History.

Founded in the tenth century BC on the plain formed by meanders of the River Mincio, Mantua became an Etruscan town and important trading post for pottery and agricultural products. Despite its defensible position, it was unable to withstand the Celtic invaders in the sixth and fifth centuries BC who overwhelmed it, and the whole area was later conquered by the Romans.  By the fifth century AD, the Western Roman Empire was collapsing. Mantua was overrun by a series of invaders, including the Visigoths, Vandals, and Ostrogoths. After 568 the Lombards seized control of the part of northern Italy which is now known as Lombardy and included Mantua.  The current administrative boundaries of the province have deep historical roots, corresponding largely to the Duchy of Mantua, which was a fief of the Holy Roman Empire. The Napoleonic Department of the Mincio became the Province of Mantua at the birth of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia in 1815. Following the Battle of Solferino on 24 June 1859, Franco-Piedmontese troops conquered Lombardy up to the right bank of the Mincio, and the resulting Armistice of Villafranca of 11 June 1859 between France and Austria called for the new provincial boundaries, splitting in two the part of the previous Province of Mantova that was crossed by the new international border. The new provincial boundaries came into effect after laws enacted in 1868. The coat of arms of the province, containing the symbols of Mantua, Bozzolo and Castiglione delle Stiviere, embodies the union of those three areas and was adopted in place of the previous one.

Geography.

The Province of Mantua is bounded by several rivers. To the west, the River Oglio provides the border with the Province of Cremona. To the south it is bounded by the River Po, on the other side of which are the provinces of Ferrara, Modena, Reggio Emilia and Parma. To the east the River Mincio provides the border with the Province of Verona and the Province of Rovigo, and to the northwest lies the Province of Brescia. The total area of the province is. The River Po is subject to flooding and much of the bank is raised by levees.

Protected areas.

There are a number of nature reserves and protected areas in the province. The Parco regionale del Mincio was established on 8 September 1984 with an area of approximately 16,000 hectares. It includes several nature reserves and has a range of habitats including moraines, hills, plains, and the meandering riverbeds in the complex of lakes of Mantua. Birds found in the park include storks, herons, purple herons, egrets, night herons, kingfishers, bee-eaters, coots, moorhens, peregrine falcons, hawks, great crested grebe and black kite.  The Parco dell'Oglio Sud is another regional park that lies on the boundary of the province with the province of Cremona. It was established in 1988 and has an area of about 12,800 hectares. It is a river park that runs along the stretch of the river Oglio which forms the boundary. It lies to the south of Lake Iseo and the administrative centre is at Calvatone. Birds present in this park include great egret, grey heron, Montagu's harrier, Eurasian scops owl, bearded reedling, woodcock, barred warbler, crested lark, sedge warbler, moustached warbler, little egret, Eurasian hobby and ferruginous duck.  The Riserva naturale Bosco Fontana is a state nature reserve with an area of about 23,300 hectares. It is a wooded area that is a remnant of the natural forests that covered the Po valley in ancient times. It is a dense marshy forest composed mainly of Turkey oaks, pedunculate oaks, hornbeams, limes, poplars, elms and alders, which are accompanied by numerous species of shrubby undergrowth. There are glades with abundant wildflowers and fungi flourish among the trees, an important factor being the richness of the groundwater. Among the mammals found in the reserve are the least weasel, beech marten and European polecat, and the birds include the common buzzard, the great spotted woodpecker and the Eurasian wryneck.

Economy.

Despite Mantuan landscape is primarily an agricultural one and the primary sector accounted for the 6% of local GDP in 2003, much above Italian average, the province has an historically strong industrial sector, which accounts for 37% of the GDP, while the tertiary sector holds the remaining 56%. Overall, the gross domestic product of the province was estimated in 2003 at over €10 billion.  The productivity of agriculture is enhanced by a well-developed use of fertilizers and the traditional abundance of water. It is largely flat and the soil is very fertile and is intensively irrigated, boosted since the Middle Ages by the construction of a wide net of irrigation canals which were partly designed by Leonardo da Vinci. Crops grown include wheat, maize, rice, sugar beet, potatoes and vegetables. Olives, grapes, chestnuts and many other sorts of fruit are grown; mulberry plants are grown for their contribution to silk production, or sericulture. The lower plains are characterized by fodder crops, which are mowed up to eight times a year. Cattle are also bred and cheese and other dairy products are manufactured. The main exports from the province include cereals, rice, cheese and silk, but most industrial goods need to be imported.

External links.

<br

The Province of Mantua (; Mantovano, Lower Mantovano: ; Upper Mantovano: ) is a province in the Lombardy region of northern Italy. Its capital is the city of Mantua. It is bordered to the north-east by the Province of Verona, to the east by that of Rovigo, to the south by those of Ferrara, Modena, Reggio Emilia and Parma, to the west by the Province of Cremona and to the north-west by that of Brescia.

Mantova ("Provincia di Mantova") je italská provincie v oblasti Lombardie. Sousedí na severu s provincií Verona, na východě s provincií Rovigo, na jihu s provinciemi Ferrara, Modena, Reggio Emilia a Parma a na západě s provinciemi Cremona a Brescia. Hlavním městem je Mantova.


History.

The area around Capo Colonna, the easternmost point of the province, revealed numerous archaeological remains of Stone Age settlements, with large quantities of Neolithic pottery being found. The Greeks settled on the coasts of Calabria during the 8th and 7th centuries BC, and the city of Crotone was founded, under the name of "Kroton", by Greek Achaeans in around 710 BC. It grew to become a town of 50,000 to 80,000 inhabitants around 500 BC. The wrestler Milo of Croton was born in Crotone during the sixth century BC and the town had a great reputation for prowess in athletics having produced many Olympic champions. Pythagoras moved to Croton in around 530 BC, and a medical school was also based in the region at around this time. It flourished as an important port and conquered the city Sybaris under the command of Milo. Pyrrhus of Epirus then controlled the city until it fell under Roman Republic rule. The city Crotone participated in the Second Punic War, in which, it rebelled and fought against its Roman Republic rulers.  The province of Crotone was formed in 1992 from land that had previously been part of the province of Catanzaro.

Geography.

The province of Crotone is one of the four provinces in the region of Calabria in southern Italy. To the northwest lies the Province of Cosenza and to the southwest lies the Province of Catanzaro. To the south and east, the province has a coastline on the Gulf of Taranto, part of the Mediterranean Sea.  The northwesterly part of Crotone forms part of the high plateau of La Sila and includes part of the Sila National Park, a rugged wilderness area which has open heathland, and forests of pine, oak, beech and fir. In the upland areas chestnuts and olives are grown, and most of the province is a lowland agricultural area with orchards of citrus fruits and vineyards. The rivers are short and many dry up in summer.

Tourism.

Crotone has a long history and many interesting features. The cathedral originates from the 9th to 11th centuries AD but has seen many changes to its architecture over the years. The 16th century castle of Charles V houses the local museum, but an older castle is located on an island just offshore and can only be approached by foot. Near the town are the remains of the Greek temple of "Hera Lacinia", at one time the most important temple in Magna Graecia.  The historic town of Santa Severina dates back to the ninth century BC when the "Enotri", an ancient Italian tribe, inhabited the region. It later became an important Byzantine trading centre. It is built on the top of a steep-sided hill with the castle on the summit. The castle is one of the best-preserved Norman structures in the region and now houses the Archaeological Museum of Castles and Fortifications in Calabria. In the main square stands the Cathedral of Saint Anastasia, which dates back to 1274, and nearby is the Baptistry, a fine example of Byzantine architecture from the seventh to ninth centuries, and probably the oldest such structure in Calabria. On the other side of the castle stands the eleventh century Church of Santo Filomena, another fine Byzantine edifice.  Pallagorio is another ancient town. The "Cave of St. Maurice" was occupied in Neolithic times, Greek colonists settled here in around the seventh century BC, and Roman colonists did likewise several centuries later, and traces of their villas remain near the river. In medieval times, the village situated here came to be known as "San Giovanni in Palagorio". It now has many interesting churches and chapels.  Umbriatico was founded by the Oenotrians before Greek colonists arrived in this district and founded nearby Kroton. It is situated on a rocky hill and accessible via a bridge over the river. During the Second Punic War it had a defensive wall, but this did not prevent the Romans from storming it and massacring the citizens. The Cathedral of San Donato has a crypt which was originally a Greek temple, with Doric columns.

Organized crime.

Since 2009, various people have been arrested in the provinces of Catanzaro, Crotone and Reggio Calabria in connection with organised crime; alleged offences include insurance fraud, the sale of bogus degrees, fraud in relation to grants and subsidies, collusion with the Mafia, forgery, irregularities in tendering procedures, extortion, murder, electoral fraud, supply of drugs and intimidation.

The province of Crotone () is a province in the Calabria region of southern Italy. It was formed in 1992 out of a section of the province of Catanzaro. The provincial capital is the city of Crotone. It borders the provinces of Cosenza, Catanzaro, and also the Ionian Sea. It contains the mountain Pizzuta, the National Park of the Sila, Montagnella Park, and the Giglietto Valley. Crotone was founded in 710 BCE. It participated in the Second Punic War against the Roman Republic.

Crotone ("Provincia di Crotone") je italská provincie v oblasti Kalábrie. Sousedí na severozápadě s provincií Cosenza a na jihozápadě s provincií Catanzaro. Její břehy omývá na východě Jónské moře.


Etymology and history.

The word "hyperbola" derives from the Greek, meaning "over-thrown" or "excessive", from which the English term hyperbole also derives. Hyperbolae were discovered by Menaechmus in his investigations of the problem of doubling the cube, but were then called sections of obtuse cones. The term hyperbola is believed to have been coined by Apollonius of Perga (c.

Definition of a hyperbola as locus of points.

A hyperbola can be defined geometrically as a set of points (locus of points) in the Euclidean plane:  The midpoint formula_8 of the line segment joining the foci is called the "center" of the hyperbola. The line through the foci is called the "major axis". It contains the "vertices" formula_9, which have distance formula_10 to the center. The distance formula_11 of the foci to the center is called the "focal distance"

Hyperbola in Cartesian coordinates.

Equation.

If Cartesian coordinates are introduced such that the origin is the center of the hyperbola and the "x"-axis is the major axis, then the hyperbola is called "east-west-opening" and For an arbitrary point formula_27 the distance to the focus formula_28 is formula_29 and to the second focus formula_30. Hence the point formula_27 is on the hyperbola if the following condition is fulfilled Remove the square roots by suitable squarings and use the relation formula_33 to obtain the equation of the hyperbola:  This equation is called the canonical form of a hyperbola,

Eccentricity.

For a hyperbola in the above canonical form, the eccentricity is given by  Two hyperbolas are geometrically similar to each other – meaning that they have the same shape, so that one can be transformed into the other by rigid left and right movements, rotation, taking a mirror image, and scaling (magnification) – if and only if they have the same eccentricity.

Asymptotes.

Solving the equation (above) of the hyperbola for formula_38 yields It follows from this that the hyperbola approaches the two lines for large values of formula_41. These two lines intersect at the center (origin) and are called "asymptotes"

Semi-latus rectum.

The length of the chord through one of the foci, perpendicular to the major axis of the hyperbola, is called the

Tangent.

The simplest way to determine the equation of the tangent at a point formula_57 is to implicitly differentiate the equation formula_58 of the hyperbola. Denoting "dy/dx" as "y′", this produces With respect to formula_60, the equation of the tangent at point formula_57 is  A particular tangent line distinguishes the

Rectangular hyperbola.

In the case formula_63 the hyperbola is called "rectangular" (or "equilateral"), because its asymptotes

Parametric representation with hyperbolic sine/cosine.

Using the hyperbolic sine and cosine functions formula_67, a parametric representation of the hyperbola formula_58 can be obtained, which

Conjugate hyperbola.

Exchange formula_71 and formula_38 to obtain

Hyperbolic functions.

Just as the trigonometric functions are defined in terms of the unit circle, so also the hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of the unit hyperbola, as shown in this diagram. In a unit circle, the angle (in radians) is equal to twice the area of the circular sector which that angle subtends. The analogous hyperbolic angle is likewise defined as twice the area of a

Hyperbola with equation "y" = "A"/"x".

If the "xy"-coordinate system is rotated about the origin by the angle formula_87 and new coordinates formula_88 are assigned, then formula_89. The rectangular hyperbola formula_90 (whose semi-axes are equal) has the new equation formula_91. Solving for formula_92 yields formula_93  Thus, in an "xy"-coordinate system the graph of a function formula_94 with equation

Definition of a hyperbola by the directrix property.

The two lines at distance formula_117 and parallel to the minor axis are called directrices of the hyperbola (see diagram).  For an arbitrary point formula_3 of the hyperbola the quotient of the distance to one focus and to the corresponding directrix (see diagram) is equal to the eccentricity: The proof for the pair formula_120 follows from the fact that formula_121 and formula_122 satisfy the equation The second case is proven analogously.  The "inverse statement" is also true and can be used to define a hyperbola (in a manner similar to the definition of

Hyperbola as plane section of a cone.

The intersection of an upright double cone by a plane not through the vertex with slope greater than the slope of the lines on the cone is a hyperbola (see diagram: red curve).

Pin and string construction.

The definition of a hyperbola by its foci and its circular directrices (see above) can be used for drawing an arc of it with help of pins, a string and a ruler :  (0) Choose the "foci" formula_5, the vertices formula_9 and one of the "circular directrices", for example formula_15 (circle with radius formula_17) <br> (1) A "ruler" is fixed

The tangent bisects the angle between the lines to the foci.

The tangent at a point formula_3 bisects the angle between the lines formula_193. Let formula_194 be the point on the line formula_167 with the distance formula_17 to the focus formula_16 (see diagram, formula_10 is the semi major axis of the hyperbola). Line formula_199 is the bisector of the angle between the lines formula_193.

Midpoints of parallel chords.

The midpoints of parallel chords of a hyperbola lie on a line through the center (see diagram).  The points of any chord may lie on different branches of the hyperbola.  The proof of the property on midpoints is best done for the hyperbola formula_213. Because any hyperbola is an affine image of the hyperbola formula_213 (see section below) and an affine transformation preserves parallelism and midpoints of line segments, the property is true for all hyperbolas: For two points formula_215 of the hyperbola formula_213  For parallel chords the slope is constant and the midpoints of the parallel chords lie on the

Steiner generation of a hyperbola.

The following method to construct single points of a hyperbola relies on the Steiner generation of a non degenerate conic section:  For the generation of points of the hyperbola formula_237 one uses the pencils at the vertices formula_9. Let formula_239 be a point of the hyperbola and formula_240. The line segment formula_241 is divided into n equally-spaced segments and this division is

Inscribed angles for hyperbolas "y" = "a"/("x" − "b") + "c" and the 3-point-form.

A hyperbola with equation formula_250 is uniquely determined by three points formula_251 with different "x"- and "y"-coordinates. A simple way to determine the shape parameters formula_252 uses the

Orthogonal tangents – orthoptic.

For a hyperbola formula_264 the intersection points of "orthogonal" tangents lie on the circle formula_265. This circle is called the

Pole-polar relation for a hyperbola.

Any hyperbola can be described in a suitable coordinate system by an equation formula_58. The equation of the tangent at a point formula_268 of the hyperbola is formula_269 If one allows point formula_268 to be an arbitrary point different from the origin, then  This relation

Hyperbola as an affine image of the unit hyperbola "x"2 − "y"2 = 1.

Another definition of a hyperbola uses affine transformations:  An affine transformation of the Euclidean plane has the form formula_289, where formula_161 is a regular matrix (its determinant is not 0) and formula_291 is an arbitrary vector. If formula_292 are the column vectors of the matrix formula_161, the unit hyperbola formula_294 is mapped onto the hyperbola  formula_291 is the center, formula_297 a point of the hyperbola and formula_298 a tangent vector at this point.  In general the vectors

Hyperbola as an affine image of the hyperbola "y" = 1/"x".

Because the unit hyperbola formula_83 is affinely equivalent to the hyperbola formula_213, an arbitrary hyperbola can be considered as the affine image (see previous section) of the hyperbola formula_316  formula_318 is the center of the hyperbola, the vectors formula_319 have the directions of the asymptotes and formula_320 is a point of the hyperbola. The tangent vector is At a vertex the tangent is perpendicular to the major axis. Hence and the parameter of a vertex is  formula_324 is equivalent to formula_325 and formula_326 are the vertices of the hyperbola.  The following properties of a hyperbola are easily proven using the representation of a hyperbola introduced in this section.

Tangent construction.

The tangent vector can be rewritten by factorization: This means that  This property provides a way to construct the tangent at a point on the hyperbola.  This property of a hyperbola is

Point construction.

For a hyperbola with parametric representation formula_336 (for simplicity the center is the origin) the following is true:  The simple proof is a consequence of

Tangent-asymptotes-triangle.

For simplicity the center of the hyperbola may be the origin and the vectors formula_340 have equal length. If the last assumption is not fulfilled one can first apply a parameter transformation (see above) in order to make the assumption true. Hence formula_341 are the vertices, formula_342 span the minor axis

Polar coordinates.

For pole = focus:  The polar coordinates used most commonly for the hyperbola are defined relative to the Cartesian coordinate system that has its "origin in a focus" and its x-axis pointing towards the origin of the "canonical coordinate system"

Parametric equations.

A hyperbola with equation formula_360

Other mathematical definitions.

Reciprocation of a circle.

The reciprocation of a circle "B" in a circle "C" always yields a conic section such as a hyperbola. The process of "reciprocation in a circle "C"" consists of replacing every line and point in a geometrical figure with their corresponding pole and polar, respectively. The "pole" of a line is the inversion of its closest point to the circle "C", whereas the polar of a point is the converse, namely, a line whose closest point to "C" is the inversion of the point.  The eccentricity of the conic section obtained by reciprocation is the ratio of the distances between the two circles' centers to the radius

Quadratic equation.

A hyperbola can also be defined as a second-degree equation in the Cartesian coordinates ("x", "y") in the plane,  provided that the constants "A", "A", "A", "B", "B", and "C" satisfy the determinant condition  This determinant is conventionally called the discriminant of the conic section.  A special case of a hyperbola—the "degenerate hyperbola" consisting of two intersecting lines—occurs when another determinant is zero:  This determinant Δ is sometimes called the discriminant of the conic section.  Given the above general parametrization of the hyperbola in Cartesian coordinates, the eccentricity can be found using the formula in Conic section#Eccentricity in terms of parameters of the quadratic form.  The center ("x", "y") of the hyperbola may be determined from the formulae  In terms of new coordinates, and, the defining equation of the hyperbola can be written  The principal axes of the hyperbola make an angle "φ" with the positive "x"-axis that is given by  Rotating the coordinate axes so

Conic section analysis of the hyperbolic appearance of circles.

Besides providing a uniform description of circles, ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas, conic sections can also be understood as a natural model of the geometry of perspective in the case where the scene being viewed consists of circles, or more generally an ellipse. The viewer is typically a camera or the human eye and the image of the scene a central projection onto an image plane, that is, all projection rays pass a fixed point "O", the center. The lens

Arc length.

The arc length of a hyperbola does not have a closed-form expression. The upper half of a hyperbola can be parameterized as  Then

Derived curves.

Several other curves can be derived from the hyperbola by inversion, the so-called inverse curves of the hyperbola. If the center of inversion is chosen as the hyperbola's own center, the inverse curve

Elliptic coordinates.

A family of confocal hyperbolas is the basis of the system of elliptic coordinates in two dimensions. These hyperbolas are described by the equation  where the foci are located at a distance "c" from the origin on the "x"-axis, and where θ is the angle of the asymptotes with the "x"-axis. Every hyperbola in

Applications.

Sundials.

Hyperbolas may be seen in many sundials. On any given day, the sun revolves in a circle on the celestial sphere, and its rays striking the point on a sundial traces out a cone of light. The intersection of this cone with the horizontal plane of the ground forms a conic section. At most populated latitudes and at most times of the year,

Multilateration.

A hyperbola is the basis for solving multilateration problems, the task of locating a point from the differences in its distances to given points — or, equivalently, the difference in arrival times of synchronized signals between the point and the given points. Such problems are important in navigation, particularly on water; a ship can locate its

Path followed by a particle.

The path followed by any particle in the classical Kepler problem is a conic section. In particular, if the total energy "E" of the particle is greater than zero (that is, if the particle is unbound), the path of such a particle is a hyperbola.

Korteweg–de Vries equation.

The hyperbolic trig function formula_417 appears as one solution to

Angle trisection.

As shown first by Apollonius of Perga, a hyperbola can be used to trisect any angle, a well studied problem of geometry. Given an angle, first draw a circle centered at its vertex O, which intersects the sides of the angle at points A and B. Next draw the line segment with endpoints A and B and its perpendicular bisector formula_418. Construct a hyperbola of eccentricity "e"=2 with formula_418 as directrix and B

Efficient portfolio frontier.

In portfolio theory, the locus of mean-variance efficient portfolios (called the efficient frontier) is the upper half of the east-opening branch of a

Biochemistry.

In biochemistry and pharmacology, the Hill equation and Hill-Langmuir equation respectively describe

Hyperbolas as plane sections of quadrics.

Hyperbolas appear as plane sections of the following quadrics:

In mathematics, a hyperbola (plural "hyperbolas" or "hyperbolae") is a type of smooth curve lying in a plane, defined by its geometric properties or by equations for which it is the solution set. A hyperbola has two pieces, called connected components or branches, that are mirror images of each other and resemble two infinite bows. The hyperbola is one of the three kinds of conic section, formed by the intersection of a plane and a double cone. (The other conic sections are the parabola and the ellipse. A circle is a special case of an ellipse.) If the plane intersects both halves of the double cone but does not pass through the apex of the cones, then the conic is a hyperbola.

Hyperbola je rovinná křivka, kuželosečka s výstředností větší než 1. Lze ji také definovat jako množinu všech bodů v rovině o daném rozdílu vzdáleností od dvou pevných ohnisek.


Early life.

Ford was born Leslie Lynch King Jr. on July 14, 1913, at 3202 Woolworth Avenue in Omaha, Nebraska, where his parents lived with his paternal grandparents. He was the child of Dorothy Ayer Gardner and Leslie Lynch King Sr., a wool trader. His father was a son of prominent banker Charles Henry King and Martha Alicia King (née Porter). Gardner separated from King just sixteen days after her son's birth. She took her son with her to Oak Park, Illinois, home of her sister Tannisse and brother-in-law, Clarence Haskins James. From there, she moved to the home of her parents, Levi Addison Gardner and Adele Augusta Ayer, in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Gardner and King divorced in December 1913, and she gained full custody of her son. Ford's paternal grandfather Charles Henry King paid child support until shortly before his death in 1930.  Ford later said that his biological father had a history of hitting his mother. In a biography of Ford, James M. Cannon, a member of the Ford administration, wrote that the separation and divorce of Ford's parents were sparked when, a few days after Ford's birth, Leslie King took a butcher knife and threatened to kill his wife, his infant son, and Ford's nursemaid. Ford later told confidants that his father had first hit his mother when

College and law school.

Ford attended the University of Michigan, where he played center, linebacker, and long snapper for the school's football team and helped the Wolverines to two undefeated seasons and national titles in 1932 and 1933. In his senior year of 1934, the team suffered a steep decline and won only one game, but Ford was still the team's star player. In one of those games, Michigan held heavily favored Minnesota—the eventual national champion—to a scoreless tie in the first half. After the game, assistant coach Bennie Oosterbaan said, "When I walked into the dressing room at halftime, I had tears in my eyes I was so proud of them. Ford and [Cedric] Sweet played their hearts out. They were everywhere on defense." Ford later recalled, "During 25 years in the rough-and-tumble world of politics, I often thought of the experiences before, during, and after that game in 1934. Remembering them has helped me many times to face a tough situation, take action, and make every effort possible despite adverse odds." His teammates later voted Ford their most valuable player, with one assistant coach noting, "They felt Jerry was one guy who would stay and fight in a losing cause." During Ford's senior year, a controversy developed when Georgia Tech said that it would not play a scheduled game with Michigan if a black player named Willis Ward took the field. Students, players, and alumni protested, but university officials capitulated and kept Ward out of the game. Ford was Ward's best friend on the team, and they roomed together while on road trips. Ford reportedly threatened to quit the team in response to the university's decision, but he eventually agreed to

U.S. Naval Reserve.

Following the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor, Ford enlisted in the navy. He received a commission as ensign in the U.S. Naval Reserve on April 13, 1942. On April 20, he reported for active duty to the V-5 instructor school at Annapolis, Maryland. After one month of training, he went to Navy Preflight School in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, where he was one of 83 instructors and taught elementary navigation skills, ordnance, gunnery, first aid, and military drill. In addition, he coached all nine sports that were offered, but mostly swimming, boxing, and football. During the year he was at the Preflight School, he was promoted to Lieutenant, Junior Grade, on June 2, 1942, and to lieutenant, in March 1943.

Sea duty.

After Ford applied for sea duty, he was sent in May 1943 to the pre-commissioning detachment for the new aircraft carrier, at New York Shipbuilding Corporation, Camden, New Jersey. From the ship's commissioning on June 17, 1943, until the end of December 1944, Ford served as the assistant navigator, Athletic Officer, and antiaircraft battery officer on board the "Monterey". While he was on board, the carrier participated in many actions in the Pacific Theater with the Third and Fifth Fleets in late 1943 and 1944. In 1943, the carrier helped secure Makin Island in the Gilberts, and participated in carrier strikes against Kavieng, New Ireland in 1943. During the spring of 1944, the "Monterey" supported landings at Kwajalein and Eniwetok and participated in carrier strikes in the Marianas, Western Carolines, and northern New Guinea, as well as in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. After an overhaul, from September to November 1944, aircraft from the "Monterey" launched strikes against Wake Island, participated in strikes in the Philippines and Ryukyus, and supported the landings at Leyte and Mindoro.  Although the ship was

Marriage and children.

On October 15, 1948, Ford married Elizabeth Bloomer (1918–2011) at Grace Episcopal Church in Grand Rapids; it was his first and only marriage and her second marriage. She had previously been married and, after a five‐year marriage, divorced from William Warren.  Originally from Grand Rapids herself, she had lived in New York City for several years, where she worked as a

House of Representatives (1949–1973).

After Ford returned to Grand Rapids in 1946, he became active in local Republican politics, and supporters urged him to challenge Bartel J. Jonkman, the incumbent Republican congressman. Military service had changed his view of the world. "I came back a converted internationalist", Ford wrote, "and of course our congressman at that time was an avowed, dedicated isolationist. And I thought he ought to be replaced. Nobody thought I could win. I ended up winning two to one."  During his first campaign in 1948, Ford visited voters at their doorsteps and as they left the factories where they worked. Ford also visited local farms where, in one instance, a wager resulted in Ford spending two weeks milking cows following his election victory.  Ford was a member of the House of Representatives for 25 years, holding Michigan's 5th congressional district seat from 1949 to 1973. It was a tenure largely notable for its modesty. As an editorial in "The New York Times" described him, Ford "saw himself as a negotiator and a reconciler, and the record shows it: he did not write a single piece of major legislation in his entire career." Appointed to the House Appropriations Committee two years after being elected, he was a prominent member of the Defense Appropriations Subcommittee. Ford described his philosophy as "a moderate in domestic affairs, an internationalist in foreign affairs, and a conservative in fiscal policy." Ford voted in favor of the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1960, 1964, and 1968, as well as the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Ford was known to his colleagues in the House as a "Congressman's Congressman".  In the early 1950s, Ford declined offers to run for either the Senate or the Michigan governorship. Rather, his ambition was to become Speaker of the House, which he called "the ultimate achievement. To sit up there and be the head honcho of 434 other people and have the responsibility, aside from the achievement, of trying to run the greatest legislative body in the history of mankind... I think I got that ambition within a year or two after I was in the House of Representatives".

Warren Commission.

On November 29, 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Ford to the Warren Commission, a special task force set up to investigate the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Ford was assigned to prepare a biography of accused assassin Lee Harvey Oswald. He and Earl Warren also interviewed

House Minority Leader (1965–1973).

In 1964, Lyndon Johnson led a landslide victory for his party, secured another term as president and took 36 seats from Republicans in the House of Representatives. Following the election, members of the Republican caucus looked to select a new Minority Leader. Three members approached Ford to see if he would be willing to serve; after consulting with his family, he agreed. After a closely contested election, Ford was chosen to replace Charles Halleck of Indiana as Minority Leader.  With a Democratic majority in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, the Johnson Administration proposed and passed a series of programs that was called by Johnson the "Great Society". During the first session of the Eighty-ninth Congress alone, the Johnson Administration submitted 87 bills to Congress, and Johnson signed 84, or 96%, arguably the most successful legislative agenda in Congressional history.  In 1966, criticism over the Johnson Administration's handling of the Vietnam War began to grow, with Ford and Congressional Republicans expressing concern that the United States was not doing what was necessary to win the war. Public sentiment also began to move against Johnson, and the 1966 midterm elections produced a 47-seat swing in

Vice presidency (1973–1974).

To become House Speaker, Ford worked to help Republicans across the country get a majority in the chamber, often traveling on the rubber chicken circuit. After a decade of failing to do so, he promised his wife that he would try again in 1974 then retire in 1976. On October 10, 1973, Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned and then pleaded no contest to criminal charges of tax evasion and money laundering, part of a negotiated resolution to a scheme in which he accepted $29,500 in bribes while governor of Maryland. According to "The New York Times", Nixon "sought advice from senior Congressional leaders about a replacement." The advice was unanimous. "We gave Nixon no choice but Ford," House Speaker Carl Albert recalled later. Ford agreed to the nomination, telling his wife that the Vice Presidency would be "a nice conclusion" to his career.  Ford was

Presidency (1974–1977).

Swearing-in.

When Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974, Ford automatically assumed the presidency. This made him the only person to become the nation's chief executive without having been previously voted into either the presidential or vice presidential office by the Electoral College. Immediately after Ford took the oath of office in the East Room of the White House, he spoke to the assembled audience in a speech that was broadcast live to the nation. Ford noted the peculiarity of his position: "I am acutely aware that you have not elected me

Pardon of Nixon.

On September 8, 1974, Ford issued, which gave Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crimes he might have committed against the United States while president. In a televised broadcast to the nation, Ford explained that he felt the pardon was in the best interests of the country, and that the Nixon family's situation "is a tragedy in which we all have played a part. It could go on and on and on, or someone must write the end to it. I have concluded that only I can do that, and if I can, I must."  Ford's decision to pardon Nixon was highly controversial. Critics derided the move and said a "corrupt bargain" had been struck between the men. They said that Ford's pardon was granted in exchange for Nixon's resignation, which had elevated Ford to the presidency. Ford's first press secretary and close friend Jerald terHorst resigned his post in protest after the pardon. According to Bob Woodward, Nixon Chief of Staff Alexander Haig proposed a pardon deal to Ford. He later decided to pardon Nixon for other reasons, primarily

Draft dodgers and deserters.

On September 16 (shortly after he pardoned Nixon), Ford issued Presidential Proclamation 4313, which introduced a conditional amnesty program for military deserters and Vietnam War draft dodgers who had fled to countries such as Canada. The conditions of the amnesty required that those reaffirm their allegiance to the United States and

Administration.

When Ford assumed office, he inherited Nixon's Cabinet. During his brief administration, he replaced all members except Secretary of State Kissinger and Secretary of the Treasury William E. Simon. Political commentators have referred to Ford's dramatic reorganization of his Cabinet in the fall of 1975 as the "Halloween Massacre". One of Ford's appointees, William Coleman—the Secretary of Transportation—was the second black man to serve in a presidential cabinet

Midterm elections.

The 1974 Congressional midterm elections took place in the wake of the Watergate scandal and less than three months after Ford assumed office. The Democratic Party turned voter dissatisfaction into large gains in the House elections, taking 49 seats from the Republican Party, increasing their majority to 291 of the 435 seats. This was one

Domestic policy.

Inflation.

The economy was a great concern during the Ford administration. One of the first acts the new president took to deal with the economy was to create, by Executive Order on September 30, 1974, the Economic Policy Board. In October 1974, in response to rising inflation, Ford went before the American public and asked them to "Whip Inflation Now". As part of this program, he urged people to wear "WIN" buttons. At the time, inflation was believed to be the primary threat to the economy, more so than growing unemployment; there was a belief

Budget.

The federal budget ran a deficit every year Ford was President. Despite his reservations about how the program ultimately would be funded in an era of tight public budgeting, Ford signed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, which established special education throughout the United States. Ford expressed "strong support for full educational opportunities for our handicapped children" according to the official White House press release for the bill signing.  The economic focus began to change as the country sank into the worst recession since the Great Depression four decades earlier. The focus of the Ford administration turned to stopping the rise in unemployment, which reached nine percent

Swine flu.

Ford was confronted with a potential swine flu pandemic. In the early 1970s, an influenza strain H1N1 shifted from a form of flu that affected primarily pigs and crossed over to humans. On February 5, 1976, an army recruit at Fort Dix mysteriously

Other domestic issues.

Ford was an outspoken supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment, issuing Presidential Proclamation no. 4383 in 1975: As president, Ford's position on abortion was that he supported "a federal constitutional amendment that would permit each one of the 50 States to make the choice". This had also been his position as House Minority Leader in response to the 1973 Supreme Court case of "Roe v. Wade", which he opposed. Ford came under criticism for a "60 Minutes" interview his wife Betty gave in 1975, in which she stated that "Roe v. Wade" was a "great, great decision". During his later life, Ford would identify as pro-choice.

Foreign policy.

Ford continued the détente policy with both the Soviet Union and China, easing the tensions of the Cold War. Still in place from the Nixon administration was the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT). The thawing relationship brought about by Nixon's visit to China was reinforced by Ford's own visit in December 1975. The Administration entered into the Helsinki Accords with the Soviet Union in 1975, creating the framework of the Helsinki Watch, an independent non-governmental organization created to monitor compliance which later evolved into Human Rights Watch.

Middle East.

In the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean, two ongoing international disputes developed into crises. The Cyprus dispute turned into a crisis with the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in July 1974, causing extreme strain within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance. In mid-August, the Greek government withdrew Greece from the NATO military structure; in mid-September, the Senate and House of Representatives overwhelmingly voted to halt military aid to Turkey. Ford, concerned with both the effect of this on Turkish-American relations and the deterioration of security on NATO's eastern front, vetoed the bill. A second bill was then passed by Congress, which Ford also vetoed, although a compromise was accepted to continue aid until the end of the year. As Ford expected, Turkish relations were considerably disrupted until 1978.  In the continuing Arab–Israeli conflict, although the initial cease fire had been implemented to end active conflict in the Yom Kippur War, Kissinger's continuing shuttle diplomacy was showing little progress.

Vietnam.

One of Ford's greatest challenges was dealing with the continuing Vietnam War. American offensive operations against North Vietnam had ended with the Paris Peace Accords, signed on January 27, 1973. The accords declared a cease fire across both North and South Vietnam, and required the release of American prisoners of war. The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam and, like the Geneva Conference of 1954, called for national elections in the North and South. The Paris Peace Accords stipulated a sixty-day

East Timor.

The former Portuguese colony of East Timor declared its independence in 1975. Indonesian president Suharto was a strong U.S. ally in Southeast Asia. In December 1975, Suharto discussed the plans to invade East Timor during a

Mayaguez and Panmunjom.

North Vietnam's victory over the South led to a considerable shift in the political winds in Asia, and Ford administration officials worried about a consequent loss of U.S. influence there. The administration proved it was willing to respond forcefully to challenges to its interests in the region on two occasions, once when Khmer Rouge forces seized an American ship in international waters and again when American military officers were killed in the demilitarized zone (DMZ) between North and South Korea.  The first crisis was the Mayaguez incident. In May 1975, shortly after the fall of Saigon and the Khmer Rouge conquest of Cambodia, Cambodians seized the American merchant ship "Mayaguez" in international waters. Ford dispatched Marines to rescue the crew, but the Marines landed on the wrong island and met unexpectedly stiff resistance just as, unknown to the U.S., the "Mayaguez" sailors were being released. In the operation, two military transport helicopters carrying the Marines for the assault operation were shot down, and 41 U.S. servicemen were killed and 50 wounded, while approximately 60 Khmer Rouge soldiers were killed. Despite the American losses, the operation was seen as a success in the United States, and Ford enjoyed an 11-point boost in his approval ratings in the aftermath. The Americans killed during the operation became the last to have their names inscribed

Assassination attempts.

Ford was the target of two assassination attempts during his presidency. In Sacramento, California, on September 5, 1975, Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme, a follower of Charles Manson, pointed a Colt.45-caliber handgun at Ford and pulled the trigger at point-blank range. As she did, Larry Buendorf, a Secret Service agent, grabbed the gun, and Fromme was taken into custody. She was later convicted of attempted assassination of the President and was sentenced to life in prison; she was paroled on August 14, 2009, after serving 34 years.

Judicial appointments.

Supreme Court.

In 1975, Ford appointed John Paul Stevens as Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States to replace retiring Justice William O. Douglas. Stevens had been a judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, appointed

Other judicial appointments.

Ford appointed 11 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 50 judges to the United States district courts.

1976 presidential election.

Ford reluctantly agreed to run for office in 1976, but first he had to counter a challenge for the Republican party nomination. Former Governor of California Ronald Reagan and the party's conservative wing faulted Ford for failing to do more in South Vietnam, for signing the Helsinki Accords, and for negotiating to cede the Panama Canal. (Negotiations for the canal continued under President Carter, who eventually signed the Torrijos–Carter Treaties.) Reagan launched his campaign in autumn of 1975 and won numerous primaries, including North Carolina, Texas,

Post-presidency (1977–2006).

Activity.

The Nixon pardon controversy eventually subsided. Ford's successor, Jimmy Carter, opened his 1977 inaugural address by praising the outgoing President, saying, "For myself and for our Nation, I want to thank my predecessor for all he has done to heal our land."  After leaving the White House, the Fords moved to Denver, Colorado. Ford successfully invested in oil with Marvin Davis, which later provided an income for Ford's children.  He continued to make appearances at events of historical and ceremonial significance to the nation, such as presidential inaugurals and memorial services. In January 1977, he became the president of Eisenhower Fellowships in Philadelphia, then served as the chairman of its board of trustees from 1980 to 1986. Later in 1977, he reluctantly agreed to be interviewed by James M. Naughton, a "New York Times" journalist who was given the assignment to write the former President's advance obituary, an article that would be updated prior to its eventual publication. In 1979, Ford published his autobiography, "A Time to Heal" (Harper/Reader's Digest, 454 pages). A review in "Foreign Affairs" described it as, "Serene, unruffled, unpretentious, like the author. This is the shortest and most honest of recent presidential memoirs, but there are no surprises, no deep probings of motives or events. No more here than meets the eye."  During the term of office of his successor, Jimmy Carter, Ford received monthly briefs by President Carter's senior staff on international and domestic issues, and was always invited to lunch at the White House whenever he was in Washington, D.C. Their close friendship developed after Carter had left office, with the catalyst being their trip together to the funeral of Anwar el-Sadat in 1981. Until Ford's death, Carter and his wife, Rosalynn, visited the Fords'

Health problems.

On April 4, 1990, Ford was admitted to Eisenhower Medical Center for surgery to replace his left knee, orthopedic surgeon Dr. Robert Murphy saying "Ford's entire left knee was replaced with an artificial joint, including portions of the adjacent femur, or thigh bone, and tibia, or leg bone."  Ford suffered two minor strokes at the 2000 Republican National Convention, but made a quick recovery after being admitted to Hahnemann University Hospital. In January 2006, he spent 11 days at the Eisenhower Medical Center near his residence at Rancho Mirage, California, for treatment of pneumonia. On April 23, 2006, President George W. Bush visited Ford at his home in Rancho Mirage for a little over an hour. This

Death and legacy.

Ford died on December 26, 2006, at his home in Rancho Mirage, California, of arteriosclerotic cerebrovascular disease and diffuse arteriosclerosis. He had end-stage coronary artery disease and severe aortic stenosis and insufficiency, caused by calcific alteration of one of his heart valves. At the time of his death, Ford was the longest-lived U.S. president, having lived 93 years and 165 days (45 days longer than Ronald Reagan, whose record he surpassed). He died on the 34th anniversary of President Harry S. Truman's death; he was the last surviving member of the Warren Commission.  On December 30, 2006, Ford became the 11th U.S. President to lie in state in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol. A state funeral and memorial services was held at the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C., on Tuesday, January 2, 2007. After the service, Ford was interred at his Presidential Museum in Grand Rapids, Michigan.  Scouting was so important to Ford that his family asked for Scouts to participate in his funeral. A few selected Scouts served as ushers inside the National Cathedral. About 400 Eagle Scouts were part of the funeral procession, where they formed an honor guard as the casket went by in front of the museum.  Ford selected the song to be played during his funeral procession at the U.S. Capitol. After his death in December 2006, the University of Michigan Marching Band played the school's fight song for him one final time, for his last ride from the Gerald R. Ford Airport in Grand Rapids, Michigan.  The State of Michigan commissioned and submitted a statue of Ford to the National Statuary Hall Collection, replacing Zachariah Chandler. It was unveiled on May 3, 2011, in the Capitol Rotunda. On the proper right side is inscribed a quotation from a tribute by Tip O'Neill, Speaker of the House at the end of Ford's presidency: "God has been good to America, especially during difficult times. At the time of the Civil War, he gave us Abraham Lincoln. And at the time of Watergate, he gave us Gerald Ford—the right man at the right time who was able to put our nation back together again." On the proper left side are words from Ford's swearing-in address: "Our constitution works. Our great republic is a government of laws and not of men. Here the people rule."  Ford's wife, Betty Ford, died on July 8, 2011.

Civic and fraternal organizations.

Ford was a member of several civic organizations, including the Junior Chamber of Commerce (Jaycees), American Legion, AMVETS, Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks, Sons of the Revolution, and Veterans of Foreign Wars.

Freemasonry.

Ford was initiated into Freemasonry on September 30, 1949. He later said in 1975, "When I took my obligation as a master mason—incidentally, with my three younger brothers—I recalled the value my own father attached to that order. But I had no idea that I would ever be added to the company of the Father of our Country and 12 other members of the order who also served

Honors.

Ford received the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award in May 1970, as well as the Silver Buffalo Award, from the Boy Scouts of America. In 1974, he also received the highest distinction of the Scout Association of Japan, the Golden Pheasant Award. In 1985, he received the 1985 Old Tom Morris Award from the Golf Course Superintendents Association of America, GCSAA's highest honor.

External links.

Media coverage  Other

Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. (born Leslie Lynch King Jr.; July 14, 1913 – December 26, 2006) was an American politician who served as the 38th president of the United States from August 1974 to January 1977. Before his accession to the presidency, Ford served as the 40th vice president of the United States from December 1973 to August 1974. Ford is the only person to have served as both vice president and president without being elected to either office by the Electoral College.

Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr. (14. července 1913 Omaha, Nebraska − 26. prosince 2006 Rancho Mirage, Kalifornie) byl 40. viceprezidentem Spojených států amerických (1973–1974) a 38. prezidentem Spojených států amerických (1974–1977). Je jediným prezidentem Spojených států, který se dostal do úřadu, aniž by byl zvolen buď jako prezident, nebo viceprezident. Poté, co v roce 1973 rezignoval na svou funkci viceprezidenta Spiro Agnew, byl Ford navržen prezidentem Richardem Nixonem na uvolněnou funkci a obě komory Kongresu jej schválily. Když 9. srpna 1974 prezident Nixon rezignoval, převzal Ford prezidentský úřad. Jako svého viceprezidenta si Ford vybral Nelsona Rockefellera, který je, spolu s ním, jediným viceprezidentem, který svou funkci nezískal ve volbách.


Name.

The meaning of the name is "(the) eastern (part of) Agder", since the word "aust" is the Nynorsk form of "east".  Until 1919, the name of the county was "Nedenes amt". The amt was named after the old "Nedenes" farm (Norse "Niðarnes"), since this was the seat of the "amtmann" (County Governor). The first element is the genitive case of the river name "Nið" (now called Nidelva) and the last element is "nes" which means "headland". The meaning of the river name is unknown.

Coat-of-arms.

The coat-of-arms is from modern times. They were granted on 12 December 1958. It shows two horizontal golden bars on a red background. They symbolize the lumber trade and the recovery of iron ore that was important for Aust-Agder's growth. There are two bars to represent the two areas of the county: inland and coastal.

Municipalities.

The system of municipalities, or "kommuner", was established in Norway in 1837, based on previously existing parishes (see formannskapsdistrikt). Norway had been ceded to Sweden by Denmark in 1814, at which it promptly rebelled and won the right of self-rule, though nominally part of Sweden. In 1905, Norway declared total independence. Meanwhile, as the years progressed, the municipalities did not remain the same, but new ones were formed, old ones broken up, and land was transferred. Since the 1990s, Aust-Agder has been divided into 15 municipalities:

Population.

Since the census of 1769, Aust-Agder has experienced a steady population growth: from 29,633 to 79,927 in 1900, and to 102,848 in 2001. There was significant emigration to the United States in the 19th century and early 20th century.

Aust-Agder (, ) was one 18 counties "(fylker)" in Norway up to 1 January 2020, when it was merged with Vest-Agder to form Agder county. In 2002, there were 102,945 inhabitants, which was 2.2% of the total population in Norway. Its area was. The administrative center of the county was the town of Arendal.

Aust-Agder Fylke byla územněsprávní jednotka na jihu Norska. Rozprostíral se v nejjižnější části Norska, správním centrem území bylo město Arendal. Kraj zanikl k poslednímu dni roku 2019. Od 1. ledna 2020 existuje kraj Agder, který vznikl sloučením krajů Aust-Agder a Vest-Agder v rámci reformy administratně-územního dělení Norska. Do roku 1918 byl Aust-Agder byl znám jako Nedenes amt.


Symptoms.

Classic symptoms of muscle imbalances are usually pain associated with the affected joint. Symptoms can vary depending on what stage their muscular imbalance is, functional or pathological, but commonly exhibit small tissue damage or lesions accompanied by a change in muscle movement patterns. Symptoms may occur after injury or surgery, where the recuperation of the joint affected is left untreated causing either tension or restriction to flexibility and strength of the prime movers.

Tennis elbow.

Tennis elbow is the most common elbow problem among athletes, highly associated with world class tennis players, it is a condition that involves the common wrist extensor origin, in particular the origin of extensor carpi radialis. The causes for tennis elbow includes any activity, not only tennis, where the repetitive use of the extensor muscles of the forearm may cause acute or chronic tendonitis of the tensinous insertion of these muscles at the lateral epicondyle of the elbow. The condition itself is most common with painters, plumbers, and carpenters. Further studied have shown that auto-workers, butchers and cooks also get tennis elbow more often than the rest of the population.

Lazy eye.

Lazy eye, in particular strabismus may be the result of coordination between the extraocular muscles, which prevents a person on directing both eyes in unison towards the same fixation point. The main cause of strabismus is usually the muscular imbalance of the six surrounding muscles that allow both eyes to focus on the same object. As each eye does not have the same focus, different images are sent to the brain, confusing it, resulting in the brain ignoring the image from the weaker eye and if left untreated will cause a loss of vision in the ignored eye called amblyopia. Further symptoms of strabismus include decreased vision, double vision, headaches, asthenopia and eye fatigue.

Scoliosis.

Scoliosis, is a medical condition where a person's spine has several irregular curves that are located between the neck and the pelvis. Symptoms of scoliosis in mild cases usually exhibit abnormal posture, back pain, tingling or numbness in the legs and in worse cases can exhibit breathing problems, fatigue, permanent deformities and in rare cases heart problems.

Functional and pathological muscle imbalance.

Functional imbalance.

Functional Imbalances are when the muscles adapt in response for detailed muscle movement patterns, including unequal values in strength or flexibility of antagonistic muscle groups, usually apparent in athletes of different sports ranging from soccer to baseball. This type of imbalance is the first stage, it is painless, atraumatic (causes minimal tissue injury), adaptive to change and activity specific. Studies confirm this as they find the link between muscle imbalance and athletes who perform at elite levels, this also relates to injury occurrence is not treated to muscle specific rehabilitation.

Pathological imbalance.

Pathological muscle imbalance occurs when the imbalance of the muscles begin to inhibit function. This pathological muscle imbalance may or may not result from a traumatic event, it is usually associated with pain and dysfunction, although there are cases where pain is not apparent, however pathological muscle imbalances ultimately lead to joint dysfunction and changes in normative muscle movement patterns. It would be good to note that this imbalance can progress to either tissue damage and pain or altered movement pattern, with the constant being tightness or weakness. A study has shown that athletes that exhibit shoulder pain have been linked to have decreased rotator cuff muscle strength and have concluded that they are more susceptible to rotator cuff tears and type II superior labrum anterior and posterior lesions.

Diagnosis.

Muscle imbalance can be characterized by different factors, namely where the muscle imbalance is on the body, diagnosis varies for these specific areas as each area needs to be handled differently. Other signs include joint pain or muscular pain, abnormal joint movement patterns or in some cases, muscle tears and lesions. It can be diagnosed by demonstrating any one of the following:

Treatment.

Although treatment for tennis elbow prior 2010 was unknown because the etiology remained unclear, tests confirmed that the cause was an imbalance with the agonist-antagonist functional relationship. Treatment now includes anti-inflammatory medicines, rest, equipment check, physical therapy, braces, steroid injections, shock wave therapy and if symptoms persist after 6 to 12 months, doctors may recommend surgery. Although treatment varies depending on how bad eye alignment is and also the underlying causes of strabismus. Treatment for strabismus may include orthoptics a term used for eye muscle training, this treatment can be provided by orthoptists and also optometrists. Other treatment may include wearing eye patches aimed at strengthening the weaker eye while inhibiting the stronger eye, an alternative to eye patches is the use of an opaque lens, other treatments may include eye drops to temporarily inhibit the stronger eye and at any age eye muscle surgery can be done to correct the muscular balance of the ocular muscles. Although the cause of scoliosis can sometimes remain unknown (idiopathic scoliosis) there is treatment available that targets at strengthening the back muscles, for milder cases usually do not require medical attention, more severe cases require either muscle strengthening exercises aimed at the back muscles and even special back braces or surgery can be recommended if the case is extreme. Studies have shown that treatment with a special back brace among children ranging from 10–16 years can be successful and using this method of muscle training scoliosis can be cured with non-surgical treatment.

Prognosis.

In terms of selective muscle weakness or poor flexibility muscular imbalance is frequently regarded as an etiological factor in the onset of musculoskeletal disorders. There are a variety of areas that can be affected, each causing different symptoms hence there are also different treatments available, but in general cases muscle strengthening techniques were developed for the use on the weak or tight muscles.

History.

For a long time muscular imbalance had many different theories that revolved around it. It wasn't until 1949 when there was a first manual on muscle testing appeared, written by therapists Henry and Florence Kendall, which discusses muscle weakness in polio patients and treatments approaching tight and weak muscles.  In the 1960s Dr. George Goodheart and Dr. Vladimir Janda each took their own paths in treating patients with muscular imbalance, Goodheart focusing on muscle weakness being the primary cause of muscle imbalance, whilst Janda took on the muscle tightness approach, both developed a large following that continues on today.

Controversies.

There is evidence to support two different approaches to muscular imbalance, the first is a biomechanical approach that believed the cause was due from repeated movements in one direction or sustained postures, this was widespread by Kendall. The second is a neuromuscular imbalance due to certain muscle groups being tight or weak, popularized by Janda this approach is based on movement patterns that evolve from birth. Today there are many different types of therapists who treat muscle imbalance, these include chiropractors, osteopaths, physical therapists, medical doctors and massage therapists each assessing tightness or weakness as the primary cause of muscular imbalance.

Muscle imbalance can be described as the respective equality between the antagonist and agonist, this balance is necessary for normal muscle movement and roles. Muscular imbalance can also be explained in the scenario where the muscle performs outside of normal physiological muscle function.

Pojmem svalová dysbalance je označována porucha hybného systému, kdy jsou nejčastěji svaly působící proti sobě (agonista - antagonista) ve vzájemné nerovnováze. Jeden z těchto svalů bývá sval podpůrný (posturální), druhý sval pak obratný (fázický). Posturální svaly jsou zvyklé udržovat celodenně vzpřímenou pozici těla, mají větší výdrž i při menším aerobním zásobení krví a mají sklon k tuhnutí/zkracování. Svaly fázické mají naopak funkci obratnou, přesnou a sebeobslužnou, mají větší nároky na okysličení krví a pokud nejsou zaměstnány, mají sklon k ochabování.


The journal.

The journal began in Strasbourg as "Annales d'histoire économique et sociale"; it moved to Paris and kept the same name from 1929 to 1939. It was successively renamed "Annales d'histoire sociale" (1939–1942, 1945), "Mélanges d'histoire sociale" (1942–1944), "Annales. Economies, sociétés, civilisations" (1946–1994), and "Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales" (1994– ).  In 1962 Braudel and Gaston Berger used Ford Foundation money and government funds to create a new independent foundation, the (FMSH), which Braudel directed from 1970 until his death. In 1970 the 6th Section and the "Annales" relocated to the FMSH building. FMSH set up elaborate international networks to spread the "Annales" gospel across Europe and the world. In 2013 it began publication of an English language edition, with all the articles translated.  The scope of topics covered by the journal is vast and experimental—there is a search for total history and new approaches. The emphasis is on social history, and very long-term trends, often using quantification and paying special attention to geography and to the intellectual world view of common people, or "mentality" ("mentalité"). Little attention is paid to political, diplomatic, or military history, or to biographies of famous men. Instead the "Annales" focused attention on the synthesizing of historical patterns identified from social, economic, and cultural history, statistics, medical reports, family studies, and even psychoanalysis.

Origins.

The "Annales" was founded and edited by Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre in 1929, while they were teaching at the University of Strasbourg and later in Paris. These authors, the former a medieval historian and the latter an early modernist, quickly became associated with the distinctive "Annales" approach, which combined geography, history, and the sociological approaches of the "Année Sociologique" (many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg) to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics, diplomacy and war of many 19th and early 20th-century historians as spearheaded by historians whom Febvre called Les Sorbonnistes. Instead, they pioneered an approach to a study of long-term historical structures ("la longue durée") over events and political transformations. Geography, material culture, and what later Annalistes called "mentalités," or the psychology of the epoch, are also characteristic areas of study. The goal of the Annales was to undo the work of the Sorbonnistes, to turn French historians away from the narrowly political and diplomatic toward the new vistas in social and economic history.  Co-founder Marc Bloch (1886–1944) was a quintessential modernist who studied at the elite École Normale Supérieure, and in Germany, serving as a professor at the University of Strasbourg until he was called to the Sorbonne in Paris in 1936 as professor of economic history. Bloch's interests were highly interdisciplinary, influenced by the geography of Paul Vidal de la Blache (1845–1918) and the sociology of Émile Durkheim (1858–1917). His own ideas, especially those expressed in his masterworks, "French Rural History" ("Les caractères originaux de l'histoire rurale française," 1931) and "Feudal Society", were incorporated by the second-generation Annalistes, led by Fernand Braudel.

Precepts.

Georges Duby, a leader of the school, wrote that the history he taught: The Annalistes, especially Lucien Febvre, advocated a "histoire totale", or "histoire tout court", a complete study of a historic problem.

Postwar.

Bloch was shot by the Gestapo during the German occupation of France in World War II for his active membership of the French Resistance, and Febvre carried on the "Annales" approach in the 1940s and 1950s. It was during this time that he mentored Braudel, who would become one of the best-known exponents of this school. Braudel's work came to define a "second" era of "Annales" historiography and was very influential throughout the 1960s and 1970s, especially for his work on the Mediterranean region in the era of Philip II of Spain. Braudel developed the idea, often associated with Annalistes, of different modes of historical time: "l'histoire quasi immobile" (the quasi motionless history) of historical geography, the history of social, political and economic structures ("la longue durée"), and the history of men and events, in the context of their structures.  While authors such as Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Marc Ferro and Jacques Le Goff continue to carry the "Annales" banner, today the "Annales" approach has been less distinctive as more and more historians do work in cultural history, political history and economic history.

"Mentalités".

Bloch's "Les Rois Thaumaturges" (1924) looked at the long-standing folk belief that the king could cure scrofula by his thaumaturgic touch. The kings of France and England indeed regularly practiced the ritual. Bloch was not concerned with the effectiveness of the royal touch—he acted instead like an anthropologist in asking why people believed it and how it shaped relations between king and commoner. The book was highly influential in introducing comparative studies (in this case France and England), as well as long durations ("longue durée") studies spanning several centuries, even up to a thousand years, downplaying short-term events. Bloch's revolutionary charting of mentalities, or "mentalités", resonated with scholars who were reading Freud and Proust. In the 1960s, Robert Mandrou and Georges Duby harmonized the concept of "mentalité" history with Fernand Braudel's structures of historical time and linked mentalities with changing social conditions. A flood of "mentalité" studies based on these approaches appeared during the 1970s and 1980s. By the 1990s, however, "mentalité" history had become interdisciplinary to the point of fragmentation, but still lacked a solid theoretical basis. While not explicitly rejecting "mentalité" history, younger historians increasingly turned to other approaches.

Braudel.

Fernand Braudel became the leader of the second generation after 1945. He obtained funding from the Rockefeller Foundation in New York and founded the 6th Section of the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, which was devoted to the study of history and the social sciences. It became an independent degree-granting institution in 1975 under the name École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (EHESS). Braudel's followers admired his use of the longue durée approach to stress slow, and often imperceptible effects of space, climate and technology on the actions of human beings in the past. The "Annales" historians, after living through two world wars and incredible political upheavals in France, were deeply uncomfortable with the notion that multiple ruptures and discontinuities created history. They preferred to stress inertia and the longue durée. Special attention was paid to geography, climate, and demography as long-term factors. They believed the continuities of the deepest structures were central to history, beside which upheavals in institutions or the superstructure of social life were of little significance, for history lies beyond the reach of conscious actors, especially the will of revolutionaries. They rejected the Marxist idea that history should be used as a tool to foment and foster revolutions. In turn the Marxists called them conservatives.  Braudel's first book, "La Méditerranée et le Monde Méditerranéen à l'Epoque de Philippe II" (1949) ("The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II") was his most influential. This vast panoramic view used ideas from other social sciences, employed effectively the technique of the longue durée, and downplayed the importance of specific events and individuals. It stressed geography but not "mentalité". It was widely admired, but most historians did not try to replicate it and instead focused on their specialized monographs. The book dramatically raised the worldwide profile of the Annales School.

Regionalism.

Before "Annales," French history supposedly happened in Paris. Febvre broke decisively with this paradigm in 1912, with his sweeping doctoral thesis on "Philippe II et la Franche-Comté." The geography and social structure of this region overwhelmed and shaped the king's policies.  The "Annales" historians did not try to replicate Braudel's vast geographical scope in "La Méditerranée." Instead they focused on regions in France over long stretches of time. The most important was the study of the "Peasants of Languedoc" by Braudel's star pupil and successor Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie. The regionalist tradition flourished especially in the 1960s and 1970s in the work of Pierre Goubert in 1960 on Beauvais and René Baehrel on Basse-Provence. "Annales" historians in the 1970s and 1980s turned to urban regions, including Pierre Deyon (Amiens), Maurice Garden (Lyon), Jean-Pierre Bardet (Rouen), Georges Freche (Toulouse), Gregory Hanlon (Agen and Layrac), and Jean-Claude Perrot (Caen). By the 1970s the shift was underway from the earlier economic history to cultural history and the history of mentalities.

Impact outside France.

The "Annales" school systematically reached out to create an impact on other countries. Its success varied widely. The "Annales" approach was especially well received in Italy and Poland. Franciszek Bujak (1875–1953) and Jan Rutkowski (1886–1949), the founders of modern economic history in Poland and of the journal "Roczniki Dziejów Spolecznych i Gospodarczych" (1931– ), were attracted to the innovations of the Annales school. Rutkowski was in contact with Bloch and others, and published in the "Annales." After the Communists took control in the 1940s Polish scholars were safer working on the Middle Ages and the early modern era rather than contemporary history. After the "Polish October" of 1956 the Sixth Section in Paris welcomed Polish historians and exchanges between the circle of the "Annales" and Polish scholars continued until the early 1980s. The reciprocal influence between the French school and Polish historiography was particularly evident in studies on the Middle Ages and the early modern era studied by Braudel.  In South America the "Annales" approach became popular. From the 1950s Federico Brito Figueroa was the founder of a new Venezuelan historiography based largely on the ideas of the Annales School. Brito Figueroa carried his conception of the field to all levels of university study, emphasizing a systematic and scientific approach to history and placing it squarely in the social sciences. Spanish historiography was influenced by the "Annales School" starting in 1950 with Jaime Vincens Vives (1910–1960). In Mexico, exiled Republican intellectuals extended the Annales approach, particularly from the Center for Historical Studies of El Colegio de México, the leading graduate studies institution of Latin America.  British historians, apart from a few Marxists, were generally hostile. Academic historians decidedly sided with Geoffrey Elton's "The Practice of History" against Edward Hallett Carr's "What Is History?" One of the few British historians who were sympathetic towards the work of the "Annales" school was Hugh Trevor-Roper. American, German, Indian, Russian and Japanese scholars generally ignored the school. The Americans developed their own form of "new social history" from entirely different roots. Both the American and the "Annales" historians picked up important family reconstitution techniques from French demographer Louis Henry.  The Wageningen school centered on Bernard Slicher van Bath was viewed internationally as a Dutch counterpart of the Annales school, although Slicher van Bath himself vehemently rejected the idea of a quantitative "school" of historiography.  Has been cited as a key influence in the development of World Systems Theory by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein.

Current.

The current leader is Roger Chartier, who is Directeur d'Études at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris, Professeur in the Collège de France, and Annenberg Visiting Professor of History at the University of Pennsylvania. He frequently lectures and teaches in the United States, Spain, Mexico, Brazil and Argentina. His work in Early Modern European History focuses on the history of education, the history of the book and the history of reading. Recently, he has been concerned with the relationship between written culture as a whole and literature (particularly theatrical plays) for France, England and Spain. His work in this specific field (based on the criss-crossing between literary criticism, bibliography, and sociocultural history) is connected to broader historiographical and methodological interests which deal with the relation between history and other disciplines: philosophy, sociology, anthropology.  Chartier's typical undergraduate course focuses upon the making, remaking, dissemination, and reading of texts in early modern Europe and America. Under the heading of "practices," his class considers how readers read and marked up their books, forms of note-taking, and the interrelation between reading and writing from copying and translating to composing new texts. Under the heading of "materials," his class examines the relations between different kinds of writing surfaces (including stone, wax, parchment, paper, walls, textiles, the body, and the heart), writing implements (including styluses, pens, pencils, needles, and brushes), and material forms (including scrolls, erasable tables, codices, broadsides and printed forms and books). Under the heading of "places," his class explores where texts were made, read, and listened to, including monasteries, schools and universities, offices of the state, the shops of merchants and booksellers, printing houses, theaters, libraries, studies, and closets. The texts for his course include the "Bible", translations of Ovid, "Hamlet", "Don Quixote", Montaigne's essays, Pepys's diary, Richardson's "Pamela", and Franklin's autobiography.

The "Annales" school () is a group of historians associated with a style of historiography developed by French historians in the 20th century to stress long-term social history. It is named after its scholarly journal "Annales d'histoire économique et sociale", which remains the main source of scholarship, along with many books and monographs. The school has been highly influential in setting the agenda for historiography in France and numerous other countries, especially regarding the use of social scientific methods by historians, emphasizing social and economic rather than political or diplomatic themes.

Škola Annales je vlivná francouzská historiografická škola. Její jméno je odvozeno od časopisu "Annales d ́histoire économique et sociale" (později přejmenován na "Annales. Economies, sociétés, civilisations" a od roku 1994 "Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales"), který začal vycházet v roce 1929. V něm publikovali své studie historici, kteří jsou s touto školou spojovaní.