt that somebody "had spat in his face." Jordanian authorities requested Netanyahu to provide an antidote to save Mashal's life, but Netanyahu refused to do so. Jordan then threatened to storm the Israeli embassy and capture the rest of the Mossad team, but Israel argued that it would be against the Geneva Conventions. Jordan replied that the Geneva Conventions "do not apply to terrorists," and a special operations team headed by Hussein's son Abdullah was put in charge of the operation. Hussein called American President Clinton and requested his intervention, threatening to annul the treaty if Israel did not provide the antidote. Clinton later managed to get Israel's approval to reveal the name of the antidote, and complained about Netanyahu: "This man is impossible!" Khaled Mashal recovered, but Jordan's relations with Israel deteriorated and Israeli requests to contact Hussein were rebuffed. The Mossad operatives were released by Jordan after Israel agreed to release 23 Jordanian and 50 Palestinian prisoners including Sheikh Ahmed Yassin.  Mounting opposition in Jordan to the peace treaty with Israel led Hussein to put greater restrictions on freedom of speech. Several dissidents were imprisoned including Laith Shubeilat, a prominent Islamist. A few months into his imprisonment, the King personally gave Shubeilat, his fiercest critic, a ride home from the Swaqa prison. However, the crackdown led the opposition groups in Jordan to boycott the 1997 parliamentary elections. In 1998 Jordan refused a secret request from Netanyahu to attack Iraq using Jordanian airspace after claiming Saddam held weapons of mass destruction.  In December 2013, Israel and Jordan signed an agreement to build a desalination plant on the Red Sea, near the Jordanian port of Aqaba, as part of the Red Sea–Dead Sea Canal.  In October 2018, Jordan notified Israel of its intention not to renew lands leased under Annex I of the agreement. The annex granted Jordan the right not to renew the lease of Naharayim (Baqoura) and Tzofar/Al Ghamr after 25 years, given that a notice is given a year prior.

The Israel–Jordan peace treaty or in full "Treaty of Peace Between the State of Israel and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan" (; transliterated: "Heskem Ha-Shalom beyn Yisra'el Le-Yarden"; ; Arabic transliteration: "Mu'ahadat as-Salaam al-'Urdunniyah al-Isra'yliyah"), sometimes referred to as "Wadi Araba Treaty", was signed in 1994. The signing ceremony took place at the southern border crossing of Arabah on 26 October 1994. Jordan was the second Arab country, after Egypt, to sign a peace accord with Israel.

Izraelsko-jordánská mírová smlouva (celým názvem: Mírová smlouva mezi Státem Izrael a Jordánským hášimovským královstvím, :, "Heskem ha-šalom bejn Jisra'el le-Jarden", :, "Mu'áhadat as-salám al-urduníja al-isrá'ílíja") je mírová smlouva podepsaná 26. října 1994 na hraničním přechodu mezi Izraelem a Jordánskem. Smlouva byla výsledkem dlouho trvajícího dialogu mezi oběma stranami a její hlavní cíle se nezaměřovaly přímo na otázku bezpečnostní, nýbrž především na otázky ekonomické a vzájemný dialog.


History.

In 1990, Azerbaijan announced that it was setting up its own airline, and that it would be independent of Aeroflot, the long-time provider of air services for the Soviet republics. Azerbaijan Airlines (AZAL) was officially established on 17 August 1992. Its first president was Vagif Sadykhly.  Formed from the regional branch of Aeroflot, Azerbaijan Airlines, also known as Azerbaijan Hava Yollari, soon spread its wings into the world outside the Soviet Union, which had been Aeroflot's exclusive domain. A scheduled Baku-Istanbul route was launched in January 1991 in partnership with Turkish Airlines, and the cargo enterprise Aviasharg was created in cooperation with the United Arab Emirates. AZAL inherited a huge fleet from Aeroflot, including more than 20 Soviet-made Tupolev airliners, some regional airliners and freighters, 90 light aircraft, and 50 helicopters. It was quick to lease a pair of Boeing 727s, however, that once belonged to Pan Am (and were built in 1968). AZAL had an extensive involvement with Aviation Leasing Group (ALG), the U.S.-based lessor of these Boeing 727s. It had a transatlantic charter cargo joint venture with ALG's Buffalo Airways, which was also training AZAL aircrews to Western standards in Dallas, Texas.  In November 1994, AZAL began a route to Dubai, which, along with Istanbul, was a key source of Western goods. It was soon also flying to Tehran, Tel Aviv, Saint Petersburg, London, and China. Service to several regional destinations was suspended in mid-1998, due to low margins and the need to repair three Yak-40 aircraft. With the exception of a few major cities, service to neighboring CIS countries was suspended in January 1999, due to debt. These routes were generally unprofitable as well, and were facing new competition from trains. According to the Trend News Agency, domestic flights accounted for only about 16 percent of AZAL's traffic in 1998.  Azerbaijan's border dispute with Armenia over Nagorno-Karabakh had delayed financing for two new Boeing 757s from the U.S. Ex-Im Bank. The $66 million loan guarantee was the Ex-Im Bank's first transaction for Azerbaijan, according to Air Transport Intelligence. The financing also was guaranteed by the Azerbaijan government and the International Bank of Azerbaijan. The United Kingdom's Export Credits Guarantee Department guaranteed financing for Rolls-Royce engines, utilized by both Boeing 757s. The first of the 757s was delivered in the fall of 2000. The planes offered the carrier unprecedented range, comfort, and efficiency on long-haul international routes. They also helped project a modern image to the world. The second Boeing 757 to be delivered arrived in December laden with medical supplies due to a recent earthquake in Azerbaijan. In January 2001, AZAL used one of the planes to begin operating a Paris-Baku route in collaboration with Air France.  Azerbaijan, a predominantly Muslim country, experienced a reduction in air traffic following the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States. AZAL was able to remain profitable through 2001, however, and even make progress toward paying off its debt. The airline was soon shopping for more new aircraft as it retired its aging Soviet models. AZAL ordered its first Western-made helicopters in October 2002, purchasing six for EUR 52 million from Eurocopter. AZAL used helicopters to ferry personnel and equipment out to oil rigs in the Caspian Sea.  In July 2004, two of AZAL's airliners were impounded by Turkey over a 12-year-old debt owed by Azerbaijan's Agriculture Ministry to a Turkish company. In the same month, AZAL ordered new Ukrainian-made, 52-passenger Antonov An-140 turboprops to replenish its regional fleet, paying about $36 million for four planes.  On 22 July 2010, Boeing and Azerbaijan Airlines signed an agreement to substitute two Next-Generation 737 airplanes for one 767-300ER (extended range) and two 767 Freighters. Including this announcement, Azerbaijan Airlines had a total of eight Boeing airplanes on order: two 767-300ERs, two 767 Freighters, two Next-Generation 737s and two 787-8s. In September 2010, AZAL cancelled an order for the remaining two Next-Generation 737s.  On 23 and 24 December 2014, Azerbaijan Airlines took delivery of the 2 Boeing 787 Dreamliners it had on order. The airline also launched its Premium economy product along with the introduction of the 787.  On 12 November 2017, Boeing set a deal to sell five 787-8 planes to Azerbaijan Airlines, in an order valued at about $1.9 billion at list price.

Destinations.

Codeshare agreements.

Azerbaijan Airlines codeshares with the following airlines:

Fleet.

Current fleet.

, Azerbaijan Airlines fleet consists of the following aircraft:

Historical fleet.

Azerbaijan Airlines used to operate a number of aircraft, its most common aircraft used to be the Tupolev Tu-154 until it was retired in 2013. All the aircraft Azerbaijan Airlines used to operate are listed below.

Azerbaijan Airlines (), also known as AZAL, is the flag carrier and largest airline of the country of Azerbaijan. Based in Baku, adjacent to Heydar Aliyev International Airport, the carrier operates to destinations across Asia, the CIS, Europe and the USA. Azerbaijan Airlines is a member of the International Air Transport Association. The airline was founded on 7 April 1992 as the first national airline established after the country gained its independence.

Ázerbájdžánské aerolinie - AZAL (, ) jsou ázerbájdžánským národním leteckým dopravcem, který má svou základnu na Mezinárodním letišti Hejdara Alijeva v Baku, Ázerbájdžánu. Létá do destinací v Evropě, Asii, USA a do nástupnických států bývalého SSSR.


Early life.

Helgenberger was born in Fremont, Nebraska, to Mary Kay ("née" Bolte), a nurse, and Hugh Helgenberger, a meat inspector. She was raised in North Bend, Nebraska, where she graduated from North Bend Central High School. Helgenberger is of Irish and German descent and had a Roman Catholic upbringing. She has one older sister named Ann and a younger brother named Curt. Helgenberger played the French horn in her high school marching band. Until she went to college, Helgenberger aspired to be a nurse like her mother, but attended Kearney State College (now the University of Nebraska at Kearney) in Kearney, Nebraska, then attended Northwestern University's School of Speech in Evanston, Illinois, (now the School of Communication) and earned a B.S. degree in speech and drama.

Career.

Helgenberger began as a nightly weather person at KHGI-TV, the ABC affiliate in Kearney, while attending college (her name was changed by the producer to Margi McCarty). During the summer, she also worked as a deboner at her father's meatpacking plant. After portraying the role of Blanche Dubois in a university production of "A Streetcar Named Desire", she developed an interest in acting.  While performing in a summer 1981 NU campus production of Shakespeare's "Taming of the Shrew", where she played Kate, Helgenberger was spotted by a scout for the TV soap opera "Ryan's Hope". Soon after completing college, Helgenberger landed her first professional role on the long-running ABC Daytime soap opera in March 1982, playing amateur cop Siobhan Ryan Novak DuBujak, a role previously played by Ann Gillespie. After nearly four years, Helgenberger left the show in January 1986 to pursue new opportunities.  Helgenberger guest-starred in an episode of the ABC series "", NBC's "Matlock", and ABC's "thirtysomething." She also played a regular role as Natalie Thayer, opposite Margot Kidder and James Read, on the six-episode drama comedy series "Shell Game" (1987).  She then had a role as Karen Charlene "K.C." Koloski, a heroin-addicted prostitute on the ABC war drama series "China Beach" from 1988 to 1991. The role earned her an Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 1990.  In 1989, Helgenberger made her feature-film debut in a leading role as an all-night answering-service operator in one segment of the Wheat brothers' horror anthology "After Midnight". She followed it up with a role in Steven Spielberg's romantic comedy-drama "Always" (starring Richard Dreyfuss, Holly Hunter, and John Goodman), a modern version of the original 1943 Victor Fleming film "A Guy Named Joe".  During the early to mid-1990s, Helgenberger played the love interest to Woody Harrelson's character in "The Cowboy Way" (1994), and had a small role as Capt. Alison Sinclair in Michael Bay's action comedy film "Bad Boys" (1995). She also played Dr. Laura Baker, a molecular biologist, in Roger Donaldson's science-fiction thriller, "Species" (1995), and reprised the role in a sequel, "Species II" (1998).  Helgenberger had roles in the television films "Not on the Frontline" and "In Sickness and in Health". She played opposite Bruno Kirby in "I'll Be Waiting", and as a novelist on the miniseries "Stephen King's The Tommyknockers" opposite Jimmy Smits. After playing a recurring role as George Clooney's love interest on NBC's medical drama "ER", Helgenberger appeared as David Caruso's sex-starved widow on Showtime's "Elmore Leonard's Gold Coast". She starred with Steven Seagal in the 1997 action film "Fire Down Below" and portrayed the furious sibling to Steven Weber's character on the miniseries about the elusive Gulf War syndrome, "Thanks of a Grateful Nation". She also starred opposite Ann-Margret in Showtime's "Happy Face Murders".  In 2000, Helgenberger made a guest appearance in the Valentine's Day episode of "Frasier", in which Frasier (Kelsey Grammer) finally wears down his dad Martin's resistance and gets the older man to accompany him to the opera. Actually, this invitation is but a smokescreen, so that Frasier can "accidentally" run into his newest dream girl Emily (Helgenberger).  Helgenberger co-starred in the role of Catherine Willows, a former show girl employed as a blood-spatter analyst on the CBS drama "". Her performance as the female lead has earned her two Emmy Awards and two Golden Globe nominations. In 2005, her fellow cast members and she won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series. When "CSI" first started filming, Helgenberger visited the Clark County Coroner's Office to learn about her role, even viewing autopsies in progress. Helgenberger got the chance to act with her husband, Alan Rosenberg, when he guest-starred on "CSI", season five ("Weeping Willows") and season seven ("Leaving Las Vegas").  During her time on the show, Helgenberger acted in the feature film "Erin Brockovich" and portrayed Patsy Ramsey on the miniseries about the mysterious murder of six-year-old beauty-pageant contestant JonBenét Ramsey in "Perfect Murder, Perfect Town". She also starred as Dennis Quaid's wife and Scarlett Johansson's mother in writer-director Paul Weitz's romantic drama comedy "In Good Company" (2004).  In 2006, Helgenberger's hometown of North Bend, Nebraska, renamed the street on which Helgenberger had her childhood home "Helgenberger Avenue".  In 2007, she was in the film "Mr. Brooks" with Kevin Costner in which her character's daughter is played by Danielle Panabaker, the sister of Kay Panabaker, who plays her fictional daughter on "CSI".  In April 2008, Helgenberger was chosen as an endorser of the Got Milk? campaign.  In December 2009, "Forbes" magazine placed Helgenberger third among primetime's top-earning women, with estimated earnings of $9.5 million, after Tyra Banks and Katherine Heigl.  Helgenberger received the 2,458th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on January 23, 2012, for her television work.  She lent her voice as Greek goddess Hera to the straight-to-video animated film "Wonder Woman".  Following William Petersen's departure from "CSI", Helgenberger became one of the two highest paid actors in any of the "CSI" franchises, earning $375,000 per episode, the same as David Caruso, and $25,000 more per episode than Laurence Fishburne.  Helgenberger only appeared in the first 12 episodes of the 12th season of "CSI", as she wanted to return to the stage. The producers said they left the door open for Helgenberger if she wanted to return. Helgenberger left the show on January 25, 2012, during a two-part episode ("Ms. Willows Regrets" and "Willows in the Wind"). The last one was the most-watched episode of the season with 14.26 million viewers.  Helgenberger also starred as Lilian Strand in the series "Intelligence" alongside Josh Holloway and Meghan Ory. Additionally, she briefly returned to "CSI" as Catherine for the 300th episode. In February 2015, she joined the third season of "Under the Dome".

Personal life.

In 1984, Helgenberger met Alan Rosenberg, a guest actor on "Ryan's Hope". The two became friends and started dating in 1986. They married in 1989 and have one son, Hugh Howard Rosenberg (b. 1990), named after Helgenberger's late father. On December 1, 2008, the couple announced that they were separating, and on March 25, 2009, she filed for divorce. Their divorce was finalized in February 2010.  As a result of Helgenberger's mother's 27-year battle against breast cancer, Helgenberger and Rosenberg became involved in breast-cancer-related charity and have hosted a benefit called "Marg and Alan's Celebrity Weekend" annually in Omaha since 1999.

Awards and nominations.

The following is a list of accolades received by Helgenberger:

Mary Marg Helgenberger (born November 16, 1958) is an American actress. She began her career in the early 1980s and first came to attention for playing the role of Siobhan Ryan on the daytime soap opera "Ryan's Hope" from 1982 to 1986. She is best known for her roles as Catherine Willows in the CBS police procedural drama "" (2000–13) and the subsequent TV movie "Immortality" (2015) and as K.C. Koloski in the ABC drama "China Beach" (1988–91), which earned her the 1990 Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series.

Mary Margaret Helgenberger (* 16. listopadu 1958, Fremont, Nebraska, USA) je americká herečka nominovaná na Emmy a Zlatý glóbus. Je známá díky roli Catherine Willowsové v seriálu "Kriminálka Las Vegas" a KC Koloski v seriálu "China Beach", za kterou obdržela cenu Emmy.


Sage.

Bṛhaspati appears in the Rigveda (pre-1000 BCE), such as in the dedications to him in the hymn 50 of Book 4; he is described as a sage born from the first great light, the one who drove away darkness, is bright and pure, and carries a special bow whose string is "Rta" or "cosmic order" (basis of dharma). His knowledge and character is revered, and he is considered Guru (teacher) by all the Devas. In the Vedic literature and other ancient texts, sage Brihaspati is also called by other names such as Bramanaspati, Purohita, Angirasa (son of Angiras) and Vyasa; he is sometimes identified with god Agni (fire). His wife is "Tara" (or goddess who personifies the stars in the sky). In Dwaparyuga he took avatar of Bharadvaja & his son named Dronacharya is the counsellor of the Pandavas.  The reverence for sage Brihaspati endured through the medieval period, and one of the many Dharmasastras was named after him. While the manuscripts of "Brihaspati Smriti" ("") have not survived into the modern era, its verses were cited in other Indian texts. Scholars have made an effort to extract these cited verses, thus creating a modern reconstruction of Bṛhaspatismriti. Jolly and Aiyangar have gathered some 2,400 verses of the lost Bṛhaspatismṛti text in this manner. Brihaspati Smriti was likely a larger and more comprehensive text than Manusmriti, and the available evidence suggests that the discussion of the judicial process and jurisprudence in Brihaspati Smriti was oft cited.

Brhaspati sutras.

"Brhaspati sutras", also called the "Barhaspatya sutras", is an ancient Sanskrit text named after a Vedic era sage Brhaspati, known for its theories of materialism and anti-theism. Its tenets are at the foundation of the Charvaka school of non-orthodox Hindu philosophy. The "Brihaspati Sutras" manuscript has been lost to history or yet to be found. However, the text is quoted in other Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina texts, and this secondary literature has been the source for reconstructing the "Brhaspati sutras" partially.  Some scholars suggest that "Brhaspati sutras" are named after Brhaspati in the Vedas, but other scholars dispute this theory because the text rejects the Vedas.

Planet.

Brhaspati as a planet appears in various Hindu astronomical texts in Sanskrit, such as the 5th century "Aryabhatiya" by Aryabhata, the 6th century "Romaka" by Latadeva and "Panca Siddhantika" by Varahamihira, the 7th century "Khandakhadyaka" by Brahmagupta and the 8th century "Sisyadhivrddida" by Lalla. These texts present Brhaspati as one of the planets and estimate the characteristics of the respective planetary motion. Other texts such as "Surya Siddhanta" dated to have been complete sometime between the 5th century and 10th century present their chapters on various planets with deity mythologies.  The manuscripts of these texts exist in slightly different versions, present Brhaspati's motion in the skies, but vary in their data, suggesting that the text were open and revised over their lives. The texts slightly disagree in their data, in their measurements of Brhaspati's revolutions, apogee, epicycles, nodal longitudes, orbital inclination, and other parameters. For example, both "Khandakhadyaka" and "Surya Siddhanta" of Varaha state that Brhaspati completes 364,220 revolutions every 4,320,000 earth years, an Epicycle of Apsis as 32 degrees, and had an apogee (aphelia) of 160 degrees in 499 CE; while another manuscript of "Surya Siddhanta" accepts the revolutions to be 364,220, but revises the apogee to 171 degrees and 16 seconds and the Epicycle slightly.  The 1st millennium CE Hindu scholars had estimated the time it took for sidereal revolutions of each planet including Brhaspati, from their astronomical studies, with slightly different results:

Zodiac.

In medieval mythologies particularly those associated with Hindu astrology, Brihaspati has a second meaning and refers to Jupiter. It became the root of the word 'Brihaspativara' or Thursday in the Hindu calendar. Brihaspati as Jupiter is part of the Navagraha in Hindu zodiac system, considered auspicious and benevolent. The word "Thursday" in the Greco-Roman and other Indo-European calendars is also dedicated to planet Jupiter (god of sky and thunder). their zodiac signs being nearly identical.

Iconography.

The icon of Brihaspati makes his body golden, with his legs striped blue and his head covered with a halo of moon and stars. He holds different items depending on the region. in parts of South Asia he holds a container containing soma, sometimes with a tamed tiger. Elsewhere, his icon carries a stick, a lotus and beads. Brihaspati was married to Tara. In medieval mythologies, Tara was abducted by Chandra. Tara bore a son, Budha (planet Mercury).

Dedicated Day.

Thursday is considered to be the dedicated day for Brihaspati. According Hindu mythology, praying to Brihaspati on Thursday provides astrological benefits.

Bṛhaspati (; meaning spati of briha, the spirit of vastness of the universe written as Brihaspati) is an Indian name, and refers to different mythical figures depending on the age of the text. In ancient Hindu literature Brihaspati is a Vedic era sage who counsels the gods, while in some medieval texts the word refers to the largest planet of the solar system Jupiter.

Brhaspati ( बृहस्पति) je jméno hinduistického mudrce, též nazývaného Váčaspati (pán řeči), který ve védských textech vystupuje jako učitel dévů (bohů) a je uznáván dévy i asury (démony). Je také společníkem boha Indry. Vypráví se o něm mnoho legend – jedna z nich praví, že jednou Brhaspati unesl a znásilnil ženu svého staršího bratra Utathji. Jakmile se to dozvěděl sluneční bůh Sóma, neváhal a za trest mu odňal jeho manželku Táru. Až před vidinou ohromného boje měl Sóma ustoupit a ženu Brhaspatimu vrátit.


Go opening theory.

The whole board opening is called Fuseki. An important principle to follow in early play is "corner, side, center." In other words, the corners are the easiest places to take territory, because two sides of the board can be used as boundaries. Once the corners are occupied, the next most valuable points are along the side, aiming to use the edge as a territorial boundary. Capturing territory in the middle, where it must be surrounded on all four sides, is extremely difficult. The same is true for founding a living group: Easiest in the corner, most difficult in the center.  The first moves are usually played on or near the 4-4 star points in the corners, because in those places it is easiest to gain territory or influence. (In order to be totally secure alone, a corner stone must be placed on the 3-3 point. However, if a stone is placed at a 4-4 point and the opponent invades, the first player can build a surrounding wall as the second (invader) is forming a live group, thus exerting strong influence on a large area.) After that, standard sequences (Joseki) can be used to develop corner positions, and extensions along the side can be made. Usually, the center area is kept empty the longest. Plays are usually on the third or fourth line—the second makes too little territory, while the fifth is too easily undermined by a play on the third. A play on the fourth line is directed more towards influence to the center, a play on the third line more towards making territory along the side.

Connection and separation.

A fundamental Go strategy involves keeping stones connected. Connecting a group with one eye to another one-eyed group makes them live together. Connecting individual stones into a single group results in an increase of liberties; for instance, a single stone played in the center of the board has four liberties, while two adjacent stones in the center of the board form a unit with six; to capture the unit, an opponent would have to play stones on all of its liberties. Thus connected stones are stronger because they share their liberties. (While two separate stones have a total of up to eight liberties, they can be captured separately from one another.)  Since connecting stones keeps them secure, an important offensive tactic is to prevent the opponent from connecting her stones, while at the same time keeping one's own stones connected. This act of dividing the opponent's stones into separate groups is called "cutting."  While one should generally try to keep one's own stones connected, situations exist where doing so would be a wasted move. Stones are considered "tactically connected" if no move by the opposing player could prevent them from being connected.  In a handicap game, Black starts with two or more handicap stones played before White's first move. If played in the traditional places on the "star points", these stones will be useful for the purpose of connection and separation of stones played closer to the edge ("lower"), as well as in many other ways. The White player's stones are threatened immediately with separation, while Black has many potential connections to begin with.  An example of inefficiency or poor coordination of stones in the context of connection is the empty triangle, where the stones are arranged so that they share fewer liberties than if they were deployed in a straight line.

Life and death.

A key concept in the tactics of Go, though not part of the rules, is the classification of groups of stones into "alive", "dead" or "unsettled".  At the end of the game, groups that cannot avoid being captured during normal play are removed as captures. These stones are "dead". Groups can reach this state much earlier during play; a group of stones can quickly run out of options so that further play to save them is fruitless, or even detrimental. Similarly, further play to capture such a group is often of no benefit (except when securing liberties for an adjacent group), since if it remains on the board at the end of the game it is captured anyway. Thus groups can be considered "dead as they stand", or just "dead", by both sides during the course of the game.  Groups enclosing an area completely can be harder to kill. Normally, when a play causes an area completely enclosed by the opponent to become filled, the group filling the area is captured since it has no remaining liberties (such a play is called "suicide"). Only if the last play inside the area would kill the enclosing group, thus freeing one or more liberties for the group that filled the space, can the play be considered. This can only be achieved if the liberties on the outside of the enclosing group have been covered first. Thus, enclosing an area of one or more liberties (called an "eye") can make the group harder to kill, since the opponent must cover all of its external liberties before covering the final, internal liberty.  From this, it is possible to create groups that cannot be killed at all. If a group encloses two or more separate areas (two or more "eyes"), the opponent cannot simultaneously fill both of them with a single play, and thus can never play on the last liberty of the group. Such a group, or a group that cannot be prevented from forming such an enclosure, is called "alive".  Groups which are not definitely alive nor definitely dead are sometimes called "unsettled" groups. Much of the tactical fighting in Go focuses on making one's own groups live, by ensuring they can make two eyes, and on making the opponent's groups die, by denying them two eyes.

Reading.

Determining ahead of time whether a group is currently alive, dead, or unsettled, requires the ability to extrapolate from the current position and imagine possible plays by both sides, the best responses to those plays, the best responses to those responses, and so on. This is called "reading ahead", or just "reading", and it is a skill that grows with experience. Many players study books of life and death problems to increase their skill at reading more and more complicated positions. One of the most important skills required for strong tactical play is the ability to read ahead. Reading ahead consists of considering available moves to play, considering the possible responses to each move, the subsequent possibilities after each of those responses, etcetera. Some of the strongest players of the game can read up to 40 moves ahead even in complicated positions.  In general, go players refer to analysis of positions as "reading". One major purpose of reading is to be sure that a local position can be neglected for a while. For instance, a player may be able to make gains by playing for a certain patch of territory. Yet, this play may be worth only a few points, and thus deemed unnecessary, depending on the state of the game. With confidence in one's reading, it becomes much easier to set priorities and switch around the board (see sente). Not changing gears at the correct time can be a loss of opportunity.

High and low.

In order to build a harmonious position, usually in the opening, one does not place all stones on the third line (for territory), nor all stones on the fourth line (for center influence). "Harmonious" as used here is not just an aesthetic quality; rather, it stands for a balance in the overall ("strategic") connection of the stones.

Thickness and lightness.

An outward-facing position that cannot be attacked, that is, one which can easily get two eyes or connect to a friendly live group and so does not need to answer enemy moves close by, is called "thick". Thick positions are important as they radiate influence across the board. An error that is often made by weaker players is to make territory in front of their thick position; this is inefficient because the player is likely to get that territory anyway. Doing so is also inflexible strategically, so invites enemy forcing moves at the border of the incomplete territory. Thickness is better used from a distance, as support for other actions. For example, if Black has a thick group and a weak group nearby, and White attacks the weak group, Black can have its weak group run towards its thick group. If successful, the strength of the thick group will protect the weak group. Or, if White tries to invade near a thick group, Black can try to push White towards its thick group. If Black is successful, the strength of the thick group may help destroy the invasion. Even if the invaders are not killed, the pressure exerted by the thick position can allow Black to profit from the attack, for example gaining territory or thickness in a neighbouring area whilst chasing the weak stones. A thick group can also support invasion of enemy spheres of influence.  A "light" group is also one that is hard to attack, but for a different reason. If a group has a large number of options, often including the sacrifice of part of it, it is called light. Because it is usually impossible to take away all or almost all options, attacking such a group is very hard for the opponent and brings little advantage. A weak group which is too important to sacrifice is called "heavy".

Attack and defense.

A large part of the middle game of a game of Go may be spent by one player attacking the other player's weak group(s). What is important to remember is that in most cases the goal of an attack is not to kill the attacked group, but to gain territory or influence. The attack is more or less used to restrict the opponent's options and make it impossible for them to make territory or influence.

Territory and influence.

See Go concepts

Ko fighting.

Suppose that Black begins a "ko" by taking a stone of White's. White cannot immediately recapture; the rules state that white must, for the moment, play elsewhere. White may believe that good strategy requires he/she eventually recapture, but Black, on his/her next turn, will have the option of ending the "ko", for example by filling in the spot White would use to recapture. To prevent Black from doing this, White can play a "ko threat".  A "ko" threat is a move that forces one's opponent to respond, or risk a punishing blow. A "ko" threat by White will force Black to choose between responding to the threat, and allowing White to recapture (thereby continuing the "ko"), or ending the ko, but having a damaged, poor position elsewhere on the board.  A good "ko" threat should threaten more damage to one's opponent's position than the value of losing the ko. If the ko is then "lost", the trade was still beneficial.

"Sente" and "gote".

'Sente and gote' are complementary terms. Sente loosely corresponds to taking the initiative, and gote loosely corresponds to the responsibility of defense. If a move forces the other player to respond, that player "has gote"; if not, he/she can play elsewhere, "taking sente." The player who holds "sente" more often in effect controls the flow of the game.  'Taking gote unnecessarily' would mean that one had defended for oneself a smaller area of the board than one could have threatened to take from the opponent, elsewhere. Very few plays in a game are really forcing — the opponent may well ignore you. If your play was'really' "sente", you expect to gain by following it up, as soon as possible.  The act of playing elsewhere (in other words, breaking off from a local exchange of plays in one area of the board) is called "tenuki". It may indicate either a natural pause in the sequence, or a disagreement as to the importance of an area of the board. Between strong players "tenuki" may be used as a kind of gambit. Because the Go board is so spacious, the balance between attack and defense, and amongst different areas, holds great importance for strategy.

Direction of play.

The direction of play is a higher level concept in the opening, relating to the efficiency of stones played on the board. This involves the important trade-off between overconcentration ("korigatachi") and vagueness - between playing a move that accomplishes too little and a move that tries to accomplish too much. Additionally, the stones already played are taken into consideration. The players aim not only at making efficient new moves, but also at playing moves that heighten the value of their previous moves, and at achieving maximum harmony in a global sense. One must strive to make each stone played important and valuable, that is, utilize its "aji," or potential, to the fullest extent possible. Thus, choosing the correct direction of play requires not only a deep understanding of the value of thickness, but also demands a good sense of positional judgment from the players.

Endgame (yose).

The endgame begins when large-scale contention over life and death, invasion, reduction etc. ends. Players then set about maximizing the boundaries of their territories while minimizing the opponent's territory. One must choose which of these moves is more urgent to play based not only on the points it may gain, but on whether that move is sente. Generally, in the endgame, all the major areas are staked out— however, there are still points to be made, as well as possible ways to reduce the opponent's territory. A simple example would be a move that is dame (neutral point for you), but when filled in, it is sente, requiring white to fill a stone in his territory to answer. It would be thus said this is 'a one-point reduction in sente.'

The game of Go has simple rules that can be learned very quickly but, as with chess and similar board games, complex strategies may be deployed by experienced players.

Desková hra go (碁) má přes jednoduchost pravidel hlubokou strategii. Profesionální hráči v Japonsku věnují celý život jejímu studiu, aby dosáhli zvýšení úrovně své hry.


Life.

He was a Halicarnassian. At some time he moved to Rome after the termination of the civil wars, and spent twenty-two years studying Latin and literature and preparing materials for his history. During this period, he gave lessons in rhetoric, and enjoyed the society of many distinguished men. The date of his death is unknown. In the 19th century, it was commonly supposed that he was the ancestor of Aelius Dionysius of Halicarnassus.

Works.

His major work, entitled (), embraced the history of Rome from the mythical period to the beginning of the First Punic War. It was divided into twenty books, of which the first nine remain entire, the tenth and eleventh are nearly complete, and the remaining books exist in fragments in the excerpts of the Roman emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus and an epitome discovered by Angelo Mai in a Milan manuscript. The first three books of Appian, Plutarch's "Life of Camillus" and "Life of Coriolanus" also embody much of Dionysius.  His chief object was to reconcile the Greeks to the rule of Rome, by dilating upon the good qualities of their conquerors and also by arguing, using more ancient sources, that the Romans were genuine descendants of the older Greeks. According to him, history is philosophy teaching by examples, and this idea he has carried out from the point of view of a Greek rhetorician. But he carefully consulted the best authorities, and his work and that of Livy are the only connected and detailed extant accounts of early Roman history.  Dionysius was also the author of several rhetorical treatises, in which he shows that he has thoroughly studied the best Attic models:  The last two treatises are supplemented by letters to Gn. Pompeius and Ammaeus (two, one of which is about Thucydides).

Dionysian "imitatio".

"Dionysian imitatio" is the literary method of imitation as formulated by Dionysius, who conceived it as the rhetorical practice of emulating, adapting, reworking, and enriching a source text by an earlier author.  Dionysius' concept marked a significant departure from the concept of "mimesis" formulated by Aristotle in the 4th century BC, which was only concerned with "imitation of nature" and not "imitation of other authors." Latin orators and rhetoricians adopted Dionysius' method of "imitatio" and discarded Aristotle's "mimesis".

Foundation myth.

Dionysius is one of the primary sources for the accounts of the Roman foundation myth and the myth of Romulus and Remus. He was heavily relied upon for the later publications of Livy and Plutarch. He writes extensively on the myth, sometimes attributing direct quotations to its figures. The myth spans the first 2 volumes of his "Roman Antiquities", beginning with Book I chapter 73 and concluding in Book II chapter 56.

Romulus and Remus.

Origins and survival in the wild.

Dionysius claims that the twins were born to a vestal named Ilia Silvia (sometimes called Rea). Her family descends from Aeneas of Troy and the daughter of King Latinus of the Original Latin tribes. Procas, her grandfather had willed the throne to his son Numitor but he was later deposed by her uncle, Amulius. For fear of the threat that Numitor's heirs might pose, the king had Ilia's brother, Aegestus killed and blamed robbers. The truth about the crime was known by some, including Numitor, who feigned ignorance. Amulius then appointed Ilia to the Vestal priestesshood, where her vow of chastity would prevent her from producing any further male rivals. Despite this, she became pregnant a few years later, claiming to have been raped.  The different accounts of the twins' conception are laid out, but Dionysius declines to choose one over the others. The sources variously relate that it was a suitor, Amulius himself (in full armor to conceal his identity), or even the god Mars himself. The latter is supposed to have comforted Ilia by making her grieve, and telling her that she would bear twins whose bravery and triumphs would be unmatched. Ilia hid her pregnancy with claims of illness so as to avoid her vestal duties. Amulius suspected her and employed physicians and his wife to monitor her for signs of being with child. When he did discover the truth, she was placed under armed guard. After being informed of the delivery of the twins, Amulius suspected that she had in fact given birth to triplets. The third child had been concealed from the guards present. Ilia was either put to death, or kept secretly in a hidden dungeon for the rest of her life.  Citing Fabius, Cincius, Porcius Cato, and Piso, Dionysius recounts the most common tale. The king orders the twins to be tossed into the Tiber. When his servants arrived at the riverbank, high waters had made it impossible to reach the stream. They left the twin's basket in a pool of standing water on the site of the ficus Ruminalis. After the waters of the Tiber had carried the twins away, their basket is overturned by a rock and they are dumped into the mud. A she-wolf finds them there and nurses them in front of her lair (the "Lupercal"). Plutarch places the Lupercal as at the foot of Palantine hill along the road to the Roman chariot grounds and was the source of a natural spring.

Youth.

The twins were discovered by unnamed herdsmen, and when they arrive, the she-wolf calmly retreats into the cave. Faustulus, the man in charge of the royal abattoir, happened upon the scene. He had heard the story of Ilia's twin birth and the king's order, but never let on that he suspected the foundlings were one and the same. He persuaded the shepherds to allow him to take the boys home, and brought them to his wife, who had just delivered a stillborn child. Later, quoting Fabius' account of the overthrow of Amulius, Dionysius claims that Faustulus had saved the basket in which the boys had been abandoned.  As they grew, the boys exhibited the graces and behavior of the royal-born. They passed their days living as herdsmen in the mountains, spending many nights in huts of reeds and sticks.  Dionysius relates an alternate, "non-fantastical" version of Romulus and Remus' birth, survival and youth. In this version, Numitor managed to switch the twins at birth with two other infants. The twins were delivered by their grandfather to Faustulus to be fostered by him and his wife. Faustulus was descended from the first Greek colonists in Latium. He was the caretaker for Amulius' holdings around Palatine hill. He was persuaded to care for the twins by his brother Faustinus, who tended the kings herds on nearby Aventine hill.  Their adopted mother was Faustulus' wife Laurentia, a former prostitute. According to Plutarch, (Latin for "wolf") was a common term for members of her profession and this gave rise to the she-wolf legend. The twins receive a proper education in the city of Gabii.

Overthrow of Amulius.

According to Fabius, when the twins were 18, they became embroiled in a violent dispute with some of Numitor's herdsmen. In retaliation, Remus was lured into an ambush and capture while Romulus was elsewhere. In Aelius Tubero's version, the twins were taking part in the festivities of the Lupercalia, requiring them to run naked through the village when Remus, defenseless as he was, was taken prisoner by Numitor's armed men.  After rounding up the toughest herdsmen to help him free Remus, Romulus rashly set out for Alba Longa. To avoid tragedy, Faustulus intercepted him and revealed the truth about the twins' parentage. With the discovery that Numitor was family, Romulus set his sights on Amulius, instead. He and the rest of his village set out in small groups toward the city so that their arrival would go unnoticed by the guards. Meanwhile, after being turned over to Numitor to determine his punishment, Remus was told of his origins by the former king and eagerly joins with him in their own effort to topple Amulius. When Romulus joined them at Numitor's home, the three of them began to plan their next move.  Back home, Faustulus had begun to worry about how the twins' claims will be heard in Alba. He decides to bolster them by bringing the basket in which they were abandoned to the city. He's stopped by suspicious guards at the gates and he and the basket are seen by none-other-than the servant who had taken them to the river those many years before. Under the questioning of the king, and after the king's insincere offers of benevolence toward his nephews, Faustulus, trying to protect Romulus and Remus, and escape the king's clutches, claimed he had been bringing the basket to the imprisoned Ilia at the twins request and that they were at the moment tending their flocks in the mountains.  Amulius sent Faustulus and his men to find the boys. He then tried to trick Numitor into coming to the palace so that the former king could be kept under guard until the situation had been dealt with. Unfortunately for the king, the man he sent to lure Numitor into his clutches instead revealed everything that had happened at the palace.  The twins and their grandfather led their joint supporters to the palace, killed Amulius, and took control of the city.  Plutarch continues the same alternate version of the twins' parentage and youth. After the boys had returned home from their studies in Gabii, Numitor had the twins attack his own herdsmen and drive off his own cattle to contrive a complaint against his brother. To placate him, Amulius ordered not only the twins to be brought to the palace for trial, but all the others who were present, as well. This is exactly what Numitor had hoped for. When Romulus and Remus arrived in Alba, their grandfather revealed their true identity and he, the twins and the other herdsmen joined forces to attack Amulius, apparently killing him.

Death of Remus.

The now re-installed King Numitor granted Romulus and Remus control over the area around where Rome would be founded and sent some of Alba Longa's commoners and nobles along with them. These included volunteers as well as his enemies, and other troublemakers and fifty families of the descendants of the Greeks who had settled in Italy after the Trojan War. The commoners were given provisions, weapons, slaves and livestock.  Wanting to use competition to better complete the many tasks ahead of them, each twin took command of half of the new group of colonists and natives. Instead, the two groups each wanted their twin to be king. Eventually, both Romulus and Remus began to harbor their own ambitions of being the sole ruler of the new city. Things came to a head when a dispute broke out over the particular hill upon which Rome should be built. Romulus wanted to build on Palatine Hill for its significance to their childhood. Remus chose Aventine Hill for its strategic advantages. Finally, with no resolution in sight, they took the matter to Numitor. He told each twin to stake out a spot on an appointed morning at dawn and wait for a "bird omen" from the gods to settle things.  They took his suggestion and the two brothers took their positions along with guard to prevent cheating. No birds appeared to Romulus, but he tried to trick Remus by sending a message that he should come to him right away. Ashamed, the messengers took their time, and while en route, Remus saw 6 vultures. The messengers brought Remus back to his brother and when they arrived, Romulus was asked what type of bird he had seen (apparently owing to the ruse). Unsure, Romulus was suddenly saved by the sudden arrival of 12 vultures. He dismissed his brother's query and declared himself the winner. Furious Remus refused to accept defeat. This reignited the conflict between them.  Outwardly, each twin acknowledged the other's claim to having won: Remus by seeing the vultures first, and Romulus by seeing more of them. Privately, however, neither was willing to give in. An armed battle broke out between their followers resulting in deaths among both. Faustulus was so distraught over his inability to end the strife between his adopted sons that he threw himself into the middle of the fighting and was killed. Remus also fell. Romulus was devastated at his personal losses as well as the many suffered by the twins' followers. Only after the intervention of Laurentia was he able to return to the job of founding the city.  Other sources who are unnamed by Plutarch claimed that despite his anger over Romulus' conduct during the contest of the augury, Remus conceded and the construction of the city began on Palatine Hill. Out of resentment, he derided the city's newly-built walls and demonstrated their ineffectiveness by leaping over them, saying that an enemy of Romulus could do the same. In response, Celer, the job's foreman, killed him on the spot with a blow to the head and implied that Remus himself had become his brother's enemy.

Foundation of Rome by Romulus.

Before construction on the city began Romulus made sacrifices and received good omens, and he then ordered the populace to ritually atone for their guilt. The city's fortifications were first and then housing for the populace. He assembled the people and gave them the choice as to what type of government they wanted. After his address, which extolled bravery in war abroad and moderation at home, and in which Romulus denied any need to remain in power, the people decided to remain a kingdom and asked him to remain its king. Before accepting he looked for a sign of the approval of the gods. He prayed and witnessed an auspicious lightning bolt, after which he declared that no king shall take the throne without receiving approval from the gods.

Institutions.

He divided Rome into 3 tribes, each selected a Tribune in charge of each. Each tribe was divided into 10 Curia, and each of those into smaller units. He divided the kingdom's land holdings between them. Plutarch suggests that Athenian institutions were the inspiration for Romulus' creation of the Patrician class from the wealthy and virtuous. All other Romans formed the Plebeian class. The Patricians were put in charge of religious, legal, and civil institutions, while the Plebs were to be farmers, herders, and tradesmen. Each curia was responsible for providing soldiers in the event of war.  To maintain order, every pleb had the right to choose a Patrician in a system of patronage (). All patrons (') were required to protect the rights and interests of those plebs (') beneath them. In return, all plebs were required to support his patron in his endeavors and assist him when needed. It was illegal for either party to testify against one another or otherwise act against the interests of the other. Romulus then proceeded to establish the senate—another act that Dionysius attributes to Greek influence. He selected 300 of the strongest and fittest among the nobles to become his personal bodyguard and messengers. The "celeres" were so-named either for their quickness or, according to Valerius Antias, for their commander. These were the first Roman cavalry and were vital to many Roman victories.  Romulus then delimited the various powers of the institutions he had created. The Roman king was made the ultimate authority in all religious and legal matters. He would personally hear the cases of "the greatest crimes", but after reaching a decision, his opinion would be subject to approval by the people. He would be the commander in chief of the military in wartime.  The senate would have the power to decide any matter or issue brought to them by the king with a binding vote (attributed by Dionysius to the Lacedaemonians). The popular assemblies had the power to elect magistrates, pass laws, and declare war at the king's discretion.  Romulus passed laws meant to encourage child-rearing. He welcomed free men of any background to settle in the new city with promises of citizenship and an offer of protection from those from home who might be pursuing them. Immigrants flocked to Rome as a result. Rome would also benefit from their practice of sending colonists to newly conquered cities and allowing the subjugated to carry on as they had before. More common in the Greek world was to treat those they defeated harshly. Rome grew 10 times its size during Romulus' reign.  In an extensive exploration of the various, lurid traditions of the day, Dionysius effusively praises the manner in which Romulus organized and established Rome's religious customs and practices. He attributes to the king everything from the founding of temples to defining the sphere of individual gods; their festivals and the blessings they would each bestow. Among the Greek and native traditions, he kept only those he deemed worthy and rejected any that were too unseemly or otherwise unfit for Roman society.  According to Terentius Varro, Romulus appointed a large number of Roman men and women to religious offices during his reign. He also allowed the various curiae to select their own. He adopted the Greek practice of appointing children to participate in the city's ceremonies. He established an office of augury, which would ensure the approval of the gods during all worship undertaken. Each curia was required to sacrifice and give offerings in a way so specified. He established budgets for religious practice in the city.

Legal system.

Again, Dionysius thoroughly describes the laws of other nations before contrasting the approach of Romulus and lauding his work. The Roman law governing marriage is, according to his "Antiquities", an elegant yet simple improvement over that of other nations, most of which he harshly derides. By declaring that wives would share equally in the possessions and conduct of their husband, Romulus promoted virtue in the former and deterred mistreatment by the latter. Wives could inherit upon their husband's death. A wife's adultery was a serious crime, however, drunkenness could be a mitigating factor in determining the appropriate punishment. Because of his laws, Dionysius claims that not a single Roman couple divorced over the following five centuries. His laws governing parental rights, in particular, those that allow fathers to maintain power over their adult children were an improvement over those of others.  Under the laws of Romulus, native-born free Roman's were limited to two forms of employment: farming and the army. All other occupations were filled by slaves or non-Roman labor.  Romulus used the trappings of his office to encourage compliance with the law. His court was imposing and filled with loyal soldiers and he was always accompanied by the 12 lictors appointed to be his attendants.

Rape of the Sabine women.

According to Gnaeus Gellius, in Romulus' fourth year in power, the recently founded city of Rome, its population having swollen with immigrants, found itself surrounded by unfriendly neighbors and short of marriageable women. Romulus sought to solve both problems through intermarrying with the other cities in the region, but he was rebuffed. His solution, having been approved by his grandfather, received the auspices of the gods, and the support of the senate began with the announcement of a spectacular festival and competitions to honor the god Neptune, and to which all of Rome's neighbors were welcome. They came from far and wide, sometimes entire families, to attend and participate.  To the shock and horror of the guests, at the king's signal Romans began abducting the young women in attendance. Later, the women are brought before him where he assures them that he and the other men of Rome intend to honorably marry them and that they won't be sexually exploited in any way. This eases their fears.  The cities of Caenina, Crustumerium, and Antemnae petition Tatius, king of the Sabines to lead a joint attack in response to the kidnappings. Their goal was stymied by Rome's own diplomatic efforts and the other three cities eventually concluded that Tatius was delaying any action on purpose. They decided to attack Rome without the Sabines and their armies were defeated and their cities captured each in turn.  The wars that resulted from the mass abduction committed by the Romans came to a climax in an epic battle fought at the foot of the Capitoline Hill. After the Sabines had captured the Roman Citadel through guile, they occupied the most strategically important point in the city with the help, knowing or otherwise, of Tarpeia. After several skirmishes and minor engagements, the armies fought two pitched battles featuring valor and losses to both sides. In the course of the battle, both sides found themselves on the verge of defeat, only to turn the tide back in the nick of time. Romulus himself was injured by a rock to the head. The fighting ceased only by the coming of dusk. Afterward, the Sabine women, led by the noble Hersilia, convinced the two kings to make peace.  After a ceasefire, the nations agreed to become a single kingdom under the joint rule of Romulus and Tatius. The city was expanded and its institutions were adjusted to accommodate the new increase in population and to demonstrate their mutual goodwill. The joint kingship lasted for four years until the death of Tatius. During this time they conquered the Camerini and made their city a Roman colony.

Deaths of Tatius and Romulus.

The two peoples are merged under a joint throne with Rome as the capital. The Sabines and Romans alike were then declared "Quirites", from the Sabine city of Cures. To honor the Sabine women, when Romulus divided the city into 30 local councils, he named them after the women. He also recruited three new units of knights and called them Ramnenses Tatiensis (from the two kings' names).  Some of Tatius' friends victimized some Laurentii and when the city sent ambassadors to demand justice, Tatius would not allow Romulus to hand the perpetrators over to them. A group of Sabines waylayed the ambassadors as they slept on the way home. Some escaped and when word got back to Rome, Romulus promptly turned the men responsible—including one of Tatius' family members—over to a new group of ambassadors. Tatius followed the group out of the city and freed the accused men by force. Later, while both kings were participating in a sacrifice in Lavinium, Tatius was killed in retribution.  The account of Licinius Macer recounts that Tatius was killed when he went alone to try and convince the victims in Lavinium to forgive the crimes committed. When they discovered he had not brought the men responsible with him, as the senate and Romulus had ordered, an angry mob stones him to death.  After his rule had turned more dictatorial, Romulus met his end, whether through actions divine or earthly. According to some reports, Romulus is swept up into heaven, where he takes his place among the gods as Quirinus. Others point to the hands of the nobility, who had grown ever more resentful of their treatment by the king.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus (, Dionysius' opinion of the necessity of a promotion of paideia within education, from true knowledge of Classical sources, endured for centuries in a form integral to the identity of the Greek elite. Dionysius should be distinguished from the Greek God Dionysus.

Dionýsios z Halikarnassu, také Dionysius (asi 54 př. n. l. Halikarnassos – asi 8 n. l. tamtéž), byl římský historik, spisovatel a rétor, který psal řecky. Jeho hlavní dílo, "Římské dějiny", patří mezi hlavní prameny o starších dějinách Říma.