Plot.

These lines, spoken by the Athenian Lysistrata and her friend Calonice at the beginning of the play, set the scene for the action that follows. Women, as represented by Calonice, are sly hedonists in need of firm guidance and direction. Lysistrata, however, is an extraordinary woman with a large sense of individual and social responsibility. She has convened a meeting of women from various Greek city-states that are at war with each other. (There is no explanation of how she manages this, but the satirical nature of the play makes this unimportant.) Soon after she confides in her friend her concerns for the female sex, the women begin arriving.  With support from the Spartan Lampito, Lysistrata persuades the other women to withhold sexual privileges from their menfolk as a means of forcing them to conclude the Peloponnesian War. The women are very reluctant, but the deal is sealed with a solemn oath around a wine bowl, Lysistrata choosing the words and Calonice repeating them on behalf of the other women. It is a long and detailed oath, in which the women abjure all their sexual pleasures, including the Lioness on the Cheese Grater (a sexual position).  Soon after the oath is finished, a cry of triumph is heard from the nearby Acropolis—the old women of Athens have seized control of it at Lysistrata's instigation, since it holds the state treasury, without which the men cannot long continue to fund their war. Lampito goes off to spread the word of revolt, and the other women retreat behind the barred gates of the Acropolis to await the men's response.  A Chorus of Old Men arrives, intent on burning down the gate of the Acropolis if the women do not open up. Encumbered with heavy timbers, inconvenienced with smoke and burdened with old age, they are still making preparations to assault the gate when a Chorus of Old Women arrives, bearing pitchers of water. The Old Women complain about the difficulty they had getting the water, but they are ready for a fight in defense of their younger comrades. Threats are exchanged, water beats fire, and the Old Men are discomfited with a soaking.  The magistrate then arrives with some Scythian Archers (the Athenian version of police constables). He reflects on the hysterical nature of women, their devotion to wine, promiscuous sex, and exotic cults (such as to Sabazius and Adonis), but above all he blames men for poor supervision of their womenfolk. He has come for silver from the state treasury to buy oars for the fleet and he instructs his Scythians to begin levering open the gate. However, they are quickly overwhelmed by groups of unruly women with such unruly names as (seed-market-porridge-vegetable-sellers) and (garlic-innkeeping-bread-sellers).  Lysistrata restores order and she allows the magistrate to question her. She explains to him the frustrations women feel at a time of war when the men make stupid decisions that affect everyone, and their wives' opinions are not listened to. She drapes her headdress over him, gives him a basket of wool and tells him that war will be a woman's business from now on. She then explains the pity she feels for young, childless women, ageing at home while the men are away on endless campaigns. When the magistrate points out that men also age, she reminds him that men can marry at any age whereas a woman has only a short time before she is considered too old. She then dresses the magistrate like a corpse for laying out, with a wreath and a fillet, and advises him that he's dead. Outraged at these indignities, he storms off to report the incident to his colleagues, while Lysistrata returns to the Acropolis.  The debate or "agon" is continued between the Chorus of Old Men and the Chorus of Old Women until Lysistrata returns to the stage with some news—her comrades are desperate for sex and they are beginning to desert on the silliest pretexts (for example, one woman says she has to go home to air her fabrics by spreading them on the bed). After rallying her comrades and restoring their discipline, Lysistrata again returns to the Acropolis to continue waiting for the men's surrender.  A man suddenly appears, desperate for sex. It is Kinesias, the husband of Myrrhine. Lysistrata instructs her to torture him and Myrrhine then informs Kinesias that she can't have sex with him until he stops the war. He promptly agrees to these terms and the young couple prepares for sex on the spot. Myrrhine fetches a bed, then a mattress, then a pillow, then a blanket, then a flask of oil, exasperating her husband with delays until finally disappointing him completely by locking herself in the Acropolis again. The Chorus of Old Men commiserates with the young man in a plaintive song.  A Spartan herald then appears with a large burden (an erection) scarcely hidden inside his tunic and he requests to see the ruling council to arrange peace talks. The magistrate, now also sporting a prodigious burden, laughs at the herald's embarrassing situation but agrees that peace talks should begin.  They go off to fetch the delegates; and, while they are gone, the Old Women make overtures to the Old Men. The Old Men are content to be comforted and fussed over by the Old Women; and thereupon the two Choruses merge, singing and dancing in unison. Peace talks commence and Lysistrata introduces the Spartan and Athenian delegates to a gorgeous young woman called Reconciliation. The delegates cannot take their eyes off the young woman; and meanwhile, Lysistrata scolds both sides for past errors of judgment. The delegates briefly squabble over the peace terms; but, with Reconciliation before them and the burden of sexual deprivation still heavy upon them, they quickly overcome their differences and retire to the Acropolis for celebrations. The war is ended.  Another choral song follows. After a bit of humorous dialogue between tipsy dinner guests, the celebrants all return to the stage for a final round of songs, the men and women dancing together. All sing a merry song in praise of Athene, goddess of wisdom and chastity, whose citadel provided a refuge for the women during the events of the comedy, and whose implied blessing has brought about a happy ending to the play.

Historical background.

Some events that are significant for understanding the play:  Old Comedy was a highly topical genre and the playwright expected his audience to be familiar with local identities and issues. The following list of identities mentioned in the play gives some indication of the difficulty faced by any producer trying to stage "Lysistrata" for modern audiences. "Pellene" was also the name of a Peloponnesian town resisting Spartan pressure to contribute to naval operations against Athens at this time. It was mentioned earlier in the "Birds".

Interpretation.

Modern adaptations of "Lysistrata" are often feminist and/or pacifist in their aim (see Influence and legacy below). The original play was neither feminist nor unreservedly pacifist. Even when they seemed to demonstrate empathy with the female condition, dramatic poets in classical Athens still reinforced sexual stereotyping of women as irrational creatures in need of protection from themselves and from others.  In fact the play might not even be a plea for an end to the war so much as an imaginative vision of an honorable end to the war at a time when no such ending was possible. According to Sarah Ruden, "Lysistrata" (Hackett Classics, 2003), the play "nowhere suggests that warfare in itself is intolerable, let alone immoral" (87).

Old Comedy.

"Lysistrata" belongs to the middle period of Aristophanes' career when he was beginning to diverge significantly from the conventions of Old Comedy. Such variations from convention include:

Lysistrata ( or ; Attic Greek:, "Lysistrátē", "Army Disbander") is an ancient Greek comedy by Aristophanes, originally performed in classical Athens in 411 BC. It is a comic account of a woman's extraordinary mission to end the Peloponnesian War between Greek city states by denying all the men of the land any sex, which was the only thing they truly and deeply desired. Lysistrata persuades the women of the warring cities to withhold sexual privileges from their husbands and lovers as a means of forcing the men to negotiate peace—a strategy, however, that inflames the battle between the sexes.

Lysistrata (Lysistrate) (411 př. n. l.) je protiválečná komedie řeckého dramatika Aristofana. Hlavními hrdinkami jsou ženy, které se rozhodly ukončit válku sexuální stávkou.


Life.

Tetzel was born in Pirna, Saxony, and studied theology and philosophy at Leipzig University. He entered the Dominican order in 1489, achieved some success as a preacher, and was in 1502 commissioned by Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici, later Pope Leo X, to preach the Jubilee indulgence, which he did throughout his life. In 1509 he was made an inquisitor of Poland and, in January 1517 was made commissioner of indulgences for Archbishop Albrecht von Brandenburg in the dioceses of Magdeburg and Halberstadt.  He acquired the degree of Licentiate of Sacred Theology in the University of Frankfurt an der Oder in 1517, and then of Doctor of Sacred Theology in 1518, by defending in two disputations, the doctrine of indulgences against Martin Luther. The accusation that he had sold full forgiveness for sins not yet committed caused a great scandal. It was believed that all of the money that Tetzel raised was for the ongoing reconstruction of St. Peter's Basilica, although half the money went to the Archbishop of Mainz, Cardinal Albert of Brandenburg (under whose authority Tetzel was operating), to pay off the debts incurred in securing Albert's appointment to the archbishopric. Luther began to preach openly against him and was inspired to write his famous "Ninety-five Theses" in part due to Tetzel's actions, in which he states,  Tetzel was also condemned (though later pardoned) for immorality. When he discovered that Karl von Miltitz had accused him of perpetrating numerous frauds and embezzlements, he withdrew, broken in spirit, wrecked in health, into the Dominican monastery in Leipzig. Miltitz was later discredited to the point where his claims carry no historical weight.  Tetzel died in Leipzig in 1519. At the time of his death, Tetzel had fallen into disrepute and was shunned by the public.  When Luther heard that Tetzel was mortally ill and on his deathbed, he wrote to comfort him and bade him "not to be troubled, for the matter did not begin on his account, but the child had quite a different father." After his death, he was given an honorable burial and interred before the high altar of the Dominican Church in Leipzig.

Doctrinal positions.

Tetzel overstated Catholic doctrine in regard to indulgences for the dead. He became known for a couplet attributed to him: <poem> As soon as the gold in the casket rings The rescued soul to heaven springs </poem>  This oft-quoted saying was by no means representative of the official Catholic teaching on indulgences, but rather, more a reflection of Tetzel's capacity to exaggerate. Yet if Tetzel overstated the matter in regard to indulgences for the dead, his teaching on indulgences for the living was pure Catholic teaching. The German Catholic historian Ludwig von Pastor explains:  Above all, a most clear distinction must be made between indulgences for the living and those for the dead.
 As regards indulgences for the living, Tetzel always taught pure (Catholic) doctrine. The assertion that he put forward indulgences as being not only a remission of the temporal punishment of sin but as a remission of its guilt, is as unfounded as is that other accusation against him, that he sold the forgiveness of sin for money, without even any mention of contrition and confession, or that, for payment, he absolved from sins which might be committed in the future. His teaching was, in fact, very definite, and quite in harmony with the theology of the (Catholic) Church, as it was then and as it is now, i.e., that indulgences "apply only to the temporal punishment due to sins which have been already repented of and confessed"...  The case was very different from indulgences for the dead. As regards these there is no doubt that Tetzel did, according to what he considered his authoritative instructions, proclaim as Christian doctrine that nothing but an offering of money was required to gain the indulgence for the dead, without there being any question of contrition or confession.
 He also taught, in accordance with the opinion then held, that an indulgence could be applied to any given soul with unfailing effect. Starting from this assumption, there is no doubt that his doctrine was virtually that of the well known drastic proverb.  The Papal Bull of indulgence gave no sanction whatever to this proposition. It was a vague scholastic opinion, rejected by the Sorbonne in 1482, and again in 1518, and certainly not a doctrine of the Church, which was thus improperly put forward as dogmatic truth. The first among the theologians of the Roman court, Cardinal Cajetan, was the enemy of all such extravagances and declared emphatically that, even if theologians and preachers taught such opinions, no faith need be given them. "Preachers," he said, "speak in the name of the Church only so long as they proclaim the doctrine of Christ and His Church; but if, for purposes of their own, they teach that about which they know nothing, and which is only their own imagination, they must not be accepted as mouthpieces of the Church. No one must be surprised if such as these fall into error."

Luther's impression.

Luther claimed, that Tetzel had received a substantial amount of money at Leipzig, from a nobleman asking him for a letter of indulgence for a future sin. Supposedly Tetzel answered in the affirmative, insisting that the payment had to be made at once. The nobleman did so and received a letter and seal from Tetzel.  However, when Tetzel left Leipzig the nobleman attacked him along the way, and gave him a thorough beating, sending him back empty-handed to Leipzig, with the comment that it was the future sin which he had in mind. Duke George at first was quite furious about the incident, but when he heard the whole story, he let it go without punishing the nobleman.  Luther also claimed that at Halle, Tetzel said that an indulgence could wipe away the sin of a man guilty of raping Mary, Mother of God. However, Tetzel obtained affidavits from authorities at Halle, both civil and ecclesiastical, who swore that Tetzel never made any such claim.

In popular culture.

Tetzel has been portrayed on stage and screen by the following:

Johann Tetzel (c. 1465 – 11 August 1519) was a Holy Roman Empire Dominican friar and preacher. He was appointed Inquisitor for Poland and Saxony, later becoming the Grand Commissioner for indulgences in Germany. Tetzel was known for granting indulgences on behalf of the Roman Catholic Church in exchange for money, which are claimed to allow a remission of temporal punishment due to sin, the guilt of which has been forgiven, a position heavily challenged by Martin Luther. This contributed in part to the Reformation. The main usage of the indulgences sold by Johann Tetzel was to help fund and build the St. Peter's Basilica.

Dominikán Johann Tetzel (kolem 1465, Pirna – 11. srpna 1519, Lipsko) byl známý německý kazatel a prodejce odpustků. Studoval teologii a filozofii na univerzitě v Lipsku. Do dominikánského řádu vstoupil v roce 1489. Jeho praxi prodeje odpustků ve svých 95 tezích ostře napadl Martin Luther.


Geography.

Tsu is located in east-central Kii Peninsula, in central Mie Prefecture. It stretches the width of Mie Prefecture, and is bordered by Ise Bay on the Pacific Ocean to the east, and Nara Prefecture to the west. Parts of the city are within the limits of the Murō-Akame-Aoyama Quasi-National Park.

Climate.

Tsu has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfa") with hot summers and cool winters. Precipitation is significant throughout the year, but is heaviest from May to September.

History.

Tsu originally developed as a port town known as in the Nara and Heian periods. The port was destroyed by a tsunami in the 1498 Meiō Nankaidō earthquake. The town was rebuilt as a castle town and a post station by the Tōdō clan, "daimyō" of Tsu Domain under the Tokugawa shogunate. During the Edo period, it became a popular stopping point for travelers to Ise shrine, about 40 km to the southeast. Following the Meiji Restoration, it became the capital of Mie Prefecture in 1871. With the establishment of municipalities on April 1, 1889, Tsu was one of the original 31 cities to be proclaimed.  During World War II, Allied air raids on July 24 and July 28, 1945, destroyed most of the city and killed 1,239 people  On January 1, 2006, the neighboring city of Hisai, the towns of Anō, Geinō and Kawage, and the village of Misato (all in Age District), the towns of Hakusan, Ichishi and Karasu, and the village of Misugi (all in Ichishi District) were merged into Tsu. As a result of the merger, the city became the second largest in Mie by population behind Yokkaichi, and the largest in Mie by area ahead of Matsusaka.

Economy.

Imuraya Confectionery, a confectionery company, and ZTV, a cable television operator, are headquartered in Tsu.

Local attractions.

Tsu is famous for its, a festival commemorating the arrival of the Joseon Tongsinsa delegation from Korea during the feudal period. There are two other cities that celebrate Tōjin Odori: Suzuka city in Mie Prefecture and Ushimado-chō in Okayama Prefecture.  The ruins of Tsu Castle have been made into a downtown city park.  Kitabatake Shrine and Yūki Shrine are notable local Shinto shrines.

As of August 2015, the city had an estimated population of 279,304 and a population density of 393 persons per km. The total area was.

Cu (: ; "Cu-ši") je hlavní město prefektury Mie na ostrově Honšú v Japonsku. V roce 2003 mělo město 164 214 obyvatel a hustotu osídlení 1612,15 ob./km2. Celková rozloha města je 101,86 km2.


History.

In ancient history, the concepts of chance and randomness were intertwined with that of fate. Many ancient peoples threw dice to determine fate, and this later evolved into games of chance. Most ancient cultures used various methods of divination to attempt to circumvent randomness and fate.  The Chinese of 3000 years ago were perhaps the earliest people to formalize odds and chance. The Greek philosophers discussed randomness at length, but only in non-quantitative forms. It was only in the 16th century that Italian mathematicians began to formalize the odds associated with various games of chance. The invention of calculus had a positive impact on the formal study of randomness. In the 1888 edition of his book "The Logic of Chance", John Venn wrote a chapter on "The conception of randomness" that included his view of the randomness of the digits of pi, by using them to construct a random walk in two dimensions.  The early part of the 20th century saw a rapid growth in the formal analysis of randomness, as various approaches to the mathematical foundations of probability were introduced. In the mid- to late-20th century, ideas of algorithmic information theory introduced new dimensions to the field via the concept of algorithmic randomness.  Although randomness had often been viewed as an obstacle and a nuisance for many centuries, in the 20th century computer scientists began to realize that the "deliberate" introduction of randomness into computations can be an effective tool for designing better algorithms. In some cases, such randomized algorithms even outperform the best deterministic methods.

In science.

Many scientific fields are concerned with randomness:

In the physical sciences.

In the 19th century, scientists used the idea of random motions of molecules in the development of statistical mechanics to explain phenomena in thermodynamics and the properties of gases.  According to several standard interpretations of quantum mechanics, microscopic phenomena are objectively random. That is, in an experiment that controls all causally relevant parameters, some aspects of the outcome still vary randomly. For example, if a single unstable atom is placed in a controlled environment, it cannot be predicted how long it will take for the atom to decay—only the probability of decay in a given time. Thus, quantum mechanics does not specify the outcome of individual experiments, but only the probabilities. Hidden variable theories reject the view that nature contains irreducible randomness: such theories posit that in the processes that appear random, properties with a certain statistical distribution are at work behind the scenes, determining the outcome in each case.

In biology.

The modern evolutionary synthesis ascribes the observed diversity of life to random genetic mutations followed by natural selection. The latter retains some random mutations in the gene pool due to the systematically improved chance for survival and reproduction that those mutated genes confer on individuals who possess them.  Several authors also claim that evolution (and sometimes development) requires a specific form of randomness, namely the introduction of qualitatively new behaviors. Instead of the choice of one possibility among several pre-given ones, this randomness corresponds to the formation of new possibilities.  The characteristics of an organism arise to some extent deterministically (e.g., under the influence of genes and the environment), and to some extent randomly. For example, the "density" of freckles that appear on a person's skin is controlled by genes and exposure to light; whereas the exact location of "individual" freckles seems random.  As far as behavior is concerned, randomness is important if an animal is to behave in a way that is unpredictable to others. For instance, insects in flight tend to move about with random changes in direction, making it difficult for pursuing predators to predict their trajectories.

In mathematics.

The mathematical theory of probability arose from attempts to formulate mathematical descriptions of chance events, originally in the context of gambling, but later in connection with physics. Statistics is used to infer the underlying probability distribution of a collection of empirical observations. For the purposes of simulation, it is necessary to have a large supply of random numbers—or means to generate them on demand.  Algorithmic information theory studies, among other topics, what constitutes a random sequence. The central idea is that a string of bits is random if and only if it is shorter than any computer program that can produce that string (Kolmogorov randomness), which means that random strings are those that cannot be compressed. Pioneers of this field include Andrey Kolmogorov and his student Per Martin-Löf, Ray Solomonoff, and Gregory Chaitin. For the notion of infinite sequence, one normally uses Per Martin-Löf's definition. That is, an infinite sequence is random if and only if it withstands all recursively enumerable null sets. The other notions of random sequences include, among others, recursive randomness and Schnorr randomness, which are based on recursively computable martingales. It was shown by Yongge Wang that these randomness notions are generally different.  Randomness occurs in numbers such as log (2) and pi. The decimal digits of pi constitute an infinite sequence and "never repeat in a cyclical fashion." Numbers like pi are also considered likely to be normal, which means their digits are random in a certain statistical sense.  Pi certainly seems to behave this way. In the first six billion decimal places of pi, each of the digits from 0 through 9 shows up about six hundred million times. Yet such results, conceivably accidental, do not prove normality even in base 10, much less normality in other number bases.

In statistics.

In statistics, randomness is commonly used to create simple random samples. This allows surveys of completely random groups of people to provide realistic data that is reflective of the population. Common methods of doing this include drawing names out of a hat, or using a random digit chart (a large table of random digits).

In information science.

In information science, irrelevant or meaningless data is considered noise. Noise consists of numerous transient disturbances, with a statistically randomized time distribution.  In communication theory, randomness in a signal is called "noise", and is opposed to that component of its variation that is causally attributable to the source, the signal.  In terms of the development of random networks, for communication randomness rests on the two simple assumptions of Paul Erdős and Alfréd Rényi, who said that there were a fixed number of nodes and this number remained fixed for the life of the network, and that all nodes were equal and linked randomly to each other.

In finance.

The random walk hypothesis considers that asset prices in an organized market evolve at random, in the sense that the expected value of their change is zero but the actual value may turn out to be positive or negative. More generally, asset prices are influenced by a variety of unpredictable events in the general economic environment.

In politics.

Random selection can be an official method to resolve tied elections in some jurisdictions. Its use in politics is very old, as office holders in Ancient Athens were chosen by lot, there being no voting.

Randomness and religion.

Randomness can be seen as conflicting with the deterministic ideas of some religions, such as those where the universe is created by an omniscient deity who is aware of all past and future events. If the universe is regarded to have a purpose, then randomness can be seen as impossible. This is one of the rationales for religious opposition to evolution, which states that non-random selection is applied to the results of random genetic variation.  Hindu and Buddhist philosophies state that any event is the result of previous events, as is reflected in the concept of karma. As such, this conception is at odd with the idea of randomness, and any reconciliation between both of them would require an explanation.  In some religious contexts, procedures that are commonly perceived as randomizers are used for divination. Cleromancy uses the casting of bones or dice to reveal what is seen as the will of the gods.

Applications.

In most of its mathematical, political, social and religious uses, randomness is used for its innate "fairness" and lack of bias.  Politics: Athenian democracy was based on the concept of isonomia (equality of political rights), and used complex allotment machines to ensure that the positions on the ruling committees that ran Athens were fairly allocated. Allotment is now restricted to selecting jurors in Anglo-Saxon legal systems, and in situations where "fairness" is approximated by randomization, such as selecting jurors and military draft lotteries.  Games: Random numbers were first investigated in the context of gambling, and many randomizing devices, such as dice, shuffling playing cards, and roulette wheels, were first developed for use in gambling. The ability to produce random numbers fairly is vital to electronic gambling, and, as such, the methods used to create them are usually regulated by government Gaming Control Boards. Random drawings are also used to determine lottery winners. In fact, randomness has been used for games of chance throughout history, and to select out individuals for an unwanted task in a fair way (see drawing straws).  Sports: Some sports, including American football, use coin tosses to randomly select starting conditions for games or seed tied teams for postseason play. The National Basketball Association uses a weighted lottery to order teams in its draft.  Mathematics: Random numbers are also employed where their use is mathematically important, such as sampling for opinion polls and for statistical sampling in quality control systems. Computational solutions for some types of problems use random numbers extensively, such as in the Monte Carlo method and in genetic algorithms.  Medicine: Random allocation of a clinical intervention is used to reduce bias in controlled trials (e.g., randomized controlled trials).  Religion: Although not intended to be random, various forms of divination such as cleromancy see what appears to be a random event as a means for a divine being to communicate their will (see also Free will and Determinism for more).

Generation.

It is generally accepted that there exist three mechanisms responsible for (apparently) random behavior in systems:  The many applications of randomness have led to many different methods for generating random data. These methods may vary as to how unpredictable or statistically random they are, and how quickly they can generate random numbers.  Before the advent of computational random number generators, generating large amounts of sufficiently random numbers (which is important in statistics) required a lot of work. Results would sometimes be collected and distributed as random number tables.

Measures and tests.

There are many practical measures of randomness for a binary sequence. These include measures based on frequency, discrete transforms, complexity, or a mixture of these, such as the tests by Kak, Phillips, Yuen, Hopkins, Beth and Dai, Mund, and Marsaglia and Zaman.  Quantum nonlocality has been used to certify the presence of genuine randomness in a given string of numbers.

Misconceptions and logical fallacies.

Popular perceptions of randomness are frequently mistaken, and are often based on fallacious reasoning or intuitions.

A number is "due".

This argument is, "In a random selection of numbers, since all numbers eventually appear, those that have not come up yet are 'due', and thus more likely to come up soon." This logic is only correct if applied to a system where numbers that come up are removed from the system, such as when playing cards are drawn and not returned to the deck. In this case, once a jack is removed from the deck, the next draw is less likely to be a jack and more likely to be some other card. However, if the jack is returned to the deck, and the deck is thoroughly reshuffled, a jack is as likely to be drawn as any other card. The same applies in any other process where objects are selected independently, and none are removed after each event, such as the roll of a die, a coin toss, or most lottery number selection schemes. Truly random processes such as these do not have memory, which makes it impossible for past outcomes to affect future outcomes. In fact, there is no finite number of trials that can guarantee a success.

A number is "cursed" or "blessed".

In a random sequence of numbers, a number may be said to be cursed because it has come up less often in the past, and so it is thought that it will occur less often in the future. A number may be assumed to be blessed because it has occurred more often than others in the past, and so it is thought likely to come up more often in the future. This logic is valid only if the randomisation is biased, for example with a loaded die. If the die is fair, then previous rolls can give no indication of future events.  In nature, events rarely occur with perfectly equal frequency, so observing outcomes to determine which events are more probable makes sense. However, it is fallacious to apply this logic to systems designed to make all outcomes equally likely, such as shuffled cards, dice, and roulette wheels.

Odds are never dynamic.

In the beginning of a scenario, one might calculate the probability of a certain event. However, as soon as one gains more information about the scenario, one may need to re-calculate the probability accordingly. For example, when being told that a woman has two children, one might be interested in knowing if either of them is a girl, and if yes, what is probability that the other child is also a girl. Considering the two events independently, one might expect that the probability that the other child is female is 1⁄2 (50%), but by building a probability space illustrating all possible outcomes, one would notice that the probability is actually only 1⁄3 (33%).  To be sure, the probability space does illustrate four ways of having these two children: boy-boy, girl-boy, boy-girl, and girl-girl. But once it is known that at least one of the children is female, this rules out the boy-boy scenario, leaving only three ways of have the two children: boy-girl, girl-boy, girl-girl. From this, it can be seen only 1⁄3 of these scenarios would have the other child being also a girl(see Boy or girl paradox for more).  In general, by using a probability space, one is less likely to miss out on possible scenarios, or to neglect the importance of new information. This technique can be used to provide insights in other situations such as the Monty Hall problem, a game show scenario in which a car is hidden behind one of three doors, and two goats are hidden as booby prizes behind the others. Once the contestant has chosen a door, the host opens one of the remaining doors to reveal a goat, eliminating that door as an option. With only two doors left (one with the car, the other with another goat), the player must decide to either keep their decision, or to switch and select the other door. Intuitively, one might think the player is choosing between two doors with equal probability, and that the opportunity to choose another door makes no difference. However, an analysis of the probability spaces would reveal that the contestant has received new information, and that changing to the other door would increase their chances of winning.

In the common parlance, randomness is the apparent lack of pattern or predictability in events. A random sequence of events, symbols or steps often has no order and does not follow an intelligible pattern or combination. Individual random events are by definition unpredictable, but since they often follow a probability distribution, the frequency of different outcomes over numerous events (or "trials") is predictable. For example, when throwing two dice, the outcome of any particular roll is unpredictable, but a sum of 7 will occur twice as often as 4. In this view, randomness is a measure of uncertainty of an outcome, rather than its haphazardness, and applies to concepts of chance, probability, and information entropy.

Náhoda v běžné řeči označuje jevy, jejichž výskyt neumíme vysvětlit. Pokud něco označíme za náhodný jev, můžeme tím mínit dvojí odlišný názor: Zatímco v prvním případě tedy konstatujeme zřejmý stav věcí, ve druhém činíme navíc závěr, který lze jen obtížně dokázat. Objevit jev, který nemá žádnou příčinu, se dosud nikomu nepodařilo. Obhajoba takového objevu totiž vyžaduje vyloučení všech možných příčin jevu. Neexistuje rychlejší postup, než sekvenční vylučování možných příčin jevu. Vyloučí se 1. možná příčina, 2. možná příčina, 3. možná příčina atd., a tak se postupuje tak dlouho, dokud není nade vší pochybnost zcela jisté, že byla zvážena již poslední možná příčina jevu a že počet možných příčin jevu dospěl prokazatelně ke konečnému číslu.


History.

The building of the Bahrain International Circuit in Sakhir was started in 2002 with high domestic interest about the project as it gave a future to the next generation of Bahraini racers. Bahrain had fought off fierce competition from elsewhere in the region to stage a F1 race, with Egypt, Lebanon and the United Arab Emirates all hoping for the prestige of hosting a Formula One Grand Prix. By the completion of the project, the circuit became the centre of motor sport in the Persian Gulf, as it held many other races such as drag races, GT races, Formula 3 races and the Australian V8 Supercar series.  The first race was in 2004. The race was won by German driver Michael Schumacher for Ferrari. Fernando Alonso won the second Bahrain Grand Prix for Renault in 2005, and then became the first repeat winner of the Middle Eastern race in 2006 (again for Renault), after a thrilling race-long battle with Michael Schumacher. In 2007 and 2008, Brazilian Felipe Massa won the race for Ferrari. 2009 saw Jenson Button win for Brawn GP. After his 2010 triumph, Alonso became the first three-time winner.  The 2010 race saw a new circuit configuration being used for the Grand Prix. It used the "Endurance Circuit" layout, extending the lap length to. The new track turns left shortly after Turn 4, the right-hander at the top of the hill following the first sequence of turns. There is then a sequence of five turns before the cars head back to the original circuit. Then comes a left-right kink before a tight hairpin returns the cars onto the main track. The track would have reverted to its original layout for the 2011 race, and did so for the 2012 race.

2011 cancellation.

On 21 February 2011, it was announced that the 2011 Bahrain Grand Prix scheduled for 13 March was cancelled due to the 2011 Bahraini protests. On 3 June, FIA decided to reschedule the race for 30 October. World champion racer Damon Hill called on Formula One not to reschedule saying that if the race went ahead "we will forever have the blight of association with repressive methods to achieve order". And Bernie Ecclestone told the BBC in an interview: "Hopefully there'll be peace and quiet and we can return in the future, but of course it's not on. The schedule cannot be rescheduled without the agreement of the participants – they're the facts." A week after its decision to reschedule the race, Formula One announced the cancellation of the race for 2011.

2012 controversy.

Human rights activists called for a cancellation of the 2012 Bahrain Grand Prix, which took place on 22 April, because of reports of ongoing use of excessive force by authorities and torture in detention.<ref name="Guardianjan/30/bahrain-grand-prix"></ref> That includes the killing of activist Salah Abbas Habib during a demonstration on the eve of the Grand Prix, as well as the earlier fatal shooting of photojournalist Ahmed Ismael Hassan al-Samadi, who was covering a protest against the Bahrain Grand Prix. On 9 April 2012, "The Guardian" reported that according to an unnamed leading member of one of the teams who said his views were representative, "the Formula One teams want the sport's governing body to cancel – or at least postpone – the Bahrain Grand Prix..., because of increasing safety concerns amid ongoing protests in the kingdom... I feel very uncomfortable about going to Bahrain. If I'm brutally frank, the only way they can pull this race off without incident is to have a complete military lockdown there. And I think that would be unacceptable, both for F1 and for Bahrain. But I don't see any other way they can do it".<ref name="Guardian2012/apr/09/formula-one-bahrain-grand-prix"> </ref>  In that context, Anonymous launched on 21 April 2012 the operation opBahrain, threatening the Formula 1 representatives of a cyberattack in case they go on with Bahrain Grand Prix. Hours later, Anonymous hackers took down the f1-racers.net website after launching a distributed denial-of-service attack on it.  The 2012 Grand Prix reverted to using the 15-corner Grand Prix Circuit configuration last used in 2009, instead of the Endurance Circuit configuration used in 2010.

Continuing controversy.

Since the global media attention over the large scale demonstrations in 2011 and 2012, there have been continual reports from human rights groups about abuses and jailings in Bahrain relating to F1 protests. Among them are photographer Ahmed Humaidan, who was one of about 30 people jailed for roles in the 2012 protest, and activist Najah Ahmed Yousif, who is in prison, and has been physically and sexually abused, for criticising the Bahrain F1 on social media. Rights organisations continue to criticise the Formula One Group and Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) for refusing to follow their own Statement of Commitment to Respect for Human Rights, saying that by not leveraging their position of power to take action against such political crackdown, the F1 organisers are complicit to the dissidents' suffering. In 2018, F1 "admitted concern" for Yousif, after continued public and media pressure, however there has been no known follow up since.

2020 postponement.

Responding to the COVID-19 pandemic, event organisers initially announced that no spectators would be permitted to attend the race. On 13 March the race was indefinitely postponed.

Characteristics.

A characteristic of the course is the large run-off areas, which have been criticised for not punishing drivers who stray off the track. However, they tend to prevent sand getting onto the track and the circuit is regarded as one of the safest in the world.  Although alcoholic beverages are legal in Bahrain, the drivers do not spray the traditional champagne on the podium. Instead, they spray a non-alcoholic rosewater drink known as Waard.

Winners.

Repeat winners (drivers).

"Drivers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season."

Repeat winners (constructors).

"Teams in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season."

Repeat winners (engine manufacturers).

"Manufacturers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season."

Support races.

Formula BMW Asia supported the Bahrain Grand Prix in 2004, with Hong Kong driver Marchy Lee winning both rounds. But the series had logistical problems after the race, when the cars were delayed on their way to Malaysia, missing the next event and had to reschedule the rest of the season. Formula BMW Asia has not supported the Bahrain Grand Prix since, but the first ever Formula BMW World Final was held in Bahrain. The Porsche Supercup has supported the 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2008 races. The GP2 Series supported the race in 2007 and a celebrity race was held in 2006 with the likes of Simon Webbe competing.  Further support for the 2008 event was provided by the GP2 Asia, Speedcar Series and a series using Australian built Chevrolet Luminas.

Visa waiver.

Gulf Cooperation Council citizens and residents, and nationals of 66 countries are eligible for visa on arrival in Bahrain throughout the year. 113 nationalities, including those eligible for visa on arrival, can apply for visas through an online application process. For the Grand Prix, Bahraini authorities issue a special F1 visa which allows for multiple entries in a defined two-week period around the event. The visa is available to Grand Prix ticketholders and is free of charge.

The Bahrain Grand Prix (, currently officially known as the Gulf Air Bahrain Grand Prix) is a Formula One Championship race in Bahrain currently sponsored by Gulf Air. The first race took place at the Bahrain International Circuit on 4 April 2004. It made history as the first Formula One Grand Prix to be held in the Middle East, and was given the award for the "Best Organised Grand Prix" by the FIA. The race has usually been the third race of the Formula One calendar. However, in the season, Bahrain swapped places with the traditional opener, the Australian Grand Prix, which was pushed back to avoid a clash with the Commonwealth Games. In 2010, Bahrain staged the opening race of the season and the cars drove the full "Endurance Circuit" to celebrate F1's 'diamond jubilee'.

Grand Prix Bahrajnu (, ) je jedním ze závodů mistrovství světa vozů Formule 1, pořádané Mezinárodní automobilovou federací. Termínem pořádání je měsíc březen a místem je trať Bahrain International Circuit v městě Sakhir.


History.

The first stage of the line followed Moscow's busiest transport artery the Leningradsky Prospekt or as it moves into the centre the Tverskaya Street (formally Gorkovskaya hence the original name), and connected the northwestern districts of Aeroport and Begovoy along with the Belorussky Rail Terminal with the city centre in 1938.  The second stage, construction of which was uninterrupted during the war, opened in 1943 and followed the Red Square south under the Moskva River into the dense district of Zamoskvorechye (hence the name) and then onto the Paveletsky Rail Terminal and more significantly the Stalin Factory (ZiS) in the Southeast of Moscow.  Several more extensions were to take place including the northern one following the Leningrad Highway and the Moscow Canal into the Northern River Port in 1964. A southern one in 1969 passed the Nagatino industrial district and the Kolomenskoye park, the rest of the extension went into the future Kakhovskaya line. In 1984 a third extension commenced in two stages to the southeast past the Tsaritsyno park and into the Orekhovo-Borisovo housing massifs. A flooded tunnel, however forced the new branch to close a day after and for the next two and a half months. In late 1985 the second stage was completed, reaching a length of 36.9 kilometres with 20 stations and a daily passenger traffic of 1.8 million people.  The line's complex and inspiring history is mirrored in its architectural ensemble, particularly as it is one of the few places that it is possible to see the best of Soviet pre-war Art Deco architecture. In the spotlight before all other stations is Mayakovskaya, a station that is not only most-photographed in the network but is also common sight on covers of brochures and tour guides into Moscow's underground realm.  When the line first opened in 1938, to distinguish the simultaneous formation of the three lines instead of one, colour-coding was introduced. The first one, the Sokolnicheskaya being Red, for mostly political reasons. However chronologically the Arbatsko–Pokrovskaya line would have been second and was coloured blue, whilst the third one Zamoskvoretskaya was given green. However as part of the Arbatsko–Pokrovskaya line was already in operation from the first stage, the significance of the Zamoskvoretskaya line was far greater. As a result the line was listed second. This tradition has since been passed on in all ex-Soviet cities with the first line being red and the second/third being either blue or green. However some metros, notably Minsk Metro chose to deliberately reverse the trend.

Transfers.

The Kashirskaya transfer is a cross-platform one.

Rolling stock.

The line is served by the Sokol (No 2) and Zamoskvoretskoe (No 7) depots to which, respectively, 39 and 36 eight-carriage are assigned. The line began receiving 81-714/717 trains in 1980, replacing older E types in a programme which was finished in 1987. Some of these were upgraded to the.5 standard. When the Kakhovskaya branch separated from the main line, seven six-carriage trains were formed for it at the Zamoskvoretskoe depot.  Subway car types used on the line over the years:  - Series A, B: 1938 - 1951  - Series V: 1949 - 1954  - Series G: 1947 - 8th of December, 1965  - Series E: 1963 - 1989  - Series Ezh, Em-508 and Em-509: 1970 - 1989  - Series Ezh3/Em-508T: 1978 - 1983  - Series 81-717: 1979 - present  - Series 81-717.5: 1988 - present  - Series 81-717.5M: 2008 - present

Recent events and future plans.

Today the line features a combination of stations that were built during different periods and some rebuilt since. Also it is one of the busiest in the system and for some stations, that are almost 70 years old clearly show their age. Improvement works have been carried out several times throughout history, but in recent times their emphasis has grown. Belorusskaya was recently subjected to an extensive facelift reconstruction on replacement of its old ceramic walls with new marble ones. The world famous Mayakovskaya station following the opening of the second exit in 2005 had its original vestibule closed for replacement of escalators. It is expected that additional reconstruction will be done on 1960s "centepede" stations including the replacement of old ceramic tiles with aluminium planes.  When the line was built several areas were left with a straight tunnel provision for potential future built in of new stations. One of which was Gorkovskaya (now Tverskaya) between Mayakovskaya and Teatralnaya, which was opened in 1979. However several more remain: Sovetskaya between Tverskaya and Teatralnaya, Bega between Dinamo and Belorusskaya, Vishnyakovsky Pereulok between Novokuznetskaya and Paveletskaya and Moskvorechye (also referred to as Vasilyevsky Spusk) between Teatralnaya and Novokuznetskaya. The latter provision stands the highest chance of being developed as the vacant space caused by demolition of the Rossiya Hotel is likely to be filled with new office buildings and hotels.  In addition to the provisions, another station was recently approved to be built on the surface level track between Avtozavodskaya and Kolomenskaya. The provisional names were Nagatinsky Zaton or Prospekt Andropova, although the name Tekhnopark was selected. The station opened in late 2014.  The Metro completed the northern extension to Khovrino in 2017, making that station the northern terminus of the line. Belomorskaya, an intermediate station, opened on December 20, 2018. The extension creates the potential to further extend the line into the adjacent Moscow Oblast town of Khimki.

The Zamoskvoretskaya line (, ), formerly Gorkovsko–Zamoskvoretskaya () (Line 2), is a line of the Moscow Metro. Opened in 1938, chronologically it became the third line. There are 24 stations on the Zamoskvoretskaya line, and it spans, roughly crossing Moscow in a north–south direction. A normal trip along the entire line takes 55 minutes, with the trains on the line averaging. While most of the line is underground, there are some pockets of surface-level or above-ground track, mainly at the point where the line crosses the Moskva River. The line contains many examples of original Moscow Metro architecture, and contains arguably the most photographed station on the entire network: Mayakovskaya.

Zamoskvoreckaja (; původní název Gorkovsko-Zamoskvoreckaja) je linka Moskevského metra. Je označovaná také jako linka dvě, tmavězelenou barvou. V provozu je od roku 1938, denně přepraví 1,8 milionů cestujících. Nasazovány jsou osmivozové vlakové soupravy, které dosahují průměrné cestovní rychlosti 40 km/h a celou linku projedou za 60 minut.


History.

In the early Middle Ages close to the river Bosna and Vogoščica the district Vogošća or Vidogošća was formed. Some later events that are tied to the Ottoman period came to the formation of džemats, nahiyahs and sanjaks. In the beginning of the nineteenth century there were 20 džemats in the Sarajevo Nahiyah: Butmir, Kijevo, Presjenica, Sudići, Trnovo, Zijamet Crna Rijeka, Pale, Mokro with Bobogovićima, Kriva Rijeka, Srednje, Čifluk Crna Rijeka, Rakova Noga, Vogošća, Nahorevo, Kulijes, Rakovica, Hadžići, Drozgometva, Pazarić and the villages of Luka i Žeravica.  The occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by the Austro-Hungarian Empire led to many changes which manifested to administrative and political changes. The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was divided into districts and further divided into counties. The counties were divided into municipalities, instead of dzemats, and they were furthermore divided into mahallahs and hamlets while the functions of the muhtars and village chiefs remained the same. The modern municipality of Ilijaš at that time was divided into the Sarajevo and Visoko counties and the boundary line between these two counties was the Povučje stream and the hill Bukovac which was between the stream and Ljubina. The administrative division of Bosnia and Herzegovina until the formation of bans in 1929 remained the same even during the Austro-Hungarian occupation. Only after 1922 oblasts were formed instead of districts. Everything remained the same until 1941. Right after the freeing of the temporary national assembly of the Federal Bosnia and Herzegovina the assembly's first session in August 1945 brought up the law of the territorial division of Bosnia and Herzegovina in districts, counties and areas of local people's committees and their headquarters.

Demographics.

The municipality of Ilijaš is composed of two parts, the town of Ilijaš and the upper municipality. The town of Ilijaš is composed by several localities. The biggest and most urban is the center and it has about 10,000 residents, the second is the settlement of Misoča ("Naselje Misoča"), with 1500 residents. Ethnically, there is a majority of Bosniaks with about 1300 people, 250 are Serbs, 50 are Croats, with none classified as others. Other places, of the municipality of Ilijaš, are Podlugovi, Lješevo, Stari Ilijaš and Malešići.

1971.

According to 1971 population census there were 23,007 residents.

1991.

According to 1991 population census there were 25,184 residents.

Settlements.

• Balibegovići • Banjer • Bokšići • Buljetovina • Čemernica • Četojevići • Donja Bioča • Donja Misoča • Donje Selo • Donji Čevljanovići • Dragoradi • Draževići • Duboki Potok • Duševine • Gajevi • Gajine • Gojanovići • Gornja Bioča • Gornja Misoča • Gornji Čevljanovići • Hadžići • Han Karaula • Han Šići • Homar • Ilijaš • Ivančići • Kadarići • Kamenica • Karaula • Korita • Košare • Kožlje • Krčevine • Krivajevići • Kunosići • Lađevići • Lipnik • Luka • Luka kod Stublina • Lješevo • Ljubina • Ljubnići • Malešići • Medojevići • Moševići • Mrakovo • Nišići • Odžak • Ozren • Podlipnik • Podlugovi • Popovići • Rakova Noga • Ribarići • Rudnik Čevljanovići • Sirovine • Solakovići • Sovrle • Srednje • Stomorine • Stubline • Sudići • Šabanci • Šljeme • Taračin Do • Velika Njiva • Vidotina • Vilić • Visojevica • Višnjica • Vladojevići • Vlaškovo • Vrutci • Vukasovići • Vuknići • Zakutnica • Zlotege

Twin towns - sister cities.

Ilijaš is twinned with:

Ilijaš () is a town and municipality located in Sarajevo Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located north-east of the inner city of Sarajevo and was established in May 1952 with the organization of people's committees. Those local people's committees founded the local municipalities, which led to self-management of the municipalities, including the municipality of Ilijaš.

Ilijaš je město a općina v kantonu Sarajevo v Bosně a Hercegovině. Město se nachází na severu kantonu, spolu s opčinou o rozloze 72 km mělo v roce 2002 15 277 obyvatel. Samotné město, které se rozkládá u severní hranice opčiny, má obyvatel asi 10 000. Většina z nich jsou Bosňáci (87 %), zbytek tvoří Srbové (7 %) a Chorvati (6 %). Za války v 90. letech byla právě oblast Ilijaše místem tvrdého odporu Bosňáků proti Srbům. Na území opčiny se dodnes nacházejí minová pole.


Life and career.

Early life.

Agneta Åse Fältskog was born in Jönköping, Småland, Sweden on 5 April 1950. She was the first of two daughters of department store manager Knut Ingvar Fältskog (1922–1995) and his wife Birgit Margareta Johansson (1923–1994). Ingvar showed much interest in music and show business, and Birgit devoted herself to her children and household. Fältskog's younger sister, Mona, was born in 1955.  Fältskog wrote her first song at the age of six, entitled "Två små troll" ("Two Little Trolls"). In 1958, she began taking piano lessons, and also sang in a local church choir. In early 1960, Fältskog formed a musical trio, the Cambers, with her friends Lena Johansson and Elisabeth Strub. They performed locally in minor venues and soon dissolved due to a lack of engagements. At age 15, Fältskog decided to leave school and pursue a career.  Fältskog cites Connie Francis, Marianne Faithfull, Aretha Franklin and Lesley Gore as her strongest musical influences.

Career development in Sweden (1966–1971).

Fältskog worked as a telephonist for a car firm while performing with a local dance band, headed by Bernt Enghardt. The band soon became so popular that she had to make a choice between her job and her musical career. She continued singing with the Bernt Enghardt band for two years. During that time, Fältskog broke up with her boyfriend Björn Lilja; this event inspired her to write a song, "Jag var så kär" ("I Was So in Love"), that soon brought her to media prominence. At that time, Karl Gerhard Lundkvist, a relative of one of the band's members, retired from his successful rock and roll career and began working as a record producer at Cupol Records. Enghardt sent him a demo recording of the band, but Lundkvist only showed interest in Fältskog and her song. She was worried because he was not interested in the band and they were not to be included on the record. However, she decided to accept the offer, and signed a recording contract with Cupol Records.  Her self-penned début single "Jag var så kär" was recorded on 16 October 1967 and released through Cupol Records the following month. It topped the Swedish Chart on 28 January 1968 and sold more than 80,000 copies. She also submitted the song "Försonade" ("Reconciled") to Melodifestivalen, the Swedish preliminary for the Eurovision Song Contest, but it was not selected for the final. Fältskog developed a career as one of Sweden's most popular pop music artists, participating in a television special about Swedish composer Jules Sylvain in 1969. The same year, she released the single "Zigenarvän" ("Gypsy Friend") about a young girl attending a Gypsy wedding and falling in love with the bride's brother. Its release coincided with a heated debate about Gypsies in the Swedish media, and Fältskog was accused of deliberately trying to make money out of the situation by writing the song.  Fältskog's success continued throughout the late 1960s. She met German songwriter/producer Dieter Zimmerman, to whom she became engaged. Her albums thus reached the German charts, and Zimmerman promised her she would achieve great success in Germany. However, when she went there and met with record producers, the venture was not productive; Fältskog refused to meet the demands of the producers, describing their chosen material as "horrible". She soon ended her engagement to Zimmerman and returned to Sweden.  In 1970, she released "Om tårar vore guld" ("If Tears Were Gold"). A Danish composer claimed that she used 22 bars from his composition "Tema" ("Theme"), even though it was written in the 1950s and had never been recorded. The case dragged on until 1977, when a settlement was reached and Fältskog paid the Danish musician SEK 5,000.  In 1972, Fältskog portrayed Mary Magdalene in the Swedish production of the international hit musical "Jesus Christ Superstar".

First marriage and years with ABBA (1971–1982).

Fältskog met Björn Ulvaeus, a member of the Hootenanny Singers, for the first time in 1968, and then again in 1969. Her relationship with Ulvaeus, as well as her friendship with Anni-Frid Lyngstad and Benny Andersson, with whom Ulvaeus had already written songs, eventually led to the formation of ABBA. Fältskog and Ulvaeus married on 6 July 1971 in the village of Verum, with Andersson playing the organ at their wedding. Their first child, Linda Elin Ulvaeus, was born on 23 February 1973, and their son Peter Christian Ulvaeus on 4 December 1977. After seven years of marriage, the couple decided to separate in late 1978, and filed for divorce in January 1979. The divorce was finalised in July 1980. Both Fältskog and Ulvaeus agreed not to let their failed marriage interfere with their responsibilities with ABBA. The failure of their marriage inspired Ulvaeus to write the lyrics of "The Winner Takes It All". As a member of ABBA, Fältskog was also known as "Anna" in some countries. In 1975, during the same period as her bandmate Anni-Frid Lyngstad recorded her Swedish number one album "Frida ensam", Fältskog recorded and produced her solo album "Elva kvinnor i ett hus". These albums were both recorded between sessions and promotion for the ABBA albums "Waterloo" and "ABBA". Fältskog's album spent 53 weeks on the Swedish album chart (longer than any of ABBA's albums), but failed to reach the Top 10, peaking at No.11. It contained three further Svensktoppen entries for Fältskog: her Swedish-language version of ABBA's "SOS" (also No. 4 on the single sales chart); "Tack För En Underbar Vanlig Dag"; and "Doktorn!". With the exception of "SOS", all the songs had lyrics by Bosse Carlgren and music by Fältskog herself. The creation of the album had been underway since 1972, when Fältskog started writing the songs, but it was delayed because of the work with ABBA and her pregnancy. In 1974, Fältskog and Carlgren had agreed on a concept for the album; it should consist of 12 songs, each sung by 12 different female characters living in the same apartment building, however in the end only 11 songs were featured on the album, and the concept wasn't fully developed. Between the years 1968 and 1980, Fältskog had a total of 18 entries on the Svensktoppen radio chart, starting with the debut single "Jag Var Så Kär" in January 1968 (peak position No. 1) and ending with "När Du Tar Mig I Din Famn" ("When You Take Me in Your Arms") from the compilation "Tio år med Agnetha" in January 1980 (peak position No. 1). These 18 entries, most of which were composed or co-written by Fältskog herself, spent a total of 139 weeks on the chart during this time, with the biggest hit being 1970's "Om tårar vore guld" (No. 1, 15 weeks). Fältskog also recorded the Swedish Christmas album "Nu tändas tusen juleljus" with daughter Linda Ulvaeus which peaked at No. 6 on the Swedish album chart in December 1981. Chartwise Fältskog was the most successful solo artist of the four ABBA members, both before, during and after the band's international career.  Fältskog participated in Melodifestivalen again, albeit only as a composer. In 1981, she wrote the ballad "Men Natten Är Vår" ("But the Night Is Ours") with lyrics by Ingela Forsman, but instead of performing the song in the contest herself, she chose new talent Kicki Moberg. The song placed 9th out of 10. The single, which Fältskog produced in the Polar Studios with the same musicians as on contemporary ABBA recordings, was backed with the Swedish version of "I'm Still Alive", entitled "Här Är Mitt Liv" ("Here Is My Life"), a song which she herself had performed in its English version (lyrics by ex-husband Björn Ulvaeus) during ABBA's 1979 world tour. Moberg's recording of the song remains the only version to have been officially released to date.  Fältskog sang solo parts in the following ABBA songs: "Disillusion" (the only ABBA song to have been written by her, lyrics by Björn), "I Am Just A Girl", "Hasta Mañana", "Dance (While The Music Still Goes On)", "SOS", "I've Been Waiting For You", "When I Kissed The Teacher", "My Love, My Life", "Take A Chance On Me", "The Name Of The Game", "Move On", "Thank You For The Music", "Get On The Carousel", "Chiquitita", "Lovelight", "As Good As New", "Kisses Of Fire", "Dream World", "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)", "The Way Old Friends Do", "The Winner Takes It All", "Happy New Year", "Lay All Your Love On Me", "Head Over Heels", "One Of Us", "Soldiers", "Slipping Through My Fingers", "Just Like That" (never officially released in its entirety by the group), "I Am The City", "Under Attack" and "The Day Before You Came".

Solo career development (1982–1988).

Although no official announcement was made, ABBA effectively disbanded in late 1982 to early 1983. At the end of 1982 Fältskog duetted with Swedish singer (and former ABBA backing vocalist) Tomas Ledin on a song called "Never Again", which became a Top Five hit in Sweden, Norway, Belgium, and South America. The song was also released in a Spanish-language version, entitled "Ya Nunca Más". In the summer of the same year, Fältskog had a leading role in the Swedish movie "Raskenstam".  In May 1983, Fältskog released her first post-ABBA solo album, "Wrap Your Arms Around Me", produced by Mike Chapman. The album became a moderate hit in North America and Australia, but reached the higher regions of the charts across Europe, including No. 1 in Sweden, Norway, Finland, Belgium, and Denmark (where it became the biggest-selling album of the year), top 5 in Germany, The Netherlands and France and No. 18 in the UK. The album achieved sales of 1.5 million copies in the first year. Two singles from the album became hits in continental Europe: "The Heat Is On" became a No. 1 hit in Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, and Belgium and No. 2 in The Netherlands and Germany. The song peaked at No. 35 in the UK (and was Fältskog's highest charting and only UK Top 40 hit until 2004). The album's title track reached No. 1 in Belgium and peaked at No. 4 in the Netherlands. In North America, the album track "Can't Shake Loose" was released as the lead-off single, reaching No. 29 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, and No. 23 on the RPM Top 50 singles chart in Canada.  Fältskog's next studio album, "Eyes Of A Woman", produced by Eric Stewart of 10cc, was released in March 1985. "She is quite content to grace the works of various other lesser mortals with her immaculate, sugar-sweet voice," wrote Barry McIlheney in "Melody Maker". The album sold well in parts of Europe, peaking at No. 2 in Sweden and reaching the Top 20 in Norway and Belgium, but scraped into the UK Top 40 just for one week. The album sold up to 800,000 copies. The self-penned lead single "I Won't Let You Go" achieved moderate success in Europe, reaching No. 6 in Sweden, No. 18 in the Netherlands and No. 24 in West Germany.  In 1986, Fältskog recorded another duet, "The Way You Are", with Swedish singer Ola Håkansson, which became another No. 1 hit in Sweden and Norway.  In early 1987, Fältskog recorded an album "Kom följ med i vår karusell" ('Come Join Us On Our Carousel') with her son Christian. The album contained songs for children and was sung in Swedish. For the album Agnetha recorded duets with her son and a children's choir. In 1988, it was nominated for Swedish music prize Grammis in a category 'Barn' (For Children).  In the summer of 1987, Fältskog travelled to Malibu, California, to record her fourth post-ABBA solo album, "I Stand Alone", produced by Peter Cetera (formerly of the band Chicago) and Bruce Gaitsch, who had collaborated on Madonna's "La Isla Bonita". Released in November of that year, "I Stand Alone" was a minor hit in Europe, except in Sweden where it spent eight weeks at No. 1 and became the best-selling album of 1988. More than 300,000 copies were sold throughout Scandinavia. According to Hans Englund, the Swedish head of WEA, more than 800,000 copies were sold globally. However, chart-wise outside of Scandinavia, the results were less impressive.  The single "I Wasn't The One (Who Said Goodbye)", on which Fältskog duetted with Peter Cetera, was released primarily in North America, and became her second solo single to chart on the "Billboard" Hot 100, peaking at No. 93. It was also a Top 20 "Billboard" Adult Contemporary hit. The track (along with "The Last Time" as "La Ultima Véz") was also recorded in Spanish for the Latin American market as "Yo No Fui Quién Dijo Adiós". Fältskog refused to promote the album in major TV shows in West Germany, but she made a promotional visit to London in February 1988, appearing on the "Terry Wogan Show".

Hiatus from recording (1988–2004).

Following the release of "I Stand Alone", Fältskog had a 17-year hiatus from the music industry, during which she made few public appearances and devoted much of her time to astrology, yoga and horse riding at her isolated country house in Ekerö.  In 1990, Fältskog married Swedish surgeon Tomas Sonnenfeld, but the couple divorced in 1993.  In 1994, Fältskog's mother committed suicide by jumping from her Jönköping apartment balcony. Fältskog's resulting depression worsened a year later when her father died.  In 1997, Fältskog started a relationship with a Dutch forklift driver, Gert van der Graaf. After Fältskog decided to terminate the relationship in 1999, he stalked her further at her mansion, resulting in a court issuing Van der Graaf with a restraining order and deporting him to the Netherlands in 2000. Returning close to her home in 2003, he was arrested and then banned from entering Sweden. In 2005, the ban order from Sweden ran out, and within months van der Graaf was again sighted near Fältskog's estate in Ekerö.  In 1996, her autobiography "Som jag är" was published in Swedish (and in English the following year titled "As I Am"), followed by several compilation CDs of her Swedish and English recordings, including one called "My Love, My Life" for which Fältskog picked out the music herself. Fans welcomed the autobiography. The book was updated in 1998 and released worldwide via Virgin Publishing, selling over 50,000 copies.

Return to music and selected public appearances (2004–present).

In April 2004, Fältskog released a new single, "If I Thought You'd Ever Change Your Mind" (a cover of the song originally recorded by Cilla Black). It peaked at No. 2 in Sweden and became Fältskog's highest charting UK single to date, reaching No.11. One week later, the album "My Colouring Book", a collection of Fältskog's covers of 1960s classic oldies, was released, topping the chart in Sweden, hitting the Top Five in Finland and Denmark, and peaking at No. 6 and No. 12 in Germany and the UK respectively. The title track, "My Colouring Book", is a cover of the song originally recorded by Barbra Streisand. "The Observer" suggested that "time hasn't diminished her perfect voice." Reviewing the release in "The Guardian", Caroline Sullivan wrote: "Agnetha Fältskog has a vulnerability that gets under the skin of a song. She may be cheating a trifle by including no original material on this collection of 1960s covers, but if anyone can do justice to the likes of "Sealed with a Kiss", it's her. The soaring sentimentality evokes Cilla Black and Sandie Shaw in their mini-skirted pomp, and I don't say that lightly." The release attracted media attention across Europe, but Fältskog staunchly refused to be involved in any extensive promotion of the album.  A second single release from the album, "When You Walk in the Room", peaked at No.11 in Sweden and entered the UK Top 40 at No. 34 (which was still higher than any of her UK singles in the 1980s). "Sometimes When I'm Dreaming", originally recorded by Art Garfunkel, failed to be released as the third single.  Shortly after this release, for the 2004 semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest, staged in Istanbul 30 years after ABBA had won the contest in Brighton, Fältskog appeared briefly in a special comedy video made for the interval act, entitled "Our Last Video." All four members of the group appeared briefly in cameo roles, as did the singer and actress Cher and comedian Rik Mayall.  In 2004, Fältskog was nominated for "Best Nordic Artist" at the Nordic Music Awards, and at Christmas of that year she gave an extensive interview (her first for many years) which was filmed by Swedish TV. Around the same time, Sony Music released a lavishly produced 6-CD boxed set comprising Fältskog's Swedish solo career (mostly before ABBA), with five original solo albums: 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, and her 1975 album recorded and released during her time with ABBA – plus an additional compilation disc with bonus tracks.  In 2005, Fältskog appeared with her former bandmates at the opening of the "Mamma Mia!" musical in Stockholm, and together with ex-husband Björn, also attended the final show in January 2007.  In October 2008, a new compilation album, "My Very Best", was released in Sweden. The double CD contains both Swedish (CD 1) and English-language hits (CD 2) from her whole solo career, from 1967 to 2004. It reached No. 4 on the Swedish album chart and was certified gold within its first week of release.  On 4 July 2008, Fältskog joined her former bandmates at the Swedish premiere of the film version of "Mamma Mia!", held at the Rival Theatre (owned by Andersson) in Mariatorget, Stockholm. Fältskog arrived with Lyngstad and movie star Meryl Streep, the three dancing in front of thousands of fans before joining the film's other stars and Andersson and Ulvaeus on the hotel balcony for the first photograph of all four ABBA members together in 22 years.  In January 2009, Fältskog appeared onstage with Lyngstad at the Swedish Rockbjörnen Awards to receive a lifetime honorary award for ABBA.  In February 2010, ABBA World, an extensive multimillion-pound (in monetary value) exhibition, debuted at London's Earls Court and included an extensive interview with Fältskog filmed in Sweden the previous summer. For the exhibition's Melbourne launch, she recorded a light-hearted opening film together with former ABBA colleague Benny Andersson, shot in Stockholm in June 2010.  In October 2010, Fältskog attended the opening of the "Mamma Mia!" musical in Denmark, with former husband, Björn Ulvaeus.  In May 2013, Fältskog released a new album called 'A', produced by Jörgen Elofsson and Peter Nordahl. In the UK, the first single, "When You Really Loved Someone", had previously been released for download on 11 March, with the accompanying video also released on the same day. In Germany, the first single was "The One Who Loves You Now", and it was also released for download on 11 March 2013. The album includes a duet with Gary Barlow of Take That, called "I Should've Followed You Home".  In June 2013, officials from Universal Records in the Netherlands said that 600,000 copies of 'A' were sold in the first two months after its release. The album managed Top 5 placings in many territories, including Sweden, Norway, Germany, Denmark, Switzerland, The Netherlands, Belgium, Austria, New Zealand and Australia. It charted at No. 6 in the United Kingdom (her highest ever placing in that territory), and a few weeks after its release a TV special made by the BBC helped the album reach the No. 6 position in the UK album chart for a second time. The first single from the album to be released in the US, "Dance Your Pain Away", was released on 28 May 2013. The digital single included two new mixes by Smash Mode. "Dance Your Pain Away" was released internationally as a single on 15 July 2013.  On 17 May 2013, Fältskog was awarded the SKAP 2013 Kai Gullmar Memorial Award at the Stockholm release party for 'A'.  On 12 November 2013, Fältskog sang live on stage for the first time in 25 years at the BBC Children in Need Rocks 2013 concert in London; she sang a duet with Gary Barlow, the organiser of the event.  On 18 November 2013 in order to promote the song, a video for "I Should've Followed You Home" was shot the same day as the release of the single itself. Although the single was released in most countries in November 2013, its release in the United Kingdom was held over. She also won Best Female Album – 6th Annual Scandipop 2014, and was nominated for the German 2014 ECHO award in the Artist Rock/Pop International category.  In April 2016, a new biography of Fältskog, by Daniel Ward, "Agnetha Fältskog – The Girl With The Golden Hair", was published in the UK.

Personal life.

Fältskog was aviophobic, which worsened for her during ABBA's 1979 American tour, when the band's plane, heading to Boston, Massachusetts, got short of fuel and hit a tornado, prompting an emergency landing. Fältskog said as of 2013 that she still needs therapy to deal with the fear. During her solo career years, Fältskog would always travel by bus. She survived a bus accident on a Swedish motorway in 1983.  Fältskog has reportedly suffered from stage fright, fear of crowds and open spaces, fear of heights, amongst others.  Fältskog's split from Ulvaeus in 1979 greatly affected her; she needed therapy. Her second marriage in 1990 to Tomas Sonnenfeld was held privately, and only became public knowledge when they divorced three years later. Her mother's suicide in 1994 and her father's death the following year were also kept private.  Fältskog currently lives in Ekerö, Stockholm County with her son, Peter Christian Ulvaeus, his partner and their daughter. Fältskog's daughter, Linda, also lives in Ekerö with her family. Fältskog has four grandchildren.

Agneta Åse Fältskog (born 5 April 1950), better known as Agnetha Fältskog (), is a Swedish singer, songwriter, musician and actress. She achieved success in Sweden after the release of her debut album "Agnetha Fältskog" in 1968, and reached international stardom as a member of the pop group ABBA, which has sold over 380 million albums and singles worldwide, making them one of the best-selling music artists in history.

Agnetha Åse Fältskog (čti "aŋnéta óse feltskug", narozena 5. dubna 1950 Jönköping) je švédská zpěvačka, světově známá z působení ve skupině ABBA (v letech 1972–1982), která byla také úspěšná na sólové dráze v 60. letech, a poté i v 80. letech. V roce 2004 obnovila svou pěveckou kariéru.


Recording.

R.E.M. started recording their debut album in December 1982. I.R.S. paired R.E.M. with producer Stephen Hague, who had a higher profile than the band's previous producer Mitch Easter. Hague's emphasis on technical perfection did not suit the band; the producer made the group perform multiple takes of the song "Catapult", which demoralized drummer Bill Berry. Also, Hague took the completed track to Synchro Sound studios in Boston and added keyboard parts to the track without the band's permission and to their dismay. Unsatisfied, the band members asked the label to let them record with Easter. I.R.S. agreed to a "tryout" session, allowing the band to travel to North Carolina and record the song "Pilgrimage" with Easter and producing partner Don Dixon. After hearing the track, I.R.S. permitted the group to record the album with Dixon and Easter.  On January 6, 1983, R.E.M. entered Reflection Studios in Charlotte, North Carolina to begin recording sessions with Easter and Dixon. Much of the band's material for the album had been tested on preceding tours. Because of its bad experience with Hague, the band recorded the album via a process of negation, refusing to incorporate rock music clichés such as guitar solos or then-popular synthesizers, to give its music a timeless feel. Berry specifically was resistant to "odd" musical suggestions, insisting that his drums be recorded in a drummer's booth, a practice that was antiquated at the time. Dixon and Easter took a hands-off approach to much of the recording process. The pair would only fix up a vocal track or ask lead singer Michael Stipe to re-record a vocal if it was very substandard. Recording was completed on February 23, 1983.

Music.

"Murmur"'s sound characterized the quieter, introverted side of the first wave of alternative rock in the United States. The sound was new at the time, though not stepping beyond the constructs of traditional rock music. The guitars have a bright, ring-like chime that brought on comparisons to the Byrds, and the bass guitar has the bright punchy sound of the Rickenbacker favored by Mike Mills. Mills carries much of the melodic element of the music on the bass, contributing to the moody sound of early R.E.M. albums. Also contributing to this sound is the distant singing of Michael Stipe whose obscure lyrics, sung indistinctly, lend to the mystery and depth of the music.  In a rare instance of R.E.M. co-writing, Stipe asked friend Neil Bogan to contribute lyrics to "West of the Fields".

Packaging.

The front cover features an image of a large quantity of the noxious weed kudzu, which grows so rapidly that it overtakes the landscape and kills other plants by completely shading them. The trestle featured on the back cover of the original vinyl LP release, originally part of the Georgia Railroad line into downtown Athens, has become something of a local landmark. Plans to demolish the trestle, now commonly referred to as the ""Murmur" Trestle," met with public outcry. On October 2, 2000, the Athens-Clarke County Mayor and Commission voted to save the trestle. In 2012, the local government said it can't afford to keep it and declared in 2016 that it would likely come down. Later that year, the Athens-Clarke County Commission suggested that a trail tax could fund its existence.  Copies of the initial tape edition—catalogue number CS 70604—list The Velvet Underground cover "There She Goes Again" as the final track, but it is not present. The track was intended for "Murmur", but removed so that all the tracks would be original and the group would not have to take a royalty cut. It was, however, included as a b-side to the IRS issue of "Radio Free Europe" instead. This mistake was fixed with subsequent printings.

Critical reception.

"Murmur" was released in April 1983. The record reached number 36 on the "Billboard" album chart. A re-recorded version of "Radio Free Europe" was the album's lead single and reached number 78 on the "Billboard" singles chart that year. Despite the acclaim awarded the album, by the end of 1983 "Murmur" had only sold about 200,000 copies, which I.R.S.'s Jay Boberg felt was below expectations. "Murmur" was eventually certified gold (500,000 units shipped) by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1991.  The album drew substantial critical acclaim. "Rolling Stone" gave the album four out of five stars. Reviewer Steve Pond felt the album fulfilled the promise the band showed on "Chronic Town". He wrote, ""Murmur" is the record on which [R.E.M.] trade that potential for results: an intelligent, enigmatic, deeply involving album, it reveals a depth and cohesiveness to R.E.M. that the EP could only suggest." He concluded, "R.E.M. is clearly "the" important Athens band." Jonathan Gregg of "Record" described "Murmur" as "a splendid little film noir of an album, austere but rich in implication." He particularly praised the band's distinctive "twitchy, restless dance beat" and the incomprehensibility of the album's meaning, noting that Stipe's already enigmatic lyrics are often hard to make out due to being sung with a deliberate slur, lost in a muddy mix, and/or drowned out by the instrumental work, resulting in an impressive sense of meaning even as the meaning itself is not understood. It was "Rolling Stone"'s Best Album of 1983, beating Michael Jackson's "Thriller", The Police's "Synchronicity" and U2's "War". Buck noted in 2002 that I.R.S. was "mind-boggled" by the album's positive reviews, especially in the British press, since R.E.M. had not yet toured that country.

Accolades.

Since its release, "Murmur" has featured heavily in various "must have" lists compiled by the music media. In 1989, it was rated number eight on "Rolling Stone" magazine's list of the 100 greatest albums of the 1980s. In 2003, the TV network VH1 named "Murmur" the 92nd greatest album of all time. Some of the more prominent of these lists to feature "Murmur" are shown below; this information is adapted from acclaimedmusic.net.

Track listing.

All songs written by Bill Berry, Peter Buck, Mike Mills, and Michael Stipe, except where noted.  Side one  Side two  1992 "The IRS Vintage Years" edition bonus tracks  2008 Deluxe Edition bonus disc (Live at Larry's Hideaway in Toronto, July 9, 1983)  A vintage radio promo for the album is hidden in the pregap of the bonus disc.

Personnel.

R.E.M.  Production and additional musicians

Chart performance.

Singles

Release history.

"Murmur" was bundled together with "Chronic Town" and "Reckoning" in the United Kingdom as "The Originals" in 1993.  On November 25, 2008, I.R.S. Records, A&M, and Universal Music released a 25th anniversary edition two-disc reissue of "Murmur". Disc one features the standard 12-track album, digitally remastered, and disc two contains a previously unreleased live concert the band played at Larry's Hideaway, Toronto, Canada, on July 9, 1983. In addition to "Murmur" songs, the set includes tunes from the "Chronic Town" EP, a Velvet Underground cover, and early versions of songs from "Reckoning" and "Lifes Rich Pageant". The release also includes a fold-out poster insert, featuring exclusive essays by producers Don Dixon and Mitch Easter, as well as former I.R.S. executives Jay Boberg, Sig Sigworth, and art designer Carl Grasso. †I.R.S. Vintage Years edition, with bonus tracks ‡Remastered edition on 180-gram vinyl and gold Compact Disc •Remastered Deluxe Edition, with "Live at Larry's Hide-Away" bonus disc

Murmur is the debut studio album by American alternative rock band R.E.M., released on April 12, 1983 by I.R.S. Records. "Murmur" drew critical acclaim upon its release for its unusual sound, defined by lead singer Michael Stipe's cryptic lyrics, guitarist Peter Buck's jangly guitar style, and bass guitarist Mike Mills' melodic basslines.

Murmur je první dlouhohrající album kapely R.E.M. Album vyšlo v dubnu 1983 a předcházelo mu EP "Chronic Town", které bylo vydáno o rok dříve. V americkém žebříčku prodejnosti se album dostalo na 36. místo a v roce 1991 získalo zlatou desku. Časopis "Rolling Stone" jej ohodnotil jako 197. nejlepší album všech dob a televize VH1 jej vyhlásila 92. nejlepším albem všech dob.


History.

Original development.

The Romulans were devised for the episode "Balance of Terror". In 2014, "Balance of Terror" was rated the best episode in the franchise by Io9.  The Romulans were reused for the second-season episode "The Deadly Years" and the third-season episode "The Enterprise Incident".

Reintroduction in the 1980s and 1990s.

After the launch of "" in 1987, the show's writers introduced the Romulans in the final episode of the first season, "", which aired in the U.S. in May 1988. The episode was written by Maurice Hurley, who later acknowledged rushing it, putting together a script in a day and a half. In the episode, which is set in the year 2364, the Starfleet ship USS "Enterprise"-D—whose crew are the series' main protagonists—responds to the disappearance of Federation colonies along the Neutral Zone, fearing that it reflects growing Romulan activity in the region. Investigating, the "Enterprise" crew encounter a Romulan spaceship; it is stated that this is the first encounter between the two peoples for 53 years. The Romulans reveal that they have had colonies destroyed on their side of the border too, and the two species agree to share information on the issue in future. In later episodes it is revealed that these colonies were destroyed by a previously unknown species, the Borg, whom the show's writers had devised as a new alien antagonist following dissatisfaction with their previous attempt, the Ferengi. Initial thoughts by the script-writers had proposed a multi-episode storyline in which the Federation and Romulan governments would co-operate to fight the Borg; ultimately only certain elements of this idea entered "The Neutral Zone" and the Borg would be introduced not in the first season, but in the second-season episode "Q Who".  New costumes were designed for the actors playing Romulans, created by the show's costume designer William Theiss. The newly designed Romulan ship that appeared in "The Neutral Zone" was built as a miniature model by Greg Jein. The ship featured a newly designed Romulan crest, featuring a stylised bird of prey clutching two planets, Romulus and Remus, in its claws. Later in the series, this ship type would be explicitly referred to as a "warbird". In 1989, AMT released a plastic kit of the vessel, alongside other kits for a Ferengi ship and a Klingon bird of prey vessel.  The Romulans were re-used for the second-season episode "", written by Steve Gerber and Beth Woods and first aired in March 1989. In this episode, the "Enterprise"-D entered the Neutral Zone to answer a distress call and ends up in conflict with a Romulan vessel, with both spaceships being disabled by an alien computer virus. "Contagion" was the first episode in the "Star Trek" franchise in which the Romulan ship was given a name, in this case the Haakona. In the third-season episode "", written by David Kemper and Michael Piller and first screened in November 1989, the "Enterprise"-D is depicted rescuing a crashed Romulan ship. The episode introduced the Romulan character Tomalak, played by Andreas Katsulas, who would reappear in three further "Next Generation" episodes. It also further established the idea of a significant enmity between the Romulans and the Klingons, with the "Enterprise"'s Klingon officer, Worf (Michael Dorn), refusing to donate blood to save the life of an injured Romulan; the scriptwriters had debated whether to include this, with Dorn initially reticent.  Three episodes later, in "", written by Ronald D. Moore and first screened in January 1990, a Romulan admiral is presented as seeking to defect to the Federation. The episode is the first in the franchise to include images of Romulus itself and introduced the design of a Romulan scout vessel. "The Defector" also includes a reference to the Battle of Cheron, an incident in the 22nd century Earth-Romulan War that was previously mentioned in "Balance of Terror".

"Deep Space Nine" and "Voyager".

For "", the opening two-part episode of the third season of "", a Romulan link was introduced. The episode, which was written by Ira Steven Behr, Robert Hewitt Wolfe, and Ronald D. Moore, featured the introduction of a new Starfleet ship, the USS "Defiant"; the scriptwriters included the idea that it had been equipped with a cloaking device by the Romulans in return for intelligence that the Federation gathered on another alien power, the Dominion. A Romulan character, T'Rul (Martha Hackett), was included to oversee the device's use aboard the "Defiant". The show's writers had initially planned on including T'Rul as a permanent fixture on the show but decided that she did not offer enough potential for new storylines.  The Romulans were reused later that season in "", where they are presented as attempting to destroy the Deep Space Nine space station as part of their plan to collapse the nearby wormhole and thus prevent a Dominion invasion of the Alpha Quadrant, the region of space where both the Federation and Romulans reside. Three episodes later, the follow-on episodes "Improbable Cause" and "" again featured the Romulans, in this case portraying a joint mission by the Romulan Tal Shiar and Cardassian Obsidian Order to fatally cripple the Dominion by eradicating its leaders, the Founders. For these episodes, new Tal Shiar outfits were designed; Moore related that this was partly his decision, for he "hated, underline hated, the Romulan costumes [introduced in the first season of "The Next Generation"]. Big shoulder pads, the quilting, I just loathed it." Costume designer Robert Blackman noted that his team created eight new Romulan uniforms, using the same fabric as the old ones but "dyed it down slightly, and we made them much sleeker and a little more menacing".

Reboot: 2009–present.

After "Star Trek: Nemesis" proved a financial failure and "Star Trek: Enterprise" was cancelled, the franchise's executive producer Rick Berman and screenwriter Erik Jendresen began developing a new film entitled "Star Trek: The Beginning", which was to be set during the 22nd century Earth–Romulan War. The project never materialised. Instead, the decision was made to reboot the series by creating a film using the characters of the original "Star Trek" series but played by new actors. Putting together a script for the new film, the director J. J. Abrams stated that he wanted Romulans to be the antagonists because they had featured less than the Klingons in the original "Star Trek" series. The film's writers, Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman, thought that it would feel backward to demonize the Klingons as villains again after they had been presented heroically in later "Star Trek" series; they also wanted to use Spock as a central character in the film and believed that the Romulan presence would continue Spock's story from his last chronological appearance in "".  In the reboot film, titled "Star Trek" and released in 2009, the planet Romulus is destroyed by a supernova in the year 2387. A Romulan mining ship, the "Narada", survives and travels back in time to the 23rd century; its commander, Nero (Eric Bana), is committed to destroying the planet Vulcan to punish Spock for failing to save Romulus. The actors playing Romulans in this film wore three prosthetics applied to their ears and foreheads, while Bana had a fourth prosthetic for the bitemark on his ear that extends to the back of his character's head. The film's Romulans lacked the 'V'-shaped ridges on the foreheads, which had been present in all of their depictions outside the original series. Neville Page wanted to honor that by having Nero's crew ritually scar themselves too, forming keloids reminiscent of the 'V'-ridges. It was abandoned as they did not pursue the idea enough.  "" centers around Picard's reaction to the destruction of Romulus. The series begins with Picard in self-imposed exile at his French vineyard following his resignation in protest to Starfleet's handling of Romulans and androids. Picard has two live-in Romulans at his estate. At least two groups of Romulans survived: one group formed the Romulan Free State, while the other group was evacuated to the planet of Vashti.

Other media.

The Romulans have been the focus of a number of non-canon books, and have appeared or been mentioned in other non-canon media. Among their key appearances have been:

The Romulans () are a fictional extraterrestrial race in the American science fiction franchise "Star Trek". They first appeared in the series "" (1966–1969). They have appeared in most subsequent "Star Trek" releases, including: "", "", "", "", "" and "". They have also appeared in the "Star Trek" feature films "" (1989), "" (1991), "" (2002) and "Star Trek" (2009). They also appear in various other spin-off media, including books, comics, toys and games.

Romulané jsou humanoidní mimozemský druh ze seriálu Star Trek. Vyznačují se vášnivostí a vychytralostí. Často bývají považování za zrádné, ale je důležité si uvědomit, že to platí pouze ve vztahu k jiným rasám - podle svých měřítek jsou Romulané loajální a čestní a velmi si na tom zakládají.