History.

The ICCPR has its roots in the same process that led to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A "Declaration on the Essential Rights of Man" had been proposed at the 1945 San Francisco Conference which led to the founding of the United Nations, and the Economic and Social Council was given the task of drafting it. Early on in the process, the document was split into a declaration setting forth general principles of human rights, and a convention or covenant containing binding commitments. The former evolved into the UDHR and was adopted on 10 December 1948.  The States Parties to the present Covenant, including those having responsibility for the administration of Non-Self-Governing and Trust Territories, shall promote the realization of the right of self-determination, and shall respect that right, in conformity with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations.  Drafting continued on the convention, but there remained significant differences between UN members on the relative importance of negative Civil and Political versus positive Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. These eventually caused the convention to be split into two separate covenants, "one to contain civil and political rights and the other to contain economic, social and cultural rights." The two covenants were to contain as many similar provisions as possible, and be opened for signature simultaneously. Each would also contain an article on the right of all peoples to self-determination.  The first document became the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the second the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The drafts were presented to the UN General Assembly for discussion in 1954 and adopted in 1966. As a result of diplomatic negotiations the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights was adopted shortly before the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Together, the UDHR and the two Covenants are considered to be the foundational human rights texts in the contemporary international system of human rights.

Articles of the Covenant.

The Covenant follows the structure of the UDHR and ICESCR, with a preamble and fifty-three articles, divided into six parts.  Part 1 (Article 1) recognizes the right of all peoples to self-determination, including the right to "freely determine their political status", pursue their economic, social and cultural goals, and manage and dispose of their own resources. It recognises a negative right of a people not to be deprived of its means of subsistence, and imposes an obligation on those parties still responsible for non-self governing and trust territories (colonies) to encourage and respect their self-determination.  Part 2 (Articles 2 – 5) obliges parties to legislate where necessary to give effect to the rights recognised in the Covenant, and to provide an effective legal remedy for any violation of those rights. It also requires the rights be recognised "without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status," and to ensure that they are enjoyed equally by women. The rights can only be limited "in time of public emergency which threatens the life of the nation," and even then no derogation is permitted from the rights to life, freedom from torture and slavery, the freedom from retrospective law, the right to personhood, and freedom of thought, conscience and religion.  Part 3 (Articles 6 – 27) lists the rights themselves. These include rights to:  Many of these rights include specific actions which must be undertaken to realise them.  Part 4 (Articles 28 – 45) governs the establishment and operation of the Human Rights Committee and the reporting and monitoring of the Covenant. It also allows parties to recognise the competence of the Committee to resolve disputes between parties on the implementation of the Covenant (Articles 41 and 42).  Part 5 (Articles 46 – 47) clarifies that the Covenant shall not be interpreted as interfering with the operation of the United Nations or "the inherent right of all peoples to enjoy and utilize fully and freely their natural wealth and resources".  Part 6 (Articles 48 – 53) governs ratification, entry into force, and amendment of the Covenant.

Rights to physical integrity.

Article 6 of the Covenant recognises the individual's "inherent right to life" and requires it to be protected by law. It is a "supreme right" from which no derogation can be permitted, and must be interpreted widely. It therefore requires parties to take positive measures to reduce infant mortality and increase life expectancy, as well as forbidding arbitrary killings by security forces.  While Article 6 does not prohibit the death penalty, it restricts its application to the "most serious crimes" and forbids it to be used on children and pregnant women or in a manner contrary to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. The UN Human Rights Committee interprets the Article as "strongly suggest[ing] that abolition is desirable", and regards any progress towards abolition of the death penalty as advancing this right. The Second Optional Protocol commits its signatories to the abolition of the death penalty within their borders.  Article 7 prohibits torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment. As with Article 6, it cannot be derogated from under any circumstances. The article is now interpreted to impose similar obligations to those required by the United Nations Convention Against Torture, including not just prohibition of torture, but active measures to prevent its use and a prohibition on refoulement. In response to Nazi human experimentation during WW2 this article explicitly includes a prohibition on medical and scientific experimentation without consent.  Article 8 prohibits slavery and enforced servitude in all situations. The article also prohibits forced labour, with exceptions for criminal punishment, military service and civil obligations.

Liberty and security of person.

Article 9 recognises the rights to liberty and security of the person. It prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, requires any deprivation of liberty to be according to law, and obliges parties to allow those deprived of their liberty to challenge their imprisonment through the courts. These provisions apply not just to those imprisoned as part of the criminal process, but also to those detained due to mental illness, drug addiction, or for educational or immigration purposes.  Articles 9.3 and 9.4 impose procedural safeguards around arrest, requiring anyone arrested to be promptly informed of the charges against them, and to be brought promptly before a judge. It also restricts the use of pre-trial detention, requiring that it not be 'the general rule'.  Article 10 requires anyone deprived of liberty to be treated with dignity and humanity. This applies not just to prisoners, but also to those detained for immigration purposes or psychiatric care. The right complements the Article 7 prohibition on torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment. The article also imposes specific obligations around criminal justice, requiring prisoners in pretrial detention to be separated from convicted prisoners, and children to be separated from adults. It requires prisons to be focused on reform and rehabilitation rather than punishment.  Article 11 prohibits the use of imprisonment as a punishment for breach of contract.

Procedural fairness and rights of the accused.

Article 14 recognizes and protects a right to justice and a fair trial. Article 14.1 establishes the ground rules: everyone must be equal before the courts, and any hearing must take place in open court before a competent, independent and impartial tribunal, with any judgment or ruling made public. Closed hearings are only permitted for reasons of privacy, justice, or national security, and judgments may only be suppressed in divorce cases or to protect the interests of children. These obligations apply to both criminal and civil hearings, and to all courts and tribunals. Article 14.3 mandates that litigants must be informed promptly and in detail in a language which they understand.  The rest of the article imposes specific and detailed obligations around the process of criminal trials in order to protect the rights of the accused and the right to a fair trial. It establishes the Presumption of innocence and forbids double jeopardy. It requires that those convicted of a crime be allowed to appeal to a higher tribunal, and requires victims of a Miscarriage of justice to be compensated. It establishes rights to a speedy trial, to counsel, against self-incrimination, and for the accused to be present and call and examine witnesses.  Article 15 prohibits prosecutions under Ex post facto law and the imposition of retrospective criminal penalties, and requires the imposition of the lesser penalty where criminal sentences have changed between the offence and conviction. But except the criminal according to general principles of law recognized by international community. (jus cogens)  Article 16 requires states to recognize everyone as a person before the law.

Individual liberties.

Article 12 guarantees freedom of movement, including the right of persons to choose their residence, to leave and return to a country. These rights apply to legal aliens as well as citizens of a state, and can be restricted only where necessary to protect national security, public order or health, and the rights and freedoms of others. The article also recognises a right of people to enter their own country; the right of return. The Human Rights Committee interprets this right broadly as applying not just to citizens, but also to those stripped of or denied their nationality. They also regard it as near-absolute; "there are few, if any, circumstances in which deprivation of the right to enter one's own country could be reasonable".  Article 13 forbids the arbitrary expulsion of resident aliens and requires such decisions to be able to be appealed and reviewed.  Article 17 mandates the right of privacy. This provision, specifically article 17(1), protects private adult consensual sexual activity, thereby nullifying prohibitions on homosexual behaviour, however, the wording of this covenant's marriage right (Article 23) excludes the extrapolation of a same-sex marriage right from this provision. Article 17 also protects people against unlawful attacks to their honor and reputation. Article 17 (2) grants the protection of the law against such attacks.  Article 18 mandates freedom of religion or belief.  Article 19 mandates freedom of expression.  Article 20 mandates sanctions against inciting war and hatred.  Article 21 mandates freedom of assembly and 22 mandates freedom of association. These provisions guarantee the right to freedom of association, the right to trade unions and also defines the International Labour Organization.  Article 23 mandates the right of marriage. The wording of this provision neither requires nor prohibits same-sex marriage.  Article 24 mandates special protection, the right to a name, and the right to a nationality for every child.  Article 27 mandates the rights of ethnic, religious and linguistic minority to enjoy their own culture, to profess their own religion, and to use their own language.

Political rights.

Article 3 provides an accessory non-discrimination principle. Accessory in the way that it cannot be used independently and can only be relied upon in relation to another right protected by the ICCPR.  In contrast, Article 26 contains a revolutionary norm by providing an autonomous equality principle which is not dependent upon another right under the convention being infringed. This has the effect of widening the scope of the non-discrimination principle beyond the scope of ICCPR.

Optional protocols.

There are two Optional Protocols to the Covenant. The First Optional Protocol establishes an individual complaints mechanism, allowing individuals to complain to the Human Rights Committee about violations of the Covenant. This has led to the creation of a complex jurisprudence on the interpretation and implementation of the Covenant., the First Optional Protocol has 116 parties.  The Second Optional Protocol abolishes the death penalty; however, countries were permitted to make a reservation allowing for use of death penalty for the most serious crimes of a military nature, committed during wartime., the Second Optional Protocol had 87 parties.

Reservations.

A number of parties have made reservations and interpretative declarations to their application of the Covenant.  Argentina will apply the fair trial rights guaranteed in its constitution to the prosecution of those accused of violating the general law of nations.  Australia reserves the right to progressively implement the prison standards of Article 10, to compensate for miscarriages of justice by administrative means rather than through the courts, and interprets the prohibition on racial incitement as being subject to the freedoms of expression, association and assembly. It also declares that its implementation will be effected at each level of its federal system.  Austria reserves the right to continue to exile members of the House of Habsburg, and limits the rights of the accused and the right to a fair trial to those already existing in its legal system.  Bahamas, due to problems with implementation, reserves the right not to compensate for miscarriages of justice.  Bahrain interprets Articles 3 (no sexual discrimination), 18 (freedom of religion) and 23 (family rights) within the context of Islamic Sharia law.  Bangladesh reserves the right to try people "in absentia" where they are fugitives from justice and declares that resource constraints mean that it cannot necessarily segregate prisons or provide counsel for accused persons.  Barbados reserves the right not to provide free counsel for accused persons due to resource constraints.  Belgium interprets the freedoms of speech, assembly and association in a manner consistent with the European Convention on Human Rights. It does not consider itself obliged to ban war propaganda as required by Article 20, and interprets that article in light of the freedom of expression in the UDHR.  Belize reserves the right not to compensate for miscarriages of justice, due to problems with implementation, and does not plan to provide free legal counsel for the same reasons as above. It also refuses to ensure the right to free travel at any time, due to a law requiring those travelling abroad to provide tax clearance certificates.  Congo, as per the Congolese Code of Civil, Commercial, Administrative and Financial Procedure, in matters of private law, decisions or orders emanating from conciliation proceedings may be enforced through imprisonment for debt.  Denmark reserves the right to exclude the press and the public from trials as per its own laws. Reservation is further made to Article 20, paragraph 1. This reservation is in accordance with the vote cast by Denmark in the XVI General Assembly of the United Nations in 1961 when the Danish Delegation, referring to the preceding article concerning freedom of expression, voted against the prohibition against propaganda for war.  The Gambia, as per its constitution, will provide free legal assistance for accused persons charged with capital offences only.  Pakistan, has made several reservations to the articles in the Convention; "the provisions of Articles 3, 6, 7, 18 and 19 shall be so applied to the extent that they are not repugnant to the Provisions of the Constitution of Pakistan and the Sharia laws", "the provisions of Article 12 shall be so applied as to be in conformity with the Provisions of the Constitution of Pakistan", "With respect to Article 13, the Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan reserves its right to apply its law relating to foreigners", "the provisions of Article 25 shall be so applied to the extent that they are not repugnant to the Provisions of the Constitution of Pakistan" and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan "does not recognize the competence of the Committee provided for in Article 40 of the Covenant".  The United States has made reservations that none of the articles should restrict the right of free speech and association; that the US government may impose capital punishment on any person other than a pregnant woman, including persons below the age of 18; that "cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment" refers to those treatments or punishments prohibited by one or more of the fifth, eighth, and fourteenth amendments to the US Constitution; that Paragraph 1, Article 15 will not apply; and that, notwithstanding paragraphs 2(b) and 3 of Article 10 and paragraph 4 of Article 14, the US government may treat juveniles as adults, and accept volunteers to the military prior to the age of 18. The United States also submitted five "understandings", and four "declarations".

Implementation and effects.

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights has 167 states parties, 67 by signature and ratification, and the remainder by accession or succession. Another five states have signed but have yet to ratify the treaty.

Australia.

The Covenant is not directly enforceable in Australia, but its provisions support a number of domestic laws, which confer enforceable rights on individuals. For example, Article 17 of the Convention has been implemented by the Australian Privacy Act 1988. Likewise, the Covenant's equality and anti-discrimination provisions support the federal Disability Discrimination Act 1992. Finally, the Covenant is one of the major sources of 'human rights' listed in the Human Rights (Parliamentary Scrutiny) Act 2011. This law requires most new legislation and administrative instruments (such as delegated/subordinate legislation) to be tabled in parliament with a statement outlining the proposed law's compatibility with the listed human rights A Joint Committee on Human Rights scrutinises all new legislation and statements of compatibility. The findings of the Joint Committee are not legally binding.  Legislation also establishes the Australian Human Rights Commission which allows the Australian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) to examine enacted legislation (to suggest remedial enactments), its administration (to suggest avoidance of practices) and general compliance with the covenant which is scheduled to the AHRC legislation.  In Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory, the Convention can be used by a plaintiff or defendant who invokes those jurisdiction's human rights charters. While the Convention cannot be used to overturn a Victorian or ACT law, a Court can issue a 'declaration of incompatibility' that requires the relevant Attorney-General to respond in Parliament within a set time period. Courts in Victoria and the ACT are also directed by the legislation to interpret the law in a way to give effect to a human right, and new legislation and subordinate legislation must be accompanied by a statement of compatibility. Efforts to implement a similar Charter at the national level have been frustrated and Australia's Constitution may prevent conferring the 'declaration' power on federal judges.

Ireland.

Ireland's use of Special Criminal Courts where juries are replaced by judges and other special procedures apply has been found to not violate the treaty: "In the Committee's view, trial before courts other than the ordinary courts is not necessarily, per se, a violation of the entitlement to a fair hearing and the facts of the present case do not show that there has been such a violation."

New Zealand.

New Zealand took measures to give effect to many of the rights contained within it by passing the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act in 1990, and formally incorporated the status of protected person into law through the passing of the Immigration Act 2009.

Sri Lanka.

A Sri Lankan author was arrested on April 1, 2019 for inciting religious violence, following a publication of a short story about homosexuality and child abuse at a Buddhist temple in Sri Lanka. The author had been adjudged the best Sinhala short story writer in Sri Lanka's National Youth Literary Festivals of 2010 and 2014, and was twice the recipient of the north western provincial state literary award. A group of Buddhist monks had stormed the author's workplace demanding punitive action against him after the story first appeared on facebook; the ICCPR prohibits "advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence". Human rights organizations Civicus and the Asian Human Right Commission (AHRC) have asserted that the charges are spurious and a clear violation of the author's right to freedom of expression.

United States.

Reservations, understandings, and declarations.

The United States Senate ratified the ICCPR in 1992, with five reservations, five understandings, and four declarations. Some have noted that with so many reservations, its implementation has little domestic effect. Included in the Senate's ratification was the declaration that "the provisions of Article 1 through 27 of the Covenant are not self-executing", and in a Senate Executive Report stated that the declaration was meant to "clarify that the Covenant will not create a private cause of action in U.S. Courts."  Where a treaty or covenant is not self-executing, and where Congress has not acted to implement the agreement with legislation, no private right of action within the US judicial system is created by ratification.  As a reservation that is "incompatible with the object and purpose" of a treaty is void as a matter of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties and international law, there is some issue as to whether the non-self-execution declaration is even legal under domestic law.  Prominent critics in the human rights community, such as Prof. Louis Henkin (non-self-execution declaration incompatible with the Supremacy Clause) and Prof. Jordan Paust ("Rarely has a treaty been so abused") have denounced the United States' ratification subject to the non-self-execution declaration as being a blatant fraud upon the international community, especially in light of what they allege is its subsequent failure to conform domestic law to the minimum human rights standards as established in the Covenant and in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights over the last thirty years.

Constitutionality.

It has been argued that Article 20(2) of the ICCPR may be unconstitutional according to Supreme Court precedent, which is the reason behind the Senate reservations.

Non-compliance.

In 1994, the United Nations' Human Rights Committee expressed concerns with compliance:  Of particular concern are widely formulated reservations which essentially render ineffective all Covenant rights which would require any change in national law to ensure compliance with Covenant obligations. No real international rights or obligations have thus been accepted. And when there is an absence of provisions to ensure that Covenant rights may be sued on in domestic courts, and, further, a failure to allow individual complaints to be brought to the Committee under the first Optional Protocol, all the essential elements of the Covenant guarantees have been removed.  Indeed, the United States has not accepted a single international obligation required under the Covenant. It has not changed its domestic law to conform with the strictures of the Covenant. Its citizens are not permitted to sue to enforce their basic human rights under the Covenant. It has not ratified the Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture (OPCAT). As such, the Covenant has been rendered ineffective, with the bone of contention being United States officials' insistence upon preserving a vast web of sovereign, judicial, prosecutorial, and executive branch immunities that often deprives its citizens of the "effective remedy" under law the Covenant is intended to guarantee.  In 2006, the Human Rights Committee expressed concern over what it interprets as material non-compliance, exhorting the United States to take immediate corrective action: , the United States is among States scheduled for examination in the 107th (11–28 March 2013) and 109th (14 October1 November 2013) sessions of the Committee.

Parties to the Covenant.

There are a total of 173 parties to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

States not party to the Covenant.

Most states in the world are parties to the ICCPR. The following 25 states have not become party to it, but six states have signed the Covenant but not ratified it.

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is a multilateral treaty adopted by United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2200A (XXI) on 16 December 1966, and in force from 23 March 1976 in accordance with Article 49 of the covenant. Article 49 allowed that the covenant would enter into force three months after the date of the deposit of the thirty-fifth instrument of ratification or accession. The covenant commits its parties to respect the civil and political rights of individuals, including the right to life, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, electoral rights and rights to due process and a fair trial., the Covenant has 173 parties and six more signatories without ratification.

Mezinárodní pakt o občanských a politických právech (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights) je mezinárodní smlouvou přijatou na zasedání Organizace spojených národů v New Yorku dne 19. prosince 1966. Pakt vstoupil v platnost 23. března 1976. Doposud k paktu přistoupilo 168 států. Pakt svým obsahem navazuje na Všeobecnou deklaraci lidských práv. Spolu s Mezinárodním paktem o občanských a politických právech vznikl také Mezinárodní pakt o hospodářských, sociálních a kulturních právech.


Premise.

Set in Washington, D.C., the series follows K.C. Cooper, a high school math genius, who gets recruited by her parents after she discovers that they are secretly undercover spies working for an agency called The Organization. Her brother tries to help because he feels left out and eventually joins the team, and his desire leads his mother and father to get a new robot child. Each episode centers on K.C. and her family as they contend with common familial issues while also performing missions to save the country, with a recurring storyline involving thwarting the plans of a criminal organization.

Production.

The series was first announced as a pilot in pre-production titled "Super Awesome Katy" in November 2013. The series was set to star "Shake It Up" star Zendaya, who would play 16-year-old Katy Cooper, an outspoken and confident technology wiz and skilled black belt, who discovers that both her parents are spies who expect her to follow in their footsteps. Production on the pilot was set to begin in early 2014. On November 6, 2013, Zendaya tweeted about the pilot, saying she wants to bring back the "cool Disney Channel", mentioning shows like "That's So Raven", "The Proud Family", and "Kim Possible". It was ordered to series by Disney Channel in May 2014, with the series now under the title "K.C. Undercover". The series was released on Watch Disney Channel on January 1, 2015, and was followed by the television premiere on January 18, 2015. The first season consisted of 27 episodes. On May 15, 2015, Disney Channel renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on March 6, 2016. On August 1, 2016, "People" revealed that the series had been renewed for a third season. The third season premiered on Disney Channel on July 7, 2017 and ended on February 2, 2018.

Broadcast.

In Canada, the series premiered on Family Channel on January 23, 2015, and moved to Disney Channel on September 1, 2015. During the launch week of Disney Channel, the episode "Runaway Robot" aired on September 1, 2015, a week before the U.S. The series premiered on Disney Channel in Australia and New Zealand on March 5, 2015. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the show premiered on March 27, 2015, on Disney Channel. On Disney Channel in Southeast Asia, it premiered in Singapore on March 13, 2015, and in the Philippines on April 10, 2015. The show debuted on the English feed of Disney XD in the Middle East and Africa on October 12, 2015. In India, the series premiered on October 30, 2017 on Disney International HD.

K.C. Undercover is an American comedy television series created by Corinne Marshall that aired on Disney Channel from January 18, 2015 to February 2, 2018. The series stars Zendaya as a teenager named K.C. who becomes a spy. Starring alongside her are Veronica Dunne, Kamil McFadden, Trinitee Stokes, Tammy Townsend, and Kadeem Hardison.

Tajný život K.C. (v anglickém originále K.C. Undercover) je americký seriál stanice Disney Channel, vytvořený Corinne Marshall a produkovaný Robem Lottersteinem. Seriál měl premiéru 1. ledna 2015 na Watch Disney Channnel, televizní premiéra následovala 18. ledna.


Early life and involvement with Morrison.

Courson was born in Weed, California. Her father, Columbus "Corky" Courson (1918 – 2008), had been a navy bombardier (becoming a commander in the U.S. Naval Reserve) and became a junior high school principal in Villa Park, California. Her mother, Pearl "Penny" Courson, was a homemaker who did interior design. After she died at age 90 in 2014, her "New York Times" obituary described her as a regular reader of that newspaper and a "connoisseur of the arts.” Pamela had one sibling, a sister. She attended Orange High School in Orange, California.  It has been rumored that Neil Young wrote the song "Cinnamon Girl" about her, as well as "The Needle and the Damage Done", but both have been denied.  One biography states that Courson and Morrison met at a lesser-known nightclub called the London Fog on the Sunset Strip in 1965, while she was an art student at Los Angeles City College. In his 1998 memoir, "Light My Fire: My Life with The Doors", keyboardist Ray Manzarek states that Courson and a friend saw the band during their stint at the London Fog.  Courson's relationship with Morrison was tumultuous with loud arguments and repeated infidelities by both partners. For a time, Courson operated Themis (1969–1971), a fashion boutique that Morrison bought for her with his royalties from the album "Strange Days".

Death of Morrison.

Courson stated that on July 3, 1971, she awoke to find Morrison dead in the bathtub of their apartment in Paris. The coroner's report listed his cause of death as heart failure, although no autopsy was performed. Under Morrison's will, which stated that he was "an unmarried person", Courson was named his heir, and therefore in line to inherit his entire fortune. Lawsuits against the estate would tie up her quest for inheritance for the next two years.

Return to the States, death and estate controversy.

After Morrison's death, Courson continued to live in Los Angeles. Former Doors employee Danny Sugerman became friendly with her in Los Angeles during this time and later wrote in "Wonderland Avenue" about an experience of taking quaaludes and snorting heroin with Courson.  On April 25, 1974, Courson died of a heroin overdose on the living room couch at the Los Angeles apartment she shared with two male friends. Like Morrison she was also 27 years old when she died. Her cremated remains were interred in the mausoleum at Fairhaven Memorial Park in Santa Ana, California. The plaque reads "Pamela Susan Morrison 1946–1974", even though "Morrison" was never part of Courson's legal name. Several months after her death, her parents inherited her fortune. Jim Morrison's parents later contested the Coursons' executorship of the estate, leading to additional legal battles. In 1979 both parties agreed to divide the earnings from Morrison's estate equally.  Friend Diane Gardner is quoted as saying in the book "Break on Through" by Riordan and Prochnicky, that

In popular culture.

Courson was portrayed by Meg Ryan in Oliver Stone's 1991 film "The Doors".  Author Patricia Butler wrote a book called "Angels Dance and Angels Die: The Tragic Romance of Pamela and Jim Morrison".

Pamela Susan Courson (December 22, 1946 – April 25, 1974) was a long-term companion of Jim Morrison, singer of the Doors. Courson stated she discovered Morrison's body in the bathtub of a Paris apartment in 1971. She died three years after him in 1974.

Pamela Susan Courson Morrison (22. prosince 1946 – 25. dubna 1974) byla dlouholetou přítelkyní Jima Morrisona, zpěváka ve skupině The Doors. Pamela a Jim nebyli nikdy manželé, avšak na jejím hrobě stojí ""Pamela Susan Morrison (1946–1974)"." Její rodiče po její smrti požádali soud, aby je uznal za manžele a soud tento návrh schválil. Technicky vzato tedy jsou manželé, ale jejich manželství bylo uzavřeno až po jejich smrti.


Playing career.

Minor.

Couturier was born in Phoenix, Arizona while his father, Sylvain Couturier, was playing for the International Hockey League (IHL)'s Phoenix Roadrunners. Following his father's retirement, the family moved to Bathurst, New Brunswick, where his father became general manager of the Acadie–Bathurst Titan of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL). Couturier played his minor hockey in Bathurst and calls the city home.

Junior.

Drummondville had the second overall pick in the 2008 QMJHL Entry Draft, and picked Couturier after defenseman Brandon Gormley was selected by the Moncton Wildcats. Couturier joined Drummondville for the 2008–09 season and helped the team win their first President's Cup as QMJHL champions. He was tenth on the team in points during the regular season.  In 2009–10, Couturier stepped forward to lead the QMJHL in points; he had the lowest point totals required to win the Jean Béliveau Trophy as leading scorer in QMJHL history. Nicolas Deschamps had the same number of points but had scored fewer goals. Teammate Gabriel Dumont was the leading QMJHL goalscorer while Couturier was fourth in the goalscoring race (also trailing Luke Adam of the Montreal Junior Hockey Club and Drummondville teammate Mike Hoffman). In the 2010 playoffs, Drummondville advanced to the semi-finals before being eliminated by the eventual champions, the Moncton Wildcats. Couturier was third on his team in points for the playoffs, behind Dumont and Chris DiDomenico.  In 2010–11, Couturier had a bout with mononucleosis over the off-season, a condition that usually takes a year to fully recover from. Despite this setback, Couturier once again had an impressive year. Couturier matched the 96 points he scored the year before in 10 fewer games, leaving him fourth overall in QMJHL scoring, while having the highest points per game of any draft eligible CHL player. In the playoffs, Drummondville advanced to the second round, before being eliminated in seven games by the Gatineau Olympiques, who would continue on to the President's Cup final. Couturier finished the playoffs with 11 points in 10 games.  His 2010–11 campaign resulted in him being named to the QMHJL First All-Star team, as well as winning the Michel Brière Memorial Trophy as the league MVP and the Mike Bossy Trophy as the best professional prospect in the QMJHL.

Philadelphia Flyers.

Couturier was drafted eighth overall by the Philadelphia Flyers in the 2011 NHL Entry Draft. The Flyers acquired the pick via trade that sent Jeff Carter to the Columbus Blue Jackets in return for Jakub Voráček and the Blue Jackets' first- and third-round (which the Flyers used to select Nick Cousins) selections. Couturier signed a three-year, entry-level contract on September 21, 2011.  Couturier made an impression in training camp and started the 2011–12 season with the Flyers, also receiving ice time on the penalty kill. He earned his first point in the NHL in his third game on October 12 against the Vancouver Canucks with a primary assist on a goal by Jakub Voráček. Couturier scored his first NHL goal in his fifth game on October 18, 2011, against Craig Anderson of the Ottawa Senators in a 7–2 win. He was one of the youngest players to participate in the NHL All-Star Game festivities, named on the rookie team and participating in the skills competition.  During the Flyers' opening-round playoff series against the Pittsburgh Penguins, Couturier was tasked with shutting down Art Ross Trophy winner Evgeni Malkin. Couturier earned much praise for his play, holding Malkin to one even strength point while Couturier was on the ice during the series, and also scoring his first career hat-trick, becoming the second-youngest player to score a hat-trick in a playoff game, and adding an assist in a four-point performance during game two of the series. Teammate Jaromír Jágr compared Couturier to Hockey Hall of Famer Ron Francis.  To start the 2017–18 season, head coach Dave Hakstol placed Couturier on the top line with Claude Giroux and Jakub Voráček. This move helped Couturier gain confidence and as the season progressed, he improved his offensive play. On March 20, 2018, Couturier recorded his 100th career NHL goal, becoming the seventh player from his draft class to reach that milestone. Couturier was awarded the Pelle Lindbergh Memorial Trophy for most improved player at the end of the regular season after he recorded a career-high 76 points. He was also awarded the Yanick Dupre Class Guy Memorial Award as most sportsmanlike player and the Gene Hart Memorial Award. His offensive and defensive success helped the Flyers to the 2018 Stanley Cup playoffs and earned him a nomination for the Frank J. Selke Trophy for the first time in his career. He finished second in the voting to the eventual winner, Anže Kopitar. In practice before Game 4 of the 2018 Stanley Cup playoffs, Couturier collided with teammate Radko Gudas, forcing him to miss Game 4. Upon his return, after missing just one game, Couturier scored the game-winning goal with just over a minute to play and added an assist in Game 5. In Game 6, he tallied three goals and two assists, totalling seven points in the two games following his return. His hat-trick in Game 6 was the second of his career in the playoffs, as his first was in the 2012 Eastern Conference Quarterfinals against Pittsburgh. After a series-ending 8–5 defeat in Game 6, it was announced Couturier tore his MCL in practice in his collision with Gudas, yet still continued to play in the playoffs.  On August 22, 2018, during the off-season, Couturier suffered a knee injury unrelated to the injury in the playoffs of the previous season, keeping him out four weeks. On October 9, Couturier was named an alternate captain for the Flyers on home ice, replacing Valtteri Filppula, who signed with the New York Islanders during the off-season. Couturier scored his first career regular season hat trick on January 16, 2019, against the Boston Bruins.

International play.

During his third QMJHL season, Couturier was invited to take part in the Canadian National Junior Team's selection camp in December 2010. Couturier was named to the team for the 2011 World Junior Championships, held in Buffalo, New York, as Canada's only NHL draft-eligible player.  Couturier played for Canada's gold medal-winning team at the 2015 World Championships, where they won the title for the first time since 2007 with a perfect 10–0 record.  Couturier was invited to the play for Team North America at the 2016 World Cup of Hockey. He was later named an alternate captain, along with Aaron Ekblad.  On April 29, 2019, Couturier was named to the Team Canada roster for the 2019 IIHF World Championship held in Slovakia. On May 10, 2019 he was designated an alternate captain, along with Mark Stone. Couturier helped Canada progress through to the playoff rounds, reaching his third consecutive final before losing to Finland to finish with the Silver Medal on May 26, 2019. He finished the tournament posting 1 goal and 4 points in 10 games.

Sean Gerald Couturier (born December 7, 1992) is a Canadian-American professional ice hockey player and alternate captain of the Philadelphia Flyers of the National Hockey League (NHL). The Flyers selected him eighth overall in the 2011 NHL Entry Draft.

Sean Couturier [šón kuturjé] (* 7. prosince 1992, Phoenix, Arizona, USA) je kanadský hokejový útočník hrající v týmu Philadelphia Flyers v severoamerické lize National Hockey League. Hraje na pozici středního útočníka (centra).


Political goals and realities.

The main purpose of its activity was to prevent Soviet domination over Poland and to fight communism. Although, the pursuit of those goals was supposed to be largely peaceful, the fact of Soviet domination over Poland and the increasingly hostile and provocative behavior of local communists frequently resulted in WiN having its hand forced and in military confrontation. Although the WiN forces were well-armed and highly disciplined, they could not hope to fight a prolonged guerrilla war against the Soviet Red Army and NKVD units – a fact clearly understood by the leadership. Thus, to the extent possible WiN attempted instead to concentrate not on military action but rather on providing assistance (false documents, money) for former soldiers of Armia Krajowa, NSZ and other Polish resistance organizations believed not to be allied with the Soviets.

Initial activities.

It was WiN that first carried the news of the falsification of the 1946 Polish people's referendum in an announcement to the United Nations Security Council. Members of the organization were persecuted by both the Soviets and the local communists. NKVD soldiers and Ministerstwo Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego agents carried out a bloody war with its 30,000 men in Mazowsze and Lubelskie region. WiN's soldiers liberated many Soviet jails in Poland, and killed collaborators and communist agents. However, the organization was penetrated by Urząd Bezpieczeństwa agents, and its security compromised as early as late 1945.  In 1946 new WiN leadership decided to subordinate the organization's structures to the Polish Supreme Commander in the West. Simultaneously, it limited its support for the PSL party (which, at that point, had also been infiltrated by Soviet agents). Thereafter, the organization was run by former members of the Polish Home Army.  WiN was initially divided into three different geographical operational theatres: Western run out of Poznań, Central, run out of Warsaw as well as Southern, run out of Cracow. By 1946 this was reduced to Central and Southern. In January 1947 WiN called on the PSL to boycott the Soviet sponsored elections and to await intervention by Western Allies.

Talks with the Ukrainian Underground.

Despite protestations of the DSZ leadership, recognizing their common origins and similar goals of ridding both Poland and Ukraine of Soviet, WiN engaged in talks with the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA). By spring 1947 in the Lublin region and Podlasie WiN signed an armistice with UPA. Occasionally, WiN and UPA cooperated in destroying communist establishments (for example in a joint May 1946 attack on secret police headquarters in Hrubieszów). Similar agreements were reached in May 1945 in Ruda Różaniecka, as well as April 1945 in Siedliska.

Final days.

In April 1947, many WiN members came out of hiding to take advantage of an apparent amnesty issued by the communist authorities. Instead, many were killed. Members of the organization were accused of plotting the overthrow of the People's Republic along with the Polish leaders in the West such as General Władysław Anders and the CIA. The show trials for most of the leadership took place in 1947. The Communist repression apparatus under Jakub Berman and Stanislaw Radkiewicz exterminated most of the leadership and by 1953 the organization had been destroyed. Nonetheless, individual units continued to fight for Polish independence until 1963.  Information published later indicated that one of the reasons for the failure of the WIN mission to Poland by the Gehlen Organization was that inside information had been provided to the Soviet Intelligence services by "moles" within the Organization. The "Org" was an intelligence agency established in June 1946 by U.S. occupation authorities in West Germany and controlled by the CIA.

Freedom and Independence (, or WiN) was a Polish underground anti-communist organisation founded on September 2, 1945 and active until 1952.

Svaz Wolność i Niezawisłość (tedy Svaz svobody a nezávislosti), polsky známý pod názvem Zrzeszenie Wolność i Niezawisłość, nebo „Wolność i Niepodległość” (celým názvem Ruch Oporu bez Wojny i Dywersji „Wolność i Niezawisłość” a zkráceně WiN) byla polská civilně-vojenská protikomunistická organizace založená 2. září 1945 ve Varšavě. Byla tvořena zbytky Delegatury ozbrojených sil (DSZ). WiN převzala její organizační strukturu, hodnosti, majetek a částečně i tzv. lesní oddíly. Oblastní velitelé DSZ se stali oblastními předsedy WiN.


Amateur sports law.

Membership is voluntary. The NCAA operates along a series of bylaws that govern the areas of ethical conduct, amateur eligibility, financial aid, recruiting, gender equity, championship events, and academic standards. The NCAA has enforcement power and can introduce a series of punishments up to the death penalty, the company term for the full shut-down of a sporting activity at an offending college. Coaches are offered contracts and if any contractual agreement is violated NCAA has the right to hold any person(s) under the contract liable.  Title IX is an increasingly important issue in college sports law. The act, passed in 1972, makes it illegal for a federally funded institution to discriminate on the basis of sex or gender. In sports law, the piece of legislation often refers to the effort to achieve equality for women's sports in colleges. The Office of Civil Rights (OCR) is charged with enforcing this legislation. This agency implemented a three-prong test for schools to adhere to:  In 1995 the Gender in Equity Disclosure Act was passed to require schools to make an annual, public report on male-female athletic participation rates, recruiting by gender, and financial support. The U.S. Supreme Court's decision in "Brown University v. Cohen", is an important aspect of litigation for women sports.  A critical piece of federal legislation, the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 guarantees certain due process rights including hearings and appeals for U.S. athletes under the governance of the USOC and its NGBs.

Labor issues in sports.

In 1967, the National Labor Relations Board accepted that players have the right to form unions or players' associations. It is now common for professional athletes to organize into associations or unions in order to negotiate collective bargaining agreements' (CBAs) with their sport's owners. Under federal labor law, players and owners must negotiate mandatory issues, those relating to hours, wages, and working conditions, in good faith. All other issues are deemed "permissive," and do not have to be negotiated. Once a CBA is in place, players agree not to strike and owners promise not to lock out players. By way of example, the 2005 National Hockey League season was cancelled because of an owners' lockout after the parties' CBA had expired. In 1994, Major League Baseball lost half its season and the playoffs because ballplayers went on strike over the issue of a salary cap. Historically, the most controversial issues subject to CBA negotiation are free agency, minimum salary, squad size, draft, salary cap, grounds for termination, and suspension.  In nearly all professional sports, the issue of limits on the use of performance-enhancing drugs has become an integral aspect of CBA negotiations. Drug policies are not uniform for all professional sports. Typically, each CBA explains the policy regarding drug testing, list of banned drugs, violations, penalties, privacy issues, and rights of appeal. Drug violations may lead to suspensions and loss of salary. The BALCO controversy involving high-profile professional athletes and coaches highlights the allegedly widespread use of performance-enhancing drugs in different sports.  Sports agents are generally certified by each sport's players' association. Once certified, agents or contract advisors may negotiate individual player contracts. Agents who are entrusted to conduct business on a player's behalf owe a fiduciary duty, i.e., a duty to remain loyal, act honestly, behave ethically, and act in the player's best interest when negotiating. More than half the states in the United States currently regulate the activities of agents in addition to union regulation for bad acts. Super agents like baseball's Scott Boras and football's Drew Rosenhaus are frequently the subject of media profiles.  The first body to assist agents in learning the ins and outs of contract negotiations, endorsements and media relations was the Association for Representatives of Athletes (ARPA). The co-founders and leaders of ARPA, since absorbed into the NFL Players Association, were Professor William Weston of the University of Baltimore Law School and Professor Michael E. Jones of the University of Massachusetts Lowell. The late Bob Woolf is acknowledged as being one of the first agents for assisting Boston Red Sox pitcher Earl Wilson to negotiate his player contract.

Antitrust issues in sports.

Until a few decades ago, most United States professional sports leagues' contracts retained clauses contracts that essentially prevented players from leaving their original teams by their own choice. These "reserve clauses" were upheld because courts found that these sports leagues did not operate in interstate trade or commerce, meaning they did not fall under antitrust laws. See "Federal Baseball Club v. National League" (1922). This interpretation has largely been eroded today. However, Major League Baseball may still retain limited antitrust exemptions (it is unclear whether the entire exemption has been overruled by Flood Act because the true extent of the exemption was vague). It is important to note that the formation of players unions for the purpose of negotiating contracts with management is exempt from antitrust scrutiny under labor law. The by-product of good faith negotiations between management and players unions in the form of a CBA is also exempt from antitrust scrutiny.

Tort law issues.

Until recently, torts were never part of the landscape of sports law. A tort can be defined as an actionable wrong However, in 1975 an Illinois appeals court established that players can be found guilty of negligence if their actions are "deliberate, willful or with a reckless disregard for the safety of another player so as cause injury to that player." See "Nabozny v. Barnhill". Negligence torts are typically harder to prove in contact sports, where violent actions and injuries are more common and thus more expected ("assumption of risk" or "self-defense"). Spectators can also sue for negligence if their injuries could not have been expected (not "foreseeable") given the nature of the sporting event they were attending. A baseball fan sitting in the bleachers could reasonably expect a baseball might come toward the seat, but a wrestling fan sitting courtside would not reasonably expect a wrestler to come flying his or her way.  Sports' tort law extends into other less obvious areas. Team doctors could be liable for medical malpractice, a form of negligence, for giving a player a false clean bill of health so the player may continue to perform. A player who purposefully causes bodily harm to another athlete, coach, or spectator may be guilty of committing an intentional tort along with a criminal act of assault and battery. The law of defamation protects a person's good character or reputation. The publication of false information about a well-known athlete ("public figure") may be actionable if it was published with a reckless disregard for the truth or actual malice. The growth of non-traditional media outlets, e.g. web pages, instant messaging, cable, etc. has added a new dynamic to this area of the law.  In recent years, the topic of concussions in the National Football League has come to the spotlight. Numerous agents, doctors, players, and their families have spoken out about the impact that repeated concussions have had on their [loved one's] life. In 2011, over 4,500 former NFL players "filed a class-action lawsuit against the NFL" in support of allegations that the NFL has downplayed or ignored an unfortunate truth: that NFL players are more at risk of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) and other forms of brain trauma. In fact, a recent study conducted by Boston University's school of medicine claimed that 99% of the "brains obtained from the NFL" tested positive for CTE. The lawsuit filed against the NFL displays the assumption of risk defense in the law of torts. The NFL uses this doctrine as a defense, stating that the plaintiff (players) knew the risks of their job prior to when the injuries occurred. This doctrine is countered by the prosecution who claim the NFL had the duty to warn, stating that the NFL did not fulfill their duty to warn their players of the full risks associated with playing. This lawsuit was settled in 2015. The NFL was forced to donate $1 billion towards educational programs, payments to retired players, and in-game safety precautions.  Closely related to the subject of torts in some ways, is the area of publicity rights. While the tort of defamation protects a person's reputation, the right of publicity permits a person to commercially exploit his or her likeness, name, and image. This area of sports law includes trademarks, trade-names, domain names, and copyrights.

Outside the United States.

International amateur sports are run by a variety of organizations. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) is made up of each country's Olympic Committee, which in turn recognizes a national governing body (NGB) for each Olympic related sport. The United States Olympic Committee (USOC) is the national governing body for all U.S. athletes in the Olympic and Pan-American Games. The IOC is the international governing body for the summer and winter Olympic Games.  Labor issues are not unique to United States law. The European Union has dealt with countless sports-related legal issues. The most important development in this area was the Bosman ruling, in which the European Court of Justice invalidated restrictions imposed by EU member countries and UEFA (the governing body for football within Europe) on foreign EU nationals. Bosman was extended to countries with associate trading relationships with the EU by the Kolpak ruling. The 6+5 rule was a proposed rule by FIFA that sought to limit the effects of Bosman and its offshoots on football clubs; it sparked considerable legal controversy in Europe and was abandoned in 2010.  The subject of drug testing, especially in international sports like cycling and track and field, is under the jurisdiction of each sport's NGB and international federation, the USOC, the IOC, and the World Anti-Doping Agency. The final arbitrator in resolving drug related disputes is the Court of Arbitration for Sports.  Australia  The capacity for the law of assault to intervene in contact sports is limited by the athlete's willing participation. By engaging in a sport, participants are held to accepted the inherent risks of such an activity as applied in "Rootes v Shelton".  However, questions of legality arise where the conduct was deliberate as was the case in "McCracken v Melbourne Storm & Orcs," where Melbourne Storm players sought to intentionally injure McCracken during play. Similarly, issues also arise where conduct can be characterised to fall "outside the scope of the Plaintiff's consent to degree of physical contact during the game", thus invoking compensation.

Sports law in the United States overlaps substantially with labor law, contract law, competition or antitrust law, and tort law. Issues like defamation and privacy rights are also integral aspects of sports law. This area of law was established as a separate and important entity only a few decades ago, coinciding with the rise of player-agents and increased media scrutiny of sports law topics.

Jestliže se v České republice řekne pojem sportovní právo, nemůžeme si pod ním představovat plnohodnotné právní odvětví, ale spíše jakési propojení oblasti sportu a oblasti práva. Z oblasti práva zde totiž mluvíme i o dalších právních odvětvích - o právu občanském, trestním, smluvním, právu na ochranu osobnosti a mnoha dalších. Rovněž je nutné si právo ve sportu umístit spíše do evropského a mezinárodního kontextu. Jedná se tedy o jakýsi mix. Nicméně vzhledem k postupnému rozvoji a mezinárodním vlivům se i tento pohled může časem změnit.


Plot.

Clark Kent and Lois Lane arrive in the small town of Silsby to report on the world's deepest oil well. That night two small, furry, bald-headed humanoids come up through the shaft and scare the elderly night watchman to death. Lois and Clark arrive at the oil well and find the dead watchman. Clark and the foreman explore the surrounding area for signs of foul play when Lois glimpses one of the creatures and screams. No one believes her when she tells them what she saw.  The medical examiner is summoned, and he later leaves with Lois. Clark stays behind to confront the foreman, who confesses that the well was closed for fear that they had struck radium and not oil. The foreman proceeds to show Clark ore samples that were collected during different stages of drilling; all of them glow brightly.  Meanwhile the two Mole Men innocently explore the town. The residents become terrified because of their peculiar appearance and because everything that they touch glows in the dark (due to simple phosphorescence). Soon an angry mob forms, led by the violent Luke Benson, in order to kill the "monsters". Superman stops Benson and the mob and saves one of the creatures after it has been shot. He takes it to the hospital. The second creature returns to the well head and disappears down its shaft.  A doctor announces that the injured creature will die unless he has surgery to remove the bullet. When a nurse refuses to do so out of fear, Clark volunteers to assist. Benson's mob arrives at the hospital demanding that the creature be turned over to them. Superman stands guard outside the hospital. Lois stands at his side, but a shot is fired from the mob, narrowly missing her. Superman sends her inside and relieves the mob of their rifles and pistols.  Three more Mole Men emerge from the drill shaft, this time bearing a strange weapon. They make their way to the hospital. Benson and his mob see the creatures, and Benson goes after them alone. The creatures fire their laser-like weapon at him. Superman jumps in front of the pulsating ray, saving Benson's life, which Superman says "is more than you deserve!". Superman fetches the wounded creature from the hospital and carries him as his companions return to the well head. Soon after, from deep underground, the Mole Men destroy the drill shaft, making certain that no one can come up or go down it ever again. Lois observes, "It's almost as if they were saying, 'You live your lives... and we'll live ours'".

Themes.

The sympathetic treatment of the strangers in the film, and the unreasoning fear on the part of the townspeople, has been compared by author Gary Grossman to the panicked public reaction to the peaceful alien Klaatu in the science fiction film "The Day The Earth Stood Still", which was released the same year. Both have been considered retrospectively as the product of (and a reaction to) the "Red Scare" of post-World War II era. Grossman also cites the later film "The Mole People" (1956).

Production.

"Superman and the Mole Men" is the first theatrical feature film based on any DC Comics character. Previously, two live-action, multiple chapter movie serials were made by Columbia Pictures Inc., based on the Superman comics feature and radio program, featuring Kirk Alyn as Superman and Noel Neill as Lois Lane, had been shown in weekly installments in movie theaters. Two additional serials based on DC's Batman, the first featuring Lewis Wilson as Batman and Douglas Croft as Robin/Dick Grayson, and the second featuring Robert Lowery as Batman and Johnny Duncan as Robin/Dick Grayson, were also made by Columbia (1943 and 1949).  The original screenplay was by "Richard Fielding", a pseudonym for Robert Maxwell and Whitney Ellsworth.  "Superman and the Mole Men" was filmed in a little more than 12 days starting on July 10, 1951 at RKO-Pathe Studios. The feature runs just 58 minutes and originally served as a trial balloon release for the syndicated "Adventures of Superman" TV series, for which it became the only two-part episode, "The Unknown People". Some elements of the original film were trimmed when converted for television, including some portions of a lengthy chase scene and all references to "Mole Men".  The theme music used for the film had a generic "science fiction sound", with nothing suggesting a specific Superman theme. The title cards were similarly generic, with low-grade animation of comets sailing by Saturn-like ringed planets. The original film score by Darrell Calker was removed when "Superman and the Mole Men" was re-cut into the two-part Superman TV episode and replaced with the "canned" production library music used in the first season of the series.  The laser-like weapon of the Mole Men, which they retrieve from their subterranean home in order to defend themselves and rescue their injured comrade, was a prop made by adding metal shoulder braces to one end of an Electrolux vacuum cleaner body; for the ray's "gun barrel" a standard metal funnel was attached to the other.  The image of actors Reeves and Coates on the theatrical release poster is a painting derived by reversing ("flopping") a publicity photograph image of the two actors, with Superman's "S shield" emblem then reversed in order for it to read correctly.

Home media.

"Superman and the Mole Men" was first released on VHS and LaserDisc by Warner Home Video on July 22, 1988, coinciding with the 50th anniversary celebrations of the Superman character that year. Both the two-part TV episode and the full feature are on the 2005 first season DVD release for "Adventures of Superman". During 2006, the film was released as a bonus feature on the DVD 4-Disc Special Edition of "Superman: The Movie". "Superman and the Mole Men" received a Blu-ray box set release in 2011. In 2017 Cheezy Movies released it on DVD.

Superman and the Mole Men is an independently made 1951 American black-and-white superhero film released by Lippert Pictures Produced by Barney A. Sarecky and directed by Lee Sholem, it stars George Reeves as Superman and Phyllis Coates as Lois Lane. It is the first feature film based on any DC Comics character.

Superman and the Mole Men je americký akční sci-fi film z roku 1951 režiséra Leea Sholema. Jedná se o první celovečerní snímek natočený na námět superhrdinských komiksů o Supermanovi. Černobílý film, ke kterému napsali scénář Robert Maxwell a Whitney Ellsworth pod společným pseudonymem Richard Fielding, byl natočen během 12 dní. Premiéru měl 23. listopadu 1951, v následujícím roce také posloužil jako dvoudílná pilotní epizoda s názvem „The Unknown People“ pro televizní seriál "Adventures of Superman".


History.

As a result of an international conference held during the first World Scout Jamboree at Olympia, London in 1920, leaders there agreed to create a Boy Scouts International Bureau (BSIB). An office was established at 25, Buckingham Palace Road, London, and the then International Commissioner of The Boy Scouts Association of the United Kingdom, Hubert S. Martin, was appointed as Honorary Director. The first task of the bureau was to co-ordinate the discussions and to prepare a second international conference in Paris in 1922. At the 1922 Paris conference The International Conference of the Boy Scout Movement, its committee and BSIB were constituted by the founding member organizations. In 1961 The International Conference of the Boy Scout Movement reconstituted the organization introducing the name World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM). The International Conference of the Boy Scout Movement became the WOSM's World Scout Conference, its International Committee became the World Scout Committee and the Boy Scouts International Bureau became the WOSM's World Scout Bureau.

World Scout Conference.

The World Scout Conference (WSC) is the governing body and meets every three years, preceded by the World Scout Youth Forum. The World Scout Conference is the general assembly of Scouting and is composed of six delegates from each of the member Scout associations. If a country has more than one association, the associations form a federation for coordination and world representation. The basis for recognition and membership in the World Scout Conference includes adherence to the aims and principles of the World Organization of the Scout Movement, and independence from political involvement on the part of each member association.  The Conference meets every three years and is hosted by a member association. At the World Scout Conference basic cooperative efforts are agreed upon and a plan of mutual coordination is adopted.

World Scout Committee.

The World Scout Committee is the executive body of the World Scout Conference and is composed of elected volunteers and one appointed Secretary General. The World Scout Committee represents World Scout Conference between the meetings of the full conference. The World Scout Committee is responsible for the implementation of the resolutions of the World Scout Conference and for acting on its behalf between its meetings. The Committee meets twice a year, usually in Geneva. Its Steering Committee, consisting of the Chairman, two Vice-Chairmen, a Youth Advisor and the Secretary General, meet as needed.  The Committee has 21 members. Twelve, each from a different country, are elected for three-year terms by the World Scout Conference. The members, elected without regard to their nationality, represent the interests of the movement as a whole, not those of their country. The Secretary General, the Treasurer of WOSM and a representative member of the board of the World Scout Foundation and the chairmen of the regional Scout committees are "ex-officio" members of the Committee. The six Youth Advisors to the WSC are elected by the World Scout Youth Forum are participating in all of the WSC meetings and are also part of the governing structure between the meetings.  The World Scout Committee has set up work streams to address the top strategic priorities, as defined by the World Scout Conference, which at present include:  Standing committees include:

Bronze Wolf Award.

The Bronze Wolf Award is the only distinction awarded by WOSM, awarded by the World Scout Committee for exceptional services to world Scouting. It was first awarded to Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell by a unanimous decision of the then-"International Committee" on the day of the institution of the Bronze Wolf in Stockholm in 1935.

World Scout Bureau.

The World Scout Bureau (WSB, formerly the International Bureau) is the secretariat that carries out the instructions of the World Scout Conference and the World Scout Committee. The WSB is administered by the secretary general, who is supported by a small staff of technical resource personnel. The bureau staff helps associations improve and broaden their Scouting by training professionals and volunteers, establishing finance policies and money-raising techniques, improving community facilities and procedures, and assisting in marshaling the national resources of each country behind Scouting.  The staff also helps arrange global events such as the World Scout Jamborees, encourages regional events, and acts as a liaison between the Scouting Movement and other international organizations. A major effort in the emerging nations is the extension of the universal Good Turn into an organization-wide effort for community development.

Location.

The Bureau was first established in London, England in 1920 and moved to Ottawa, Ontario, Canada in 1959. The International Conference directed the move of the Bureau from Ottawa to Geneva on 1 May 1968. In August 2013, WOSM announced the relocation of the World Scout Bureau Central Office (WSB-CO) to Kuala Lumpur where it is now located.

Leadership.

This list includes Secretaries General and their deputies from the World Organization of the Scout Movement and members of the World Scout Bureau. From 1920 to 1968, this function was called Director.

World Scout Centres.

"World Scout Centre" is a brand of the WOSM but the two World Scout Centres are operated by regional divisions of WOSM and an independent body:

World Scout programmes.

The "Better World Framework" combines the Scouts of the World Award, Messengers of Peace and World Scout Environment Programmes as programme initiatives administered by the World Scout Bureau.

World Scout emblem.

The WOSM emblem and membership badge is the World Scout Emblem, a purple, circular logo with a fleur-de-lis in the center, surrounded by a length of rope tied with a reef knot (also called a square knot). Baden-Powell used a fleur-de-lis badge awarded to British Army scouts and subsequently adopted and modified the badge for Scouting. The arrowhead represents the North point on a compass, and is intended to point Scouts on the path to service and unity. The three points on the fleur-de-lis represent the three parts of the Scout Promise: - service to others, duty to God and obedience to the Scout Law. The two five-point stars stand for truth and knowledge, with the ten points representing the ten points of the Scout Law. The bond at the base of the fleur-de-lis symbolizes the family of Scouting. The encircling rope symbolizes the unity and family of the World Scout Movement.

Recognition of non-national Scouting organizations.

The needs of Scout youth in unusual situations has created some interesting permutations, answerable directly to the World Scout Bureau. These permutations fall generally into three categories: Both the Boy Scouts of United Nations and the International Boy Scouts of the Canal Zone have long since disbanded, and the only remaining directly registered Troop is the International Boy Scouts, Troop 1 located in Yokohama, Japan.  In addition to these three groups a temporary recognition was extended by the BSIB to Scouts in displaced persons camps after World War II. In 1947 at the 11th International Conference the "Displaced Persons Division" of the BSIB was established to register and support Scouts in displaced person camps in Austria, Northern Italy, and Germany. These Scouts did not receive the right of membership in the Boy Scouts International Conference but gained recognition as Scouts under the protection of the Bureau until they took up residence in a country that had a recognized National Scouting Organization, which they then could join. The D.P. Division was closed on 30 June 1950.  The International Conference of the Boy Scout Movement decided to admit and recognise the exile Russian Scout group as the "Representatives of Russian Scouting in Foreign Countries" on 30 August 1922 and the Armenian Scouts in France were recognized as a "National Movement on Foreign Soil" on 30 April 1929.  The Boy Scouts of the United Nations began in 1945, and for years there was an active Boy Scouts of the United Nations with several troops at Parkway Village in New York City, with but 14 members in 1959.  The International Boy Scouts of the Canal Zone, a group in Panama with Scouts that claimed British and not Panamanian nationality was originally placed under the American Scouting overseas of the BSA but, in 1947, was transferred under the International Bureau. In 1957 the group had over 900 members and existed as a directly registered group until the late 60s.  The third category in the directly registered groups, the "mixed-nationality troops", were registered after discussions concerning such troops took place at the 3rd International Conference of 1924 at which the BSIB was authorized to directly register such groups. It seems that the discussion at the 1924 International Conference was, at least in part, prompted by a letter to Baden-Powell from the Scoutmaster of one such troop in Yokohama, Japan. Janning's troop became the first troop directly registered by the BSIB. Only a few troops were directly registered as soon the practice was discontinued and new "mixed" groups were encouraged to join the National Scout Association of their country of residence. In 1955 only two such groups were still active, a troop in Iraq that disbanded that year, and the first group to be registered, the International Troop 1 in Yokohama. The international troop in Yokohama is the only remaining active troop of the small group of the originally directly registered mixed-nationality troops.

Publications.

Publications of WOSM include:

The World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM ) is the largest international Scouting organization. WOSM has 171 members. These members are recognized national Scout organizations, which collectively have over 50 million participants. WOSM was established in 1922, and has its operational headquarters at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and its legal seat in Geneva, Switzerland. It is the counterpart of the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts (WAGGGS).

Světová organizace skautského hnutí (angl. "World organization of the Scout Movement", WOSM) je celosvětová nezávislá a nezisková organizace, která vznikla v roce 1920 s cílem pomáhat svým členským skautským organizacím vychovávat mladé lidi na celém světě bez ohledu na jejich rasu, víru, kterou vyznávají, barvu pleti a sociální podmínky. Jejím zakladatelem se stal vojenský generál Lord Robert Baden-Powell.


History.

For more than two thousand years fountains have provided drinking water and decorated the piazzas of Rome. During the Roman Empire, in 98 AD, according to Sextus Julius Frontinus, the Roman consul who was named "curator aquarum" or guardian of the water of the city, Rome had nine aqueducts which fed 39 monumental fountains and 591 public basins, not counting the water supplied to the Imperial household, baths and owners of private villas. Each of the major fountains was connected to two different aqueducts, in case one was shut down for service.  After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the aqueducts were wrecked or fell into disrepair, and the fountains stopped working. In the 14th century, Pope Nicholas V (1397–1455), a scholar who commissioned hundreds of translations of ancient Greek classics into Latin, decided to embellish the city and make it a worthy capital of the Christian world. In 1453 he began to rebuild the Acqua Vergine, the ruined Roman aqueduct which had brought clean drinking water to the city from eight miles (13 km) away. He also decided to revive the Roman custom of marking the arrival point of an aqueduct with a "mostra", a grand commemorative fountain. He commissioned the architect Leon Battista Alberti to build a wall fountain where the Trevi Fountain is now located. Alberti restored, modified, and expanded the aqueduct that supplied both the Trevi Fountain as well as the famous baroque fountains in the Piazza del Popolo and Piazza Navona.  One of the first new fountains to be built in Rome during the Renaissance was the Fountain in Piazza Santa Maria in Trastevere (1499), which was placed on the site of an earlier Roman fountain. Its design, based on an earlier Roman model, with a circular vasque on a pedestal pouring water into a basin below, became the model for many other fountains in Rome, and eventually for fountains in other cities, from Paris to London.  During the 17th and 18th century the Roman popes reconstructed other ruined Roman aqueducts and built new display fountains to mark their termini, launching the golden age of the Roman fountain. The fountains of Rome, like the paintings of Rubens, were expressions of the new style of Baroque art. They were crowded with allegorical figures, and filled with emotion and movement. In these fountains, sculpture became the principal element, and the water was used simply to animate and decorate the sculptures. They, like baroque gardens, were "a visual representation of confidence and power."  The most famous Roman fountains of this period include:  The fountains of Rome all operated purely by gravity- the source of water had to be higher than the fountain itself, and the difference in elevation and distance between the source and the fountain determined how high the fountain could shoot water. The fountain in St. Peter's Square was fed by the Paola aqueduct, restored in 1612, whose source was above sea level, which meant it could shoot water twenty feet up from the fountain. The Triton fountain benefited from its location in a valley, and the fact that it was fed by the Aqua Felice aqueduct, restored in 1587, which arrived in Rome at an elevation of above sea level (fasi), a difference of in elevation between the source and the fountain, which meant that the water from this fountain jetted sixteen feet straight up into the air from the conch shell of the Triton.  The fountains of Piazza Navona, on the other hand, took their water from the Acqua Vergine, which had only a drop from the source to the fountains, which meant the water could only fall or trickle downwards, not jet very high upwards. For the Trevi Fountain, the architect Nicola Salvi compensated for this problem by sinking the fountain down into the ground, and by carefully designing the cascade so that the water churned and tumbled, to add movement and drama.  Today all of the fountains have been rebuilt, and the Roman water system uses both gravity and mechanical pumps. Water is recycled and water from different aqueducts is sometimes mixed before it reaches the fountains and performs for the spectators.  This (incomplete) list contains important fountains in the city:

Monumental fountains.

These fountains were built at the termini of the restored aqueducts of Rome, to supply water to the population and to glorify the Popes who built them.

Decorative fountains.

These fountains were linked to the restored aqueducts, decorated the piazzi, or squares, of Rome, and provided drinking water to the population around the squares.

This is a list of the notable fountains in Rome, Italy. Rome has fifty monumental fountains and hundreds of smaller fountains, over 2000 fountains in all, more than any other city in the world.

V Římě, hlavním městě Itálie, se nachází více než tisíc fontán. Několik z nich byly postaveny ve středověku nebo ještě dříve a jsou stále funkční. Mezi hlavní turistické atrakce patří Fontána di Trevi (1762) a Fontána čtyř řek (1651).


Biography.

Herz was born Heinrich Herz in Vienna. He was Jewish by birth, but he asked the musical journalist François-Joseph Fétis not to mention this in the latter's musical encyclopaedia, perhaps a reflection of endemic antisemitism in nineteenth-century French cultural circles. As a child he studied with his father, and in Koblenz with the organist Daniel Hünten, father of the composer Franz Hünten. In 1816 Herz entered the Conservatoire de Paris, where he studied piano with Louis-Barthélémy Pradher, harmony with Victor Dourlen and composition with Anton Reicha. He won first prize in piano in 1818. Herz's style of playing was, by his own admission, strongly influenced by Ignaz Moscheles. His brother Jacques Simon Herz (born Jacob-Simon; 1794–1880) was a fellow-pupil at the Conservatoire who also became a pianist and teacher. In the first of many extended concert tours, Henri Herz—along with the violinist Charles Philippe Lafont—visited Germany and England in 1831 and 1834, respectively, winning great acclaim.  In 1825 Herz joined the piano workshop of Henri Klepfer et cie as a partner, but that connection proved unsuccessful, and in 1839 he founded his own piano factory, which became one of the three most important factories in France, the others being Erard and Pleyel. All three were awarded the "Médaille d`honneur" for "Pianos d'une sonorité très-remarquable" at the Paris World's Fair in 1855. Among important developments of Herz's early time as a piano maker in the 1820s and 1830s was the change from a single-layered hammer to one that was multi-layered, on the inside two layers of leather, several layers of fabric, and rabbit fur; on the outside wool felt in up to nine layers of decreasing hardness. The characteristic sound of Frédéric Chopin's grand pianos, to which the labor-intensive, hand-made hammers after Herz's patents make a distinctive contribution, disappeared with mid-century developments in the USA (Steinway). The Herz hammer sets have the drawback that pianos cannot be played quite as loud, because the hammers are less densely pressed, but the dynamics and colorfulness – in combination with traditional materials of wrought iron strings (before the invention of Bessemer steel) – are very finely graduated and fiery. In the second half of the 19th century, simplification and impoverishment of the piano's sound variety occurred with two-layer, industrially produced Dolge hammers. To Herz's work as a piano maker can also be attributed the implementation of a simplified version of Sebastian Erard's double repetition. Through the "Herz spring" ("Repetierfeder") the mechanics of the instrument found their modern form.  Among the most important performance venues in Paris were halls built by the instrument manufacturers. In 1838, Herz and his brother Jacques Simon Herz followed this model and built the 668-seat Salle des Concerts Herz on the rue de la Victoire, used for performances by Berlioz and Offenbach. The Ecole Spéciale de Piano de Paris, which the brothers founded, was housed in the same building. The building was still in use for concerts as late as 1874 but was demolished in that year.  Herz was possibly married to Pauline Thérèse Lachmann (or Esther Lachmann), a French courtesan known as La Païva. It is generally believed that they married in London, but it is not clear that this actually occurred. In any case, such a marriage would have been bigamous, as she was already married. By him she had a daughter. Her extravagant spending nearly ruined Herz's finances, and he traveled to America in 1848 to pursue business opportunities. While he was away, Herz's family turned Thérèse out of the house.

Career as a pianist.

A celebrated pianist, Herz traveled worldwide, including tours in Europe, Russia, Mexico, South America, and in the United States of America between 1846 and 1850, where he concertized all the way to San Francisco. His performances were compared to the more extravagant manner of Leopold de Meyer, concertizing in the United States during the same period (1845–47). He wrote a book about his experiences abroad, "Mes voyages en Amérique" (Paris: Achille Faure, 1866), translated by Henry Bertram Hill as "My Travels in America" (1963).  Herz taught at the Conservatoire between 1842 and 1874. Of his pupils, only Marie-Aimée Roger-Miclos (1860–1950) recorded, in the early 1900s, for Dischi Fonotipia.

Works.

Herz composed many pieces, the opus numbers of his published works reaching 224, according to Laure Schnapper's catalogue (Henri Herz, "magnat du piano", 2011, p. 270-280). Virtually all are for the piano, including eight piano concertos. Among his many musical works, he was involved in the composition of "Hexaméron" (the fourth variation on Bellini's theme is his). Many, however, found his piano style showy and shallow. Robert Schumann was among those who criticized it, but his wife Clara saw in it the praiseworthy quality that it could challenge a performer's interpretation.

Inventions.

Herz was also an inventor of a mechanical device he named a dactylion, designed to loosen and strengthen a pianist's fingers. The device consisted of two parallel wooden bars, where the bottom one could be attached under a keyboard to fix the dactylion in place; and the top bar had ten rings hanging on strings for individual fingers to provide certain resistance while playing the piano. The dactylion had a considerable success then. He patented the dactylion in France in 1835. In the period 1843-1866 he also registered several patents related to construction and fabrication of pianos.

Henri Herz (6 January 1803 – 5 January 1888) was a virtuoso pianist, composer and piano manufacturer, Austrian by birth and French by nationality and domicile. He was a professor in the Paris Conservatoire for more than thirty years. Among his major works are eight piano concertos, a piano sonata, rondos, nocturnes, waltzes, marches, fantasias, and numerous sets of variations.

Henri Herz (6. ledna 1803 Vídeň – 5. ledna 1888 Paříž) byl francouzský klavírista, hudební skladatel a výrobce klavírů rakouského původu.


Formation.

Zhu Wen initially allied himself as Huang Chao's lieutenant. However, he took Huang's best troops and established his own power base as a warlord in Kaifeng. By 904, he had exerted control over both of the twin Tang Dynasty capitals of Chang'an and Luoyang. Tang emperor Zhaozong was ordered murdered by Zhu in 904 and the last Tang emperor, Ai Di (Emperor Ai of Tang), was deposed three years later. Emperor Ai of Tang was murdered in 908, also ordered by Zhu.  Meanwhile, Zhu Wen declared himself emperor of the new Later Liang in Kaifeng in 907. The name Liang refers to the Henan region in which the heart of the regime rested.

Extent of control.

The Later Liang controlled most of northern China, though much of Shaanxi (controlled by the Qi) as well as Hebei (controlled by the Yan state) and Shanxi (controlled by Shatuo Turks) remained largely outside Later Liang control.

End of the dynasty.

The Later Liang maintained a tense relationship with the Shatuo Turks, due to the rivalry between Zhu Quanzong and Li Keyong, a relationship that began back in the time of the Tang Dynasty. After Li Keyong's death, his son, Li Cunxu, continued to expand his State of Jin. Li was able to destroy the Later Liang in 923 and found Later Tang.

Conference of the Mandate of Heaven on the Later Liang.

Generally through Chinese history, it was historians of later kingdoms whose histories bestowed the Mandate of Heaven posthumously on preceding dynasties. This was typically done for the purpose of strengthening the present rulers' ties to the Mandate themselves. Song Dynasty historian Xue Juzheng did exactly this in his work "History of the Five Dynasties".  Several justifications were given for this, and successive Five Dynasties regimes, to be conferred the Mandate of Heaven. Among these was that these dynasties all controlled most of the traditional Chinese heartland. However, the Later Liang was an embarrassment in the brutality it employed, causing many to want to deny it this status, but doing so would break the chain through the other Five Dynasties, and thus to the Song Dynasty, which itself was the successor to the last of the Five Dynasties.

The Later Liang () (1 June 907 – 19 November 923), also known as Zhu Liang (), was one of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period in China. It was founded by Zhu Wen, posthumously known as Taizu of Later Liang, after he forced the last emperor of the Tang dynasty to abdicate in his favour (and then murdered him). The Later Liang would last until 923 when it was destroyed by Later Tang.

Říše Pozdní Liang () byl jeden ze států, které se vystřídaly v severní Číně po pádu říše Tchang, v období Pěti dynastií a deseti říší. Založil ji roku 907 Ču Wen, vojevůdce fakticky kontrolující vládu říše Tchang; ovládal většinu severní Číny, Šan-si však ovládala šatoská knížata Li Kche-jung a poté Li Cchun-sü, okolí Pekingu Liou Šou-kuang a Li Mao-čen vládl samostatně v Šen-si. Říše Pozdní Liang zanikla roku 923, kdy Li Cchun-sü po několikaleté válce ovládl severní Čínu a prohlásil se císařem říše (Pozdní) Tchang.


History.

Two men from Sweden designed the sledge in the 1960s because they wanted to continue to play hockey despite their physical disabilities. Their design included two skate blades on a metal frame that allowed the puck to pass underneath. They completed the ensemble by including two round poles with bike handles for sticks. Although there are many restrictions to the measurements and weight of the sleds used in the Paralympic Games, the basic design of modern sleds remains true to the original 1960's simple sleds for kids. These sleds were then made to be used hockey.  Despite the initial lack of interest and awareness in the few years that followed, competition between sledge hockey teams started up in 1971 that included five teams in Europe. In 1981, Great Britain established their first sledge hockey team, and that was shortly followed by Canada in 1982. It was not until 1990 that the United States developed their first ice sledge hockey team. Sled hockey continued to expand when Estonia and Japan developed their teams in 1993. Sledge hockey was introduced to the Winter Paralympics in 1994, with Sweden claiming the first gold medal. Since 2010, sledge hockey has been a mixed-gender event.  On November 30, 2016, as part of an effort to improve and unify the marketing of its self-sanctioned sports outside of the Paralympic Games, and citing that the word "sledge" had differing meanings between languages, the International Paralympic Committee announced that it would henceforth refer to sledge hockey as Para ice hockey (with its sanctioning sub-division consequently renamed World Para Ice Hockey).

Equipment.

The sticks have a blade curved at one end in a manner similar to regular ice hockey, and generally six to eight metal teeth at the opposite end of the blade for maneuvering and propulsion. Movement is achieved by using the metal teeth as a means to grip the ice and push oneself forward. The metal teeth cannot be too pointy nor protrude farther than 1 cm beyond the stick, to prevent damage to the ice or injury of other players. Other equipment includes a helmet with facemask, shoulder and elbow pads, shin guards, and hockey gloves. Pants and footwear are at the discretion of both the player's comfort and need. Goaltenders wear the standard mask, chest and arm protector, blocker pad and catching glove, plus a leg pad if they so desire and a stick with teeth on both the paddle as well as the knob of the stick. Additionally, goalies may make modifications to their equipment: a common mod is to attach the plastic outsoles of track spikes onto the outer part of their gloves to aid in lateral mobility.

Rules.

Essentially all of the standard rules of ice hockey apply to sledge hockey. The differences are those necessitated by the ice sled and the athlete. The first set of international rules was created in 1990 and were drafted from Canadian rules. The only penalty unique to sledge hockey is Teeing—the act of charging an opponent using any part of the front radius of the sled. Players with limited mobility in their arms are permitted the use of an able-bodied assistant. Pushers must wear a team jersey and safety equipment, and cannot exceed the speed of the average player on the ice nor can they enter the "house" (the area extending from the goal crease to the end-zone faceoff dots, extended to the top of the faceoff circles) while in the defensive zone.  Games are divided into three 15-minute periods, followed by overtime (and if still tied after the overtime period, a shootout) if there is a tie at the end of regulation

Sledge hockey (also known as Para ice hockey, or sled hockey in American English) is an adaptation of ice hockey designed for players who have a physical disability. Invented in the early 1960s at a rehabilitation centre in Stockholm, Sweden, and played under similar rules to standard ice hockey, players are seated on sleds and use special hockey sticks with metal "teeth" on the tips of their handles to navigate the ice.

Sledge hokej (), též para hokej (), je sport, který je příbuzný lednímu hokeji, ale je určen pro handicapované hráče. Pravidla sledge hokeje jsou téměř stejná jako pravidla ledního.


Tournament.

The 2015 Wimbledon Championships was the 129th edition of the tournament and was held at All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club in London.  The tournament was an event run by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) and is part of the 2015 ATP World Tour and the 2015 WTA Tour calendars under the Grand Slam category. The tournament consisted of both men's and women's singles and doubles draws as well as a mixed doubles event. There were singles and doubles events for both boys and girls (players under 18), which were part of the Grade A category of tournaments, and doubles events for men's and women's wheelchair tennis players as part of the NEC tour under the Grand Slam category. The tournament was played on grass courts and took place over a series of 19 courts, including the four main showcourts, Centre Court, No. 1 Court, No. 2 Court and No. 3 Court.

Point and prize money distribution.

Point distribution.

Below is a series of tables for each of the competitions showing the ranking points on offer for each event.

Prize money.

The Wimbledon total prize money for 2015 has been increased by 7% to £26.75m. The winners of the men's and women's singles titles will earn £1.88m, up £120,000 from the previous year. The figures for doubles events are per pair.

Singles seeds.

Seedings were announced on Wednesday, 24 June 2015.

Gentlemen's Singles.

Seeds are adjusted on a surface-based system to reflect more accurately the individual player's grass court achievement as per the following formula, which applies to the top 32 players according to the ATP Rankings on 22 June 2015:  Rank and points before in the following table are as of 29 June 2015. Because the tournament takes place one week later than in 2014, points defending includes results from both the 2014 Wimbledon Championships and tournaments from the week of 7 July 2014 (Newport, Båstad and Stuttgart).  † The player did not qualify for the tournament in 2014. Accordingly, points for his 18th best result are deducted instead.

Ladies' Singles.

Seeds are based on the WTA rankings as of 22 June 2015. Rank and points before in the following table are as of 29 June 2015. Because the tournament takes place one week later than in 2014, points defending includes results from both the 2014 Wimbledon Championships and tournaments from the week of 7 July 2014 (Bucharest and Bad Gastein).

Main draw wild card entries.

The following players received wild cards into the main draw senior events.

Main draw qualifier entries.

The qualifying competitions took place in Bank of England Sports Centre, Roehampton on 22 – 25 June 2015.

Protected ranking.

The following players were accepted directly into the main draw using a protected ranking:

Champions.

Seniors.

Gentlemen's Singles.

Prior to the finals, the two had faced off 39 times, with Federer having won the most matches, 20–19. At the time of the finals Djokovic was ranked No. 1 and Federer at No. 2. This encounter was their third meeting in a Grand Slam final, when the last two previous were split between the two at the 2007 US Open and 2014 Wimbledon Championships. Federer got the first break of serve in the match, during the first set, yet Djokovic quickly broke back leveling the match. When Djokovic was serving to remain in the first set, he had to fend off two set points from Federer, which he eventually got the set into a tiebreak, and it was a lopsided tiebreak that sent Djokovic up one set to none. The second set was a closely fought affair, but was decided to Federer's edge in the tiebreak. The last two sets were rather uneventful in the spectrum of the match because Djokovic got the breaks of serve, allowing him to win his third Wimbledon title, and second in a row. This put Djokovic eighth on the all-time list of Men's Grand Slam singles champions, and putting him fifth during the Open Era. He now possesses as many Wimbledon singles titles, as his coach Boris Becker won in his career.

Ladies' Singles.

This was their first encounter in a Grand Slam final, whilst all of the past meetings, occurred in Grand Slam events, from the first-time playing each other at the 2013 Australian Open, that Serena Williams won the match in two sets, during this second round match. Their next contest occurred, at the 2014 French Open in the second round, yet this time around Garbiñe Muguruza, turned the tables to with the match in two sets. The third tie came, at the 2015 Australian Open, and it went three sets in a fourth round encounter, to the eventual victory by Serena in three sets. This bout would be their fourth meeting, and it got off to a rocky start by Serena, who served up three double faults, in order to get broken, during the first game of the match. Muguruza would get out to a four games to two advantage, when Williams held serve, and let out a "Come On". This rallied the twenty-time Grand Slam champion to win the first set, 6–4, when she broke the serve of Muguruza. Serena would get off to a fast start, during the second set, that she ended up getting breaks of serve from Muguruza in the fourth and sixth games of the set, to go up to a five games to one advantage. The momentous meaning the match held, for Williams ended up hitting her, when she had two bad service games, getting broken, letting Muguruza to come back to a five games to four set. This allowed Muguruza, the opportunity to serve in an attempt to stay in the match and set, yet she quickly got down in a love–40 hole, which she could not escape. The victory gave Serena her second "Serena Slam", and that was with the 2014 US Open win counted from the previous year. This victory was her twenty-first Grand Slam singles title, putting her one behind Steffi Graf in the Open Era of tennis, and three behind the all-time record held by Margaret Court. The win meant she became the oldest women's singles Grand Slam champion in the Open Era of tennis, besting the mark previously set by Martina Navratilova.

Withdrawals.

The following players were accepted directly into the main tournament, but withdrew with injuries.

The 2015 Wimbledon Championships was a Grand Slam tennis tournament which took place at the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club in Wimbledon, London, United Kingdom, from 29 June to 12 July 2015.

Wimbledon 2015 byl 129. ročník třetího tenisového grandslamu sezóny – nejstaršího a nejslavnějšího turnaje světa, který se konal od pondělí 29. června do neděle 12. července 2015. Grand Slam probíhal tradičně na travnatých dvorcích v londýnském All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Clubu.