Duties and types of photographers.

As in other arts, the definitions of amateur and professional are not entirely categorical. An "amateur photographer" takes snapshots for pleasure to remember events, places or friends with no intention of selling the images to others.  A "professional photographer" is likely to take photographs for a session and image purchase fee, by salary or through the display, resale or use of those photographs.  A professional photographer may be an employee, for example of a newspaper, or may contract to cover a particular planned event such as a wedding or graduation, or to illustrate an advertisement. Others, like fine art photographers, are freelancers, first making an image and then licensing or making printed copies of it for sale or display. Some workers, such as crime scene photographers, estate agents, journalists and scientists, make photographs as part of other work. Photographers who produce moving rather than still pictures are often called cinematographers, videographers or camera operators, depending on the commercial context.  The term professional may also imply preparation, for example, by academic study or apprenticeship by the photographer in pursuit of photographic skills. A hallmark of a professional is often that they invest in continuing education through associations. Many associations offer the opportunity to test and exhibit acumen in order to attain credentials such as Certified Professional Photographer (CPP) or Master Photographer. While there is no compulsory registration requirement for professional photographer status, operating a business requires having a business license in most cities and counties. Similarly, having commercial insurance is required by most venues if photographing a wedding or a public event. Photographers who operate a legitimate business can provide these items.  Photographers can be categorized based on the subjects they photograph.  Some photographers explore subjects typical of paintings such as landscape, still life, and portraiture. Other photographers specialize in subjects unique to photography, including sports photography, street photography, documentary photography, fashion photography, wedding photography, war photography, photojournalism, aviation photography and commercial photography. The type of work commissioned will have pricing associated with the image's usage.

Selling photographs.

The exclusive right of photographers to copy and use their products is protected by copyright. Countless industries purchase photographs for use in publications and on products. The photographs seen on magazine covers, in television advertising, on greeting cards or calendars, on websites, or on products and packages, have generally been purchased for this use, either directly from the photographer or through an agency that represents the photographer. A photographer uses a contract to sell the "license" or use of his or her photograph with exact controls regarding how often the photograph will be used, in what territory it will be used (for example U.S. or U.K. or other), and exactly for which products. This is usually referred to as usage fee and is used to distinguish from production fees (payment for the actual creation of a photograph or photographs). An additional contract and royalty would apply for each additional use of the photograph.  The contract may be for only one year, or other duration. The photographer usually charges a royalty as well as a one-time fee, depending on the terms of the contract. The contract may be for non-exclusive use of the photograph (meaning the photographer can sell the same photograph for more than one use during the same year) or for exclusive use of the photograph (i.e. only that company may use the photograph during the term). The contract can also stipulate that the photographer is entitled to audit the company for determination of royalty payments. Royalties vary depending on the industry buying the photograph and the use, for example, royalties for a photograph used on a poster or in television advertising may be higher than for use on a limited run of brochures. A royalty is also often based on the size at which the photo will be used in a magazine or book, and cover photos usually command higher fees than photos used elsewhere in a book or magazine.  Photos taken by a photographer while working on assignment are often work for hire belonging to the company or publication unless stipulated otherwise by contract. Professional portrait and wedding photographers often stipulate by contract that they retain the copyright of their photos, so that only they can sell further prints of the photographs to the consumer, rather than the customer reproducing the photos by other means. If the customer wishes to be able to reproduce the photos themselves, they may discuss an alternative contract with the photographer in advance before the pictures are taken, in which a larger up front fee may be paid in exchange for reprint rights passing to the customer.  There are major companies who have maintained catalogues of stock photography and images for decades, such as Getty Images and others. Since the turn of the 21st century many online stock photography catalogues have appeared that invite photographers to sell their photos online easily and quickly, but often for very little money, without a royalty, and without control over the use of the photo, the market it will be used in, the products it will be used on, time duration, etc. Commercial photographers may also promote their work to advertising and editorial art buyers via printed and online marketing vehicles.

Photo sharing.

Many people upload their photographs to social networking websites and other websites, in order to share them with a particular group or with the general public. Those interested in legal precision may explicitly release them to the public domain or under a free content license. Some sites, including Wikimedia Commons, are punctilious about licenses and only accept pictures with clear information about permitted use.

A photographer (the Greek φῶς ("phos"), meaning "light", and γραφή ("graphê"), meaning "drawing, writing", together meaning "drawing with light") is a person who makes photographs.

Fotograf je člověk, který s pomocí klasického nebo digitálního fotoaparátu pořizuje fotografie. Profesionál pořizuje fotografie za účelem výdělku. Fotografem se může označovat i ten, kdo pořizuje fotografie bez fotoaparátu, například autoři fotogramů.


Simple harmonic.

The simplest mechanical oscillating system is a weight attached to a linear spring subject to only weight and tension. Such a system may be approximated on an air table or ice surface. The system is in an equilibrium state when the spring is static. If the system is displaced from the equilibrium, there is a net "restoring force" on the mass, tending to bring it back to equilibrium. However, in moving the mass back to the equilibrium position, it has acquired momentum which keeps it moving beyond that position, establishing a new restoring force in the opposite sense. If a constant force such as gravity is added to the system, the point of equilibrium is shifted. The time taken for an oscillation to occur is often referred to as the oscillatory "period".  The systems where the restoring force on a body is directly proportional to its displacement, such as the dynamics of the spring-mass system, are described mathematically by the simple harmonic oscillator and the regular periodic motion is known as simple harmonic motion. In the spring-mass system, oscillations occur because, at the static equilibrium displacement, the mass has kinetic energy which is converted into potential energy stored in the spring at the extremes of its path. The spring-mass system illustrates some common features of oscillation, namely the existence of an equilibrium and the presence of a restoring force which grows stronger the further the system deviates from equilibrium.

Damped and driven oscillations.

All real-world oscillator systems are thermodynamically irreversible. This means there are dissipative processes such as friction or electrical resistance which continually convert some of the energy stored in the oscillator into heat in the environment. This is called damping. Thus, oscillations tend to decay with time unless there is some net source of energy into the system. The simplest description of this decay process can be illustrated by oscillation decay of the harmonic oscillator.  In addition, an oscillating system may be subject to some external force, as when an AC circuit is connected to an outside power source. In this case the oscillation is said to be "driven".  Some systems can be excited by energy transfer from the environment. This transfer typically occurs where systems are embedded in some fluid flow. For example, the phenomenon of flutter in aerodynamics occurs when an arbitrarily small displacement of an aircraft wing (from its equilibrium) results in an increase in the angle of attack of the wing on the air flow and a consequential increase in lift coefficient, leading to a still greater displacement. At sufficiently large displacements, the stiffness of the wing dominates to provide the restoring force that enables an oscillation.

Coupled oscillations.

The harmonic oscillator and the systems it models have a single degree of freedom. More complicated systems have more degrees of freedom, for example two masses and three springs (each mass being attached to fixed points and to each other). In such cases, the behavior of each variable influences that of the others. This leads to a "coupling" of the oscillations of the individual degrees of freedom. For example, two pendulum clocks (of identical frequency) mounted on a common wall will tend to synchronise. This phenomenon was first observed by Christiaan Huygens in 1665. The apparent motions of the compound oscillations typically appears very complicated but a more economic, computationally simpler and conceptually deeper description is given by resolving the motion into normal modes.  More special cases are the coupled oscillators where energy alternates between two forms of oscillation. Well-known is the Wilberforce pendulum, where the oscillation alternates between an elongation of a vertical spring and the rotation of an object at the end of that spring.  Coupled oscillators is a common description of two related, but different phenomena. One case is where both oscillations affect each other mutually, which usually leads to the occurrence of a single, entrained oscillation state, where both oscillate with a "compromise frequency". Another case is where one external oscillation affects an internal oscillation, but is not affected by this. In this case the regions of synchronization, known as Arnold tongues. The latter case can lead to highly complex phenomena as for instance chaotic dynamics.

Continuous systems – waves.

As the number of degrees of freedom becomes arbitrarily large, a system approaches continuity; examples include a string or the surface of a body of water. Such systems have (in the classical limit) an infinite number of normal modes and their oscillations occur in the form of waves that can characteristically propagate.

Mathematics.

The mathematics of oscillation deals with the quantification of the amount that a sequence or function tends to move between extremes. There are several related notions: oscillation of a sequence of real numbers, oscillation of a real valued function at a point, and oscillation of a function on an interval (or open set).

Oscillation is the repetitive variation, typically in time, of some measure about a central value (often a point of equilibrium) or between two or more different states. The term "vibration" is precisely used to describe mechanical oscillation. Familiar examples of oscillation include a swinging pendulum and alternating current.

Kmitání (též oscilace nebo kmitavý děj) je změna, typicky v čase, nějaké veličiny vykazující opakování nebo tendenci k němu. Kmitající systém se často nazývá oscilátor.


Etymology.

The term dates from at least 1000 AD and derives from Old English roots expressing the idea of a "shield-troop". Some researchers have also posited this etymological relation may show the schiltron is directly descended from the Anglo-Saxon shield wall, and still others give evidence "schiltron" is a name derived from a Viking circular formation (generally no less than a thousand fighters) in extremely close formation, intended to present an enemy's cavalry charge with an "infinite" obstacle (that is, a perimeter horses refuse to breach). Matters are confused by use of this term in Middle English to clearly refer to a body of soldiers without reference to formation, including cavalry and archers. The first mention of the schiltron as a specific formation of spearmen appears to be at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298. There is, however, no reason to believe this is the first time such a formation was used and it may have had a long previous history in Scotland, as the Picts used to employ spears in block formation as the backbone of their armies.

Examples of the formation.

Circular schiltrons.

There are two recorded Scottish instances of circular schiltrons: William Wallace's army at the 1298 Battle of Falkirk, and an element of Thomas Randolph's forces on the first day of the 1314 Battle of Bannockburn.  The circular formation is essentially static. At Falkirk, the formation was fortified by driving stakes into the ground before the men, with ropes between. Charles Oman describes the formation thus: "The front ranks knelt with their spear butts fixed in the earth; the rear ranks leveled their lances over their comrades heads; the thick-set grove of twelve foot spears was far too dense for the cavalry to penetrate."

Rectilinear schiltrons.

There are numerous accounts of rectilinear schiltrons — they were employed at the battles of Glen Trool (1307), Bannockburn (the main battle), Myton (1319), Dupplin Muir (1332), Culblean (1335), Halidon Hill (1333), Neville's Cross (1346) and Otterburn (1388).  Unlike the circular schiltron, the rectilinear formation was capable of both defensive and offensive action. The offensive use of the schiltron is a tactical development credited to Robert the Bruce at Bannockburn. He had drilled his troops in the offensive use of the pike (requiring great discipline) and he was able to fight the English forces on flat, firm ground suitable for their large force of cavalry. Bruce's new tactic was a response to a crushing defeat for the Scots at Falkirk when the first recorded use of the schiltron by a Scottish army failed in the face of a combination of conscripted Welsh longbowmen, English archers and English cavalry.  Detailed descriptions of the formation are rare but those given by English chroniclers of Bannockburn demonstrate the essential features:

English examples.

The term schiltron is also used by Barbour to describe English infantry at Bannockburn. It is also used by the author of the Lanercost Chronicle to describe the English spearmen at the Battle of Boroughbridge (1322). In both cases, a rectilinear formation is being described, though that at Boroughbridge is curved, with its flanks bent back.

European parallels.

While doubtless a Scottish development, the schiltron fits into a Northern European context of infantry combat. Parallels with Scandinavian practice have already been drawn (see Etymology above) and the multiple-ranked tightly-packed infantry formations were standard across Europe during the Middle Ages.  Schiltron-like formations were also used by the Welsh troops at the battles of Orewin Bridge (1282) and Maes Moydog (1295), although this tactic was generally unsuccessful for the Welsh.  Perhaps the closest parallel is with the armies of medieval Flanders. Here too can be seen the deep blocks of fighting men, with rows of spears braced in the earth to resist cavalry. The greatest of their battles was possibly Courtrai in 1302, where the Flemings destroyed a French army of knights and foot-soldiers. The Flemings also made great use of a circular "crown-shaped" formation, similar to those used at Falkirk and Bannockburn.  A similar square formation ("formação em quadrado") of pike-armed foot soldiers was used by the English-assisted Portuguese troops against Castilian armies in the late 14th century at Aljubarrota (1385).  Another example is during the Battle of Legnano (1176) between the Milanese Army against Federico Barbarossa, in defense of the Carroccio by the Milanese armies commanded by Guido da Landriano

A schiltron (also spelled sheltron, sceld-trome, schiltrom, or shiltron) is a compact body of troops forming a battle array, shield wall or phalanx. The term is most often associated with Scottish pike formations during the Wars of Scottish Independence in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.

Schiltrony označují sevřené útvary v nichž bojovali skotští vojáci vyzbrojení kopími (kopiníci), zvláště Skotové z nížin (lowlanders). Skotové z Vysočiny (highlanders) dávali ještě dlouhou dobu přednost útoku známému již ve starověku – s mečem a štítem. Schiltrony se podobají falanze, i když neměly její hloubku ani vnitřní členění. Do jisté míry už předznamenávají způsob boje švýcarské pěchoty ve 13.-16. století. Největší úspěch měla tato taktika v bitvě u Bannockburnu. Z této drtivé porážky se Angličané poučili natolik, že mezi lety 1342 (Morlaix) a 1429 (Patay) neprohráli žádnou větší bitvu. Angličané ve stoleté válce vítězili součinností jízdy a lučištníků, někdy podporovaných velšskými vrhači oštěpů (např. v bitvě u Kresčaku chránilo pozice anglických lučištníků asi tisíc těchto vojáků).


Dissociation constant.

For reversible dissociations in a chemical equilibrium the dissociation constant "K" is the ratio of dissociated to undissociated compound where the brackets denote the equilibrium concentrations of the species.

Dissociation degree.

The dissociation degree is the fraction of original solute molecules that have dissociated. It is usually indicated by the Greek symbol α. More accurately, degree of dissociation refers to the amount of solute dissociated into ions or radicals per mole. In case of very strong acids and bases, degree of dissociation will be close to 1. Less powerful acids and bases will have lesser degree of dissociation. There is a simple relationship between this parameter and the van 't Hoff factor formula_2. If the solute substance dissociates into formula_3 ions, then  For instance, for the following dissociation  As formula_5, we would have that formula_6.

Salts.

"See also: Solubility equilibrium"  The dissociation of salts by solvation in a solution like water means the separation of the anions and cations. The salt can be recovered by evaporation of the solvent.  An electrolyte refers to a substance that contains free ions and can be used as an electrically conductive medium. Most of the solute does not dissociate in a weak electrolyte whereas in a strong electrolyte a higher ratio of solute dissociates to form free ions.  A weak electrolyte is a substance whose solute exists in solution mostly in the form of molecules (which are said to be "undissociated"), with only a small fraction in the form of ions. Simply because a substance does not readily dissolve does not make it a weak electrolyte. Acetic acid (CHCOOH) and ammonium (NH) are good examples. Acetic acid is extremely soluble in water, but most of the compound dissolves into molecules, rendering it a weak electrolyte. Weak bases and weak acids are generally weak electrolytes. In an aqueous solution there will be some CHCOOH and some CHCOO and H.  A strong electrolyte is a solute that exists in solution completely or nearly completely as ions. Again, the strength of an electrolyte is defined as the percentage of solute that is ions, rather than molecules. The higher the percentage, the stronger the electrolyte. Thus, even if a substance is not very soluble, but does dissociate completely into ions, the substance is defined as a strong electrolyte. Similar logic applies to a weak electrolyte. Strong acids and bases are good examples such as HCl, and HSO. These will all exist as ions in an aqueous medium.

Gases.

The degree of dissociation in gases is denoted by the symbol α where α refers to the percentage of gas molecules which dissociate. Various relationships between K and α exist depending on the stoichiometry of the equation. The example of dinitrogen tetroxide (NO) dissociating to nitrogen dioxide (NO) will be taken.  If the initial concentration of dinitrogen tetroxide is 1 mole per litre, this will decrease by α at equilibrium giving, by stoichiometry, 2α moles of NO. The equilibrium constant (in terms of pressure) is given by the equation;  Where p represents the partial pressure. Hence, through the definition of partial pressure and using p to represent the total pressure and x to represent the mole fraction;  However a more accurate description is provided by the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, which specifies that the "proton" H+ does not exist as such in solution but is instead "accepted" by (bonded to) a water molecule to form the hydronium ion HO.  The reaction is therefore more correctly written as and better described as an "ionization" or formation of ions (for the case when HA has no net charge). The equilibrium constant is then where <chem>[H_2O]</chem> is not included because in dilute solution the solvent is essentially a pure liquid with a thermodynamic activity of one.  K is variously named a "dissociation constant", an "acid ionization constant", an "acidity constant" or an "ionization constant". It serves as an indicator of the acid strength: stronger acids have a higher "K" value (and a lower p"K" value).

Fragmentation.

Fragmentation of a molecule can take place by a process of heterolysis or homolysis.

Receptors.

Receptors are proteins that bind small ligands. The dissociation constant "K" is used as indicator of the affinity of the ligand to the receptor. The higher the affinity of the ligand for the receptor the lower the "K" value (and the higher the p"K" value).

Dissociation in chemistry and biochemistry is a general process in which molecules (or ionic compounds such as salts, or complexes) separate or split into smaller particles such as atoms, ions, or radicals, usually in a reversible manner. For instance, when an acid dissolves in water, a covalent bond between an electronegative atom and a hydrogen atom is broken by heterolytic fission, which gives a proton (H) and a negative ion. Dissociation is the opposite of association or recombination.

Disociace je děj, při kterém dochází k štěpení komplexů, molekul nebo solí na menší molekuly, ionty nebo radikály. Tento proces je často vratný. Disociace je opačný děj k "asociaci" a "rekombinaci". U silně polárních látek je disociace podmínkou rozpouštění. U kyselin a zásad, které mohou být rozpustné i v nedisociované formě, se udává disociační konstanta, tedy poměr disociované a nedisociované formy (pro danou koncentraci). U slabých kationtů/aniontů dochází k hydrolýze.


Major works.

His major, most influential and highly cited book titled "The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism" was published in 1990 and it laid out three main types of welfare states, in which modern developed capitalist nations cluster:  It is important to note that these categories have little to do with the contemporary labels of American politics, and rather have much more to do with general political theory. The traditional examples of the three types of welfare states are the United States (liberal), Germany (corporatist-statist) and Sweden (social democratic).  Other sociologists and political scientists went on to apply his theoretical analysis to the real world. One such example is a book entitled "Real Worlds of Welfare Capitalism", written by Robert E. Goodin, Bruce Headey, Ruud Muffels, and Henk-Jan Dirven. While some critics claim Esping-Andersen's categories are becoming outdated, many political scientists are attracted by its intuitive simplicity.  In the past decade, his research has moved to demographic issues and in particular to the consequences of women's changing roles. He has, most notably, developed a multiple equilibrium framework for the understanding of changing family behaviour. See in particular his 'Families in the 21st Century and Esping-Andersen and Billari (2015) 'Retheorizing family demographic change'. "Population and Development Review (2015)"

Criticism.

The evolving nature of welfare states often makes it difficult to categorize. Arguably, many welfare states have components from some or all typologies, making them more akin to points on a continuum rather than rigid typologies, a fact Esping-Andersen acknowledges in his writings.  According to French sociologist, Georges Menahem, Esping-Andersen's "decommodification index" aggregates both qualitative and quantitative variables for ”sets of dimensions” which fluid, and pertain to three very different areas. Similarly, Menahem has concerns regarding the validity of the index, and its potential for replication.  In 1996, the Italian Social Scientist Maurizio Ferrera, further developed Esping-Andersen's Worlds of Welfare by identifying a fourth subtype of the welfare state model, the Southern European Model of Welfare.  Esping-Andersen, Gosta Families in the 21st Century (Stockholm, 2016).

Gøsta Esping-Andersen () (born 24 November 1947) is a Danish sociologist whose primary focus has been on the welfare state and its place in capitalist economies. Jacob Hacker describes him as the "dean of welfare state scholars." Over the past decade his research has moved towards family demographic issues. A synthesis of his work was published as "Families in the 21st Century" (Stockholm, SNS, 2016).

Gøsta Esping-Andersen (* 24. listopadu 1947 Næstved) je dánský sociolog a politolog zabývajíci se výzkumem sociálního státu a jeho roli v tržním kapitalismu.


History.

The city's name comes from its distance to Cagliari ("Quartum miles", Latin for “four miles”), and from the passage there of St. Helena, mother of emperor Constantine.  The first traces of human presence in Quartu are from the Prenuragic, Nuragic and Phoenician period, as attested by findings in Cepola, Geremeas, Is Mortorius and Separassiu localities. Roman findings were found near Sant’Andrea villa, a graveyard at S. Martino and a few tombs at Simbirizzi.  In the 11th century AD Sardinia was divided into four Giudicati: Quartu, which included fourteen villas, belonged to the Giudicato of Cagliari. In 1066 Quartu was given to Cagliari's archbishop and then went back to Judge Torchitorio II of Cagliari. During the Aragonese rule, Quartu suffered from famines, plague, malaria and continuous raids from Saracen pirates, following the general path of decay of the whole of Sardinia.  In 1793 the soldiers of a French fleet landed on the coast of Quartu, with the intention of conquering the whole island; the people of the city, led by Antonio Pisanu, assailed the French and repelled them after a bloody battle.  Feudalism ended in 1836 under the baron Pes di Villamarina. In 1956 Quartu Sant’Elena was upgraded to the status of “city” by the President of Italy Giovanni Gronchi.

Main sights.

There are five churches situated in the city. The most important are the churches of "Sant'Elena Imperatrice" (dating before 1589, but now in neoclassical style and recently proclaimed "Basilica"), "Santa Maria Cepola" (before 1089) and "Sant'Agata".  There is also "Sa dom’e farra", a large peasant house of the 17th century with various rooms, objects and tools used by the peasant society.  There are numerous "nuraghi" in the vicinity.

Geography.

Quartu has a long, shallow coastline. It also looks onto the pond of Molentargius, where flamingos and Sultan roosters nest.

Economy.

The economy is based on the tertiary industry. Quartu also produces excellent wines, bread and cakes. Although the city is not extremely big, there are many shopping opportunities: Carrefour, E. Leclerc-Conad, Iper Pan.

Festivities.

The most important religious festivity is dedicated to Saint Helena and is celebrated on 14 September.

Sport.

Quartu Sant'Elena has a 16,500-capacity football stadium, the Stadio Is Arenas. In the 2012–13 season, it hosted Serie A club Cagliari Calcio, whose Stadio Sant'Elia was closed that year. Quartu Sant'Elena has also a 500-capacity Marina, Marina di Capitana, with a sailing school, Scuola Italia in Vela.

Quartu Sant'Elena (), located four miles East from Cagliari on the ancient Roman road, is a city and "comune" in the Metropolitan City of Cagliari, Sardinia, Italy. It is the third biggest city of Sardinia with a population of 71,216.

Quartu Sant'Elena (sardsky Cuartu Sant'Alèni nebo Cuattu Sant'Alèni) je italská obec v oblasti Sardinie, druhá největší obec na území metropolitního města Cagliari.


Etymology.

The word "pharaoh" ultimately derives from the Egyptian compound ', * "great house", written with the two biliteral hieroglyphs'"house" and "" "column", here meaning "great" or "high". It was used only in larger phrases such as "smr pr-<unk>" "Courtier of the High House", with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace. From the Twelfth Dynasty onward, the word appears in a wish formula "Great House, May it Live, Prosper, and be in Health", but again only with reference to the royal palace and not the person.  Sometime during the era of the New Kingdom, Second Intermediate Period, "pharaoh" became the form of address for a person who was king. The earliest confirmed instance where "pr <unk>" is used specifically to address the ruler is in a letter to Akhenaten (reigned c. 1353–1336 BCE) which is addressed to "Great House, L, W, H, the Lord". However, there is a possibility that the title "pr <unk>" was applied to Thutmose III (c. 1479–1425 BCE), depending on whether an inscription on the Temple of Armant can be confirmed to refer to that king. During the Eighteenth Dynasty (16th to 14th centuries BCE) the title pharaoh was employed as a reverential designation of the ruler. About the late Twenty-first Dynasty (10th century BCE), however, instead of being used alone as before, it began to be added to the other titles before the ruler's name, and from the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty (eighth to seventh centuries BCE) it was, at least in ordinary usage, the only epithet prefixed to the royal appellative.  From the nineteenth dynasty onward "pr-<unk>" on its own was used as regularly as ḥm, "Majesty". The term, therefore, evolved from a word specifically referring to a building to a respectful designation for the ruler, particularly by the Twenty-Second Dynasty and Twenty-third Dynasty.  For instance, the first dated appearance of the title pharaoh being attached to a ruler's name occurs in Year 17 of Siamun on a fragment from the Karnak Priestly Annals. Here, an induction of an individual to the Amun priesthood is dated specifically to the reign of Pharaoh Siamun. This new practice was continued under his successor Psusennes II and the Twenty-second Dynasty kings. For instance, the Large Dakhla stela is specifically dated to Year 5 of king "Pharaoh Shoshenq, beloved of Amun", whom all Egyptologists concur was Shoshenq I—the founder of the Twenty-second Dynasty—including Alan Gardiner in his original 1933 publication of this stela. Shoshenq I was the second successor of Siamun. Meanwhile, the old custom of referring to the sovereign simply as "pr-ʕ3" continued in traditional Egyptian narratives.  By this time, the Late Egyptian word is reconstructed to have been pronounced whence Herodotus derived the name of one of the Egyptian kings,. In the Hebrew Bible, the title also occurs as ; from that, in the Septuagint,, and then in Late Latin "pharaō", both "-n" stem nouns. The Qur'an likewise spells it "firʿawn" with "n" (here, always referring to the one evil king in the Book of Exodus story, by contrast to the good king in surah Yusuf's story). The Arabic combines the original ayin from Egyptian along with the "-n" ending from Greek.  In English, it was at first spelled "Pharao", but the translators of the King James Bible revived "Pharaoh" with "h" from the Hebrew. Meanwhile, in Egypt itself, evolved into Sahidic Coptic "pərro" and then "ərro" by mistaking "p-" as the definite article "the" (from ancient Egyptian "p<unk>").  Other notable epithets are "nswt", translated to "king"; ḥm, "Majesty"; "jty" for "monarch or sovereign"; "nb" for "lord"; and "ḥq<unk>" for "ruler".

Regalia.

Scepters and staves.

Sceptres and staves were a general sign of authority in ancient Egypt. One of the earliest royal scepters was discovered in the tomb of Khasekhemwy in Abydos. Kings were also known to carry a staff, and Pharaoh Anedjib is shown on stone vessels carrying a so-called "mks"-staff. The scepter with the longest history seems to be the "heqa"-sceptre, sometimes described as the shepherd's crook. The earliest examples of this piece of regalia dates to prehistoric Egypt. A scepter was found in a tomb at Abydos that dates to Naqada III.  Another scepter associated with the king is the "was"-sceptre. This is a long staff mounted with an animal head. The earliest known depictions of the "was"-scepter date to the First Dynasty. The "was"-scepter is shown in the hands of both kings and deities.  The flail later was closely related to the "heqa"-scepter (the crook and flail), but in early representations the king was also depicted solely with the flail, as shown in a late pre-dynastic knife handle which is now in the Metropolitan museum, and on the Narmer Macehead.

The Uraeus.

The earliest evidence known of the Uraeus—a rearing cobra—is from the reign of Den from the First Dynasty. The cobra supposedly protected the pharaoh by spitting fire at its enemies.

Crowns and headdresses.

Deshret.

The red crown of Lower Egypt, the Deshret crown, dates back to pre-dynastic times and symbolised chief ruler. A red crown has been found on a pottery shard from Naqada, and later, Narmer is shown wearing the red crown on both the Narmer Macehead and the Narmer Palette.

Hedjet.

The white crown of Upper Egypt, the Hedjet, was worn in the Predynastic Period by Scorpion II, and, later, by Narmer.

Pschent.

This is the combination of the Deshret and Hedjet crowns into a double crown, called the Pschent crown. It is first documented in the middle of the first dynasty. The earliest depiction may date to the reign of Djet, and is otherwise surely attested during the reign of Den.

Khat.

The "khat" headdress consists of a kind of "kerchief" whose end is tied similarly to a ponytail. The earliest depictions of the "khat" headdress comes from the reign of Den, but is not found again until the reign of Djoser.

Nemes.

The Nemes headdress dates from the time of Djoser. It is the most common type of crown that has been depicted throughout Pharaonic Egypt. Any other type of crown, apart from the Khat headdress, has been commonly depicted on top of the Nemes. The statue from his Serdab in Saqqara shows the king wearing the "nemes" headdress.

Atef.

Osiris is shown to wear the Atef crown, which is an elaborate Hedjet with feathers and disks. Depictions of Pharaohs wearing the Atef crown originate from the Old Kingdom.

Hemhem.

The Hemhem crown is usually depicted on top of Nemes, Pschent, or Deshret crowns. It is an ornate triple Atef with corkscrew sheep horns and usually two uraei. The usage (depiction) of this crown begins during the Early 18th dynasty of Egypt.

Khepresh.

Also called the blue crown, the Khepresh crown has been depicted in art since the New Kingdom. It is often depicted being worn in battle, but it was also frequently worn during ceremonies. It used to be called a war crown by many, but modern historians refrain from defining it thus.

Physical evidence.

Egyptologist Bob Brier has noted that despite their widespread depiction in royal portraits, no ancient Egyptian crown has ever been discovered. Tutankhamun's tomb, discovered largely intact, did contain such regalia as his crook and flail, but no crown was found among the funerary equipment. Diadems have been discovered.  It is presumed that crowns would have been believed to have magical properties. Brier's speculation is that crowns were religious or state items, so a dead pharaoh likely could not retain a crown as a personal possession. The crowns may have been passed along to the successor.

Titles.

During the early dynastic period kings had three titles. The Horus name is the oldest and dates to the late pre-dynastic period. The "Nesu Bity" name was added during the first dynasty. The "Nebty" name was first introduced toward the end of the first dynasty. The Golden falcon ("bik-nbw") name is not well understood. The prenomen and nomen were introduced later and are traditionally enclosed in a cartouche. By the Middle Kingdom, the official titulary of the ruler consisted of five names; Horus, nebty, golden Horus, nomen, and prenomen for some rulers, only one or two of them may be known.

"Nesu Bity" name.

The "Nesu Bity" name, also known as Prenomen, was one of the new developments from the reign of Den. The name would follow the glyphs for the "Sedge and the Bee". The title is usually translated as king of Upper and Lower Egypt. The "nsw bity" name may have been the birth name of the king. It was often the name by which kings were recorded in the later annals and king lists.

Horus name.

The Horus name was adopted by the king, when taking the throne. The name was written within a square frame representing the palace, named a serekh. The earliest known example of a serekh dates to the reign of king Ka, before the first dynasty. The Horus name of several early kings expresses a relationship with Horus. Aha refers to "Horus the fighter", Djer refers to "Horus the strong", etc. Later kings express ideals of kingship in their Horus names. Khasekhemwy refers to "Horus: the two powers are at peace", while Nebra refers to "Horus, Lord of the Sun".

"Nebty" name.

The earliest example of a "nebty" name comes from the reign of king Aha from the first dynasty. The title links the king with the goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt Nekhbet and Wadjet. The title is preceded by the vulture (Nekhbet) and the cobra (Wadjet) standing on a basket (the neb sign).

Golden Horus.

The Golden Horus or Golden Falcon name was preceded by a falcon on a gold or "nbw" sign. The title may have represented the divine status of the king. The Horus associated with gold may be referring to the idea that the bodies of the deities were made of gold and the pyramids and obelisks are representations of (golden) sun-rays. The gold sign may also be a reference to Nubt, the city of Set. This would suggest that the iconography represents Horus conquering Set.

Nomen and prenomen.

The prenomen and nomen were contained in a cartouche. The prenomen often followed the King of Upper and Lower Egypt ("nsw bity") or Lord of the Two Lands ("nebtawy") title. The prenomen often incorporated the name of Re. The nomen often followed the title Son of Re ("sa-ra") or the title Lord of Appearances ("neb-kha").

Pharaoh (, ; "Pǝrro") is the common title of the monarchs of ancient Egypt from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BCE) until the annexation of Egypt by the Roman Empire in 30 BCE, although the actual term "Pharaoh" was not used contemporaneously for a ruler until Merneptah, c. 1200 BCE. In the early dynasty, ancient Egyptian kings used to have up to three titles, the Horus, the Sedge and Bee ("nswt-bjtj") name, and the Two Ladies ("nbtj") name. The Golden Horus and nomen and prenomen titles were later added.

Faraon (ve starší literatuře také někdy farao) je titul používaný pro starověké vládce Egypta v hebrejském a později i v řeckém prostředí. Dnes je toto slovo široce používáno právě díky použití v bibli a u řeckých a římských autorů; obvyklý originální egyptský titul byl nisut-bitej, pod vlivem řečtiny překládaný jako „král Horního a Dolního Egypta“.


Background.

The film covers through fiction real-life events like the occupation of Iraq, the execution of Daniel Pearl and the Abu Ghraib torture scandal. Nevertheless, the film's primary focus is the Hood event (), an incident on July 4, 2003 following the 2003 invasion of Iraq where a group of Turkish military personnel operating in northern Iraq were captured, led away with hoods over their heads, and interrogated by the United States military.  The arrest is infamous in Turkey as the so-called "Hood event". The soldiers were led out of their headquarters at gunpoint, with hoods over their heads and subsequently detained for sixty hours before being released, after Turkey protested to the United States. This was the first time such an incident had taken place between the two NATO allies. Though neither side ever apologized, a US-Turkish commission set up to investigate the incident later issued a joint statement of regret. In addition, US Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld wrote a letter to the Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, expressing sorrow over what had happened. Many Turks took offense at the incident while it lasted, and after it as well.

Plot.

The film opens with a fictional depiction of a real-life incident, the "Hood event". On July 4, 2003, the Turkish soldiers believe they are having an ordinary visit from their NATO allies, but a sudden change occurs, and 11 allied Turkish special forces soldiers and 13 civilians are arrested by Colonel Sam William Marshall (Billy Zane), in the northern Iraq town of Sulaymaniyah. They are forced to wear hoods while in detention, and are released some time later.  A Turkish officer named Suleyman Aslan, who was a member of the special forces troops involved in the Hood event, is unable to bear the shame of what happened, and commits suicide. Before doing so, he writes a letter saying goodbye to his friend, Polat Alemdar (Necati Şaşmaz). Alemdar is a former Turkish intelligence agent who has recently severed links to the government agency for which he worked. Determined to avenge his friend's humiliation, Alemdar travels to Iraq along with several of his colleagues, seeking vengeance on the American commander whose actions led to Aslan's suicide.  At a checkpoint, Alemdar and his team kill three Iraqi Kurdish paramilitary troops called "Peshmerge". They attach explosives to the foundation of a hotel, to which they demand Colonel Sam William Marshall, who was responsible for the hooding incident, come. When Marshall arrives, Polat wants him to put a sack over his head and to publicly leave the hotel with him, allowing journalists to take photos, taking the same insult he committed to Polat's dead friend. The group threatens to blow up the hotel unless Marshall and some of his men let themselves be led out of the hotel while hooded. Marshall refuses and brings in a group of Iraqi children as human shields. Alemdar gives in and leaves.  Marshall raids an Arab wedding on the pretext of hunting "terrorists". When the usual celebratory gunfire starts, one soldier states: "Now they are shooting, now they are terrorists"; they attack a wedding party, where a small child named Ali sticks a branch up the barrel of one of the soldiers' guns. At first, the soldier just hushes the boy away; the second time, he opens fire and afterwards looks astonished as he sees the little child dead. The rest of the soldiers panic and open fire on the wedding guests, beat up the bride, shoot the groom, the guests and children. The survivors are captured and forced into an airtight container truck and sent to Abu Ghraib prison.  En route to Abu Ghraib, an American soldier complains that the prisoners might be suffocating in the truck. One of Marshall's men then fires on the truck, spraying the detainees with bullets. "See, now they won't suffocate to death", he says. When the soldier threatens to report the incident, he is promptly shot. In Abu Ghraib, a group of American soldiers, among them the sole female Westerner in the film (a clear reference to Lynndie England and the Abu Ghraib torture scandal), is making naked human pyramids from those arrested in the wedding, aided by an Arab interpreter. The prisoners are washed with high pressure nozzles in what appears to be cattle stalls.  In a later scene, the execution of a Western journalist by Iraqi rebels is about to take place, but the sheikh Abdurrahman Halis Karkuki, who is esteemed by the rebels, prevents it, and offers the journalist the opportunity to kill the rebel who was about to kill him. The rebel does not resist, but the journalist declines the offer. Thereafter, the bride who survived the earlier massacre, Leyla, wants revenge by becoming a suicide bomber, but is talked out of it by the Sheikh. Leyla hurries to a market to stop her brother-in-law Abu Ali, the father of the child killed at the wedding, from blowing himself up in the place where Col. Marshall is having a meeting, but she arrives too late. Alemdar and his men, who are there to assassinate Marshall, are led to safety by Leyla.  Alemdar and his team then attempt to kill Marshall again by rigging a bomb in a piano (which once belonged to Saddam Hussein) that is being delivered to Marshall as a gift. The bomb explodes prematurely, and Marshall survives. Alemdar and Leyla then go to a mosque, to meet the sheikh. Marshall tracks them down, however, and a big firefight ensues. The entire village and mosque are destroyed by heavy gunfire. Together they manage to kill Marshall, but Leyla is also killed by Marshall.

Controversy.

The film upset some viewers for its heavy and incriminating subject matter. Some have criticized it for alleged stereotyping and "black and white" portrayal of the opposing forces. The controversy arises mainly from the following scenes:

Scriptwriter and director point of view.

The film's scriptwriter Bahadir Ozdener has defined the film by saying:  The movie's director, Serdar Akar, went further and said the film was supposed to promote a dialogue between religions.

Valley of the Wolves: Iraq () is a 2006 Turkish action film directed by Serdar Akar and starring Necati Şaşmaz, Billy Zane and Ghassan Massoud. The story concerns a Turkish commando team which goes to Iraq to track down the US military commander responsible for the Hood event.

Údolí vlků (v tureckém originále Kurtlar Vadisi: Irak) je turecký akční film, natočený podle stejnojmenného seriálu. Je to jeden z nejnákladnějších filmů v historii země.


Triggers in DBMS.

Below follows a series of descriptions of how some popular DBMS support triggers.

Oracle.

In addition to triggers that fire (and execute PL/SQL code) when data is modified, Oracle 10g supports triggers that fire when schema-level objects (that is, tables) are modified and when user logon or logoff events occur.

Schema-level triggers.

The four main types of triggers are:

System-level triggers.

From Oracle 8i, database events - logons, logoffs, startups - can fire Oracle triggers.

Microsoft SQL Server.

A list of all available firing events in Microsoft SQL Server for DDL triggers is available on Microsoft Docs.  Performing conditional actions in triggers (or testing data following modification) is done through accessing the temporary "Inserted" and "Deleted" tables.

PostgreSQL.

Introduced support for triggers in 1997. The following functionality in was previously not implemented in PostgreSQL:  Synopsis:

Firebird.

Firebird supports multiple row-level, BEFORE or AFTER, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE (or any combination of thereof) triggers per table, where they are always "in addition to" the default table changes, and the order of the triggers relative to each other can be specified where it would otherwise be ambiguous (POSITION clause.) Triggers may also exist on views, where they are always "instead of" triggers, replacing the default updatable view logic. (Before version 2.1, triggers on views deemed updatable would run in addition to the default logic.)  Firebird does not raise mutating table exceptions (like Oracle), and triggers will by default both nest and recurse as required (SQL Server allows nesting but not recursion, by default.) Firebird's triggers use NEW and OLD context variables (not Inserted and Deleted tables,) and provide UPDATING, INSERTING, and DELETING flags to indicate the current usage of the trigger. BEGIN END As of version 2.1, Firebird additionally supports the following database-level triggers:  Database-level triggers can help enforce multi-table constraints, or emulate materialized views. If an exception is raised in a TRANSACTION COMMIT trigger, the changes made by the trigger so far are rolled back and the client application is notified, but the transaction remains active as if COMMIT had never been requested; the client application can continue to make changes and re-request COMMIT.  Syntax for database triggers: BEGIN END

MySQL/MariaDB.

Limited support for triggers in the MySQL/MariaDB DBMS was added in the 5.0 version of MySQL, launched in 2005.  As of version 8.0, they allow for DDL (Data Definition Language) triggers and for DML (Data Manipulation Language) triggers. They also allow either type of DDL trigger (AFTER or BEFORE) to be used to define triggers. They are created by using the clause "CREATE TRIGGER" and deleted by using the clause "DROP TRIGGER". The statement called upon an event happens is defined after the clause "FOR EACH ROW", followed by a keyword ("SET" or "BEGIN"), which indicates whether what follows is an expression or a statement respectively.

IBM DB2 LUW.

IBM DB2 for distributed systems known as DB2 for LUW (LUW means Linux, Unix, Windows) supports three trigger types: Before trigger, After trigger and Instead of trigger. Both statement level and row level triggers are supported. If there are more triggers for same operation on table then firing order is determined by trigger creation data. Since version 9.7 IBM DB2 supports autonomous transactions.  Before trigger is for checking data and deciding if operation should be permitted. If exception is thrown from before trigger then operation is aborted and no data are changed. In DB2 before triggers are read only — you can't modify data in before triggers. After triggers are designed for post processing after requested change was performed. After triggers can write data into tables and unlike some other databases you can write into any table including table on which trigger operates. Instead of triggers are for making views writeable.  Triggers are usually programmed in SQL PL language.

SQLite.

CREATE [TEMP | TEMPORARY] TRIGGER [IF NOT EXISTS] [database_name.] trigger_name [BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF] {DELETE | INSERT | UPDATE [OF column_name [, column_name]...]} BEGIN END  SQLite only supports row-level triggers, not statement-level triggers.  Updateable views, which are not supported in SQLite, can be emulated with INSTEAD OF triggers.

XML databases.

An example of implementation of triggers in non-relational database can be Sedna, that provides support for triggers based on XQuery. Triggers in Sedna were designed to be analogous to triggers, but natively base on XML query and update languages (XPath, XQuery and XML update language).  A trigger in Sedna is set on any nodes of an XML document stored in database. When these nodes are updated, the trigger automatically executes XQuery queries and updates specified in its body. For example, the following trigger cancels person node deletion if there are any open auctions referenced by this person:

Row and statement level triggers.

To understand how trigger behavior works, you need to be aware of the two main types of triggers; these are Row and Statement level triggers. The distinction between the two is how many times the code within the trigger is executed, and at what time.  Suppose you have a trigger that is made to be called on an UPDATE to a certain table. Row level triggers would execute once for each row that is affected by the UPDATE. It is important to keep in mind if no rows are affected by the UPDATE command, the trigger will not execute any code within the trigger. Statement level triggers will be called once regardless of how many rows are affected by the UPDATE. Here it is important to note that even if the UPDATE command didn't affect any rows, the code within the trigger will still be executed once.  Using the BEFORE and AFTER options determine when the trigger is called. Suppose you have a trigger that is called on an INSERT to a certain table. If your trigger is using the BEFORE option, the code within the trigger will be executed before the INSERT into the table occurs. A common use of the BEFORE trigger is to verify the input values of the INSERT, or modify the values accordingly. Now let's say we have a trigger that uses AFTER instead. The code within the trigger is executed after the INSERT happens to the table. An example use of this trigger is creating an audit history of who has made inserts into the database, keeping track of the changes made. When using these options you need to keep a few things in mind. The BEFORE option does not allow you to modify tables, that is why input validation is a practical use. Using AFTER triggers allows you to modify tables such as inserting into an audit history table.  When creating a trigger to determine if it is statement or row level simply include the FOR EACH ROW clause for a row level, or omit the clause for a statement level. Be cautious of using additional INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE commands within your trigger, because trigger recursion is possible, causing unwanted behavior. In the examples below each trigger is modifying a different table, by looking at what is being modified you can see some common applications of when different trigger types are used.  Here is an Oracle syntax example of a row level trigger that is called AFTER an update FOR EACH ROW affected. This trigger is called on an update to a phone book database. When the trigger is called it adds an entry into a separate table named phone_book_audit. Also take note of triggers being able to take advantage of schema objects like sequences, in this example audit_id_sequence.nexVal is used to generate unique primary keys in the phone_book_audit table. CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER phone_book_audit BEGIN END; Now calling an UPDATE on the phone_book table for people with the last name 'Jones'.  UPDATE phone_book SET phone_number = '111-111-1111' WHERE last_name = 'Jones';  G Notice that the phone_number_audit table is now populated with two entries. This is due to the database having two entries with the last name of 'Jones'. Since the update modified two separate row values, the created trigger was called twice; once after each modification.

After - statement-level trigger.

An Oracle syntax statement trigger that is called after an UPDATE to the phone_book table. When the trigger gets called it makes an insert into phone_book_edit_history table  CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER phone_book_history BEGIN END; Now lets do exactly the same update as the above example, however this time we have a statement level trigger. UPDATE phone_book SET phone_number = '111-111-1111' WHERE last_name = 'Jones';  You can see that the trigger was only called once, even though the update did change two rows.

Before each - row-level trigger.

In this example we have a BEFORE EACH ROW trigger that modifies the INSERT using a WHEN conditional. If the last name is larger than 10 letters, using the SUBSTR function we change the last_name column value to an abbreviation. CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER phone_book_insert BEGIN END; Now lets perform an INSERT of someone with a large name.  INSERT INTO phone_book VALUES (6, 'VeryVeryLongLastName', 'Erin', 'Minneapolis', 'MN', '989 University Drive', '123-222-4456', 55408, TO_DATE('11/21/1991', 'MM/DD/YYYY'));  You can see that the trigger worked, modifying the value of the INSERT before it was executed.

Before - statement-level trigger.

Using a BEFORE statement trigger is particularly useful when enforcing database restrictions. For this example I am going to enforce a restriction upon someone named "SOMEUSER" on the table phone_book. CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER hauschbc BEGIN END; Now when "SOMEUSER" is logged in after attempting any INSERT this error message will show:  Custom errors such as this one has a restriction on what the num variable can be defined as. Because of the numerous other pre-defined errors this variable must be in the range of -20000 to -20999.

A database trigger is procedural code that is automatically executed in response to certain events on a particular table or view in a database. The trigger is mostly used for maintaining the integrity of the information on the database. For example, when a new record (representing a new worker) is added to the employees table, new records should also be created in the tables of the taxes, vacations and salaries. Triggers can also be used to log historical data, for example to keep track of employees' previous salaries.

Trigger (česky spoušť) v databázi definuje činnosti, které se mají provést v případě definované události nad databázovou tabulkou. Definovanou událostí může být například vložení nebo smazání dat. Jednoduchá spoušť, která se má provést před vložením nového záznamu do tabulky může mít v SQL zápis: Tato spoušť před vložením dat do "jmeno_tabulky" provede příkazy vložené mezi BEGIN a END. Kód triggerů lze spouštět i v jiných okamžicích (viz dále). Pokud je spouštěný příkaz jen jeden, mohou být klíčová slova BEGIN a END vynechána.


Biography.

Oleksa was born in the Hutsul village of Pechenizhyn in the Carpathian Mountains in the early 18th century. He became the leader of his own band that consisted of almost 50 members ("leheni"). Popular tradition portrays him as a protector to the poor people of the region. There are few written references left of him and his activities.  The many folk songs and the few prose legends that still survive in Prykarpattia portray him as a local hero who robbed the rich and helped the poor serfs, like the legendary Robin Hood. His residence is believed to be located near the city of Bolekhiv in Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast. It is a rock complex that is called the Rocks of Dovbush which was nominated in the seven historical and seven natural wonders of Ukraine. Dovbush's deeds became so admired that the tales of his acts spread beyond the Hutsul region to the neighboring Pokuttia and Podillya regions of western Ukraine. His portraits were sold at local market places. He was feared by Polish szlachta (landowning nobility). Once, a military expedition of 2000 soldiers, headed by Polish magnate Józef Potocki, was sent to stop his activities. Nonetheless, he could not be captured. Dovbush was shot and mortally wounded by one Stefan, the husband of his lover Dzvinka, in 1745.  According to Hassidic legend, Dovbush at one time hid in the house of Baal Shem Tov and gave him his pipe as a token of friendship.

Legacy.

After his death, his legacy was extended by several of his companions and/or people that idolized him: Vasyl Bayurak (a memorial plate is erected in Ivano-Frankivsk that mentions of his execution), Maksym Zalizniak, Ustym Karmaliuk, and many others.  His legend entered Ukrainian folklore and was the subject of various artistic works, by, among others, the writers Ivan Franko and Yuriy Fedkovych. A film was made about him, and there are streets and locations named after him.

Oleksa Dovbush () (born 1700, Pechenizhyn Kolomyia— died 24 August 1745) was a famous Ukrainian outlaw, leader of opryshky, who became a folk hero, often compared to Robin Hood.

Oleksa Dovbuš (1700 Pečenižyn – 24. srpna 1745 pevnost Kosmač) se proslavil jako podkarpatský, resp. ukrajinský zbojník, hrdina, který se, podobně jako o dvě století později Nikola Šuhaj, stal legendou. Jeho osud podnítil lidskou fantazii a díky ústní lidové tradici (a její zapsané formě) je Dovbuš dosud živým fenoménem.


Early years.

Alberto Tomba was born in Bologna and raised in Castel de Britti, a village in the municipality of San Lazzaro di Savena – an area without strong alpine traditions, but not far from the appenninic piste of Monte Cimone and Corno alle Scale. His father Franco, a businessman in the textile industry, had been a keen skier since attending college in Switzerland and passed his love of the sport to his sons, driving Alberto and his older brother Marco from their home to Sestola so they could ski. Alberto learned to ski at the age of three and started racing at the age of seven. As a child, he participated in sports like tennis, soccer, and dirt biking, but he found that his greatest passion was for skiing.  In 1984 he took part in the Junior World Championships, where a fourth-place finish won him a position on the national B team. That year, in an exhibition parallel slalom competition in San Siro, Milan, he surprised everyone by beating every member of the A team. After three wins on the Europa Cup circuit, Tomba made his World Cup debut in December 1985 at Madonna di Campiglio, Italy, three days before his nineteenth birthday. Two months later, in Åre, Sweden, he surprised the skiing world by finishing sixth from a bib number of 62. His first podium came the following season in Alta Badia, Italy in December 1986, and later that winter he won bronze in the giant slalom at the 1987 World Championships in Crans-Montana, Switzerland - the only medal won by the Italian team at that World Championships.

Rise to fame.

On 27 November 1987, Tomba scored his first World Cup victory, in a slalom at Sestriere, Italy. Two days later he won the giant slalom, beating his idol, Ingemar Stenmark. It was now clear that Tomba was a force to be reckoned with within the alpine skiing world.  He went on to win nine races that 1988 season, including a slalom win at Madonna di Campiglio where he beat the second-placed finisher by 1.34 seconds, shouting "I am the new messiah of skiing!" as he crossed the finish line. He won that year's World Cup titles in both slalom and giant slalom, but was runner-up in the overall standings to Pirmin Zurbriggen of Switzerland. During this early part of his career, Tomba also competed in super G, an event he would continue to contest until 1989, despite never finishing better than fourth.  At the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Tomba won gold medals in slalom and giant slalom. In the first run of the GS, he finished an impressive 1.14 seconds ahead of his nearest competitor. "Tomba la Bomba" ("Tomba the Bomb"), as he was known, also earned some notoriety by asking out East German figure skater Katarina Witt, whom he met again later on.  Tomba was not as successful in the following two seasons, winning a total of four World Cup races. At the 1989 World Championships in Vail, Colorado, he could do no better than sixth place in the super G and seventh in the giant slalom. From 1989 to the end of his career, Tomba was surrounded by his own technical staff managed by former Olympic champion Gustav Thöni and strength and conditioning coach Giorgio d'Urbano, who worked with him for ten seasons.  Tomba was temporarily put out of action in 1990 when he crashed in a World Cup race in Val-d'Isère, breaking his collarbone. However, in the 1991 season, Tomba returned to his winning ways, winning the giant slalom World Cup title for a second time while finishing fourth in the slalom standings. He ended 4th in slalom at the 1991 World Championships at Saalbach-Hinterglemm (Austria) and crashed in the second giant slalom run after having clocked the fastest time in the first leg, handing the victory to Austria's Rudolf Nierlich, the two-time winner at Vail, Colorado, two years earlier. In September 1991, he also met former Miss Italy, Martina Colombari, whom he dated for several years.  Tomba's career reached its second peak during the 1992 season with nine victories and fifteen podiums, and he once again captured the season-long discipline titles in both his technical specialties. His duel with Paul Accola for the overall World Cup crown extended until the very end of the season and the Finals at Crans-Montana, but the Swiss skier scoring points in all disciplines including downhill and combined ultimately prevailed. At the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, France, Tomba won what was to be his last gold medal at Val d'Isère, in the giant slalom, and picked up a silver in the slalom. In Val d'Isère, he became the first alpine champion to successfully defend an Olympic title when he won the giant slalom ahead of Marc Girardelli.  The 1993 World Championships, held in Morioka, Japan, again proved to be his nemesis. Tomba was suffering from a fever during the giant slalom and made a critical mistake in the slalom, failing to reach the podium in either race. To make matters worse, he only managed to win a single World Cup race in the entire 1993 season.

Overall World Cup champion.

Tomba was back to his usual ways at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway. After his slalom run, he was seemingly out of medal contention, (placed 12th) 1.84 seconds behind leader Thomas Stangassinger (and 1.00 behind place 3, Peter Roth), but in the second run he recovered to second place and won the silver medal.  It soon became apparent that the 1995 World Cup season would be his best yet. From December 1994 to March 1995, he amassed an impressive 11 victories in the technical events including seven in a row in slalom to finally capture the overall World Cup title that had eluded him in years past and bringing the Crystal Globe back to Italy, twenty years after Gustav Thöni's last title in 1975.  At the 1996 World Championships, Tomba finally added the final missing pieces to his trophy case, winning two gold medals at Sierra Nevada, Spain. His GS victory came thanks to a second-run rally from 0.81 seconds behind.  After the 1996 World Championships, Tomba began contemplating retirement. He decided to come back for one more World Championship, held in 1997 on his home snow in Sestriere. He was disqualified in the giant slalom and had a disappointing first run in the slalom, but an excellent second run was good enough for his last major medal, a bronze. He decided to continue competing for one more year.  Tomba's performance at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano was a sign that his career was winding to a close: for the first time in his Olympic career, he failed to medal after crashing in giant slalom. He suffered a painful injury and was not able to start in the second slalom run after losing much time in the first leg.  Alberto Tomba retired at the end of the 1998 season, but not before winning a last World Cup race at the Finals at Crans-Montana where he grabbed the slalom, becoming the only alpine male skier to have won at least one World Cup race per year for 11 consecutive seasons.

Later in life.

At the 2006 Winter Olympics Opening Ceremony in Turin, Tomba brought the Olympic Flame into the stadium where he handed it off to the men's 4 × 10 km gold medalists from the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer (De Zolt, Albarello, Vanzetta, Fauner). During the 2010 edition of "Sport Movies & TV - Milano International FICTS Fest" he was awarded with "Excellence Guirlande D'Honneur" and entered in the FICTS "Hall of Fame".

Alberto Tomba (born 19 December 1966 in San Lazzaro di Savena) is a former World Cup alpine ski racer from Italy. He was the dominant technical skier (slalom and giant slalom) in the late 1980s and 1990s. At 6 ft tall and 90 kg, his powerful build was a contrast to the lighter, more traditional technical skiers who prioritised agility over muscle. Tomba was able to take advantage of the introduction of spring-loaded ski gates which replaced the older, solid gates in the early 1980s by using his power to maintain a faster, more direct line through courses. Tomba won three Olympic gold medals, two World Championships, and nine World Cup season titles: four in slalom, four in giant slalom, and one overall title. He was popularly called "Tomba la Bomba" ("Tomba the Bomb").

Alberto Tomba (* 19. prosinec 1966, Castel De Britti, Bologna) je italský lyžař, specialista na slalom a obří slalom, olympijský vítěz, mistr světa a držitel velkého i malého křišťálového glóbu.


History.

Toponymy.

Camden Town is named after Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden. His earldom was styled after his estate, Camden Place near Chislehurst in Kent (now in the London Borough of Bromley), formerly owned by historian William Camden. The name, which appears on the Ordnance Survey map of 1822, was later applied to the early-20th-century Camden Town Group of artists and the London Borough of Camden, created in 1965.

Urban development.

Camden Town stands on land that was once the manor of Kentish Town. Sir Charles Pratt, a radical 18th-century lawyer and politician, acquired the manor through marriage. In 1791, he started granting leases for houses to be built in the manor. In 1816, the Regent's Canal was built through the area. Up to at least the mid-20th century, Camden Town was considered an "unfashionable" locality. The Camden markets, which started in 1973 and have grown since then, attract many visitors. A 1993 bomb blast injured 18 people on Camden High Street. On 9 February 2008, Camden Canal market suffered a major fire, but there were no injuries. It later reopened as Camden Lock Village, until closed in 2015 for redevelopment.

Governance.

Camden Town, previously in the Metropolitan Borough of St Pancras, became part of the London Borough of Camden when it was created in 1965.

Political constituencies.

Camden Town is contained in the following political constituencies for different purposes, listed with some incumbents :

Council wards.

The area is largely covered by the Camden Town with Primrose Hill ward. As of 2020, Camden's wards are being reviewed and this ward will be abolished or have its boundary redrawn.

Geography.

Camden Town is on relatively flat ground at above sea level, north-northwest of Charing Cross. To the north are the hills of Hampstead and Highgate. The culverted, subterranean River Fleet flows from its source on Hampstead Heath through Camden Town south to the Thames. The Regent's Canal runs through the north of Camden Town.

Economy.

At the end of the 20th century, entertainment-related businesses began moving into the area, and a Holiday Inn was built abutting the canal. A number of retail and food chain outlets replaced independent shops, driven out by high rents and redevelopment. Restaurants with a variety of culinary traditions thrived, many of them near the markets, on Camden High Street and its side streets, Parkway, Chalk Farm Road, and Bayham Street. The plan to redevelop the historic Stables Market led to a steel and glass extension, built on the edges of the site in 2006, and increased the market's capacity.

Camden street markets.

Camden is well known for its markets. These date from 1974 or later, except for Inverness Street market, for over a century a small food market serving the local community, though by 2013 all foodstuff and produce stalls had gone and only touristy stalls remained. Camden Lock market proper started in a former timber yard in 1973, and is now surrounded by five more markets: Buck Street market, Stables market, Camden Lock village, and an indoor market in the Electric Ballroom. The markets are a major tourist attraction at weekends, selling goods of all types, including fashion, lifestyle, books, food, junk/antiques and more bizarre items; they and the surrounding shops are popular with young people, in particular, those searching for "alternative" clothing. While originally open on Sundays only, market activity later extended throughout the week, though concentrating on weekends.

Transport.

London Underground.

Camden Town Tube station is near the markets and other attractions. It is a key interchange station for the Bank and Charing Cross branches of the southbound Northern Line, and the Edgware and High Barnet branches of the northbound Northern Line. The station was not designed to cope with the volume of traffic it handles since the area increased in popularity. It is very crowded at weekends, and,, is closed to outbound passengers on Sunday afternoons for safety reasons.  London Underground has made many proposals to upgrade the station. In 2004 a proposal requiring the compulsory purchase and demolition of 'the Triangle'—land bordered by Kentish Town Road, Buck Street and Camden High Street—was rejected by Camden Council after opposition from local people; of 229 letters, only two supported the scheme. and tube stations also serve the area. It was later planned to redevelop the station entirely between 2020 and 2024/5, with less demolition than proposed previously, but the redevelopment was postponed in December 2018 by TfL "until we have the funds we need".  Camden Town tube station is exit-only at times when market-related traffic would cause dangerous overcrowding on the narrow platforms; on Sundays from 13:00 to 17:30. At these times, alternative stations within walking distance are Mornington Crescent, Chalk Farm, and Kentish Town.

Rail.

is a London Overground station at the corner of Royal College Street and Camden Road. It is on the line from Richmond in the West to Stratford station in the East. The nearest National Rail station is on the Thameslink route on the Midland Main Line. St Pancras and Euston terminals are both within 20 minutes' walk of Camden Town.

Roads.

The area is a major hub for London Buses. Parts of the A503 (Camden Road) and A400 (Camden High Street and Camden Street) are designated as red routes on which vehicles may not stop for any reason, managed by Transport for London rather than the borough. Black taxis ply for hire in the area and there are minicab offices.

Cycling.

Transport for London and Camden Council both provide and maintain cycling infrastructure in Camden Town. Segregated cycle tracks run alongside Royal College Street to the east of Camden Town, past Camden Road railway station. Royal College Street is also part of Quietway 1, which links Camden Town to the rest of London's cycle network at King's Cross, Covent Garden and Kentish Town.  The Regent's Canal towpath is a shared-use path maintained by the Canal and River Trust. The towpath links Camden Town to Angel and King's Cross to the east, and Regent's Park and Maida Vale in the west.  The London-wide Santander Cycles cycle hire scheme operates in Camden Town. There are several docking stations, including at Camden Road railway station (Bonny Street) and Camden Town tube station (Greenland Road).  Cycle counters on Royal College Street to the north of Camden Road railway station recorded over 375,000 journeys between August 2017 and July 2018.

Regent's Canal.

Regent's Canal runs through the north end of Camden Town. Canal boat trips along the canal from Camden Lock are popular, particularly in summer. Many of the handrails by the bridges show deep marks worn by the towropes by which horses pulled canal barges until the 1950s, and it is still possible to see ramps on the canal bank designed to assist horses that fell in the canal after being startled by the noise of a train. Camden Lock is a regularly used traditional manually operated double canal lock operating between widely separated levels. A large complex of weekend street markets operates around the Lock. The towpath is a pedestrian and cycle route which runs continuously from Little Venice through Camden Lock to the Islington Tunnel. A regular waterbus service operates along the Regent's Canal from Camden Lock. Boats depart every hour during the summer, heading westward around Regent's Park, calling at London Zoo and on towards Maida Vale. Sightseeing narrow-boat trips run from Camden Lock to Little Venice.

Media.

National.

To the north of Camden Town station and running along the canal is a modern pop art complex designed by Terry Farrell as the studios of the former TV-am, now used by MTV but retaining TV-am's eggcup sculptures along the roof line. Associated Press Television News has its head office in a former gin warehouse near Camden Lock called "The Interchange".

Local.

The "Camden New Journal" is a free, independent weekly newspaper that covers the London Borough of Camden.

Camden Town (), often shortened to Camden (also the name for the borough it is in), is a district of northwest London, England, north of Charing Cross. Historically in Middlesex, it is the administrative centre of the London Borough of Camden, and identified in the London Plan as one of 34 major centres in Greater London.

Camden Town je oblast v londýnském městském obvodu Camden. Leží 3,7 km na severozápad od Charing Cross. Tato oblast je známá pro své trhy, bary, hudební kluby a jako centrum alternativních stylů a subkultury.