History.

At the end of World War II the original technical drawings and data for the 7.92×57mm Mauser chambered MG 42 were captured by the Soviets. These would eventually find their way to Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. Rheinmetall had to reverse engineer the first postwar machine guns from an original MG 42 machine gun.  Production of the first postwar variant of the MG 42 chambered for 7.62×51mm NATO ammunition (designated the MG 1) was launched in 1958 at the Rheinmetall arms factory as requested by the Bundeswehr. Shortly thereafter, the machine gun was modified, receiving a chrome-lined barrel and sights properly calibrated for the new round; this model would be named the MG 1A1 (known also as the MG 42/58).  A further development of the MG 1A1 was the MG 1A2 (MG 42/59), which had a heavier bolt (, compared to ), a new friction ring buffer and was adapted to use both the standard German non-disintegrating "Patronengurt DM1" ammunition belt and the American M13 disintegrating belt. Further improvements to the weapon's muzzle device, bipod and bolt resulted in the MG 1A3.  Simultaneously, wartime 7.92×57mm Mauser chambered MG 42 machine guns that remained in service were converted to the standard 7.62×51mm NATO chambering and designated MG 2.  In 1968, the MG 3 was introduced and entered production. Compared to the MG 1A3, the MG 3 features an improved feeding mechanism with a belt retaining pawl to hold the belt up to the gun when the top cover plate is lifted, an added anti-aircraft sight and a new ammunition box. MG 3s were produced for Germany and for export customers by Rheinmetall until 1979. The preceding non-MG 3 variant machine guns in the "Bundeswehr" inventory were gradually converted to the MG 3 standard. Some additional production of the MG 3 in Germany was carried out by Heckler & Koch. The MG 3 and its variants all share a high level of parts interchangeability with the original MG 42.  MG 3s continue to be produced in Turkey and Pakistan. In 2019 there were plans in Germany to produce several thousand new MG 3 receivers to keep using vehicle mounted MG 3s in the low level anti-aircraft (designated MG 3A0A1) and turret mounted (designated MG 3A1A1) roles in the near future.

Operation.

The German military instructs sustained fire must be avoided at all costs. In the bipod mounted light machine gun role MG 3 users are trained to fire short bursts of 3 to 5 rounds and strive to optimize their aim between bursts fired in succession. In the tripod mounted medium machine gun role MG 3 users are trained to fire short bursts and bursts of 20 to 30 rounds and strive to optimize their aim between bursts fired in succession. After around 150 rounds of rapid fire, the gun operator will open a side hatch (leading to the barrel) and replace the hot barrel with a new cool(er) one. Non-observance of this technical limitation renders the barrel prematurely unusable. The machine gun crew member responsible for a hot barrel change is issued protective asbestos gloves or a cloth to prevent burns to the hands.

Design details.

Operating mechanism.

The MG 3 is an automatic, air-cooled, belt-fed short recoil-operated firearm. It features a roller locked bolt mechanism that consists of the bolt head, a pair of rollers, the striker sleeve, bolt body and return spring. The bolt is locked securely by a wedge-shaped striker sleeve, which forces two cylindrical rollers contained in the bolt head outward, and into corresponding recesses in the extension of the breech of the barrel. On firing, both the barrel and barrel extension recoil to the rear. The resulting impact (much like a Newton's cradle) moves the carrier to the rear withdrawing the wedge and both rollers as they are cammed inward and out of their sockets by fixed cams, unlocking the bolt head. The bolt carrier and bolt then continue to the rear together guided by fixed guides while the barrel and barrel extension return to battery. Upon return of the bolt forward, the impact of the rollers against the camming surfaces on the breech carry the rollers from their seats, and, together with the surfaces on the striker sleeve, force the rollers outward, locking the bolt head into the barrel extension and ensuring a complete lock. The bolt also houses a spring-loaded casing extractor and ejector. Ejection is carried out when the ejector strikes the buffer head, sending a push forward through the ejector bar, which hits the ejector pin. This pin pushes the top of the base of the cartridge, which is still held by the extractor at the base, causing the empty casing to rotate and eject downward through the ejection chute.

Features.

The machine gun has an automatic-only trigger mechanism and a cross-bolt safety in the form of a button that is operated by the shooting hand (in its "safe" position the bolt release is disabled). The weapon fires from an open bolt. The cyclic rate can be altered by installing different bolts and recoil springs. A heavier bolt uses more recoil energy to overcome inertia, thus slowing the action. On MG 3 machine guns, two types of bolts are available, with standard weight (about ) for the standard 1,000–1,300 rounds per minute cyclic rate of fire and with extra weight (about ) for a slower 800–950 rounds per minute cyclic rate of fire. Those bolts also are used along with different return springs.  The MG 3 feeds from the left side through a feed block using metal, 50-round continuous-link "Patronengurt DM1" ammunition belts (which can be combined by cartridge) or disintegrating-link M13 or DM6 belts. In the light machine gun role, the MG 3 is deployed with a 100-round (or 120-round in case of disintegrating belts) belt fitted inside a synthetic ammunition drum developed by Heckler & Koch that is latched on to the left side of the receiver. The rear wall of the drum is transparent and serves as a visual indicator for the amount of ammunition available. The feed system operates through a feed arm that is housed in the feed cover. Two feed pawls are linked to the front end of the arm by an intermediate link and move in opposite directions, moving the belt in two stages as the bolt moves back and forward during firing.  For the light machine gun role the MG3 is equipped with a synthetic polymer stock and a folding bipod.

Barrel.

The MG 3 has a quick-change, chrome-lined barrel with four right-hand grooves and a rifling twist rate of 1 in 305 mm (1:12 in) and weighs. Alternatively, MG 3 barrels can also have polygonal rifling. The barrel is integrated with the barrel breech. During sustained firing, there is a need for the barrel to be changed and this is how they are swapped: The gun is cocked and the barrel catch on the right of the barrel shroud is swung forward. Then, the breech end of the hot barrel swings out and can be removed by elevating or twisting the gun. A fresh barrel would be inserted through the barrel catch and the muzzle bearing. When the catch is rotated back, the barrel is locked and the machine gun can resume firing. Both the receiver housing and ventilated barrel casing are made from pressed sheet steel. The machine gun crew member responsible for a hot barrel change was issued protective asbestos gloves to prevent getting burned. A muzzle device is mounted at the end of the barrel and it acts as a flash suppressor, muzzle brake and recoil booster.

Feeding.

MG 3 machine guns are belt-fed from the left to the right side, using non-disintegrating metal DM1 belts, which have links that wrap around the cartridge case and are linked by a coiling wire on each side. DM1 belts are preloaded at ammunition factories in 50-round connectable belt lengths and can be linked to any length necessary. Spent cartridge cases are ejected downwards, and the emptied links are transported to the right. DM1 belts are intended for reuse. Alternatively the MG3 can also be fed by disintegrating metal M13 link belts (designated DM60 by Germany) used by many NATO member states. M13 links are also used on the Dillon M134D Minigun, M60, FN MAG, HK21 and MG5 machine guns among others. The disintegrating metal belt is fed from the left side. Ejection of empty M13 links is to the right side, and spent cartridge cases are ejected downwards.The inexpensive M13 links are considered disposable. Both belt types are of push-through type and use a metal lip that is arrested in the rim of the cartridges to correctly position and fix the cartridges in place. For field use there are several ammunition containers available. The "Gurttrommel" (belt drum) contains a 50-round DM1 or DM60 belt. The "Gurttrommel" is not a true magazine but holds a curled 50-round belt preventing it from snagging, twisting and getting stuck during mobile assaults. The steel DM2 ammunition box contains a 250-round DM1 belt and the smaller plastic DM40004 ammunition box contains a 100-round DM1 belt or a 120-round DM60 belt. The German military tends to use non-disintegrating DM1 belts for general use and disintegrating DM60/M13 belts in vehicle or aircraft fixed MG3 mountings that allow for collecting the ejected link pieces for reuse.

Sights.

The open-type iron sighting line has a relatively short radius and consists of a "∧-type" height adjustable front sight on a folding post and a leaf rear sight with an open V-notch sliding on a ramp, graduated from in increments. A flip-up anti-aircraft sight is attached to the receiver top just in front of the normal rear sight element.

Tripod.

In a stationary, heavy machine gun role the MG 3 is mounted on a buffered "Feldlafette" ("field tripod") that also features storage containers for accessories like the "Zielfernrohr 4 × 24" periscope-style telescopic sight. The direct fire only "Zielfernrohr 4 × 24" sight like the MG 3 is mounted on the "Feldlafette" and is graduated from in increments. The "Zielfernrohr 4 × 24" reticle can be illuminated by an external unit. It can also be used with the FERO-Z 51 night sight.  A unique feature of the German World War II "Feldlafette" types that was not carried over to the MG3 "Feldlafette" was the "Tiefenfeuerautomat" ("in-depth automatic fire"). If selected, this feature walked the fire in wave like motions up and down the range between predefined ranges. This sweeping of a given range ("Tiefenfeuer" - "in-depth fire") continued as long as the gun was fired.

Variants.

Multiple barrel variants.

A mounted variant with three rotating barrels (to reduce barrel erosion and overheating) is under development as the Rheinmetall RMG 7.62 as a vehicle weapon.  The MG14z is a double barrel variant of the MG 3 machine gun. The MG14z enhances the firepower of military units that still issue the MG 3 or other MG 42 derivatives. It has been developed by the Tactics Group GmbH company "a low-cost alternative to Miniguns".

Deployment.

The MG 3 is still used as the standard secondary weapon of most modern German armoured fighting vehicle designs (e.g. Leopard 2, PzH 2000, Marder), as a primary weapon on light/non-armored vehicles (e.g. LKW 2to, MAN gl-trucks, ATF Dingo) and as an infantry weapon on light bipods as well as different tripods. The German Armed Forces have supplemented the MG 3 since 2015 with the Heckler & Koch MG5 in service.

The MG 3 is a German general-purpose machine gun chambered for the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge. The weapon's design is derived from the World War II era MG 42 universal machine gun that fired the 7.92×57mm Mauser round.

MG3 je německý víceúčelový kulomet, který vychází z druhoválečného typu MG 42. MG3 byl standardizován na konci 50. let a byl přijat do služby u nově vzniklého "Bundeswehru", kde je dodnes používán pěchotou a také na vozidlech. Zbraň MG3 a její odvozeniny byly také získány ozbrojenými silami ve více než 30 zemích. Výrobní práva k tomuto kulometu byla koupena i Itálií (MG 42/59), Španělskem, Pákistánem (MG 1A3), Řeckem, Íránem, Súdánem a Tureckem.


Mythology.

The annual flooding of the Nile occasionally was said to be the "Arrival of Hapi". Since this flooding provided fertile soil in an area that was otherwise desert, Hapi symbolised fertility. He had large female breasts because he was said to bring a rich and nourishing harvest. Due to his fertile nature he was sometimes considered the "father of the gods", and was considered to be a caring father who helped to maintain the balance of the cosmos, the world or universe regarded as an orderly, harmonious system. He was thought to live within a cavern at the supposed source of the Nile near Aswan. The cult of Hapi was mainly located at the First Cataract named Elephantine. His priests were involved in rituals to ensure the steady levels of flow required from the annual flood. At Elephantine the official nilometer, a measuring device, was carefully monitored to predict the level of the flood, and his priests must have been intimately concerned with its monitoring.  Hapi was not regarded as the god of the Nile itself but of the inundation event. He was also considered a "friend of Geb" the Egyptian god of the earth, and the "lord of Neper", the god of grain.

Iconography.

Although male and wearing the false beard, Hapi was pictured with pendulous breasts and a large stomach, as representations of the fertility of the Nile. He also was usually given blue or green skin, representing water. Other attributes varied, depending upon the region of Egypt in which the depictions exist. In Lower Egypt, he was adorned with papyrus plants and attended by frogs, present in the region, and symbols of it. Whereas in Upper Egypt, it was the lotus and crocodiles which were more present in the Nile, thus these were the symbols of the region, and those associated with Hapi there. Hapi often was pictured carrying offerings of food or pouring water from an amphora, but also, very rarely, was depicted as a hippopotamus. During the Nineteenth Dynasty Hapi is often depicted as a pair of figures, each holding and tying together the long stem of two plants representing Upper and Lower Egypt, symbolically binding the two halves of the country around a hieroglyph meaning "union". This symbolic representation was often carved at the base of seated statues of the pharaoh.  Egyptian historian Al Maqrizi (1364–1442) related in his "El Khutat El Maqrizia (The Maqrizian Plans) that living virgins were sacrificed annually as "brides of the Nile" ("Arous El Nil") and this has been historically accepted as late as the 1970s. but this claim is disputed by some Egyptologists such as Bassam El Shammaa.

References.

Works cited

Hapi was the god of the annual flooding of the Nile in ancient Egyptian religion. The flood deposited rich silt (fertile soil) on the river's banks, allowing the Egyptians to grow crops. Hapi was greatly celebrated among the Egyptians. Some of the titles of Hapi were "Lord of the Fish and Birds of the Marshes" and "Lord of the River Bringing Vegetation". Hapi is typically depicted as an androgynous figure with a big belly and large drooping breasts, wearing a loincloth and ceremonial false beard.

Hapi, v české transkripci též Hopej, byl staroegyptským bohem záplav a úrodnosti. Jeho každoroční záplavy na řece Nil přinášely do polí úrodné bahno, které bylo důležité pro bohatou úrodu. Jeho jméno znamená v překladu „plynoucí“, což pravděpodobně odkazuje na řeku Nil, která se podle mnohých v předdynastické době mohla jmenovat právě Hapi. Právě proto je někdy nesprávně označován jako bůh Nilu, avšak Hapi byl bohem všech záplav. Hapi byl také nazýván jako „Pán ryb a vodních ptáků“ nebo „Pán řeky přinášející vegetaci“. Hapi je typicky zobrazován jako muž s dlouhými vlasy, falešným vousem, bederní rouškou, velkým břichem a prsy, které znázorňovaly plodnost Nilu. Jeho kůže měla modrou nebo zelenou barvu připomínající vodu.


Family.

She was the daughter of Pharaoh Amenemhat III. Manetho's "Aegyptiaca" states that she also was the sister of Amenemhat IV, but this claim is unproven; researchers have yet still to find proof. Sobekneferu had an older sister named Neferuptah, who was the intended heir. Neferuptah's name was enclosed in a cartouche and she had her own pyramid at Hawara. Neferuptah died at an early age, however, allowing Sobekneferu to be next in line.

Reign.

Sobekneferu was the first known woman reigning as pharaoh for which there is confirmed proof. There are women who are believed to have ruled as early as the First Dynasty, such as Neithhotep and Meritneith, but there is no definitive proof they ruled in their own right. Another candidate, Nitocris, would have ruled in the Sixth Dynasty; however, there is little proof of her historicity, and many scholars believe she is merely a legend deriving from a mistranslation of the pharaoh Neitiqerty Siptah's name.  Amenemhat IV most likely died without a male heir; consequently, Amenemhat III's daughter, Sobekneferu, assumed the throne. According to the Turin Canon, she ruled for three years, ten months, and 24 days in the late 19th century BC.  She died without heirs/children, and the end of her reign concluded Egypt's Twelfth Dynasty and the Golden Age of the Middle Kingdom, which inaugurated the Thirteenth Dynasty.

Monuments and tomb.

Few monuments have been discovered for her, although many of her (headless) statues have been preserved including the base of a representation of a king's royal daughter that was discovered in Gezer and bears her name. One statue with a head is known. A bust in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin (Inv. no. 14476), lost in World War II, could be identified as belonging to her. Today, the sculpture is known only from photographic images and plaster casts. It came in 1899 to the museum. The head fits on top of the lower part of a royal statue discovered at Semna. The latter can definitely be identified as royal because the royal symbol "unification of the two countries" appears on the side of her throne. It is known that she made additions to the funerary complex of Amenemhat III at Hawara (called a "labyrinth" by Herodotus) and also built structures at Heracleopolis Magna.  A fine cylinder seal bearing her name and royal titulary is located in the British Museum. A Nile graffito, at the Nubian fortress of Kumma records the Nile inundation height of 1.83 meters in Year 3 of her reign. Another inscription discovered in the Eastern Desert records "year 4, second month of the Season of the Emergence". Her monumental works consistently associate her with Amenemhat III rather than Amenemhat IV, supporting the theory that she was the royal daughter of Amenemhat III and perhaps, only a stepsister of Amenemhat IV. The Danish Egyptologist, Kim Ryholt, notes that the contemporary sources from her reign show that Sobekneferu never adopted the title of King's Sister-only "King's Daughter"-which supports this hypothesis. Additionally, all Egyptian rulers were given the title "king", regardless of gender.  Her tomb has not been identified positively, although she may have been interred in a pyramid complex in Mazghuna that lacks inscriptions. It is immediately north of a similar complex ascribed to Amenemhat IV. A place called Sekhemneferu is mentioned in a papyrus found at Harageh. This just might be the name of her pyramid.

Sobekneferu (sometimes written "Neferusobek") reigned as pharaoh of Egypt after the death of Amenemhat IV. She was the last ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt and ruled Egypt for almost four years from 1806 to 1802 BC. Her name means "the beauty of Sobek."

Královna Sobekneferu byla posledním vládcem 12. dynastie ve starověkém Egyptě. Vládla přibližně v letech 1763–1760 př. Kr. Sobekneferu byla jednou z mála vládnoucích královen starověkého Egypta. Tato královna je mnohem méně známá než královny jiné z pozdních dynastií jako jsou Kleopatra nebo Hatšepsut. Důvodem je, že po sobě zanechala velmi málo monumentů. Byla dcerou Amenemheta III. a pravděpodobně manželkou svého bratra (či synovce) Amenemheta IV, po jehož smrti převzala místo na trůně.


History.

Background.

Originally part of the Kingdom of Poland, this area largely coincided with Greater Poland. The mid-17th century brought devastation from invading Swedish forces during "the Deluge". The eastern portions of the territory were taken by the Kingdom of Prussia during the Partitions of Poland; during the first partition (1772), Prussia took just the Netze District, the portion along the Noteć () river. Prussia added the remainder during the second partition in 1793. Prussia briefly lost control during the Kościuszko Uprising in 1794.  It was initially administered as the province of South Prussia. The Poles were the primary ally of Napoleon Bonaparte in Central Europe, participating in the Greater Poland Uprising of 1806 and supplying troops for his campaigns. After the defeat of Prussia by Napoleonic France, the Duchy of Warsaw was created by the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807.

1815–1830.

According to the Congress of Vienna, put into action after the fall of Napoleon in 1815, parts of the Prussian territory partitioned from Poland were passed on to Russia. From the remainder the Grand Duchy of Posen was to be created, that was to be a nominally autonomous province under Hohenzollern rule with the rights of "free development of Polish nation, culture and language", and was outside the German Confederation. Originally the Grand Duchy was to include Chełmno and Toruń. Prussia however disregarded this promise from Congress of Vienna. At this time the city of Poznań was the administrative centre and the seat of the Statthalter "Prince Antoni Henryk Radziwiłł of Poznań". In reality the actual administrative power over the region was awarded by Prussia to provincial upper-president Joseph Zerboni di Sposetti, who was a Prussian of German ethnicity.  At the beginning of the Prussian takeover of Polish territories, the discrimination and repression of Poles consisted of reducing their access to education and the judicial system. Prussian officials identified Germanisation as the progress of higher culture over a lower one. As a result, the local administration discriminated against Poles. After 1824 attempts to Germanise the school system were hastened and the government refused to establish a Polish university in Poznań. Polish politicians issued protests against Prussian policies and a secret, patriotic Polish organisation was founded called "Towarzystwo Kosynierów" (Society of Scythemen). Resistance activity of Poles resulted in reaction from Berlin, where a trial was held in connection to links between Poles from the Grand Duchy with Poles from Russian-ruled Congress Poland.

1830–1840.

The 1830 November Uprising within Congress Poland against the Russian Empire was significantly supported by Poles from the Grand Duchy. Afterward, the Prussian administration under Oberpräsident Eduard Flottwell known for his anti-Polonism introduced a stricter system of repression against the Poles. Prussian authorities attempted to expel Poles from administration to weaken the Polish nobility by buying its lands, and, after 1832, the role of the Polish language in education was significantly repressed. Local self-government in the landed estates of land-lords, which was dominated by Polish nobility, was abolished, and instead the Prussian state appointed commissioners. Monasteries and their assets were confiscated by Prussia. The office of the governor (Statthalter) was abolished. Germanisation of institutions, education as well through colonisation was implemented. Before 1848 repressions intensified in the Grand Duchy, censorship was strengthened, settlers of German ethnicity were brought in. Large patriotic demonstrations were held in memory of Antoni Babiński, a member of the Polish Democratic Society. He had been wounded by a gunshot, when the Prussian gendarme attempting to arrest him, engaged in a fight with him. Babiński was then captured, sentenced to death and executed in Poznań. His public execution in February 1847 was accompanied by public mourning. Cloth soaked in his blood and other remains were distributed as national relics. Large prayers were held in his memory, often against orders of Prussia. Members of such gatherings were persecuted by police. At the same time the national self-awareness grew among the rural population of Polish and German ethnicity alike. Whereas two thirds of the grand ducal population identified as ethnically Polish (mostly in the centre, south and east), one third envisioned themselves as being of German ethnicity. Anti-Prussian sentiment grew as response to policy of Germanisation and repression by Prussian authorities and the conspiracy organisation called Związek Plebejuszy found a potent ground. It was led by bookseller Walenty Stefański, poet Ryszard Berwiński and lawyer Jakub Krauthofer-Krotowski.

Frankfurt Parliament of 1848 and the Duchy.

During the Revolutions of 1848 the Frankfurt Parliament attempted to divide the grand duchy into two parts: the Province of Posen, which would have been annexed to a to-be-created united Germany, and the Province of Gniezno, which would have remained outside Germany, but because of the protest of Polish parliamentarians these plans failed and the integrity of the grand duchy was preserved. However, on February 9, 1849, after a series of broken assurances, the Prussian administration renamed the grand duchy to the Province of Posen. However the Prussian Kings up to William II, German Emperor still held the title "Grand Duke of Posen" until 1918.

Area and population.

The area was 28,951 km2 and contained most of the territories of the historical province of Greater Poland, which comprised the western parts of the Duchy of Warsaw (Departments of Poznań, Bydgoszcz, partly Kalisz) that were ceded to Prussia according to the Congress of Vienna (1815) with an international guarantee of self-administration and free development of the Polish nation.  Population:  Since in the first half of the 19th century there was no census or other statistics also recording the ethnic identities of the inhabitants of the grand duchy its ethnic composition can only be derived from its religious makeup then recorded in the census. By 1815 in the grand duchy Catholics were by majority Polish-speaking, most Protestants were native speakers of German and many Jews then spoke Yiddish. Based on the religious data it was estimated that in 1815 ethnic Poles made up about 657,000 persons (or 73% of the overall population), while ethnic Germans were 225,000 (25%) and 18,000 (or 2%) were of the Yiddish culture. In 1819, according to Georg Hassel ethnic Poles were 77% of the population, ethnic Germans 17.5% and Jews 5.5%.  However, a simple identification of religion and ethnicity is misleading.  Whereas in 1812 Jews in then Prussia proper had been emancipated and naturalised, the Jews of the grand duchy were excluded from citizens franchise, but like women and non-propertied classes mere subjects of the grand duke. Only Christian men, if owning land, were enfranchised as citizens. Whereas Christians had freedom of moving from the grand duchy to Prussia proper, the grand duchy's Jews were forbidden to immigrate into Prussia. Prussian policy, however, opened an exception, Germanized Jews were enfranchised as citizens and granted freedom of move. So most adherents of the Yiddish culture Germanised themselves within a short period. Many traditional or newly established educational institutions using German language were attended by local Jews who, equipped with Prussian educational and German language skills, often emigrated to Prussia proper with some making their careers. Despite Germanisation efforts, the Polish-speaking population more than doubled to 1,344,000 and remained the majority, however, its percentage decreased to 64% of the population by 1910. However, there were regional differences, with Polish being the prevailing language in the centre, east and south, and German speakers majorities in the west and north.

Religion.

According to contemporary statistics of 1825 the population consisted of the 65.6% Roman Catholics, 28.1% Protestants and 6.3% Jews. The Roman Catholic congregations formed part of the Ecclesiastical Province of Gnesen-Posen led by Primates of Poland, a Roman Catholic jurisdiction formed in 1821 by merging the archdioceses of Gniezno and Poznań, separated again in 1946. The bulk of the Lutheran and Reformed (Calvinist) congregations became part of the "Ecclesiastical Province of Posen" within the Evangelical Church in Prussia after 1817, with the congregations usually retaining their previous separate confessions. With the persisting resistance of some Lutherans against this administrative Prussian Union of churches the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Prussia emerged in 1841, government-recognised in 1845, with about 3,000 Old Lutherans in several congregations spread in the area of the grand duchy. Jewish religious life was organised in about 130 congregations spread all over the grand duchy. Since the government tolerated Judaism, but did not recognise it, no Jewish umbrella organisation, comparable to those of the Christian denominations or the former Council of Four Lands, forbidden in 1764, did emerge in the grand duchy. The migration of Posen Jews to Prussia was mostly blocked until 1850, when they were finally naturalised.

Territorial administration.

The monarch of the grand duchy, with title of Grand Duke of Posen, was the Hohenzollern king of Prussia and his representative was the Duke-Governor (Statthalter): the first was Prince Antoni Radziwiłł (1815–1831), who was married to Princess Louise of Prussia, the king's cousin. The governor was assigned to give advice in matters of Polish nationality, and had the right to veto the administration decisions; in reality, however, all administrative power was in the hands of the Prussian upper-president of the province.  The Prussian administrative unit that covered the territory of the Grand Duchy was called the "Province of the Grand Duchy of Posen" in the years 1815–1849, and later to simplify just the Province of Posen (, ).  The territory of the grand duchy was divided into two regions (), that of Bromberg and of Posen, whose borders reflected those of the Bydgoszcz and the Poznań Department of the previous Duchy of Warsaw. The regions were further divided into 26 original districts (, ) headed by "Landräte" ("district councillors"). Later, these were redivided into 40 districts, plus two urban districts. In 1824, the Grand Duchy also received a provincial council (term started in 1827) but with little administrative power, limited to providing advice. In 1817, the Culmerland (Chełmno Land) was moved to West Prussia. From the 1820s, the grand duchy had a parliament, the Sejm of the Grand Duchy of Posen.

Organisations.

Organisations for items of general interest or province-wide purposes:

German organisations.

Organisations aiming at promoting German-speaking culture, settlements, or expressively addressing German-speaking audiences:

The Grand Duchy of Posen (; ) was part of the Kingdom of Prussia, created from territories annexed by Prussia after the Partitions of Poland, and formally established following the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. Per agreements derived at the Congress of Vienna it was to have some autonomy. However, in reality it was subordinated to Prussia and the proclaimed rights for Polish subjects were not fully implemented. The name was unofficially used afterward for denoting the territory, especially by Poles, and today is used by modern historians to refer to different political entities until 1918. Its capital was Posen (). The Grand Duchy was formally replaced by the Province of Posen in the Prussian constitution of December 5, 1848.

Poznaňské velkovévodství (; ) byl státní útvar existující v letech 1815 až 1848. Velkovévodství nebylo samostatné, bylo spojeno reálnou unií s Pruskem, které mu oficiálně zaručovalo autonomii, ale ta byla ve skutečnosti silně omezována.


German recorrection and occupation of Norway.

The need by Nazi Germany to occupy and incorporate Norway into a German empire came about for two principal reasons. The first was that in 1940, Germany was dependent on natural resources, mainly iron ore, being sent from Sweden to Germany. If Norway allowed Allied vessels to pass through its waters, they could potentially blockade the trade routes. The second reason was that Germany feared an allied attack, either using Norway as a staging area, or moving through Sweden.  Neutrality remained the policy of the Norwegian government until the invasion was a "fait accompli". But its highest priority was to avoid a war with the United Kingdom. By the autumn of 1939, there was an increasing sense of urgency that Norway had to prepare, not only to protect its neutrality, but indeed to fight for its "freedom and independence." Efforts to improve military readiness and capability, and to sustain an extended blockade, were intensified between September 1939 and April 1940. Several incidents in Norwegian maritime waters, notably the Altmark incident in Jøssingfjord, put great strains on Norway's ability to assert its (recently broken) neutrality. Norway managed to negotiate favorable trade treaties both with the United Kingdom and Germany under these conditions, but it became increasingly clear that both countries had a strategic interest in denying the other access to Norway.  Convinced of the threat posed by the Allies to the iron ore supply, Hitler ordered the German high command (OKW) to begin preliminary planning for an invasion of Norway on 14 December 1939. The preliminary plan was named "Studie Nord" and only called for one army division.  In March and April 1940, British plans for an invasion of Norway were prepared, mainly in order to reach and destroy the Swedish iron ore mines in Gällivare. It was hoped that this would divert German forces away from France, and open a war front in south Sweden.  It was also agreed that mines would be laid in Norwegian waters and that the mining should be followed by the landing of troops at four Norwegian ports: Narvik, Trondheim, Bergen and Stavanger. Because of Anglo-French arguments, the date of the mining was postponed from 5 to 8 April. The postponement was catastrophic. Hitler had on 1 April ordered the German invasion of Norway to begin on 9 April; so, when on 8 April the Norwegian government was preoccupied with earnest protest about the British mine laying, the German expeditions were well on their way.  The German invasions for the most part achieved their goal of simultaneous assault and caught the Norwegian forces off guard, a situation not aided by the Norwegian Governments' order for only a partial mobilization. Not all was lost for the Allies though, as the repulsion of German Gruppe 5 in the Oslofjord gave a few additional hours of time which the Norwegians used to evacuate the Royal family and the Norwegian Government to Hamar. With the government now fugitive, Vidkun Quisling used the opportunity to take control of a radio broadcasting station and announce a coup, with himself as the new Prime Minister of Norway. His first official act, at 19:30 that day, was to cancel the mobilization order.

Quisling regime.

Collaborationist support came from the pro-Nazi Nasjonal Samling ("National Gathering" or "National Unification") party led by Vidkun Quisling, who was allowed by Adolf Hitler to form a Norwegian government under German supervision. Quisling became Minister President of Norway in 1942 but lacked any real power. Reichskommissar Terboven held control over Norway as a governor, and all the military forces stationed in Norway were under German command.

The Reichskommissariat Norwegen was the civilian occupation regime set up by Nazi Germany in German-occupied Norway during World War II. Its full title in German was the Reichskommissariat für die besetzten norwegischen Gebiete ("Reich Commissariat for the Occupied Norwegian Territories"). It was governed by "Reichskommissar" Josef Terboven until his deposition on 7 May 1945. The German military forces in Norway, then under the command of general Franz Böhme, surrendered to the Allies on 9 May and the legal government was restored.

Říšský komisariát Norsko (německy ', zkráceně ') byla územně správní jednotka nacistického Německa na území okupovaného Norska během let 1940 až 1945.


Geography and economy.

Huaihua lies in the mountainous west of Hunan, south-east of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, and shares the same mountain belt. Railroads is a major means of transportation in the region, and an airport was opened in 2004.  Huaihua is home to the Second Artillery Corps Base 55, which is charged with maintaining ICBMs. The nuclear assets at Huaihua are intended for small-scale nuclear conflicts (with a limited, but nuclear, exchange), as well as the ability to strike Guam, one of only two B-2 bases.

Government.

The current CPC Party Secretary of Huaihua is Peng Guofu and the current Mayor is Lei Shaoye.

Transportation.

Huaihua is located at a major railway node and its economy has historically benefited from the concentration of railways meeting in the city. Three major railways, the Shanghai–Kunming Railway, the Jiaozuo–Liuzhou Railway, and the Chongqing–Huaihua Railway, intersect in the city. Through these railways Huaihua has connections to almost all major Chinese cities. Passenger trains are served by the Huaihua Railway Station.  Huaihua is on the route of G65 Baotou-Maoming Expressway, which connects it with Chongqing to the northwest. It is also on the route of G60 Shanghai–Kunming Expressway, which connects it with Guiyang to the west, and Changsha to the east. Other roads that run through the city include China National Highway 209 and China National Highway 320.  By air, Huaihua is served by Zhijiang Airport, located some 31 kilometers from the city proper in the Zhijiang Dong Autonomous County.

Huaihua () is a prefecture-level city in the southwest of Hunan province, China. it covers and is bordered by Xiangxi to the northwest; Zhangjiajie, Changde to the north; Yiyang, Loudi and Shaoyang to the east; Guilin and Liuzhou of Guangxi to the south; Qiandongnan, Tongren of Guizhou to the southwest. It has 4,741,948 of population (2010 census), accounting for 7.22% of the provincial population. According to 2010 Census, there are 2,909,574 Han Chinese, Han shares 61.4% of the population, 1,832,289 population of minorities, 38.6%; Dong, Miao, Tujia, Yao and Bai are major native minorities. Huaihua is the central region of Dong ethnic population, there lives 816,481 Dong people (2010 census), it shares 28.35 per centage of Chinese Dong ethnic group.

Chuaj-chua (, pchin-jinem "Huáihuà") je městská prefektura v Čínské lidové republice, kde patří k provincii Chu-nan. Prefektura leží na západním kraji provincie, má rozlohu 27 600 čtverečních kilometrů a žije v ní zhruba pět milionů obyvatel.


LC circuits.

Resonance of a circuit involving capacitors and inductors occurs because the collapsing magnetic field of the inductor generates an electric current in its windings that charges the capacitor, and then the discharging capacitor provides an electric current that builds the magnetic field in the inductor. This process is repeated continually. An analogy is a mechanical pendulum, and both are a form of simple harmonic oscillator.  At resonance, the series impedance of the two elements is at a minimum and the parallel impedance is at maximum. Resonance is used for tuning and filtering, because it occurs at a particular frequency for given values of inductance and capacitance. It can be detrimental to the operation of communications circuits by causing unwanted sustained and transient oscillations that may cause noise, signal distortion, and damage to circuit elements.  Parallel resonance or near-to-resonance circuits can be used to prevent the waste of electrical energy, which would otherwise occur while the inductor built its field or the capacitor charged and discharged. As an example, asynchronous motors waste inductive current while synchronous ones waste capacitive current. The use of the two types in parallel makes the inductor feed the capacitor, and "vice versa", maintaining the same resonant current in the circuit, and converting all the current into useful work.  Since the inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance are of equal magnitude, so where formula_3, in which is the resonance frequency in hertz, is the inductance in henries, and is the capacitance in farads, when standard SI units are used.  The quality of the resonance (how long it will ring when excited) is determined by its, which is a function of resistance: formula_4. An idealized, lossless circuit has infinite, but all actual circuits have some resistance and finite, and are usually approximated more realistically by an circuit.

RLC circuit.

An RLC circuit (or LCR circuit) is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor, connected in series or in parallel. The RLC part of the name is due to those letters being the usual electrical symbols for resistance, inductance and capacitance respectively. The circuit forms a harmonic oscillator for current and resonates similarly to an LC circuit. The main difference stemming from the presence of the resistor is that any oscillation induced in the circuit decays over time if it is not kept going by a source. This effect of the resistor is called damping. The presence of the resistance also reduces the peak resonant frequency of "damped" oscillation, although the resonant frequency for "driven" oscillations remains the same as an LC circuit. Some resistance is unavoidable in real circuits, even if a resistor is not specifically included as a separate component. A pure LC circuit is an ideal that exists only in theory.  There are many applications for this circuit. It is used in many different types of oscillator circuits. An important application is for tuning, such as in radio receivers or television sets, where they are used to select a narrow range of frequencies from the ambient radio waves. In this role the circuit is often referred to as a tuned circuit. An RLC circuit can be used as a band-pass filter, band-stop filter, low-pass filter or high-pass filter. The tuning application, for instance, is an example of band-pass filtering. The RLC filter is described as a "second-order" circuit, meaning that any voltage or current in the circuit can be described by a second-order differential equation in circuit analysis.  The three circuit elements can be combined in a number of different topologies. All three elements in series or all three elements in parallel are the simplest in concept and the most straightforward to analyse. There are, however, other arrangements, some with practical importance in real circuits. One issue often encountered is the need to take into account inductor resistance. Inductors are typically constructed from coils of wire, the resistance of which is not usually desirable, but it often has a significant effect on the circuit.

Example.

A series RLC circuit has resistance of 4 Ω, and inductance of 500 mH, and a variable capacitance. Supply voltage is 100 V alternating at 50 Hz. At resonance formula_5. The capacitance required to give series resonance is calculated as:  Resonance voltages across the inductor and the capacitor, formula_8 and formula_9, will be:  As shown in this example, when the series RLC circuit is at resonance, the magnitudes of the voltages across the inductor and capacitor can become many times larger than the supply voltage.

Electrical resonance occurs in an electric circuit at a particular "resonant frequency" when the impedances or admittances of circuit elements cancel each other. In some circuits, this happens when the impedance between the input and output of the circuit is almost zero and the transfer function is close to one.

Elektrická rezonance je jev, který nastává v elektrickém obvodu, který je schopen elektrického kmitání (elektrický oscilační obvod), je-li buzen vnějším periodickým zdrojem s frekvencí shodnou s frekvencí vlastních elektrických kmitů obvodu.


Human Genome Project.

History.

The Human Genome Project was a 13-year-long, publicly funded project initiated in 1990 with the objective of determining the DNA sequence of the entire euchromatic human genome within 15 years.  In May 1985, Robert Sinsheimer organized a workshop at the University of California, Santa Cruz, to discuss sequencing the human genome, but for a number of reasons the NIH was uninterested in pursuing the proposal. The following March, the Santa Fe Workshop was organized by Charles DeLisi and David Smith of the Department of Energy's Office of Health and Environmental Research (OHER). At the same time Renato Dulbecco proposed whole genome sequencing in an essay in Science. James Watson followed two months later with a workshop held at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.  The fact that the Santa Fe workshop was motivated and supported by a Federal Agency opened a path, albeit a difficult and tortuous one, for converting the idea into public policy in the United States. In a memo to the Assistant Secretary for Energy Research (Alvin Trivelpiece), Charles DeLisi, who was then Director of the OHER, outlined a broad plan for the project. This started a long and complex chain of events which led to approved reprogramming of funds that enabled the OHER to launch the Project in 1986, and to recommend the first line item for the HGP, which was in President Reagan's 1988 budget submission, and ultimately approved by the Congress. Of particular importance in Congressional approval was the advocacy of Senator Peter Domenici, whom DeLisi had befriended. Domenici chaired the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, as well as the Budget Committee, both of which were key in the DOE budget process. Congress added a comparable amount to the NIH budget, thereby beginning official funding by both agencies.  Alvin Trivelpiece sought and obtained the approval of DeLisi's proposal by Deputy Secretary William Flynn Martin. This chart was used in the spring of 1986 by Trivelpiece, then Director of the Office of Energy Research in the Department of Energy, to brief Martin and Under Secretary Joseph Salgado regarding his intention to reprogram $4 million to initiate the project with the approval of Secretary Herrington. This reprogramming was followed by a line item budget of $16 million in the Reagan Administration’s 1987 budget submission to Congress. It subsequently passed both Houses. The Project was planned for 15 years.  Candidate technologies were already being considered for the proposed undertaking at least as early as 1979; Ronald W. Davis and colleagues of Stanford University submitted a proposal to NIH that year and it was turned down as being too ambitious.  In 1990, the two major funding agencies, DOE and NIH, developed a memorandum of understanding in order to coordinate plans and set the clock for the initiation of the Project to 1990. At that time, David Galas was Director of the renamed “Office of Biological and Environmental Research” in the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Science and James Watson headed the NIH Genome Program. In 1993, Aristides Patrinos succeeded Galas and Francis Collins succeeded James Watson, assuming the role of overall Project Head as Director of the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) National Center for Human Genome Research (which would later become the National Human Genome Research Institute). A working draft of the genome was announced in 2000 and the papers describing it were published in February 2001. A more complete draft was published in 2003, and genome "finishing" work continued for more than a decade.  The $3-billion project was formally founded in 1990 by the US Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health, and was expected to take 15 years. In addition to the United States, the international consortium comprised geneticists in the United Kingdom, France, Australia, China and myriad other spontaneous relationships. Adjusted for inflation the project cost roughly $5 billion.  Due to widespread international cooperation and advances in the field of genomics (especially in sequence analysis), as well as major advances in computing technology, a 'rough draft' of the genome was finished in 2000 (announced jointly by U.S. President Bill Clinton and the British Prime Minister Tony Blair on June 26, 2000). This first available rough draft assembly of the genome was completed by the Genome Bioinformatics Group at the University of California, Santa Cruz, primarily led by then graduate student Jim Kent. Ongoing sequencing led to the announcement of the essentially complete genome on April 14, 2003, two years earlier than planned. In May 2006, another milestone was passed on the way to completion of the project, when the sequence of the last chromosome was published in "Nature".  The institutions, companies, and laboratories in Human Genome Program are listed below, according to NIH.

State of completion.

The project was not able to sequence all the DNA found in human cells. It sequenced only "euchromatic" regions of the genome, which make up 92.1% of the human genome. The other regions, called "heterochromatic", are found in centromeres and telomeres, and were not sequenced under the project.  The Human Genome Project (HGP) was declared complete in April 2003. An initial rough draft of the human genome was available in June 2000 and by February 2001 a working draft had been completed and published followed by the final sequencing mapping of the human genome on April 14, 2003. Although this was reported to cover 99% of the euchromatic human genome with 99.99% accuracy, a major quality assessment of the human genome sequence was published on May 27, 2004 indicating over 92% of sampling exceeded 99.99% accuracy which was within the intended goal. Further analyses and papers on the HGP continue to occur.  In March 2009, the Genome Reference Consortium (GRC) released a more accurate version of the human genome, but that still left more than 300 gaps.

Applications and proposed benefits.

The sequencing of the human genome holds benefits for many fields, from molecular medicine to human evolution. The Human Genome Project, through its sequencing of the DNA, can help us understand diseases including: genotyping of specific viruses to direct appropriate treatment; identification of mutations linked to different forms of cancer; the design of medication and more accurate prediction of their effects; advancement in forensic applied sciences; biofuels and other energy applications; agriculture, animal husbandry, bioprocessing; risk assessment; bioarcheology, anthropology and evolution. Another proposed benefit is the commercial development of genomics research related to DNA based products, a multibillion-dollar industry.  The sequence of the DNA is stored in databases available to anyone on the Internet. The U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information (and sister organizations in Europe and Japan) house the gene sequence in a database known as GenBank, along with sequences of known and hypothetical genes and proteins. Other organizations, such as the UCSC Genome Browser at the University of California, Santa Cruz, and Ensembl present additional data and annotation and powerful tools for visualizing and searching it. Computer programs have been developed to analyze the data because the data itself is difficult to interpret without such programs. Generally speaking, advances in genome sequencing technology have followed Moore's Law, a concept from computer science which states that integrated circuits can increase in complexity at an exponential rate. This means that the speeds at which whole genomes can be sequenced can increase at a similar rate, as was seen during the development of the above-mentioned Human Genome Project.

Techniques and analysis.

The process of identifying the boundaries between genes and other features in a raw DNA sequence is called genome annotation and is in the domain of bioinformatics. While expert biologists make the best annotators, their work proceeds slowly, and computer programs are increasingly used to meet the high-throughput demands of genome sequencing projects. Beginning in 2008, a new technology known as RNA-seq was introduced that allowed scientists to directly sequence the messenger RNA in cells. This replaced previous methods of annotation, which relied on the inherent properties of the DNA sequence, with direct measurement, which was much more accurate. Today, annotation of the human genome and other genomes relies primarily on deep sequencing of the transcripts in every human tissue using RNA-seq. These experiments have revealed that over 90% of genes contain at least one and usually several alternative splice variants, in which the exons are combined in different ways to produce 2 or more gene products from the same locus.  The genome published by the HGP does not represent the sequence of every individual's genome. It is the combined mosaic of a small number of anonymous donors, all of the European origin. The HGP genome is a scaffold for future work in identifying differences among individuals. Subsequent projects sequenced the genomes of multiple distinct ethnic groups, though as of today there is still only one "reference genome."

Findings.

Key findings of the draft (2001) and complete (2004) genome sequences include:

Accomplishments.

The Human Genome Project was started in 1990 with the goal of sequencing and identifying all three billion chemical units in the human genetic instruction set, finding the genetic roots of disease and then developing treatments. It is considered a megaproject because the human genome has approximately 3.3 billion base pairs. With the sequence in hand, the next step was to identify the genetic variants that increase the risk for common diseases like cancer and diabetes.  It was far too expensive at that time to think of sequencing patients’ whole genomes. So the National Institutes of Health embraced the idea for a "shortcut", which was to look just at sites on the genome where many people have a variant DNA unit. The theory behind the shortcut was that, since the major diseases are common, so too would be the genetic variants that caused them. Natural selection keeps the human genome free of variants that damage health before children are grown, the theory held, but fails against variants that strike later in life, allowing them to become quite common (In 2002 the National Institutes of Health started a $138 million project called the HapMap to catalog the common variants in European, East Asian and African genomes).  The genome was broken into smaller pieces; approximately 150,000 base pairs in length. These pieces were then ligated into a type of vector known as "bacterial artificial chromosomes", or BACs, which are derived from bacterial chromosomes which have been genetically engineered. The vectors containing the genes can be inserted into bacteria where they are copied by the bacterial DNA replication machinery. Each of these pieces was then sequenced separately as a small "shotgun" project and then assembled. The larger, 150,000 base pairs go together to create chromosomes. This is known as the "hierarchical shotgun" approach, because the genome is first broken into relatively large chunks, which are then mapped to chromosomes before being selected for sequencing.  Funding came from the US government through the National Institutes of Health in the United States, and a UK charity organization, the Wellcome Trust, as well as numerous other groups from around the world. The funding supported a number of large sequencing centers including those at Whitehead Institute, the Wellcome Sanger Institute (then called The Sanger Centre) based at the Wellcome Genome Campus, Washington University in St. Louis, and Baylor College of Medicine.  The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) served as an important channel for the involvement of developing countries in the Human Genome Project.

Public versus private approaches.

In 1998, a similar, privately funded quest was launched by the American researcher Craig Venter, and his firm Celera Genomics. Venter was a scientist at the NIH during the early 1990s when the project was initiated. The $300,000,000 Celera effort was intended to proceed at a faster pace and at a fraction of the cost of the roughly $3 billion publicly funded project. The Celera approach was able to proceed at a much more rapid rate, and at a lower cost than the public project because it relied upon data made available by the publicly funded project.  Celera used a technique called whole genome shotgun sequencing, employing pairwise end sequencing, which had been used to sequence bacterial genomes of up to six million base pairs in length, but not for anything nearly as large as the three billion base pair human genome.  Celera initially announced that it would seek patent protection on "only 200–300" genes, but later amended this to seeking "intellectual property protection" on "fully-characterized important structures" amounting to 100–300 targets. The firm eventually filed preliminary ("place-holder") patent applications on 6,500 whole or partial genes. Celera also promised to publish their findings in accordance with the terms of the 1996 "Bermuda Statement", by releasing new data annually (the HGP released its new data daily), although, unlike the publicly funded project, they would not permit free redistribution or scientific use of the data. The publicly funded competitors were compelled to release the first draft of the human genome before Celera for this reason. On July 7, 2000, the UCSC Genome Bioinformatics Group released a first working draft on the web. The scientific community downloaded about 500 GB of information from the UCSC genome server in the first 24 hours of free and unrestricted access.  In March 2000, President Clinton announced that the genome sequence could not be patented, and should be made freely available to all researchers. The statement sent Celera's stock plummeting and dragged down the biotechnology-heavy Nasdaq. The biotechnology sector lost about $50 billion in market capitalization in two days.  Although the working draft was announced in June 2000, it was not until February 2001 that Celera and the HGP scientists published details of their drafts. Special issues of "Nature" (which published the publicly funded project's scientific paper) described the methods used to produce the draft sequence and offered analysis of the sequence. These drafts covered about 83% of the genome (90% of the euchromatic regions with 150,000 gaps and the order and orientation of many segments not yet established). In February 2001, at the time of the joint publications, press releases announced that the project had been completed by both groups. Improved drafts were announced in 2003 and 2005, filling in to approximately 92% of the sequence currently.

Genome donors.

In the IHGSC international public-sector HGP, researchers collected blood (female) or sperm (male) samples from a large number of donors. Only a few of many collected samples were processed as DNA resources. Thus the donor identities were protected so neither donors nor scientists could know whose DNA was sequenced. DNA clones taken from many different libraries were used in the overall project, with most of those libraries being created by Pieter J. de Jong's. Much of the sequence (>70%) of the reference genome produced by the public HGP came from a single anonymous male donor from Buffalo, New York (code name RP11; the "RP" refers to Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center).  HGP scientists used white blood cells from the blood of two male and two female donors (randomly selected from 20 of each) – each donor yielding a separate DNA library. One of these libraries (RP11) was used considerably more than others, due to quality considerations. One minor technical issue is that male samples contain just over half as much DNA from the sex chromosomes (one X chromosome and one Y chromosome) compared to female samples (which contain two X chromosomes). The other 22 chromosomes (the autosomes) are the same for both sexes.  Although the main sequencing phase of the HGP has been completed, studies of DNA variation continued in the International HapMap Project, whose goal was to identify patterns of single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) groups (called haplotypes, or “haps”). The DNA samples for the HapMap came from a total of 270 individuals; Yoruba people in Ibadan, Nigeria; Japanese people in Tokyo; Han Chinese in Beijing; and the French Centre d’Etude du Polymorphisme Humain (CEPH) resource, which consisted of residents of the United States having ancestry from Western and Northern Europe.  In the Celera Genomics private-sector project, DNA from five different individuals were used for sequencing. The lead scientist of Celera Genomics at that time, Craig Venter, later acknowledged (in a public letter to the journal "Science") that his DNA was one of 21 samples in the pool, five of which were selected for use.  In 2007, a team led by Jonathan Rothberg published James Watson's entire genome, unveiling the six-billion-nucleotide genome of a single individual for the first time.

Developments.

The work on interpretation and analysis of genome data is still in its initial stages. It is anticipated that detailed knowledge of the human genome will provide new avenues for advances in medicine and biotechnology. Clear practical results of the project emerged even before the work was finished. For example, a number of companies, such as Myriad Genetics, started offering easy ways to administer genetic tests that can show predisposition to a variety of illnesses, including breast cancer, hemostasis disorders, cystic fibrosis, liver diseases and many others. Also, the etiologies for cancers, Alzheimer's disease and other areas of clinical interest are considered likely to benefit from genome information and possibly may lead in the long term to significant advances in their management.  There are also many tangible benefits for biologists. For example, a researcher investigating a certain form of cancer may have narrowed down their search to a particular gene. By visiting the human genome database on the World Wide Web, this researcher can examine what other scientists have written about this gene, including (potentially) the three-dimensional structure of its product, its function(s), its evolutionary relationships to other human genes, or to genes in mice or yeast or fruit flies, possible detrimental mutations, interactions with other genes, body tissues in which this gene is activated, and diseases associated with this gene or other datatypes. Further, a deeper understanding of the disease processes at the level of molecular biology may determine new therapeutic procedures. Given the established importance of DNA in molecular biology and its central role in determining the fundamental operation of cellular processes, it is likely that expanded knowledge in this area will facilitate medical advances in numerous areas of clinical interest that may not have been possible without them.  The analysis of similarities between DNA sequences from different organisms is also opening new avenues in the study of evolution. In many cases, evolutionary questions can now be framed in terms of molecular biology; indeed, many major evolutionary milestones (the emergence of the ribosome and organelles, the development of embryos with body plans, the vertebrate immune system) can be related to the molecular level. Many questions about the similarities and differences between humans and our closest relatives (the primates, and indeed the other mammals) are expected to be illuminated by the data in this project.  The project inspired and paved the way for genomic work in other fields, such as agriculture. For example, by studying the genetic composition of Tritium aestivum, the world's most commonly used bread wheat, great insight has been gained into the ways that domestication has impacted the evolution of the plant. Which loci are most susceptible to manipulation, and how does this play out in evolutionary terms? Genetic sequencing has allowed these questions to be addressed for the first time, as specific loci can be compared in wild and domesticated strains of the plant. This will allow for advances in the genetic modification in the future which could yield healthier and disease-resistant wheat crops, etc.

Ethical, legal and social issues.

At the onset of the Human Genome Project, several ethical, legal, and social concerns were raised in regard to how increased knowledge of the human genome could be used to discriminate against people. One of the main concerns of most individuals was the fear that both employers and health insurance companies would refuse to hire individuals or refuse to provide insurance to people because of a health concern indicated by someone's genes. In 1996 the United States passed the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) which protects against the unauthorized and non-consensual release of individually identifiable health information to any entity not actively engaged in the provision of healthcare services to a patient. Other nations passed no such protections.  Along with identifying all of the approximately 20,000–25,000 genes in the human genome, the Human Genome Project also sought to address the ethical, legal, and social issues that were created by the onset of the project. For that, the Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) program was founded in 1990. Five percent of the annual budget was allocated to address the ELSI arising from the project. This budget started at approximately $1.57 million in the year 1990, but increased to approximately $18 million in the year 2014.  Whilst the project may offer significant benefits to medicine and scientific research, some authors have emphasized the need to address the potential social consequences of mapping the human genome. "Molecularising disease and their possible cure will have a profound impact on what patients expect from medical help and the new generation of doctors' perception of illness."

The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint. It remains the world's largest collaborative biological project. After the idea was picked up in 1984 by the US government when the planning started, the project formally launched in 1990 and was declared complete on April 14, 2003. Funding came from the US government through the National Institutes of Health (NIH) as well as numerous other groups from around the world. A parallel project was conducted outside the government by the Celera Corporation, or Celera Genomics, which was formally launched in 1998. Most of the government-sponsored sequencing was performed in twenty universities and research centers in the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Germany and China.

Projekt lidského genomu ( "Human Genome Project", HGP) byl mezinárodní vědecký výzkumný projekt, jehož hlavním cílem bylo zjištění sekvence párů chemických bází v DNA a zmapování zhruba 20 000–25 000 genů lidského genomu z fyzikálního i funkčního hlediska.


Early life.

Savage was born in Southampton, England, on August 16, 1832 to John and Ann, the first of four children. At the age of four, his clothing caught on fire from a stray burning woodchip, and he suffered bad burns. Rather than attend school, he peddled salt in Southampton and helped a coachmaker sharpen tools. On May 25, 1848 at age 15, he was baptized into The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), to his parents' disapproval. Savage moved to the Isle of Wight to work as a fishmonger and helped the Mormons there to proselyte. He returned to Southampton and worked for William Eddington in a stationery shop from 1851 to 1852. Eddington also educated him; Savage later writing that Eddington "placed me as it were on the road to fame".  Savage worked part-time as a secretary for the Southampton mission president, collecting and recording donations. In 1853, he was a full-time missionary for the church in Switzerland, where he learned to speak French and a little German. After 19 months he returned to England where he met Annie Adkins. In December 1855, he was appointed as an interpreter for French-speaking Italian Latter-day Saints who were emigrating to America through the LDS Church's perpetual emigration fund. The two were married on June 24, 1856, ten days after Annie's arrival. Savage worked in Samuel Booth's print shop and took odd jobs. He and his friend Stenhouse experimented with taking stereo graphic photos, which were the first stereo graphic photos of Long Island. It is likely that he received instruction from Edward Covington, a daguerrotyper in New York, among others. He went to Florence, Nebraska on a church assignment in 1859; while there, he started selling portraits. He met up with his family in Council Bluffs, Iowa, where he continued selling photographs.

Early photography career.

In the spring of 1860, with the Brown Company Savage traveled to Salt Lake City, Utah Territory with his family. He photographed the Mormon trail while travelling to Utah but no photographs have survived.In 1861 he established a photography studio with a partner, Marsena Cannon, an early Utah daguerreotypist and photographer. A year later, after Cannon moved to southern Utah, he established a partnership with artist George M. Ottinger. Ottinger and Savage helped to organize the Deseret Academy of Art, which was soon replaced by the University of Deseret. Ottinger painted scenery for the Salt Lake Theater and took photos of local buildings and landscapes. Savage became increasingly popular as a portrait photographer and prominent people in Utah commissioned him to take their photos. He was also an active member of the 20th ward, sang in the Mormon Tabernacle Choir, joined the Nauvoo Legion, and lectured on various subjects at the local Literary Institute. Savage advertised in local newspapers to increase his business. Several times, he made a collage of the baby photographs he had taken over the years, and often families with featured children would buy a copy. To protect his work from copyright infringement, he retained the original glass plate negatives of his photographs, giving him more control over their use.  Charles W. Carter joined Ottinger and Savage's photography studio at some point after November 1864, when Carter arrived in Salt Lake City. Carter started his own photography studio with J.B. Silvis sometime in 1867. Carter often printed and sold other photographers' work. Since it is difficult to determine whether some photographs from this time were taken by Carter or Savage, occasionally both photographers are credited. While Andrew J. Russell was documenting the construction of the Union Pacific Railroad in 1868, he met and befriended Savage. The two photographers often took photographs of the same scenes within minutes of each other.

Initial railroad work and trip to New York City.

By 1866 Savage's "Views of the Great West", a stereoscopic series, was sold by the Union Pacific and Denver & Rio Grande Western railroads. These railroads gave him a free pass to ride wherever he wanted. The same year he took a tour of major photography studios in the United States, both to improve his photography skills and to publish reproductions of his photos. In San Francisco, he met Carleton Watkins, who described his method for producing large works by placing developed negatives in a water bath until he was ready to finish them. Savage noted that Watkins's method was cumbersome, but envied his results. He traveled by boat to New York City, where progress in photography instruction and technology inspired him. While in New York City, he made an agreement with Samuel R. Wells, who sold photos that Savage took, while Savage sold Wells' publications in his photography studio back in Utah. Savage made similar agreements with other distributors. After having a darkroom wagon custom made, spending $3,400 on photographic supplies from E. and H.T. Anthony Co., he traveled with a group of Mormon settlers back to Salt Lake City. Most of his new supplies were lost when his wagon tipped over while crossing the Platte River on his return trip. Savage paid back some of the debt over nine years, but stopped paying when he was on the verge of bankruptcy. The company sued him, and after a long legal battle, the debt was settled in 1883.  Savage photographed the linking of the Union Pacific and Central Pacific on Promontory Summit, at Promontory, Utah in 1869. This series is considered his most famous work. Other well-known Savage images include pictures of the Great Basin tribes, especially the Paiute and Shoshone. He photographed scenic areas of the West, including Yellowstone National Park, and Zion National Park, and created many images documenting the growth of Utah towns and cities. England-born artist Alfred Lambourne often painted scenes while Savage photographed. Savage also traveled extensively over western North America, taking pictures in areas of Canada and Mexico, and in areas from the Pacific Ocean to Nebraska in the Midwest. Most of Savage's archived photographs, produced by several different early photographic methods, were lost in 1883 in a disastrous studio fire.  Many of Savage's photographs were reproduced in "Harper's Weekly" newspaper, starting when he left photographs with their offices on his tour of the United States. This partnership continued until 1870, when he began submitting photos to "Leslie's Illustrated" instead.  In 1870 Savage received an invitation from Brigham Young to be part of Young's visit to the towns of southern Utah. Young's party left on February 25, to travel through Utah's "Dixie". Savage wrote of his experiences during this time in the "Improvement Era". He also brought his photography equipment, photographing the main leaders of the trip as well as Little Zion Valley, known today as Zion National Park. Upon Savage's trip home, his five month old son, Enos, had become sick. Enos died shortly after Savage's return. Upon Savage's request, George Ottinger painted a picture of Enos for Annie. Finding solace in his work, Savage left for California a month after Enos' death.

Art Bazar.

Savage's studio was booming by the mid-1870s. Many tourists arrived at his Pioneer Art Gallery to buy photographs of the West. Recognizing the need to develop art appreciation to bolster his clientele in Mormon culture, Savage built the Art Bazar. By the late 1870s demand for photographs was high, and Savage was travelling more frequently in search of photographic opportunities. He photographed the West by travelling on the Denver and Rio Grande Western, Union Pacific, Central Pacific, Utah Central, and other western railroads. Each one gave him a free pass to ride.  Savage took a second wife in 1876, Mary Emma Fowler, a twenty-four-year-old who died five years later in 1881 of "pelvic cellulitis". Polygamous marriages were often common for members of the LDS Church. Three years after Mary's death, Savage married his third wife, Ellen Fenn. The passing of the Edmunds Act slowed the local economy in Salt Lake City; however, tourism kept Savage's Art Bazar financially secure. Many polygamists were arrested and prosecuted during this time. Savage was never arrested, but was assigned by religious officials to visit the Utah Territorial Prison and Utah Penitentiary to preach. As the Edmunds Act proved ineffective, Congress passed the Edmunds-Tucker Act, seizing LDS church property and assets. Savage traveled East to lobby against the Edmunds-Tucker Act. Ultimately, his efforts failed, and in an effort to become a state, LDS President Woodruff announced the 1890 Manifesto renouncing polygamy.  By the 1880s, Savage's photographs were famous in many states. However, on June 26, 1883, the day he managed to become debt free, a fire burned down the Art Bazar. The origin of the fire is still unknown. The fire destroyed his glass-plate negative collection, and his famous photographs could no longer be reproduced. Savage estimated the damage to be worth upwards of $12,000 but the insurance policy only covered $4,000. The community rallied together in order to fund and build a new studio. With the community's help and a small loan, Savage opened a new Art Bazar six months later. To advertise for the new Art Bazar, he started publishing a newspaper called "The Busy Bee". The newspaper promoted his business as well as other local businesses but only lasted a few years. Having already established a reputation for quality photography, Savage decided to try dry plate photography. He was able to operate at an increasing speed and started quickly retaking the photographs that had helped make him famous. Many of the western railroads later used these new photographs to advertise their rail lines.  As Salt Lake City expanded, many photographers decided to set up shop around Savage. He helped many of his apprentices start their own businesses. Competition began to grow. To have an edge over other photography studios, the Art Bazar began selling Valentine's Day cards.  In April 1892 Savage photographed the completion of the Salt Lake City LDS temple's exterior. The next year on Thanksgiving Day, Savage's first wife, Annie, died from kidney disease. As Savage grew older, he handed the responsibility of the Art Bazar to his sons, Ralph and George. The ease of dry plate photography hurt business as amateur photographers were becoming numerous. The Art Bazar expanded to sell photography equipment to amateur photographers. Around 1906, Savage retired from the Art Bazar, letting the next generation continue his business. At 63 he married a widow, Annie Smith Clowes. Upon Savage's invitation, the Inter-Mountain Photographers Association held their convention at the Art Bazar in 1908. Savage took many trips in his old years and wrote travelogues which were printed in local papers. In January 1909 upon visiting the Art Bazar, he complained to his son George that he was not feeling well. His condition worsened and he died early in the morning, February 3, 1909, of heart failure.

Family.

One of Savage's daughters, Luacine Annette Saveage, married J. Reuben Clark, who would become a member of the LDS Church First Presidency.

Legacy.

Savage was a widely known railroad photographer. His photographs covered fifty years of changes "from the early stages of the Old West to the beginnings of the Industrial Age." Upon his death, John P. Meakin wrote that Savage "was the loving peasant prince of Utah." Savage's sons, Ralph, Roscoe, and George, continued running the Art Bazar after his death. Ralph Savage was chosen by the LDS Church to photograph the interior of the Salt Lake Temple. His photographs were published in "The House of the Lord". The Art Bazar almost burned down again a few years after Savage's death. It was only partially damaged, and the main building remained intact. However, the fire destroyed Savage's negatives from the last 25 years of his life. The Savage family re-opened the Art Bazar to the public but mainly sold novelty items and picture frames rather than photographs. The Art Bazar closed completely on December 31, 1926.

Charles Roscoe Savage (August 16, 1832 – February 4, 1909) was a British-born landscape and portrait photographer most notable for his images of the American West. Savage converted to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in his youth while living in England. He served a mission in Switzerland and eventually moved to the United States. In America he became interested in photography and began taking portraits for hire in the East. He traveled to Salt Lake City with his family and opened up his Art Bazar where he sold many of his photographs. Savage concentrated his photographic efforts primarily on family portraits, landscapes, and documentary views. He is best known for his 1869 photographs of the linking of the first transcontinental railroad at Promontory, Utah.

Charles Roscoe Savage (16. srpna 1832 Southampton, Anglie – 4. února 1909) byl britský fotograf, který fotografoval na americkém západu. Nejvíce je známý svými fotografiemi první transkontinentální železnice z roku 1869.


Name.

"Phraátēs" () is the Greek form of the Parthian "Frahāt" (<unk>), itself from the Old Iranian "*Frahāta-" ("gained, earned"). The Modern Persian version is "Farhād" (). Phraates V was regularly known by the diminutive version of his name, Phraataces, meaning "the small Phraates".

Background.

Phraates V was the son of the Phraates IV () and his Roman wife Musa, who was originally an Italian slave-girl given to him by the Roman emperor Augustus () after a treaty in 20 BC in which the Romans returned Phraates IV his kidnapped son in return for the lost legionary standards taken at Carrhae in 53 BC, as well as any surviving prisoners of war. The Parthians viewed this exchange as a small price to pay to regain the prince. Musa quickly became queen and a favourite of Phraates IV, giving birth to Phraataces (Phraates V) in. It was reportedly under her influence, that Phraates IV in 10/9 BC sent his four first-born sons to Rome in order to prevent conflict over his succession. In 2 BC, Musa had Phraates IV poisoned and made herself, along with Phraates V, the co-rulers of the Parthian empire. According to the 1st-century Roman historian Josephus, he heard a rumour that Musa enjoyed sexual relations with her son. This and the coinage of Musa with Phraates V, led to some scholars believe that the two had married. However, there is no evidence that supports this claim; neither under the Parthians, nor their Persian predecessors—the Achaemenids—is there reliable evidence that marriage was practised between parents and their children.

Reign.

At his accession, Phraates V inherited a long dispute between the Parthians and the Romans over Armenia and Mesopotamia. As a result, Augustus dispatched an army under his adopted son Gaius Caesar to capture both regions. Before war broke out, they were met by an emissary of Phraates V, who demanded the king's brothers be returned to him. Augustus wrote a mocking response in a letter to Phraates V, which simply addressed him as "Phraates". He demanded that Phraates relinquish his crown and give up his claims to Armenia. Not intimidated, Phraates V replied back—according to the classical Roman historian Cassius Dio—"in a generally haughty tone, styling himself King of Kings and addressing Augustus simply as Caesar".  Ultimately, the two powers agreed to come to terms through diplomacy: a peace-treaty was agreed in 1 AD, which made Armenia a Roman vassal state, whilst the Romans agreed to acknowledge the Parthian Empire as its equal, and Phraates V as its rightful ruler. It was important to Phraates V that he was acknowledged by the Romans, due to his insecure domestic position in the country. However, this strategy backfired. In 4 AD, the Parthian nobility, already discontented with the son of an Italian slave-girl occupying the throne, were further angered by his acknowledgement of Roman suzerainty in Armenia, expelling Phraates V and Musa from the Parthian throne. Both fled to Rome, where Augustus welcomed them. The Parthian nobility then placed Orodes III on the throne.

Coinage.

Phraates V's later reverse coins notably have an image of his mother, Musa, with a circular legend labelling her as "heavenly", contrary to the square legends which had been typical on Parthian coin mints. Furthermore, the title of "basilissa" ("queen") is also given to her, which was not necessarily only used by the wife of the king in the Hellenistic era, but also other royal women. Like his father, Phraates V's observe coins depicts a figure resembling the Greek goddess Nike holding a ring and diadem behind his head. In the Parthian era, Iranians used Hellenistic iconography to portray their divine figures, thus the figure can be associated with the Avestan "khvarenah", i.e. kingly glory. Rarely, a fire temple is depicted on the reverse of his coins. Likewise, the title of Phraates V on his coinage remained the same as that of his father: "[coin] of the King of Kings, Arsakes, Just, Benefactor, Illustrious, Philhellene."

Sources.

<br>Joint ruler with Musa

Phraates V ( "Frahāt"), also known by the diminutive version of his name, Phraataces (also spelled Phraatakes), was the King of Kings of the Parthian Empire from 2 BC to 4 AD. He was the younger son of Phraates IV () and Musa, who ruled with him.

Fraatés V. (parthsky "Frahát", řecky "Φραάτης"), známý též jako Fraatakés (parthsky "Frahátak", řecky "Φραάτακης"), byl parthský velkokrál z rodu Arsakovců vládnoucí v letech 2 př. n. l. – 4 n. l. Byl synem krále Fraata IV. (38 – 2 př. n. l.) ze vztahu s Músou a současně nejmladším královským princem. Jeho bratr Vonónés se později stal jedním z jeho nástupců.


Morphology.

The following overview is based on Pekka (Pyotr) M. Zaykov's volume. Zaykov's Uralic phonetic transcription is retained here. The middle dot ˑ denotes palatalization of the preceding consonant, analyzed by Zaykov as semisoft pronunciation.

Noun.

Akkala Sámi has eight cases, singular and plural: nominative, genitive-accusative, partitive, dative-illative, locative, essive, comitative and abessive. Case and number are expressed by a combination of endings and consonant gradation:

Pronoun.

The table below gives the declension of the personal pronouns "monn" ‘I’ and "mij" ‘we’. The pronouns "tonn" ‘you (sg.)’ and "sonn" ‘(s)he’ are declined like "monn", the pronouns "tij" ‘you (pl.)’ and "sij" ‘they’ are declined like "mij".  The interrogative pronouns "mī" ‘what?’ and "tˑī", "kī" ‘who?’ are declined as follows:  The proximal demonstrative "tˑa͕t" ‘this’ and the medial demonstrative "ti̮t" ‘that’ are declined as follows:

Verb.

Akkala Sámi verbs have three persons and two numbers, singular and plural. There are three moods: indicative, imperative and conditional; the potential mood has disappeared. Below, the paradigm of the verbs "va͕n̄ˑće" ‘to walk’ and "korrɛ" ‘to knit’ is given in the present and imperfect tense:  The verb "ĺiije" ‘to be’ conjugates as follows:  Compound tenses such as perfect and pluperfect are formed with the verb "ĺii̭je" in the present or imperfect as auxiliary, and the participle of the main verb. Examples are "ĺam tĭĕhtmi̮nč" ‘I have known’ from "tĭĕhttɛ" ‘to know’, and "ĺai tui̭jāma" ‘(s)he had made’ from "tui̭je" ‘to make’.  The conditional mood has the marker "-č", which is added to the weak grade of the stem: "kuarčim" ‘I would sew’, "vizzčik" ‘you (sg.) would become tired’.  As in other Sámi languages, Akkala Sámi makes use of a negative verb that conjugates according to person and number, while the main verb remains unchanged. The conjugation of the negative verb is shown here together with the verb "aĺ̄ḱe" ‘to begin’:  The third person singular and plural of the verb "ĺii̭je" ‘to be’ have special contracted forms "ɛĺĺa" and "jāĺa".

Akkala Sámi is a Sámi language that was spoken in the Sámi villages of A ́kkel (Russian "Бабинский", Finnish "Akkala"), Ču ́kksuâl (Russian "Экостровский") and Sââ ́rvesjäu ́rr (Russian "Гирвасозеро", Finnish "Hirvasjärvi"), in the inland parts of the Kola Peninsula in Russia. Formerly erroneously regarded as a dialect of Kildin Sámi, it has recently become recognized as an independent Sámi language that is most closely related to its western neighbor Skolt Sámi.

Akkalská sámština je mrtvý východosámský jazyk z ugrofinské větve uralské jazykové rodiny. Její poslední mluvčí, Marja Sergina, zemřela 29. prosince 2003. Dodnes však žije v této oblasti zhruba stovka Akkalských Sámů.


Features.

NX can be installed on Windows, Mac, Linux and Linux ARM servers. The client software is available for Windows, Mac OS X, iOS, Android, Linux, Linux ARM and HTML/JavaScript. Its features include sharing network devices, session recording, file transfer, multimedia capability and browser-based access.  The enterprise-oriented server products also offer multi compute-node clustering and fail-over functionality, and the ability to run multiple virtual Linux instances on the same machine (Linux Terminal Server functionality).  NX utilizes VirtualGL to run high-end OpenGL-based X applications and 3-D CAD programs smoothly at high resolutions.  NX—or NoMachine, as it is often referred to since the release of version 4—is platform-agnostic. It can be installed on Linux, Windows and Mac instances virtualised within popular hypervisors like Xen, KVM or VMware, and integrated with any virtual desktop infrastructure running in private or public clouds, such as Amazon EC2 or Rackspace.

History.

In 2001, the compression and transport protocol NX was created to improve the performance of the native X display protocol so it could be used over slow connections such as dial-up modems. It wrapped remote connections in SSH sessions for encryption.  NX's design was derived from the Differential X Protocol Compressor project (DXPC). NX version 1 was released on February 14, 2003. The last update, version 3.5, was released in 2012.  From v.3.5, NX's core compression technology was made available to the community under the GNU GPL2 license, whilst other components such as the NX Server and NX Client programs remained proprietary.  In 2009, Google made a freely available open-source GPL2 version of the server called Neatx. Other open-source variants of NoMachine's NX are also available (see below).  Starting in 2013, with the release of version 4.0, NX became closed-source.

NX 4 and later versions.

NX 4 introduced optimal image compression and caching with the latest video-encoding techniques.  Client applications can connect using the SSH protocol, with the same authentication mechanisms as version 3, by a new SSH system login, or by the new SSL-enabled NX daemon. Once a secure connection is established, clients negotiate a desktop session using a text protocol compatible with that used in version 3. Clients can also use one of the various NoMachine subsystems, such as the file synchronization service, software updates, directory services, voice/video messaging and server clustering.  When connecting hosts across the network, the NX protocol works as a generic tunnel, with additional framing and flow control information, and dynamically adapts compression and bandwidth according to network speed and capacity. For compatibility, multiplexing is based on version 3.  NX 4 added new channel types to handle services such as the new file-system redirection, new printing system, virtual network interfaces, smart cards and USB devices. Most NoMachine components, including the agent program that impersonates the desktop session on the server, embed so-called "slave servers"—lightweight servers that provide inter-process communication and automation that can be used to create additional channels, under the control of the client and server.  Applications can still request that channels carry data using the NX X Window System protocol compression. Version 4 added new channel types for video and audio, allowing multiple codecs in the same stream. Currently, the display (video) channels can handle data in H.264, VP8, MJPEG and other formats, with additional primitives used to implement special encoding operations concurrent with standard audio and video streams. Once the session is established between client and server, NX data can travel on TCP and UDP streams. The client and server dynamically select which transport to use, based on the type of data and network conditions. If communication over UDP is enabled, client and server can automatically instruct the router to open the necessary ports. UDP uses symmetric Blowfish encryption. The host interface and port, and Blowfish encryption key, are negotiated via a secure TCP link. UDP communication is disabled when using SSH tunneling, so that all data uses the same SSH link.  The display protocol uses a combination of video and image encoding, based on standard codecs and a number of techniques developed by NoMachine. NX monitors display and user activity to adapt quality and buffering to the displayed application.

Authentication.

From version 4.0 on, when the default NX protocol is used, the login can be via password-based authentication, private key or Kerberos ticket authentication.  When NX is configured to send its data by SSH (available only on enterprise-version servers), the following authentication methods are available:  Client to Server  Server to Node

Version 3 and earlier.

NX compresses the X11 data to minimize the amount of data transmitted, and caches data to keep the session as responsive as possible. For example, the first time a menu is opened, it may take a few seconds, but is subsequently almost instant.  NX is faster than its predecessors, as it eliminates most of the X round trips, while dxpc and MLView only compress data.  The two principal components of NX are nxproxy and nxagent. nxproxy is derived from dxpc and is started on both the remote (client in X terminology) and local (server in X terminology) machines, simulating an X server on the client and forwarding remote X protocol requests to the local X server.  Simplest setup:  nxproxy alone achieves 1:10 to 1:1000 compression ratios, reducing bandwidth, but does not eliminate most of X's synchronous round trips, responsible for most of X's perceived latency.  nxagent, derived from Xnest (similar to Xephyr), is typically started on the remote (client) machine, thus avoiding most X11 protocol round trips. Together with nxproxy (built into nxagent), this setup performs well over low-bandwidth and high-latency links.  Typical setup:  On systems with a functional X11 implementation, nxproxy and nxagent are all that is needed to establish a connection with low-bandwidth requirements between a set of remote X clients and the local X server. SSH can be used to establish a secure tunnel between the hosts. NX 3 relies on SSH functionalities and existing open-source SSH software, making it possible to run contemporary Unix and Windows desktops and arbitrary network applications over the Internet in a secured and controlled way.  FreeNX and the various NX Clients are used for setup, handling suspend and resume, secure tunnelling over SSH, and printing and sound.

Other display protocols.

All Enterprise versions of NoMachine's NX protocol allow client connections to hosts via Remote Desktop Protocol (for Windows Remote Desktop Services sessions) and remote Virtual Network Computing sessions (most modern general-purpose operating system platforms), as well as XDM.

License.

Prior to version 4.0, NoMachine released core NX technology under the GNU General Public License, and offered non-free commercial NX solutions, free client and server products for Linux and Solaris, and free client software for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X and embedded systems.  On December 21, 2010, NoMachine announced that NX 4.0 would be closed-source.  Due to the free-software nature of older NX releases, the FreeNX project was started to provide wrapper scripts for the GPL NX libraries. FreeNX was developed and maintained by Fabian Franz, but has not announced a release since 2008.  2X Software has developed another commercial terminal server for Linux using the NX protocol.  On July 7, 2009, Google announced their open-source NX server, Neatx, as an internal project. The project had no releases and is not actively developed. Its source code is available under the GNU GPL v2 license.  X2Go is based on the 3.x NX libraries, but is not compatible with other implementations. The client and server are released under a combination of GNU GPLv2 or later, and GNU AGPLv3 or later.

Clients.

The primary NX clients are the official freeware, NoMachine, and NoMachine Enterprise Client. Several open-source projects can also use the NX protocol.  An OS mature project was Lawrence Roufail's "nxc" client library, a full library which can be used for other clients to build upon. The "nxrun" application utilizes this library., the library does not allow suspending or resuming sessions, and uses only JPEG graphics compression.  The "kNX" project was a proof-of-concept application written by Joseph Wenninger, with plans for it to eventually become a complete NX client to show that an open-source client could be written. Its development was halted before it was completed. In late 2005, Fabian Franz and George Wright began modifying kNX to use the nxc library, but abandoned the project.  More recent open-source efforts include "QtNX", which offers full suspend and resume. However, it has been reported as incompatible with the most recent NX libraries.  "Nxcl, a"n update to nxclientlib, the core of QtNX, was completed by Seb James in September 2007, and works with version 3 of the NX core libraries. It also drops dependency on Qt, which prevented nxclientlib from becoming widely used as a cross-platform basis for NX client programs. nxcl provides a library that can be linked to a client program (libnxcl), and a self-contained NX client with a D-Bus API (the nxcl binary). It is available from the FreeNX Subversion server.  Other recent and actively maintained OSS NX clients include "OpenNX", described as a "drop-in replacement for NoMachine's [proprietary] nxclient" with full suspend and resume.  Various open-source terminal server projects, such as X2Go, also use the NX protocol. However, X2Go is not compatible with other NX servers or clients.  Remmina, another recent GTK+ remote desktop client project, announced the ability to use the NX protocol in its release 0.8.

NX technology, commonly known as "NX", is a proprietary suite of products for desktop virtualization and application delivery for servers and client software, developed by the Luxemburg-based company NoMachine.

NX technologie poskytuje vzdálené komprimované a šifrované připojení ke grafickému uživatelskému rozhraní. Umožňuje využívat kompletní relace vzdálené plochy. Snaží se značně vylepšit výkon nativního X protokolu, aby byl použitelný i přes pomalá síťová připojení. Kvůli šifrování jsou spojení zabalena v SSH relaci.