History.

The Miami Dolphins joined the American Football League (AFL) when an expansion franchise was awarded to lawyer Joseph Robbie and actor Danny Thomas in 1965 for $7.5 million, although Thomas would eventually sell his stake in the team to Robbie. During the summer of 1966, the Dolphins' training camp was in St. Pete Beach with practices in August at Boca Ciega High School in Gulfport.  The Dolphins had a combined 15–39–2 record in their first four seasons under head coach George Wilson, before Don Shula was hired as head coach. Shula was a Paul Brown disciple who had been lured from the Baltimore Colts, after losing Super Bowl III two seasons earlier to the AFL's New York Jets, and finishing 8–5–1 the following season. Shula got his first NFL coaching job from then-Detroit head coach George Wilson, who hired him as the defensive coordinator. The AFL merged with the NFL in 1970, and the Dolphins were assigned to the AFC East division in the NFL's new American Football Conference.  For the rest of the 20th century, the Shula-led Dolphins emerged as one of the most dominant teams in the NFL with a strong running game and defense, with only two losing seasons between 1970 and 1999. They were extremely successful in the 1970s, completing the first complete perfect season in NFL history by finishing with a 14–0 regular season record in 1972 and winning the Super Bowl that year. It was the first of two consecutive Super Bowl wins and one of three appearances in a row. The 1980s and 1990s were also moderately successful. The early 80s teams made two Super Bowls despite losing both times, and saw the emergence of future Hall of Fame quarterback Dan Marino, who went on to break numerous NFL passing records, holding many of them until the late 2000s. After winning every game against the division rival Buffalo Bills in the 1970s, the two teams gradually developed a competitive rivalry in the 80s and 90s, often competing for AFC supremacy when Jim Kelly emerged as the quarterback for the Bills. The Dolphins have also maintained a strong rivalry with the New York Jets throughout much of their history.  Following the retirements of Marino and Shula and the rise of Tom Brady and the New England Patriots, the Dolphins suffered a decline in the 2000s, including a 1–15 season in 2007 that was the worst in franchise history. They only made the playoffs three times in that decade and were unable to find a consistent quarterback to replace Marino, shuffling 13 quarterbacks and five head coaches. However, the Dolphins have been competitive against the Patriots despite their decline, with notable wins coming in 2004, 2008, 2014, 2018, and 2019. They also are the last team in the AFC East to win the division championship aside from the Patriots, doing so in 2008. While quarterback Ryan Tannehill provided some stability at the position throughout most of the 2010s, the team has nonetheless been mediocre, only having made the playoffs once during the decade.

Rivalries.

The Dolphins share intense rivalries with their three AFC East opponents, but also have had historical or occasional rivalries with other teams such as their cross-state rivals Tampa Bay Buccaneers, their former divisional rivals Indianapolis Colts, the Pittsburgh Steelers, San Diego/Los Angeles Chargers, Oakland/Los Angeles/Las Vegas Raiders, and to a lesser extent, the Jacksonville Jaguars.

Divisional rivalries.

Buffalo Bills.

The Dolphins and the Buffalo Bills have a long-standing rivalry, as there are stark characteristic differences between the cities of Miami and Buffalo, especially in climate and culture. The rivalry was extremely lopsided in favor of Miami during the 1970s, as the Dolphins won all 20 games against the Bills during that decade. Fortunes changed in the 1980s and 1990s when Jim Kelly became the Bills' starting quarterback. Though both teams were extremely dominant during that period, the Bills ultimately held the edge and dominated the Dolphins during their four playoff match-ups in the 1990s, with the Dolphins' only playoff win coming after Kelly's retirement. With the rise of Tom Brady and the Patriots during the 2000s and the retirements of Kelly and Dolphins great Dan Marino, the Bills-Dolphins rivalry has faded in relevance, but remains somewhat intense to this day. Some former Dolphins have gone to play for the Bills as well, most notably Dan Carpenter, Chris Hogan, and Charles Clay.

New England Patriots.

The Dolphins dominated the New England Patriots during the 1970s and the 1990s, but there were some notable moments as well, including a game now known as the Snowplow Game. Fortunes changed when Tom Brady became the franchise quarterback for the Patriots, and since then, the Patriots have virtually dominated the AFC, especially the AFC East. Miami did pose more of a challenge to the Brady-led Patriots in the 2000s, however, winning more games against them than the Bills or Jets did during that decade. Notable wins over New England by the Dolphins include the Miracle in Miami, which involved a dramatic last-minute game-winning touchdown that paralleled "The Night that Courage Wore Orange", where in 2004, the Dolphins, at 2–11, upset the defending Super Bowl champion Patriots 28–29, and handed them the second of their 2 losses that season. The rivalry briefly intensified in 2005 when Nick Saban, Bill Belichick's former Browns defensive coordinator was hired as their new head coach and when Saban nearly signed quarterback Drew Brees, as well as in 2008, when the two teams battled for the AFC East division title. Miami and New England are also the only two franchises to have posted undefeated regular season records since the NFL-AFL merger, with Miami going 14–0 in 1972 and New England going 16–0 in 2007, but only the 1972 Dolphins were able to win the Super Bowl.

New York Jets.

The New York Jets are perhaps Miami's most bitter rivals. Dolphins fans despise the Jets due to the sheer amount of New York City transplants who have moved to South Florida and the Jets' usual cocky demeanor. Just as the Bills-Dolphins rivalry is motivated by differences, the Dolphins-Jets series is also notable for the differences between New York and Miami. Unlike the former, this rivalry has been more consistent over the years. Some of the more memorable moments in this rivalry include Dan Marino's fake spike, Vinny Testaverde leading the Jets to a notable comeback on Monday Night Football, and former Jets quarterback Chad Pennington signing with the Dolphins and leading them to a divisional title. The two teams have also played in the 1982 AFC Championship, with Miami winning to face the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl XVII.

Other.

Tampa Bay Buccaneers.

Since the founding of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 1976, the Dolphins and Buccaneers have shared a mellow in-state rivalry and were the only two teams in Florida until the Jacksonville Jaguars joined the NFL in 1995.

Other AFC rivals.

The Dolphins have also had history against other AFC teams. When the Baltimore Colts were inserted into the AFC East following the AFL/NFL merger, they sparked a heated rivalry with the Dolphins, as a controversy involving the hiring of former Colts coach Don Shula forced Miami to forfeit a first-round draft pick. The Dolphins and Colts faced off several times in the AFC playoffs during the 1970s, including the AFC championship game leading up to Super Bowl VI, which the Dolphins lost to the Dallas Cowboys. The rivalry cooled down in the 1980s after the Colts struggled and moved to Indianapolis, but heated up once again in the late 90s until the Colts were reassigned into the AFC South as a result of the 2002 realignment of the NFL's divisions.  The Dolphins also share historic rivalries with the Las Vegas Raiders, Los Angeles Chargers, and Pittsburgh Steelers, stemming from often competing against these teams in the playoffs during the Don Shula era.

Facilities.

Stadiums.

The Dolphins originally played all home games in the Orange Bowl in Miami. They moved to the new Joe Robbie Stadium after the 1986 season. From 1993 to 2011, the Dolphins shared the stadium with Major League Baseball's Florida Marlins. The venue has had multiple naming rights deals since 1996, carrying the names Pro Player Stadium, Dolphins Stadium, Dolphin Stadium, LandShark Stadium, Sun Life Stadium, New Miami Stadium and, as of August 2016, Hard Rock Stadium. The facility is located in Miami Gardens, a suburb of Miami located approximately north of downtown Miami. The Miami Dolphins share Hard Rock Stadium with the NCAA Miami Hurricanes. The 2015–2016 season was the first season in the newly renovated Hard Rock Stadium. The Dolphins spent more than two years and over $400 million on a major overhaul to Hard Rock Stadium. Every seat was replaced and the lower level seats were moved closer to the field. There are roughly 10,000 fewer seats.

Training.

St. Petersburg Beach hosted the Dolphins' first training camp in 1966. St. Andrew's School in Boca Raton hosted training camp in the late 1960s. The Dolphins subsequently trained in Miami Gardens at Biscayne College, later renamed St. Thomas University, from 1970 until 1993.  In 1993, the Dolphins opened the Miami Dolphins Training Facility at Nova Southeastern University in Davie. In 2006, the facility added a domed field which allows the team to practice during thunderstorms which are common in the area during the summer.

Franchise information.

Logos and uniforms.

Leaping dolphin (1966–2012).

The Dolphins logo and uniforms remained fairly consistent from the team's founding through 2012. The team's colors were originally aqua and coral, with the coral color paying tribute to the Miami Seahawks and to the many natural coral reefs in Biscayne Bay. The team's original logo consisted of a sunburst with a leaping dolphin wearing a football helmet bearing the letter M. At their debut in 1966, a lighter & brighter orange was used instead of the deep coral color. The dolphin's head was near the center of the sunburst. In the 1967 season, the dolphin was centered on the sunburst, but it reverted to the original placement between 1968 and 1973. By 1974, the dolphin's body was centered on the sunburst in a slightly smaller logo than the 1967 version. The uniforms featured white pants with aqua and orange stripes, paired with either a white or aqua jersey. On the white jersey, aqua block numbers and names were outlined in orange, with aqua and orange sleeve stripes. These uniforms were used as the primary uniforms for road games and daytime home games, due to the extreme heat of South Florida. The team also had an aqua jersey used mainly for night home games or road games in which the opponent chose to wear white. The aqua jersey featured white block numbers and names with an orange outline, and orange and white sleeve stripes.  An update was given to the logo in 1997 – the sunburst was simplified and the dolphin was darkened and given a more serious game-face expression. The uniforms remained the same, however a different block number font was used and navy drop shadows were added.  On very rare occasions, an orange jersey was used for primetime games. The uniforms essentially swapped the location of orange and aqua from the aqua jersey. The orange jersey was first used on a Sunday night in 2003 against Washington, a Dolphin win. In 2004, the orange jersey was brought back for an "Monday Night Football" match pitting the 2–11 Dolphins against the 12–1 defending champion New England Patriots. The Dolphins scored a huge upset win after trailing by 11 points with less than 5 minutes remaining. Due to the unusual orange jerseys, the game has become known within some Dolphin circles as "". The orange jerseys were used for a 2009 Monday night win against the New York Jets. However, the Dolphins would lose a 2010 Sunday night matchup with the Jets, their first loss in orange, and the jerseys would not be worn again until a 2016 Thursday night defeat in Cincinnati, although that set featured orange pants as part of the NFL Color Rush initiative.  In 2009, the Dolphins switched to black shoes for the first time since the early 1970s glory days, following a recent trend among NFL teams. However, by 2011, they returned to wearing white shoes.  The Dolphins' final game in the original style uniforms with block numbers and the iconic leaping dolphin logo was the final game of the 2012 season, a 28–0 shutout loss to the New England Patriots in Foxboro. The white jerseys were worn for the game, and as rumors of a new look had been swirling, many fans watching knew that it would likely be the last time their team would wear the leaping dolphin logo.

Stylized swimming dolphin (2013–present).

A radically new logo and new uniforms were unveiled shortly before the 2013 NFL Draft. The new logo features a stylized aqua dolphin swimming in front of a heavily modified version of the orange sunburst. The dolphin in the logo is more vague and artistic, and is not wearing a helmet as it is merely a silhouette of a dolphin cast in aqua and navy.  Navy was incorporated as featured color for the first time, with orange becoming greatly de-emphasized. The uniforms feature both white pants and aqua pants, with a white or aqua jersey. The Dolphins continue to wear white at home, just as they had with the previous uniforms, with aqua being used for primetime home games. The white jersey features aqua numbers and names in a unique custom font, with orange and navy outlines on the numbers, however the names only use navy as an outline color. The aqua jerseys use white numbers with an orange and aqua outline, and white names with a navy outline. The helmets are white with a white facemask, just like the final years of the previous look, however navy is a prominent color on the helmet stripe, joining aqua and a de-emphasized orange. Both jerseys have large "Dolphins" text above the numbers, written in the team's new script. The pants are either aqua or white, and contain no markings other than a small team wordmark.  In 2018, the team made some slight modifications to the logo and uniform set: The shades of orange and aqua were tweaked, and navy blue was removed from the color scheme, only remaining on the logo.

Throwback uniforms.

In 2015, the Dolphins brought back their 1970s aqua uniforms for a few select games. Four years later, they brought back a white version from the same era as a second alternate uniform. The aqua throwbacks were worn during the now-famous 2018 Miracle in Miami play against the Patriots.

Fight song.

The song was written and composed by Lee Ofman. Ofman approached the Dolphins with it before the 1972 season because he wanted music to inspire his favorite team. The fight song would soon serve as a good luck charm for the Dolphins that season. The Dolphins became the first team in NFL history to record an undefeated season, going 17–0 en route to victory over the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl VII. The following season, Miami posted an equally-impressive 15–2 record and capped the season with another title, defeating the Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl VIII. The back-to-back championship runs, coupled with the popularity of the fight song amongst Dolphins fans, have ensured the song's longevity. The Dolphins revealed a new fight song by T-Pain and Jimmy Buffett featuring Pitbull on August 7, 2009 which was introduced for the 2009 NFL season. The fight song was played during the preseason home opener against the Jacksonville Jaguars on August 17, 2009, but was not played during the second preseason game against the Carolina Panthers on August 22, 2009, after being booed heavily in the first game. Furthermore, the team has preferred to play Buffett's song "Fins" after scores during the 2009 regular season instead of the traditional fight song. The Dolphins shorthand nickname, "The Fins," has been recognized and used by the team.

Cheerleaders.

The team's cheerleaders are known collectively as the Miami Dolphins Cheerleaders. The company had its debut in 1978 as the Dolphins Starbrites. (The name referred to the co-sponsor, Starbrite Car Polish.) The cheerleaders' founding choreographer was June Taylor, famed colleague of Jackie Gleason, who led the squad until her retirement in 1990.

Special Teams/Volunteer Program.

In April 2010, the Dolphins started the first Volunteer Program in the NFL. Special Teams is a unique volunteer organization created to enlist and mobilize the ongoing services of the community with the Dolphins staff, players and alumni. The mission of the Special Teams is to offer hands-on services to communities and families in need, to partner with existing organizations on worthwhile social, civic and charitable programs, to provide assistance at Miami Dolphins Foundation events, and to support community efforts in times of emergency. This program is headed by Leslie Nixon and Sergio Xiques. Since its inception, Special Teams has given over 100,000 community services hours to the South Florida and Mexico community.

Mascots.

T.D..

On Friday, April 18, 1997, the first "official" mascot of the Miami Dolphins was introduced. The 7-foot mascot made his public debut on April 19 at Pro Player Stadium during the team's draft day party. The team then made a "Name the Mascot" contest that drew over 13,000 entries covering all 50 states and 22 countries. 529 names were suggested. The winning entry was announced at the annual Dolphins Awards Banquet on June 4, 1997.

Dolfan Denny.

Denny Sym cheered on the Miami Dolphins for 33 years as a one-man sideline show, leading Miami crowds in cheers and chants in his glittering coral (orange) and aqua hat from the Dolphins’ first game in 1966 until 2000. Sym died on March 18, 2007. He was 72.

Flipper.

From 1966 to 1968, and in the 1970s a live dolphin was situated in a water tank in the open (east) end of the Orange Bowl. He would jump in the tank to celebrate touchdowns and field goals. The tank that was set up in the 1970s was manufactured by Evan Bush and maintained during the games by Evan Bush and Dene Whitaker. Flipper was removed from the Orange Bowl after 1968 to save costs and the 1970s due to stress. In "", Snowflake, a live dolphin who does special behaviors after the Dolphins score a touchdown, was the basis of the film after he is kidnapped as part of a revenge plot against Dan Marino.

Radio and television.

In August 2010, the team launched its own regional TV "network". The Dolphins Television Network comprises 10 South Florida TV stations that agreed to carry the team-produced coverage. Preseason games are broadcast on television through WFOR in Miami-Dade and Broward counties, WTVX in West Palm Beach, WBBH in Fort Myers, and WRDQ in Orlando. Longtime TV and radio personality Dick Stockton provides play-by-play commentary, with Dolphins Hall-of-Fame QB Bob Griese and former Dolphins WR Nat Moore providing color commentary. The radio broadcast team features Jimmy Cefalo providing play-by-play commentary and Joe Rose providing color commentary during preseason games, along with Griese for regular season games. Griese replaced longtime color commentator Jim Mandich, who played for the Dolphins under Don Shula. Mandich lost his fight with cancer in 2011, opening the door for Griese as his replacement. Radio coverage is provided on WQAM-AM 560 and WKIS-FM 99.9. Additionally, games can also be heard in Spanish on WNMA-AM 1210, with Raúl Striker Jr. and Joaquin Duro providing play-by-play and color commentary, respectively.  Preseason games are aired on CBS owned WFOR as does the regular season on the same station. If the team hosts an interconference opponent or plays on a Thursday night, WSVN, the local Fox affiliate will have the games being televised. When playing on Sunday night, the team's matches will be broadcast on WTVJ, the NBC O&O station.  The Dolphins' radio affiliates:

Players.

Pro Football Hall of Famers.

The Dolphins currently have ten players, and one coach enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, that have spent the majority (or entirety) of their careers, or made significant contributions with the Miami Dolphins. Three other players and four contributors that have spent only a "minor portion" of their careers with the Dolphins, and have been enshrined primarily with other teams, have also been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.

Retired numbers.

The Miami Dolphins currently have three retired jersey numbers:  The Dolphins have other numbers that have currently not been issued to any player, or are currently in reduced circulation. They include:

Miami Dolphins Individual Awards.

Miami Dolphins NFL All-Decade Team Selections.

The following are Miami Dolphins (players and/or coaches) who have been selected to an "All-Decade Team" by the Pro Football Hall of Fame selection committee. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.

Pro Bowl selections.

Many former and current Miami Dolphin players have represented the franchise in the Pro Bowl. Below is a list of current or former players that play or have played for the Miami Dolphins that have been selected to multiple Pro Bowls. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Notable Miami Dolphins selected to one Pro Bowl:

The Miami Dolphins 50 Greatest Players.

In 2015 to commemorate the Miami Dolphins 50th NFL season, the Dolphins organization announced through voting from the South Florida Media and Miami Dolphin fans the results of the 50 greatest players in Miami Dolphins franchise history. The results were announced during halftime on Monday Night Football between the Dolphins and the Giants. Here are the 50 greatest Dolphins broken down by position. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.  Offense:  Defense:  Special Teams:

The Miami Dolphins Honor Roll.

The Miami Dolphin Honor Roll is a ring around the second tier of Hard Rock Stadium that honor former players, coaches, owners and contributors who have made significant contributions to the franchise throughout their history. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.  Each of these players is honored with a placard on the facing of the upper level around Hard Rock Stadium including team founder-owner Joe Robbie. In place of a jersey number, Shula has the number 347, representing his record number of NFL coaching victories, 274 of them as Dolphins head coach.  In 1992, at the 20 year anniversary, Miami's "1972 Undefeated Team" was enshrined into the Honor Roll. At the 40 year anniversary, which enshrined former defensive coordinator Bill Arnsparger into the Honor Roll, his name went on the Honor Roll where the "1972 Undefeated Team" inductee previously and originally was enshrined, and an updated "1972 Perfect Season Team 17–0" inductee was put into one corner of Hard Rock Stadium with special placards of Super Bowl VII and Super Bowl VIII included next to it on each side.  The inductees as of 2014 include:

The Joe Robbie Alumni Plaza "Walk of Fame".

The Joe Robbie Alumni Plaza Walk of Fame was first established in 2011, designed to be all encompassing and recognize the best of the Miami Dolphins alumni, including those in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, the Honor Roll, and as well as the many other players who were among the unsung heroes and community leaders that the organization has produced. The "Walk of Fame" is located at the north end of Hard Rock Stadium, with a life size bronze statue of Joe Robbie, the original founder and owner of the Miami Dolphins from 1966 to 1989. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.  The inductees as of 2018 (by yearly class) are:

The Miami Dolphins are a professional American football team based in the Miami metropolitan area. The Dolphins compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the league's American Football Conference (AFC) East division. The club plays its home games at Hard Rock Stadium, located in the northern suburb of Miami Gardens, Florida. The Dolphins are the oldest professional sports team in Florida. Of the four AFC East teams, Miami is the only team in the division that was not a charter member of the American Football League (AFL).

Miami Dolphins je profesionální klub amerického fotbalu, který sídlí v Miami ve státě Florida. V současné době je členem East Division (Východní divize) American Football Conference (AFC, Americké fotbalové konference) National Football League (NFL, Národní fotbalové ligy). Dolphins hrají domácí zápasy na Hard Rock Stadium na severním předměstí Miami Gardens, kde mají také své tréninkové centrum v Davie.


Etymology.

The name Koryak was from the exonym word 'Korak,' meaning 'with the reindeer (kor)' in a nearby group Chukotko-Kamchatkan language. The earliest references to the name 'Koryak' were recorded in the writings of the Russian cossack Vladimir Atlasov, who conquered Kamchatka for the Tsar in 1695. The variant name was adopted by Russia in official state documents, hence popularizing it ever since.

Origin.

The origin of the Koryak is unknown. Anthropologists have speculated that a land bridge connected the Eurasian and North American continent during Late Pleistocene. It is possible that migratory peoples crossed the modern-day Koryak land "en route" to North America. Scientists have suggested that people traveled back and forth between this area and Haida Gwaii before the ice age receded. They theorize that the ancestors of the Koryak had returned to Siberian Asia from North America during this time. Cultural and some linguistic similarity exist between the Nivkh and the Koryak.

History.

The Koryak once occupied a much larger area of the Russian Far East. Their overlapping borders extended to the Nivkh areas in Khabarovsk Krai until the Evens arrived, and pushed them into their present region. A smallpox epidemic in 1769-1770 and warfare with Russian Cossacks reduced the Koryak population from 10-11,000 in 1700 to 4,800 in 1800.  Under the Soviet Union, a Koryak Autonomous Okrug was formed in 1931 and named for this people. Based on the local referendum in 2005, this was merged with Kamchatka Krai effective 1 July 2007.

Culture.

Families usually gathered into groups of six or seven, forming bands. The nominal chief had no predominating authority, and the groups relied on consensus to make decisions, resembling common small group egalitarianism.  The lives of the people in the interior revolved around reindeer, their main source of food. They also used all the parts of its body to make sewing materials and clothing, tools and weapons. The meat was mostly eaten roasted and the blood, marrow and milk were drunk or eaten raw. The liver, heart, kidneys and tongue were considered delicacies. Salmon and other freshwater fish as well as berries and roots played a major part in the diet, as reindeer flesh did not contain some necessary vitamins and minerals, nor dietary fibre, needed to survive in the harsh tundra.  Today the Koryaks also buy processed food, such as bread, cereal and canned fish. They sell some reindeer each year for money, but can build up their herds due to the large population of reindeer.  Clothing was made out of reindeer hides, but nowadays men and women often have replaced that with cloth. The men wore baggy pants and a hide shirt, which often had a hood attached to it, boots and traditional caps made of reindeer skin. They still use the boots and caps. The women wore the same as the men, but with a longer shirt reaching to the calves. Today women often wear a head cloth and skirt, but wear the reindeer skin robe in cold weather.  The Koryak lived in domed shaped tents, called "jajanga," or yaranga (from the more famous Chukchi term) similar to a tipi of the American Plains Indians, but less vertical, while some lived in yurts. The framework was covered in many reindeer skins. Few families still use the yaranga as dwellings, but some use them for trips to the tundra. The centre of the yaranga had a hearth, which has been replaced by an iron stove. Reindeer hide beds are placed to the east in the chum. They used small cupboards to store the families' food, clothing and personal items.

Transportation.

The inland Koryak rode reindeer to get around, cutting off their antlers to prevent injuries. They also fitted a team of reindeer with harnesses and attached them to sleds to transport goods and people when moving camp. Today the Koryak use snowmobiles more often than reindeer. Most inter-village transport is by air or boat, although tracked vehicles are used for travel to neighboring villages.  They developed snowshoes, which they used in winter (and still do) when the snow is deep. Snowshoes are made by lashing reindeer sinew and hide strips to a tennis racket-shaped birch bark or willow hoop. The sinew straps are used to attach the shoe to the foot.  Children learned to ride a reindeer, sleigh, and use snowshoes at a very young age.  The other Koryak were skilled seafarers hunting whales and other marine mammals.

Religion.

Koryaks believe in a Supreme Being whom they call by various names: "Ñaíñinen" (Universe/World), "Ináhitela'n" (Supervisor), "Gichol-Eti'nvila'n" (Master-of-the-Upper-World), "Gi'chola'n" (One-on-High), etc. He is considered to reside in Heaven with his family and when he wishes to punish mankind for immoral acts, he falls asleep and thus leaves man vulnerable to unsuccessful hunting and other ills. Koryak mythology centers on the supernatural shaman "Quikil" (Big-Raven), who was created by the Supreme Being as the first man and protector of the Koryak. Big Raven myths are also found in Southeast Alaska in the Tlingit culture, and among the Haida, Tsimshian, and other natives of the Pacific Northwest Coast Amerindians.

Environment.

Koryak lands are mountains and volcanic, covered in mostly Arctic tundra. Coniferous trees lie near the southern regions along the coast of the Shelekhova Bay of the Sea of Okhotsk. The northern regions inland are much colder, where only various shrubs grow, but these are enough to sustain reindeer migration. The mean temperature in winter is –25 °C (-13 °F) while short summers are +12 °C (53 °F). The area they covered before Russian colonization was 301,500 km2 (116,410 mi2), roughly corresponding to the Koryak Okrug, of which the administrative centre is Palana. Today the Koryak are the largest minority group with 8,743 people. The krai's population is now majority ethnic Russian, descendants of the Cossack colonizers.

Koryaks (or Koriak, ) are an indigenous people of the Russian Far East, who live immediately north of the Kamchatka Peninsula in Kamchatka Krai and inhabit the coastlands of the Bering Sea. The cultural borders of the Koryaks include Tigilsk in the south and the Anadyr basin in the north.

Korjaci (, souhrnné označení v korjačtině chybí) jsou malý národ ruského Dálného východu žijící v severní části poloostrova Kamčatka a na přilehlé pevnině. Etnikum zahrnuje dvě velké skupiny odlišné jak jazykově, tak i tradičním způsobem života: kočovné "Čavčuveny" (korjacky "чав’чыв’ав’", "čav’čyv’av’"), obyvatele vnitrozemí věnující se chovu sobů, a usedlé "Nymylany" (korjacky "нымылг’о", "nymylg’o"), živící se především lovem mořských savců a rybolovem. Vzhledem k výrazné odlišnosti obou skupin bývají "Nymylani" – známí také jako "Aljutoři" – někdy uváděni jako samostatná etnická skupina.


Features.

The D70 features include:  Due to its hybrid electronic/mechanical shutter, it is possible to flash synchronize the D70 and D70s beyond their published 1/500 maximum synchronization speed up to the maximum shutter speed of 1/8000.  The Nikon D70 has been considered superior to its predecessor, the D100, despite the higher price of the latter. The D70 is backward compatible with most of the older Nikkor lenses. Sigma, Tokina and Tamron are other popular lens suppliers of Nikon F-mount lenses.

D70s.

In early 2005 Nikon announced the D70s. The D70s is essentially an update of the D70, adding a larger LCD screen ( instead of ), though still having 130,000 pixels. The D70s also comes with the newer EN-EL3a battery with slightly higher capacity. While the battery performance is increased, the new version of the D70 lacks the previously included MS-D70 battery holder, which allowed users to mount three CR2 batteries in the camera in case of a dead battery (notably the adapter is not compatible with CR123 batteries). The camera is also equipped with a terminal for a proprietary remote release cable (MC-DC1).  In addition, the D70s features an increased 18 mm angle of coverage from its built-in flash; the flash on the D70 could only be used with lenses as wide as 20 mm. All other updates to the D70s are available for the D70 through a firmware update, which include improved auto-focus performance, updated menu design and updated in-camera printer support.  The Canon EOS 350D (known as the Digital Rebel XT in the US) was its then-competitor when the D70s was introduced.

The Nikon D70 is a digital single-lens reflex camera, introduced at the 2004 PMA Annual Convention and Trade Show, as Nikon's first consumer-level digital SLR, and a competitor to the Canon EOS 300D. It was often sold in a "kit package" with the Nikon 18-70mm AF-S lens. The Nikon D70 was succeeded initially by the Nikon D70s and more recently by the Nikon D80 and Nikon D90, announced on August 9, 2006 and August 27, 2008 respectively. The Nikon D70 is the first DSLR camera built by Nikon's factory in Thailand. It debuted at a price of US$999.

Nikon D70 je digitální jednooká reflexní zrcadlovka, která je na trhu od roku 2004. Byla nejčastěji prodávána v kitu s objektivem Nikon 18-70mm AF-S. Nikon D70 byl následován nejdříve značkou Nikon D70s, a ještě donedávna Nikonem D80 a Nikonem D90, oznámenými firmou 9. srpna 2006 a 27. srpna 2008.


Background.

In a May 2010 interview with Digital Spy, Burke revealed she recorded new songs with RedOne for either her second album or a re-release of her first studio album, "Overcome". However she stated she could not reveal anything until that upcoming August. Then the singer gave an interview where she acknowledged that earlier in the year twenty-four of her songs leaked as part of the forty that leaked from Syco Music, which included material from previous "The X Factor" winner, Leona Lewis. It was also revealed that an additional song, "Start Without You" leaked on 8 June 2010, a day before she would confirm that the song was, in fact, the first single from the upcoming re-release of "Overcome" on her official blog. Burke said that the leak had come from within the label and that the suspects were "two little boys in Germany, on work experience." However, Burke did not lament the leak, stating, "It's a shame when music gets put out there when it's not ready, but at the end of the day, it creates buzz and who doesn't love a bit of buzz?"

Writing and composition.

"Start Without You" is an uptempo R&B song which draws from reggae fusion and dancehall influences, with a length of three minutes and thirty-three seconds, penned by RedOne, Bilal Hajji, Savan Kotecha, and Julian Bunetta. It is infused with power pop melodies in the chorus. Many critics have noted the song's resemblance to a nursery rhyme, that is "Polly Wolly Doodle", but the mood reminds of Boney M's "Hooray! Hooray! It's a Holi-Holiday".

Critical reception.

While he stated the song wasn't "full throttle" as her past singles, Nick Levine of Digital Spy said the song was danceable, commenting it "manages to be chunky and zesty at the same time." He further complimented its dancefloor appeal, saying, "it's enough to have K.Ro fearing for her 'Commander' title," while preferring the subsequent release of uptempo songs, stating, "At this rate, Burkey's big mobiles-in-the-air moment will just have to wait." Giving the song a perfect five out of five stars review, a Popjustice writer called the song "jaunty." Fraser McAlpine of BBC Chart Blog said called the song "deliriously happy, to the point of being simple-minded, and conjures up instant images of warmth and sunshiney freedom in everyone that hears it." McAlpine also pointed out her label's wise decision to release it right at the ending of summer, with fans pining for more of the vacation season and waiting until Christmas. "FemaleFirst" said "the track is set to cause a long-lasting heat wave when it hits radio in July" and "will also be blazing club floors across the country once again." The review went on to say that the single "has cemented her place as the UK’s prime female recording artist."

Chart performance.

"Start Without You" entered the Irish Singles Chart at number five on 10 September 2010, marking Burke's fifth consecutive Top five hit in Ireland. In the UK, "Start Without You" debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart on 12 September 2010, knocking fellow "X Factor" contestant Olly Murs from the top spot with his debut "Please Don't Let Me Go". The single became the singer's fifth number one single, and her third solo number one hit. According to Music Week, in the second week at the top of the charts, the single sold 53,123 copies, the lowest single-week sales for a number-one single in the last fifteen weeks.

Music video.

Booked for shooting in June 2010, "Start Without You"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s accompanying music video was shot in July 2010, and directed by Max and Dania.  The music video of consists of three scenes, in which Burke wearing a black leotard accompanied by male dancers. Another shows Burke and semi-naked male gymnasts exercising, whilst another shows Burke donning the lace outfit singing and dancing in front of a glitter wall, while Laza Morgan does also. The video begins with Burke singing the opening line of the song and performing various dance moves. This scene is intercut by Laza Morgan who begins to perform his lines and introducing himself and Burke. The next scene shows Burke and the male gymnasts exercising/dancing in a gym then beginning a dance routine. Subsequently, in the chorus is Burke and her male dancers performing the main dance routine which is occasionally interrupted to show shots of Burke in the gym and singing in front of the glitter wall.  Popjustice said that the video "somehow manages to go beyond traditional ideas of good and bad and exists instead on a different plane where concepts of positive and negative no longer exist." Preferring "Bad Boys" to the clip, saying that the demin and motorbike were gone, Ryan Love of Digital Spy said the video must have had a tighter budget, and that the half-naked men doing gymnastics brought a whole new meaning to the word "camptastic."

Live performances and promotion.

Burke has performed the song notably many times, including at outdoor venues at "T4 on the Beach", 95.8 Capital FM's Summertime Ball, and the Midlands Music Festival, which all took place during the summer of 2010. She appeared and performed the song on televised appearances during "Alan Carr: Chatty Man", on 15 August 2010, and on "Magic Numbers". Burke also appeared at the "Help for Heroes" concert in the UK and performed the song. On 19 November 2010, Burke appeared and performed the song as part of the line up for Children In Need 2010.

"Start Without You" is a song by British recording artist Alexandra Burke. Featuring vocals from Jamaican American reggae rapper Laza Morgan, it was written by Kristian Lundin, Eddy Grant, Savan Kotecha, Julian Bunetta, and RedOne. The song is an R&B song, which incorporates reggae fusion and dancehall. According to Burke the song was inspired by her Jamaican heritage and her need for a summer song. The song came about after studio sessions booked with RedOne produced a number of new records that were going to be used for a re-release of "Overcome" or Burke's second album.

Start Without You je píseň anglické popové zpěvačky Alexandry Burke. Píseň pochází z jejího debutového alba "Overcome". Produkce se ujal producent RedOne. S touto písní jí vypomohl britský rapper Laza Morgan.


Intermembrane space of mitochondria.

Mitochondria are surrounded by two membranes, consisting of outer and inner mitochondrial membranes. These two membranes allow the formation of two aqueous compartments, which are the intermembrane space (IMS) and the matrix. Channel proteins called porins in the outer membrane allow free diffusion of ions and small proteins about 5000 daltons or less into the IMS. This makes the IMS chemically equivalent to the cytosol regarding the small molecules it contains. By contrast, specific transport proteins are required to transport ions and other small molecules across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the matrix due to its impermeability. The IMS also contains many enzymes that use the ATP moving out of the matrix to phosphorylate other nucleotides and proteins that initiate apoptosis.

Translocation.

Most of proteins destined for the mitochondrial matrix are synthesized as precursors in the cytosol and are imported into the mitochondria by the translocase of the outer membrane (TOM) and the translocase of the inner membrane (TIM). The IMS is involved in the mitochondrial protein translocation. The precursor proteins called small TIM chaperones which are hexameric complexes are located in the IMS and they bind hydrophobic precursor proteins and delivery the precursors to the TIM.

Oxidative phosphorylation.

The pyruvate generated by glycolysis and the fatty acids produced by breakdown of fats enter the mitochondrial IMS through the porins in the outer mitochondrial membrane. Then they are transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the matrix and converted into the acetyl CoA to enter the citric acid cycle.  The respiratory chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane carries out oxidative phosphorylation. Three enzyme complexes are responsible for the electron transport: NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase complex (complex I), ubiquinone-cytochrome c oxidoreductase complex (complex III), and cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV). The protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the IMS by these respiratory complexes. As a result, an electrochemical gradient is generated, which is combined by forces due to a H gradient (pH gradient) and a voltage gradient (membrane potential). The pH in the IMS is about 0.7 unit lower than the one in the matrix and the membrane potential of the IMS side becomes more positively charged than the matrix side. This electrochemical gradient from the IMS to the matrix is used to drive the synthesis of ATP in the mitochondria.

Apoptosis.

Releasing of cytochrome c from the IMS to the cytosol activates procaspases and triggers a caspase cascade leading to apoptosis.

Intermembrane space of chloroplasts.

The intermembrane space (IMS) of the chloroplast is exceedingly small, from 10-20 nm thick. Unlike the IMS of the mitochondria, the IMS of the chloroplast does not seem to have any obvious function. The translocase of the outer membrane (TOC) and the translocase of the inner membrane (TIC) mainly assist the translocation of chloroplast precursor proteins Chaperone involvement in the IMS has been proposed but still remains uncertain.The eukaryotic Hsp70, which is the heat shock protein of 70 kDa, typically localized in the cytoplasm is also found in the IMS of chloroplasts. The resulting hypothesis states that co-localization of Hsp70 is important for efficient translocation of protein precursors into and across the IMS of chloroplasts.

Intermembrane space of nuclear envelopes.

The nuclear envelope is composed of two lipid bilayer membranes that are penetrated by nuclear pores and separated by a small intermembrane space, which is often called the perinuclear space. The perinuclear space is usually about 20-40 nm wide. The perinuclear translocation of certain proteins and enzymes were studied and results showed that perinuclear space was important for genome integrity and gene regulation.

The intermembrane space (IMS) is the space occurring between or involving two or more membranes. In cell biology, it is most commonly described as the region between the inner membrane and the outer membrane of a mitochondrion or a chloroplast. It also refers to the space between the inner and outer nuclear membranes of the nuclear envelope, but is often called the perinuclear space. The IMS of mitochondria plays a crucial role in coordinating a variety of cellular activities, such as regulation of respiration and metabolic functions. Unlike the IMS of the mitochondria, the IMS of the chloroplast does not seem to have any obvious function.

Mezimembránový prostor je obecně jakýkoliv prostor mezi dvěma blízce asociovanými buněčnými membránami. Tento termín přichází v úvahu u eukaryotických buněk, a to ve třech případech:


Biography.

Early career.

Born in Pisa, he began competing internationally in 2006 and was fourteen at the European Cup 10000m and improved to tenth place in the 10000 metres at the 2006 European Athletics Championships. He won a bronze medal and a team silver medal at under-23 level at that year's European Cross Country Championships, which was held in San Giorgio su Legnano. The following year he was sixth at the 2007 European Cup 10000m in Ferrara and won the 10,000 m bronze at the 2007 European Athletics U23 Championships.  He represented Italy on the world stage for the first time in 2008, but he only managed 99th place in the senior race at the 2008 IAAF World Cross Country Championships. He had greater success at European level that year, again taking sixth in the European Cup race and finishing twelfth in the senior race at the 2008 European Cross Country Championships.  Meucci took up road running in 2009 and was fifth at the Stramilano Half Marathon with a time of 1:02:56. He returned to the track in the summer and took on the shorter 3000 metres at the 2009 European Team Championships, winning a bronze medal. Two months later he competed on the global track stage for the first time but he did not progress out of the 5000 metres heats at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics. Demonstrating his versatility over different surfaces, he was 18th at the 2009 IAAF World Half Marathon Championships on the streets of Birmingham in October (recording a personal best 1:02:43) and led the Italians to the team bronze with a ninth-place finish at the 2009 European Cross Country Championships.

European medals.

The Italian slightly improved his half marathon best with a 1:02:41 run for fifth at the 2010 Roma Ostia Half Marathon, and he ran his first full-length marathon at the Rome City Marathon soon after, where he was eleventh overall. He won his first major medal later that year at the 2010 European Athletics Championships. In the men's 10,000 m he headed to the line after winner Mo Farah, but Chris Thompson just pipped Meucci at the line, leaving the Italian with a bronze medal.  The following year he managed only eleventh in the 3000 m at the 2011 European Athletics Indoor Championships He was beaten to the 2011 national title in the 5000 m by Stefano La Rosa, but set a personal best in the 10,000 m as a guest at the UK Championships, completing the distance in a time of 27:44.50 minutes. He represented Italy in both long-distance track events at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics, coming twelfth over 10,000 m and tenth in the 5000 m. After the championships, a half marathon best (1:02:30 hours) came at the Udine Half Marathon and then he was runner-up behind Edwin Soi at the Giro al Sas 10K race. He began 2012 with a third-place finish at the Great Ireland Run.  In April 2012 he set his new personal best on 10,000 m in Palo Alto, California, with time 27:32.86 and qualified for 2012 Olympic team. A month later he ran in the UAE Healthy Kidney 10K road race in New York and was a surprise winner in 28:28 minutes – a personal best. He ran in both the 5000 m and 10,000 m at the 2012 European Athletics Championships: although he came fifth over the shorter distance, he managed a 10,000 m silver medal behind Kenyan-born Polat Kemboi Arıkan. He also doubled up at the 2012 London Olympics, where he was eliminated in the 5000 m and ranked 24th in the 10,000 m. In August he ran personal bests on the 2012 IAAF Diamond League circuit, running 7:41.74 for the 3000 m at the DN Galan and 8:28.28 minutes for the Two miles at the Birmingham Grand Prix. His season ended with two further European medals at the 2012 European Cross Country Championships, where he was the bronze medallist individually and in the team competition, alongside the race winner Andrea Lalli.  He knocked almost a minute and a half off his best at the 2013 NYC Half Marathon, coming second only to Wilson Kipsang in a time of 61:06 minutes. At the 2014 European Championships, he finished in 6th in the 10000 m and won the men's marathon. At the 2015 World Championships, he competed in the marathon, finishing in 8th place.

National titles.

He won 10 national championships at senior level.

Daniele Meucci (born 7 October 1985) is an Italian athlete who specialises in long-distance running, including track running, cross country and road running who won twenty medals at international level (seventeen at senior level and three at youth level).

Daniele Meucci (* 7. října 1985, Pisa) je italský atlet, běžec, který se věnuje dlouhým tratím, silničním a krosovým běhům.


Early life.

Eddington was born in St John's Wood in London to Albert Clark Eddington and Frances Mary (née Roberts). The family were Quakers, and Eddington was brought up by his parents with strict family values. He attended Sibford School, Sibford Ferris, Oxfordshire. In 1952, he married Patricia (née Scott).

Career.

Having registered as a conscientious objector, Eddington began his acting career as a teenager with Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA) during the Second World War. He worked for a repertory theatre company in Sheffield and made his first TV appearance in 1956 as a regular cast member of "The Adventures of Robin Hood". Initially he played minor characters, but in the fourth season (1959–60), he played Will Scarlet. He had roles in episodes of "The Avengers" (1963), "The Prisoner" (1967) and the final episode of "The Champions" (1969). He also had a supporting role in Hammer Films' "The Devil Rides Out" (1968), an episode of "Van der Valk" in 1972, and appeared as a "straight man" (substituting for regular stooge Henry McGee) in a 1976 episode of "The Benny Hill Show". He also appeared in most episodes of the ATV series "Hine" (1971). In this he played Astor Harris, a member of an arms-dealing firm named Pendles. Eddington appeared as civil servant Strand in the last series of "Special Branch" (1974).

Career peak.

Although he was an actor for all his adult life, it was not until Eddington was in his late forties that he became a household name because of his role in "The Good Life", first screened by the BBC in 1975, and written by John Esmonde and Bob Larbey. The sitcom focuses on a suburban couple who decide to give up conventionally paid work and become self-sufficient in their suburban garden. Eddington was cast as Jerry Leadbetter, a neighbour of the main characters, and Penelope Keith played his wife, Margo. Originally intended as small parts, the Leadbetters soon became essential foils for the two stars. He also appeared in a single episode of another Esmonde and Larbey sitcom, "Get Some In!" in 1977.  Eddington's profile was raised further when he played the title role of Jim Hacker in the comedy series "Yes Minister" (1980–84) and "Yes, Prime Minister" (1986–88) – said to have been Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's favourite TV programme. He was shortlisted four times for the BAFTA award for Best Light Entertainment Performance for the series, but he lost out to his co-star Nigel Hawthorne on each occasion.  During 1987 Eddington appeared as Sir Joseph Porter in "H.M.S. Pinafore" in Australia. His last roles included Guy Wheeler, a corrupt property developer in the "Minder" episode "The Wrong Goodbye" (1989); as Richard Cuthbertson alongside "Good Life" co-star Felicity Kendal in the TV dramatisation of "The Camomile Lawn" (1992); the voice of Badger in "The Adventures of Mole" and Justice Shallow in "Henry IV" (1995); a BBC adaptation of Shakespeare's "Henry IV, Part 1" and "Henry IV, Part 2". He was reunited with another "Good Life" co-star Richard Briers in a run of the play "Home" in 1994.  Eddington read extracts from Sir Winston Churchill's "A History of the English-Speaking Peoples" for the award-winning BBC Radio series "This Sceptred Isle"; he died midway through the production, and his place was taken by Peter Jeffrey.

Awards and honours.

Eddington was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1987 New Year Honours.

Final years and death.

Eddington's autobiography, "So Far, So Good", was published by Hodder & Stoughton in 1995. On 30 October 1995 (five days before Eddington's death), the BBC aired an edition of "Face to Face" in which he discussed his life, career and battle with lymphoma. On that show he was asked how he would like to be remembered:  Eddington had been diagnosed with a rare form of cancer, known as mycosis fungoides, when he was 28. The ailment was to cause his death eventually, but in the intervening four decades, Eddington and his immediate family kept his condition private. It only became public knowledge in 1994, when Eddington responded to press speculation about his darkening skin and hair loss.  Eddington died in Southwark, London, on 4 November 1995. He and Patricia, his wife of 43 years, had three sons and a daughter.

Paul Clark Eddington, (18 June 1927 – 4 November 1995) was an English actor who appeared in the television sitcoms "The Good Life" and "Yes Minister/Yes Prime Minister".

Paul Eddington (27. června 1927, Londýn – 4. listopadu 1995 Londýn) byl britský herec, známý pro své úspěšné ztvárnění rolí fiktivního ministra pro administrativní záležitosti a britského předsedy vlády Jamese Hackera v britském sitcomu osmdesátých let televize BBC "Jistě, pane ministře" a na něj bezprostředně navazujícím "Jistě, pane premiére". Je nositelem Řádu britského impéria.


Definition.

The United States Geological Survey defines the Strait of Juan de Fuca as a channel. It extends east from the Pacific Ocean between Vancouver Island, British Columbia, and the Olympic Peninsula, Washington, to Haro Strait, San Juan Channel, Rosario Strait, and Puget Sound. The Pacific Ocean boundary is formed by a line between Cape Flattery and Tatoosh Island, Washington, and Carmanah Point (Vancouver Island), British Columbia. Its northern boundary follows the shoreline of Vancouver Island from Carmanah Point to Gonzales Point, then follows a continuous line east to Seabird Point (Discovery Island), British Columbia, Cattle Point (San Juan Island), Washington, Iceberg Point (Lopez Island), Point Colville (Lopez Island), and then to Rosario Head (Fidalgo Island). The eastern boundary runs south from Rosario Head across Deception Pass to Whidbey Island, then along the western coast of Whidbey Island to Point Partridge, then across Admiralty Inlet to Point Wilson (Quimper Peninsula). The northern coast of the Olympic Peninsula forms the southern boundary of the strait. In the eastern entrance to the Strait, the Race Rocks Archipelago is located in the high current zone halfway between Port Angeles, Washington, and Victoria, BC.

Climate.

Like the rest of the Salish Sea and surrounding regions, the climate of the Strait is disputed, with the Köppen system classifying it as Mediterranean, but most regional climatologists preferring oceanic. While the climate is mostly oceanic in nature, the dry summers result in the Mediterranean classification in the Köppen system. Rainfall ranges from over (temperate rainforest) conditions at the west end to as little as at the east end, near Sequim.  Because it is exposed to the generally westerly winds and waves of the Pacific, seas and weather in Juan de Fuca Strait are, on average, rougher than in the more protected waters inland, thereby resulting in a number of small-craft advisories.

Ferries.

An international vehicle ferry crosses the Strait from Port Angeles, Washington to Victoria, British Columbia several times each day, as do passenger ferries of the Washington State Ferry system, a seasonal private ferry connecting Port Angeles with Victoria, and a private high-speed ferry between Victoria and Seattle.

Boundary dispute.

This strait remains the subject of a maritime boundary dispute between Canada and the United States. The dispute is only over the seaward boundary extending west from the mouth of the strait. The maritime boundary within the strait is not in dispute. Both governments have proposed a boundary based on the principle of equidistance, but with different basepoint selections, resulting in small differences in the line. Resolution of the issue should be simple, but has been hindered because it might influence maritime boundary issues between Canada and the United States. In addition, the government of British Columbia has rejected both equidistant proposals, instead arguing that the Juan de Fuca submarine canyon is the appropriate "geomorphic and physiogeographic boundary". The proposed equidistant boundary currently marks the northern boundary of the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary. British Columbia's position is based on the principle of natural prolongation which developed in international law. It poses a dilemma for the federal government of Canada. If Canada holds that the principle of natural prolongation applies to the Juan de Fuca Canyon on its Pacific Ocean coast, the assertion could undermine Canada's argument in the "Gulf of Maine" boundary dispute. In this Atlantic Ocean context, Canada favours an outcome based on the principle of equidistance.

Salish Sea.

In March 2008, the Chemainus First Nation proposed renaming the strait the "Salish Sea", an idea that reportedly met with approval by British Columbia's Aboriginal Relations Minister Mike de Jong, who pledged to put it before the B.C. cabinet for discussion. Making "Salish Sea" official required a formal application to the Geographical Names Board of Canada. A parallel American movement promoting the name had a different definition, combining of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound as well as the Strait of Georgia and related waters under the more general name "Salish Sea". This latter definition was made official in 2009 by geographic boards of Canada and the United States.  In October 2009, the Washington State Board of Geographic Names approved the Salish Sea toponym, not to replace the names of the Strait of Georgia, Puget Sound, and Strait of Juan de Fuca, but instead as a collective term for all three. The British Columbia Geographical Names Office passed a resolution only recommending that the name be adopted by the Geographical Names Board of Canada, should its US counterpart approve the name-change. The United States Board on Geographic Names approved the name on November 12, 2009.

Counties and regional districts.

Counties along the Strait of Juan de Fuca: Regional districts along the Strait of Juan de Fuca:

Fauna.

Certain groups of seabirds called common murre migrate north by swimming. Some Pacific Coast murres paddle north to the sheltered bays of the Strait of Juan de Fuca to feed on herring and other small fish.

Other.

Some scenes from the film "The Hunt for Red October" were filmed in the Strait of Juan de Fuca in 1989.  Douglas Coupland book Microserfs references the Strait of Juan de Fuca where the lead character's younger brother perished in a boating accident on Labor Day many years earlier.

The Strait of Juan de Fuca (officially named Juan de Fuca Strait in Canada) is a body of water about long that is the Salish Sea's outlet to the Pacific Ocean. The international boundary between Canada and the United States runs down the center of the Strait.

Úžina Juana de Fucy ("angl. Strait of Juan de Fuca, v Kanadě Juan de Fuca Strait") je velký vodní útvar, který je 153 kilometrů dlouhý a je hlavním spojením pro Strait of Georgia a Pugetův záliv s Tichým oceánem. Je také částí hranice Spojených států s Kanadou.


Discovery.

Alternative splicing was first observed in 1977. The Adenovirus produces five primary transcripts early in its infectious cycle, prior to viral DNA replication, and an additional one later, after DNA replication begins. The early primary transcripts continue to be produced after DNA replication begins. The additional primary transcript produced late in infection is large and comes from 5/6 of the 32kb adenovirus genome. This is much larger than any of the individual adenovirus mRNAs present in infected cells. Researchers found that the primary RNA transcript produced by adenovirus type 2 in the late phase was spliced in many different ways, resulting in mRNAs encoding different viral proteins. In addition, the primary transcript contained multiple polyadenylation sites, giving different 3’ ends for the processed mRNAs.  In 1981, the first example of alternative splicing in a transcript from a normal, endogenous gene was characterized. The gene encoding the thyroid hormone calcitonin was found to be alternatively spliced in mammalian cells. The primary transcript from this gene contains 6 exons; the calcitonin mRNA contains exons 1–4, and terminates after a polyadenylation site in exon 4. Another mRNA is produced from this pre-mRNA by skipping exon 4, and includes exons 1–3, 5, and 6. It encodes a protein known as CGRP (calcitonin gene related peptide). Examples of alternative splicing in immunoglobin gene transcripts in mammals were also observed in the early 1980s.  Since then, alternative splicing has been found to be ubiquitous in eukaryotes. The "record-holder" for alternative splicing is a "D. melanogaster" gene called Dscam, which could potentially have 38,016 splice variants.

Modes.

Five basic modes of alternative splicing are generally recognized.  In addition to these primary modes of alternative splicing, there are two other main mechanisms by which different mRNAs may be generated from the same gene; multiple promoters and multiple polyadenylation sites. Use of multiple promoters is properly described as a transcriptional regulation mechanism rather than alternative splicing; by starting transcription at different points, transcripts with different 5'-most exons can be generated. At the other end, multiple polyadenylation sites provide different 3' end points for the transcript. Both of these mechanisms are found in combination with alternative splicing and provide additional variety in mRNAs derived from a gene.  <br>These modes describe basic splicing mechanisms, but may be inadequate to describe complex splicing events. For instance, the figure to the right shows 3 spliceforms from the mouse hyaluronidase 3 gene. Comparing the exonic structure shown in the first line (green) with the one in the second line (yellow) shows intron retention, whereas the comparison between the second and the third spliceform (yellow vs. blue) exhibits exon skipping. A model nomenclature to uniquely designate all possible splicing patterns has recently been proposed.

Mechanisms.

General splicing mechanism.

When the pre-mRNA has been transcribed from the DNA, it includes several introns and exons. (In nematodes, the mean is 4–5 exons and introns; in the fruit fly "Drosophila" there can be more than 100 introns and exons in one transcribed pre-mRNA.) The exons to be retained in the mRNA are determined during the splicing process. The regulation and selection of splice sites are done by trans-acting splicing activator and splicing repressor proteins as well as cis-acting elements within the pre-mRNA itself such as exonic splicing enhancers and exonic splicing silencers.  The typical eukaryotic nuclear intron has consensus sequences defining important regions. Each intron has the sequence GU at its 5' end. Near the 3' end there is a branch site. The nucleotide at the branchpoint is always an A; the consensus around this sequence varies somewhat. In humans the branch site consensus sequence is yUnAy. The branch site is followed by a series of pyrimidines – the polypyrimidine tract – then by AG at the 3' end.  Splicing of mRNA is performed by an RNA and protein complex known as the spliceosome, containing snRNPs designated U1, U2, U4, U5, and U6 (U3 is not involved in mRNA splicing). U1 binds to the 5' GU and U2, with the assistance of the U2AF protein factors, binds to the branchpoint A within the branch site. The complex at this stage is known as the spliceosome A complex. Formation of the A complex is usually the key step in determining the ends of the intron to be spliced out, and defining the ends of the exon to be retained. (The U nomenclature derives from their high uridine content).  The U4,U5,U6 complex binds, and U6 replaces the U1 position. U1 and U4 leave. The remaining complex then performs two transesterification reactions. In the first transesterification, 5' end of the intron is cleaved from the upstream exon and joined to the branch site A by a 2',5'-phosphodiester linkage. In the second transesterification, the 3' end of the intron is cleaved from the downstream exon, and the two exons are joined by a phosphodiester bond. The intron is then released in lariat form and degraded.

Regulatory elements and proteins.

Splicing is regulated by trans-acting proteins (repressors and activators) and corresponding cis-acting regulatory sites (silencers and enhancers) on the pre-mRNA. However, as part of the complexity of alternative splicing, it is noted that the effects of a splicing factor are frequently position-dependent. That is, a splicing factor that serves as a splicing activator when bound to an intronic enhancer element may serve as a repressor when bound to its splicing element in the context of an exon, and vice versa. The secondary structure of the pre-mRNA transcript also plays a role in regulating splicing, such as by bringing together splicing elements or by masking a sequence that would otherwise serve as a binding element for a splicing factor. Together, these elements form a "splicing code" that governs how splicing will occur under different cellular conditions.  There are two major types of cis-acting RNA sequence elements present in pre-mRNAs and they have corresponding trans-acting RNA-binding proteins. Splicing "silencers" are sites to which splicing repressor proteins bind, reducing the probability that a nearby site will be used as a splice junction. These can be located in the intron itself (intronic splicing silencers, ISS) or in a neighboring exon (exonic splicing silencers, ESS). They vary in sequence, as well as in the types of proteins that bind to them. The majority of splicing repressors are heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins (hnRNPs) such as hnRNPA1 and polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB). Splicing "enhancers" are sites to which splicing activator proteins bind, increasing the probability that a nearby site will be used as a splice junction. These also may occur in the intron (intronic splicing enhancers, ISE) or exon (exonic splicing enhancers, ESE). Most of the activator proteins that bind to ISEs and ESEs are members of the SR protein family. Such proteins contain RNA recognition motifs and arginine and serine-rich (RS) domains.  In general, the determinants of splicing work in an inter-dependent manner that depends on context, so that the rules governing how splicing is regulated from a splicing code. The presence of a particular cis-acting RNA sequence element may increase the probability that a nearby site will be spliced in some cases, but decrease the probability in other cases, depending on context. The context within which regulatory elements act includes cis-acting context that is established by the presence of other RNA sequence features, and trans-acting context that is established by cellular conditions. For example, some cis-acting RNA sequence elements influence splicing only if multiple elements are present in the same region so as to establish context. As another example, a cis-acting element can have opposite effects on splicing, depending on which proteins are expressed in the cell (e.g., neuronal versus non-neuronal PTB). The adaptive significance of splicing silencers and enhancers is attested by studies showing that there is strong selection in human genes against mutations that produce new silencers or disrupt existing enhancers.

DNA methylation and alternative splicing in social insects.

CpG DNA methylation has showed a role to regulate the alternative splicing in social insects. In honey bees ("Apis mellifera"), CpG DNA methylation seems to regulate the exon skipping based on the first few genomic studies after honey bee genome was available. CpG DNA methylation regulated alternative splicing more extensively, not only affect exon skipping, but also intron retention, and other splicing events.

Examples.

Exon skipping: "Drosophila" "dsx".

Pre-mRNAs from the "D. melanogaster" gene "dsx" contain 6 exons. In males, exons 1,2,3,5,and 6 are joined to form the mRNA, which encodes a transcriptional regulatory protein required for male development. In females, exons 1,2,3, and 4 are joined, and a polyadenylation signal in exon 4 causes cleavage of the mRNA at that point. The resulting mRNA is a transcriptional regulatory protein required for female development.  This is an example of exon skipping. The intron upstream from exon 4 has a polypyrimidine tract that doesn't match the consensus sequence well, so that U2AF proteins bind poorly to it without assistance from splicing activators. This 3' splice acceptor site is therefore not used in males. Females, however, produce the splicing activator Transformer (Tra) (see below). The SR protein Tra2 is produced in both sexes and binds to an ESE in exon 4; if Tra is present, it binds to Tra2 and, along with another SR protein, forms a complex that assists U2AF proteins in binding to the weak polypyrimidine tract. U2 is recruited to the associated branchpoint, and this leads to inclusion of exon 4 in the mRNA.

Alternative acceptor sites: "Drosophila" "Transformer".

Pre-mRNAs of the "Transformer" (Tra) gene of "Drosophila melanogaster" undergo alternative splicing via the alternative acceptor site mode. The gene Tra encodes a protein that is expressed only in females. The primary transcript of this gene contains an intron with two possible acceptor sites. In males, the upstream acceptor site is used. This causes a longer version of exon 2 to be included in the processed transcript, including an early stop codon. The resulting mRNA encodes a truncated protein product that is inactive. Females produce the master sex determination protein Sex lethal (Sxl). The Sxl protein is a splicing repressor that binds to an ISS in the RNA of the Tra transcript near the upstream acceptor site, preventing U2AF protein from binding to the polypyrimidine tract. This prevents the use of this junction, shifting the spliceosome binding to the downstream acceptor site. Splicing at this point bypasses the stop codon, which is excised as part of the intron. The resulting mRNA encodes an active Tra protein, which itself is a regulator of alternative splicing of other sex-related genes (see "dsx" above).

Exon definition: Fas receptor.

Multiple isoforms of the Fas receptor protein are produced by alternative splicing. Two normally occurring isoforms in humans are produced by an exon-skipping mechanism. An mRNA including exon 6 encodes the membrane-bound form of the Fas receptor, which promotes apoptosis, or programmed cell death. Increased expression of Fas receptor in skin cells chronically exposed to the sun, and absence of expression in skin cancer cells, suggests that this mechanism may be important in elimination of pre-cancerous cells in humans. If exon 6 is skipped, the resulting mRNA encodes a soluble Fas protein that does not promote apoptosis. The inclusion or skipping of the exon depends on two antagonistic proteins, TIA-1 and polypyrimidine tract-binding protein (PTB).  This mechanism is an example of exon definition in splicing. A spliceosome assembles on an intron, and the snRNP subunits fold the RNA so that the 5' and 3' ends of the intron are joined. However, recently studied examples such as this one show that there are also interactions between the ends of the exon. In this particular case, these exon definition interactions are necessary to allow the binding of core splicing factors prior to assembly of the spliceosomes on the two flanking introns.

Repressor-activator competition: HIV-1 "tat" exon 2.

HIV, the retrovirus that causes AIDS in humans, produces a single primary RNA transcript, which is alternatively spliced in multiple ways to produce over 40 different mRNAs. Equilibrium among differentially spliced transcripts provides multiple mRNAs encoding different products that are required for viral multiplication. One of the differentially spliced transcripts contains the "tat" gene, in which exon 2 is a cassette exon that may be skipped or included. The inclusion of tat exon 2 in the RNA is regulated by competition between the splicing repressor hnRNP A1 and the SR protein SC35. Within exon 2 an exonic splicing silencer sequence (ESS) and an exonic splicing enhancer sequence (ESE) overlap. If A1 repressor protein binds to the ESS, it initiates cooperative binding of multiple A1 molecules, extending into the 5’ donor site upstream of exon 2 and preventing the binding of the core splicing factor U2AF35 to the polypyrimidine tract. If SC35 binds to the ESE, it prevents A1 binding and maintains the 5’ donor site in an accessible state for assembly of the spliceosome. Competition between the activator and repressor ensures that both mRNA types (with and without exon 2) are produced.

Adaptive significance.

Alternative splicing is one of several exceptions to the original idea that one DNA sequence codes for one polypeptide (the One gene-one enzyme hypothesis). It might be more correct now to say "One gene – many polypeptides". External information is needed in order to decide which polypeptide is produced, given a DNA sequence and pre-mRNA. Since the methods of regulation are inherited, this provides novel ways for mutations to affect gene expression.  It has been proposed that for eukaryotes alternative splicing was a very important step towards higher efficiency, because information can be stored much more economically. Several proteins can be encoded by a single gene, rather than requiring a separate gene for each, and thus allowing a more varied proteome from a genome of limited size. It also provides evolutionary flexibility. A single point mutation may cause a given exon to be occasionally excluded or included from a transcript during splicing, allowing production of a new protein isoform without loss of the original protein. Studies have identified intrinsically disordered regions (see Intrinsically unstructured proteins) as enriched in the non-constitutive exons suggesting that protein isoforms may display functional diversity due to the alteration of functional modules within these regions. Such functional diversity achieved by isoforms is reflected by their expression patterns and can be predicted by machine learning approaches. Comparative studies indicate that alternative splicing preceded multicellularity in evolution, and suggest that this mechanism might have been co-opted to assist in the development of multicellular organisms.  Research based on the Human Genome Project and other genome sequencing has shown that humans have only about 30% more genes than the roundworm "Caenorhabditis elegans", and only about twice as many as the fly "Drosophila melanogaster". This finding led to speculation that the perceived greater complexity of humans, or vertebrates generally, might be due to higher rates of alternative splicing in humans than are found in invertebrates. However, a study on samples of 100,000 ESTs each from human, mouse, rat, cow, fly ("D. melanogaster"), worm ("C. elegans"), and the plant "Arabidopsis thaliana" found no large differences in frequency of alternatively spliced genes among humans and any of the other animals tested. Another study, however, proposed that these results were an artifact of the different numbers of ESTs available for the various organisms. When they compared alternative splicing frequencies in random subsets of genes from each organism, the authors concluded that vertebrates do have higher rates of alternative splicing than invertebrates.

Disease.

Changes in the RNA processing machinery may lead to mis-splicing of multiple transcripts, while single-nucleotide alterations in splice sites or cis-acting splicing regulatory sites may lead to differences in splicing of a single gene, and thus in the mRNA produced from a mutant gene's transcripts. A study in 2005 involving probabilistic analyses indicated that greater than 60% of human disease-causing mutations affect splicing rather than directly affecting coding sequences. A more recent study indicates that one-third of all hereditary diseases are likely to have a splicing component. Regardless of exact percentage, a number of splicing-related diseases do exist. As described below, a prominent example of splicing-related diseases is cancer.  Abnormally spliced mRNAs are also found in a high proportion of cancerous cells. Combined RNA-Seq and proteomics analyses have revealed striking differential expression of splice isoforms of key proteins in important cancer pathways. It is not always clear whether such aberrant patterns of splicing contribute to the cancerous growth, or are merely consequence of cellular abnormalities associated with cancer. For certain types of cancer, like in colorectal and prostate, the number of splicing errors per cancer has been shown to vary greatly between individual cancers, a phenomenon referred to as transcriptome instability. Transcriptome instability has further been shown to correlate grealty with reduced expression level of splicing factor genes. Mutation of "DNMT3A" has been demonstrated to contribute to hematologic malignancies, and that "DNMT3A"-mutated cell lines exhibit transcriptome instability as compared to their isogenic wildtype counterparts.  In fact, there is actually a reduction of alternative splicing in cancerous cells compared to normal ones, and the types of splicing differ; for instance, cancerous cells show higher levels of intron retention than normal cells, but lower levels of exon skipping. Some of the differences in splicing in cancerous cells may be due to the high frequency of somatic mutations in splicing factor genes, and some may result from changes in phosphorylation of trans-acting splicing factors. Others may be produced by changes in the relative amounts of splicing factors produced; for instance, breast cancer cells have been shown to have increased levels of the splicing factor SF2/ASF. One study found that a relatively small percentage (383 out of over 26000) of alternative splicing variants were significantly higher in frequency in tumor cells than normal cells, suggesting that there is a limited set of genes which, when mis-spliced, contribute to tumor development. It is believed however that the deleterious effects of mis-spliced transcripts are usually safeguarded and eliminated by a cellular posttranscriptional quality control mechanism termed Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay [NMD].  One example of a specific splicing variant associated with cancers is in one of the human DNMT genes. Three DNMT genes encode enzymes that add methyl groups to DNA, a modification that often has regulatory effects. Several abnormally spliced DNMT3B mRNAs are found in tumors and cancer cell lines. In two separate studies, expression of two of these abnormally spliced mRNAs in mammalian cells caused changes in the DNA methylation patterns in those cells. Cells with one of the abnormal mRNAs also grew twice as fast as control cells, indicating a direct contribution to tumor development by this product.  Another example is the "Ron" ("MST1R") proto-oncogene. An important property of cancerous cells is their ability to move and invade normal tissue. Production of an abnormally spliced transcript of "Ron" has been found to be associated with increased levels of the SF2/ASF in breast cancer cells. The abnormal isoform of the Ron protein encoded by this mRNA leads to cell motility.  Overexpression of a truncated splice variant of the FOSB gene – ΔFosB – in a specific population of neurons in the nucleus accumbens has been identified as the causal mechanism involved in the induction and maintenance of an addiction to drugs and natural rewards.  Recent provocative studies point to a key function of chromatin structure and histone modifications in alternative splicing regulation. These insights suggest that epigenetic regulation determines not only what parts of the genome are expressed but also how they are spliced.

Genome-wide analysis.

Genome-wide analysis of alternative splicing is a challenging task. Typically, alternatively spliced transcripts have been found by comparing EST sequences, but this requires sequencing of very large numbers of ESTs. Most EST libraries come from a very limited number of tissues, so tissue-specific splice variants are likely to be missed in any case. High-throughput approaches to investigate splicing have, however, been developed, such as: DNA microarray-based analyses, RNA-binding assays, and deep sequencing. These methods can be used to screen for polymorphisms or mutations in or around splicing elements that affect protein binding. When combined with splicing assays, including "in vivo" reporter gene assays, the functional effects of polymorphisms or mutations on the splicing of pre-mRNA transcripts can then be analyzed.  In microarray analysis, arrays of DNA fragments representing individual exons ("e.g." Affymetrix exon microarray) or exon/exon boundaries ("e.g." arrays from ExonHit or Jivan) have been used. The array is then probed with labeled cDNA from tissues of interest. The probe cDNAs bind to DNA from the exons that are included in mRNAs in their tissue of origin, or to DNA from the boundary where two exons have been joined. This can reveal the presence of particular alternatively spliced mRNAs.  CLIP (Cross-linking and immunoprecipitation) uses UV radiation to link proteins to RNA molecules in a tissue during splicing. A trans-acting splicing regulatory protein of interest is then precipitated using specific antibodies. When the RNA attached to that protein is isolated and cloned, it reveals the target sequences for that protein. Another method for identifying RNA-binding proteins and mapping their binding to pre-mRNA transcripts is "Microarray Evaluation of Genomic Aptamers by shift (MEGAshift)".net This method involves an adaptation of the "Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment (SELEX)" method together with a microarray-based readout. Use of the MEGAshift method has provided insights into the regulation of alternative splicing by allowing for the identification of sequences in pre-mRNA transcripts surrounding alternatively spliced exons that mediate binding to different splicing factors, such as ASF/SF2 and PTB. This approach has also been used to aid in determining the relationship between RNA secondary structure and the binding of splicing factors.  Deep sequencing technologies have been used to conduct genome-wide analyses of mRNAs – unprocessed and processed – thus providing insights into alternative splicing. For example, results from use of deep sequencing indicate that, in humans, an estimated 95% of transcripts from multiexon genes undergo alternative splicing, with a number of pre-mRNA transcripts spliced in a tissue-specific manner. Functional genomics and computational approaches based on multiple instance learning have also been developed to integrate RNA-seq data to predict functions for alternatively spliced isoforms. Deep sequencing has also aided in the "in vivo" detection of the transient lariats that are released during splicing, the determination of branch site sequences, and the large-scale mapping of branchpoints in human pre-mRNA transcripts.  Use of reporter assays makes it possible to find the splicing proteins involved in a specific alternative splicing event by constructing reporter genes that will express one of two different fluorescent proteins depending on the splicing reaction that occurs. This method has been used to isolate mutants affecting splicing and thus to identify novel splicing regulatory proteins inactivated in those mutants.

Databases.

There is a collection of alternative splicing databases. These databases are useful for finding genes having pre-mRNAs undergoing alternative splicing and alternative splicing events.

Alternative splicing, or alternative RNA splicing, or differential splicing, is a regulated process during gene expression that results in a single gene coding for multiple proteins. In this process, particular exons of a gene may be included within or excluded from the final, processed messenger RNA (mRNA) produced from that gene. Consequently, the proteins translated from alternatively spliced mRNAs will contain differences in their amino acid sequence and, often, in their biological functions (see Figure). Notably, alternative splicing allows the human genome to direct the synthesis of many more proteins than would be expected from its 20,000 protein-coding genes.

Alternativní splicing (též alternativní sestřih) je jev, při němž díky různým variantám splicingu z jednoho genu vzniká více bílkovinných produktů. Po přepisu DNA v jádře prochází tzv. primární transkript RNA úpravami, v jejichž rámci se dlouhé nekódující úseky (introny) vystřihují a ostatní sekvence (tzv. exony) je možné spojit různými způsoby. Z výsledných několika RNA vytvořených od jednoho genu tak mohou být syntetizovány různé izoformy daného proteinu. To je právě způsob existence alternativního splicingu.