Band history.

Early years and "Big Top Halloween" (1986-1988).

Greg Dulli (vocals, rhythm guitar), Rick McCollum (lead guitar), John Curley (bass), and Steve Earle (drums) formed the band in Cincinnati late in 1986. The Afghan Whigs had evolved out of Dulli's previous band, The Black Republicans, a band that Curley later joined. Curley would introduce Dulli to McCollum, a frequent jam partner who was famed on the local Cincinnati scene for his innovative use of effects pedals. McCollum and Dulli would bond over their shared love of R&B, and in fact the first song The Afghan Whigs ever rehearsed was a cover of The Temptations' "Psychedelic Shack". Dulli later described the intent behind The Afghan Whigs was to exist as "a cross between the Band, the Temptations, and Neil Young playing with Crazy Horse."  In the wake of The Black Republicans' breakup, Dulli had decamped to Arizona, where he composed half the material for what would become Afghan Whigs' debut album "Big Top Halloween" (1988), self-released on the band's own Ultrasuede label. "We were running through what were basically the first songs I'd ever written in order to do some demos, so we were playing really loose," Dulli recalls. "And then all of a sudden, I found out John was having covers made." While only a thousand copies of Big Top Halloween would be pressed initially, one of them managed to capture the attention of Jonathan Poneman, the co-founder of influential Seattle-based indie label Sub Pop, which signed Afghan Whigs in 1989. Initially, Sub Pop planned for the Whigs to only release a one-off single, but that soon led to a full-blown record contract with the label.

Signing to Sub Pop and "Up in It" (1989–1990).

Upon signing to Sub Pop, The Afghan Whigs became the second non-Northwestern U.S. band to record for the Sub Pop label. In 1990, Sub Pop put out Afghan Whigs' second album "Up in It": largely recorded by Nirvana producer Jack Endino and featuring the college-radio hit "Retarded," Up in It received a favorable reception with music critics upon release.  To support the album's release, Afghan Whigs went on a package tour with grunge originators Mudhoney and Boston underground band Bullet LaVolta Up in It was followed by a limited edition single released by No.6 Records under the name 'Ornament' which included vocals by Scrawl singer Marcy Mays (who would later contribute lead vocals to future Afghan Whigs' song "My Curse" off the album Gentlemen).

"Congregation" and "Uptown Avondale" (1992).

With the 1992 album "Congregation" and a covers EP, "Uptown Avondale", the band intentionally evolved what would become their signature sound, blending soul with psychedelic sprawl and punk abandon. Critics noted the combination of Stax and Motown influences with indie-rock sonics on the band's own material. Uptown Avondale featured covers of hits by soul acts such as The Supremes.  Videos for notable Congregation songs like "Conjure Me" and "Turn on the Water" would receive airplay on MTV, which began to regularly cover The Afghan Whigs as a new band to watch. Afghan Whigs would also tour extensively during this period, including a U.S. jaunt with Scottish indie rockers Teenage Fanclub.

Signing to Elektra and "Gentlemen" (1993).

Building on the buzz that welcomed "Congregation", The Afghan Whigs soon signed to a major label, Elektra Records, following a bidding war that resulted in a contract so lucrative, it featured a clause that allowed for the funding of a Dulli-scripted feature film that ultimately was never made. For their major label debut, The Afghan Whigs ensconced themselves in Ardent Studios in Memphis, where Big Star, Bob Dylan, Led Zeppelin, and ZZ Top had recorded. The result of those sessions was the 1993 album "Gentlemen".  "Gentlemen" received positive reviews from the likes of Rolling Stone. Critics would go on to praise it for its unflinching, self-flagellating lyrics, and a decisive stylistic break with the grunge style epitomized by Nirvana and Mudhoney. "Gentlemen" would place at No. 17 on The Village Voice's "Pazz & Jop" critic's poll for 1993.  "Gentlemen" proved to be The Afghan Whigs' most commercially successful release. The singles "Debonair" (a Modern Rock Top 20 hit) and "Gentlemen" received regular airplay on MTV and college radio; another album track, "Fountain and Fairfax," also appeared on the television series My So-Called Life in 1994. The lead vocals on "My Curse" were sung not by Dulli, but by singer Marcy Mays of Scrawl – allegedly because the lyrics documenting the violent dissolution of a relationship were so personal, Dulli couldn't sing it.

"Black Love" era (1996).

Following the promotion of "Gentlemen", The Afghan Whigs further expanded into the public eye. In 1996, Dulli served as executive producer for the soundtrack for the Ted Demme film "Beautiful Girls". The Afghan Whigs appeared in the film as a bar band, and contributed two songs to the soundtrack: Frederick Knight's "Be For Real" and Barry White's "Can't Get Enough of Your Love, Babe". Dulli also was the only musician other than Dave Grohl to appear on the debut album from Foo Fighters.  Eventually work began on Afghan Whigs' fifth full-length album, which would be called "Black Love" upon its release in 1996. The band started writing demos in March 1995; the recording took place in both Seattle and Memphis-based studios, and featured new drummer Paul Buchignani, who had replaced Steve Earle.  Although previous releases explored liquor-drenched obsession, secrets and misery, Black Love stepped into a darker, seedier and complex side of Dulli's persona, passionately taking his obsession with murder and paranoia to their logical ends. Dulli himself noted that the songs had a conceptual framework that reflected the structure of a film, influenced by noir-influenced writer James Ellroy and violent neo-noir films like Blood Simple; other influences included pulp fiction novels, Kenneth Anger's Hollywood Babylon, and the crime photographs of Weegee. Other lyrical inspirations included the troubled life of Temptations singer David Ruffin for the song "Blame, Etc."; album opener "Crime Scene Part One," was allegedly influenced by the story of then-unproduced screenplay for the film The Million Dollar Hotel.  Commercially, Black Love peaked at No. 79 on The Billboard Top 200 chart. The album also received critical praise for capturing the power of the Whigs' live show in a studio recording; its lush yet funky musicality garnered comparisons to the Rolling Stones in their 1970s-era prime and standing out once again from the day's more conventional alternative rock. in its distinctive embrace of black-music idioms. The Whigs promoted Black Love with extensive touring, including a jaunt of large venues opening for a Neil Young tour that also featured Jewel.

Legal dispute with Elektra and signing to Sony/Columbia for "1965" (1998).

In the wake of Black Love's commercial disappointment, The Afghan Whigs said they suffered neglect and dishonest business dealings with their label, Elektra, and eventually the two parted ways, with the Whigs signing to Columbia Records for their next album, "1965". The unamicable parting would cause Dulli to be treated for depression, providing subject matter for songs like "Neglekted," which had originally been named "Sylvia" as a swipe against then-Elektra head Sylvia Rhone, that was featured on the band's next full-length effort.  "1965" – named after the year both Dulli and Curley were born – was recorded in New Orleans at Daniel Lanois' famed studio after a year's hiatus, during which Dulli began another project known as The Twilight Singers. Influenced again by film noir, as well as the urban wordplay of rappers like Nas, "1965" received positive reviews in the press, praising in particular the band's continued flair for blending soul styles with rock. In addition to their own headlining dates, Afghan Whigs went on tour with Aerosmith as the classic-rock group's opening act. During the live dates for "1965", Dulli got in an altercation with a stagehand following an Austin, Texas concert date and suffered a head injury that left him in a coma; two months after Dulli's recovery, however, the group returned to the road.

Break up (2001).

In 2001, The Afghan Whigs broke up by circulating a press release announcement which was picked up by the major music press: in it, the band claimed their geographic disparity and family obligations of its core made it impossible for them to create new material together. In further interviews, Dulli clarified that theirs was an amicable split, and didn't necessarily represent an "official breakup."

Reunion (2011–present).

In 2006, The Afghan Whigs temporarily reunited. The lineup recorded two new tracks ("I'm A Soldier" and "Magazine") featured on their retrospective titled, released on June 5, 2007, through Rhino Records, which critics noted rated on a par with the band's material released during its prime.  The band would not reform again until December 7, 2011, when a press release from the promoters of All Tomorrow's Parties announced that The Afghan Whigs would reunite and play at their I'll Be Your Mirror events on May 27, 2012 in London, followed by an appearance at Asbury Park, New Jersey on September 22, 2012. A week later it was announced that the band would also be performing at both Primavera Sound festivals in 2012. In April of that year, it was also revealed that the revitalized Afghan Whigs would be playing the 2012 edition of Lollapalooza. Dulli clarified in interviews that playing Afghan Whigs with Curley on a 2010 solo tour and meeting with McCollum anew during that period directly led to the possibility of reforming for live performance.  On May 22, 2012, the reunited Afghan Whigs (minus Steve Earle – drummer) made their debut performance first on "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon", playing one new song, the soul cover "See and Don't See," and old favorite "I'm Her Slave" from Congregation. The reunited Whigs played their first full concert the next night at Manhattan venue The Bowery Ballroom, receiving critical accolades from the major media. "Regardless of how the surprising reunion of the Afghan Whigs turns out, their show last night at the Bowery Ballroom will go down as the '90s alt-rock heroes' greatest concert ever," Glenn Gamboa wrote in Newsday; meanwhile, Steve Kandell noted in a SPIN review that "their first show together since then, at New York's Bowery Ballroom last night, felt less like an easy nostalgia trip than a reminder of problems we, perhaps selectively, forgot we ever had....Leader Greg Dulli was leaner, meaner, fitter, and in better voice at 47 than even during the band's heyday... From the opening strains of "Crime Scene, Part One," all the old drama and menace and hurt feelings and failings were right there, palpable and visceral, all couched in the equally palpable sense of relief that none of us are that fucked up anymore." The Afghan Whigs' first new recording released during the 2012 reformation, "See and Don't See," has also received considerable airplay on influential stations such as Sirius XMU, KEXP, XPN, and KCRW since its release. On July 16, the band released their second new recording, a cover of Frank Ocean's "Lovecrimes." Like the previous release, the song was made available as a free download from the band's website.  In 2013 at SXSW, The Afghan Whigs headlined The FADER FORT and played a collaborative set with surprise guest Usher. John Curly claims that moment solidified the possibility that the band would record together again and that following their SXSW performance they began compiling ideas for new material.  On January 27, 2014, the band's official mailing list announced an April release date for the first album of new Afghan Whigs material in 16 years, a return to the Sub Pop roster titled "Do to the Beast".  On February 18, 2014, the band announced that Rick McCollum was no longer a member of the group. Guitar parts on "Do to the Beast" were performed by numerous musicians including Dave Rosser, Jon Skibic and Mark McGuire amongst others.  The band added drummer Patrick Keeler of The Raconteurs and The Greenhornes in 2014.  The band released their eighth album, "In Spades", on May 5, 2017.  Guitarist Dave Rosser, a band member since 2014 who played on both of their reunion albums, died on June 28, 2017 following a long battle with colon cancer.

Legacy.

The influence of The Afghan Whigs has been noted on a number of musicians spanning genres and formats, including The National, The Gaslight Anthem, The Horrible Crowes, Interpol, The Hold Steady, My Chemical Romance and Jimmy Eat World. Also, Italian indie-rock band Afterhours, who extensively toured the US between 2006 and 2011, under the auspice of Greg Dulli, cites Afghan Whigs as their influence.  On June 23, 2009 an Afghan Whigs tribute album was released, featuring contributions from Mark Lanegan, Joseph Arthur, and 11 other artists influenced by the band.

Lyrical themes.

Since the band's formation, certain themes have been noted as developing Dulli's songwriting for The Afghan Whigs and beyond – in particular, his mixing of black humor with topics such as drug addiction, sexual deviancy and suicidal thoughts, which often seem more personal and provocative due to their frequent embrace of the first person. Many notable Afghan Whigs' songs are rooted in exploring power battles in romantic relationships. "Gentlemen" in particular has been cited for its frank and uncomfortable exploration of masculine tropes and expectations, including elements of sadomasochism and alienation. "Black Love" meanwhile, contains lyrics about revenge and honesty.  Dulli's songs with Afghan Whigs also betray a fascination with and sympathy for the anti-hero, which he attributed to an influential conversation with his grandfather during childhood: "I remember as a kid watching a cowboys-and-Indians movie and I was rooting for the cowboys... My grandfather asked me why, and I said, `Because they're the good guys.' And my grandfather explained to me that the Indians were fighting for their land and that the cowboys were trying to steal it from them. Then he said something to me that I never forgot, which was, `Good people aren't good all the time and bad people aren't bad all the time.' I've been exploring that gray area ever since, the idea that saints can fall and sinners can transcend."

Covers.

The Afghan Whigs are known for their cover songs as well as their original material – in particular, freely reinterpreted songs from the soul music and R&B canon that they were exposed to in their youth. The Afghan Whigs have never restricted their choices in covers by genre, however: even from their earliest concerts, they have been known to cover songs like The Rolling Stones' "Cocksucker Blues" and Neil Young's "Like A Hurricane", as well as tracks made famous by The Supremes, Prince, PJ Harvey, The Fugees, and TLC. Congregation includes a version of "The Temple" from the soundtrack of Jesus Christ Superstar and were also known to perform Pink Floyd's album The Wall in its entirety. The Afghan Whigs' most recent recording was a cover of a rare 1970 soul song by Marie "Queenie" Lyons, "See and Don't See," although the band continues to explore contemporary material as well, such as "Love Crimes" by current R&B iconoclast Frank Ocean, which was debuted on the band's 2012 reunion tour.

Discography.

Studio albums

The Afghan Whigs are an American rock band from Cincinnati, Ohio, United States. Originally active from 1986 to 2001, they have since reformed. The group – with core members Greg Dulli (vocals, rhythm guitar), Rick McCollum (lead guitar), and John Curley (bass) – rose up around the grunge movement, evolving from a garage band in the vein of the Replacements to incorporate more R&B and soul influences into their sound and image. After releasing their first album independently in 1988, the band signed to the Seattle-based label Sub Pop. They released their major-label debut and fourth album, "Gentlemen", in 1993. "Pitchfork" described them as "one of the few alt-bands to flourish on a major label" in the 1990s.

The Afghan Whigs (česky: "Afgánští chrti") jsou americká rocková hudební skupina, která vznikla ve městě Cincinnati (stát Ohio, USA). Byla aktivní v letech 1986 – 2001, avšak v roce 2011 ohlásila obnovení činnosti. Klíčovými členy byli - a opět jsou - zpěvák a kytarista Greg Dulli, sólový kytarista Rick McCollum a John Curley (basová kytara). Mezi bubeníky se vystřídali např. Steve Earle či Michael Horrigan. Na svém vrcholu byli Afghan Whigs jednou z vůdčích kapel alternativního rocku 90. let. Stali se známými v době rozkvětu grunge rocku, ale časem se z něho vymanili. Ze skupiny hrající garážový punk rock, ve stylu kapel The Replacements, Dinosaur Jr. nebo Mudhoney, se vyvinuli v post punkovou, soulem ovlivněnou kapelu, aby se nakonec stali jednou z nejoceňovanějších skupin alternativního rocku začátku 90.let. Byli také jedněmi z prvních interpretů pocházejících z amerického indie-rockového undergroundu, kterým se dostalo podpory velkého vydavatelství.


Attempt to create a jurisdictional Patriarchate in the Spanish West Indies.

King Ferdinand V of Castile asked Pope Leo X to establish a patriarchate for the ecclesiastical government of the American territories discovered by the Spaniards. The Holy See was not keen to accept the establishment of such an autonomous Spanish American church and, on 11 May 1524, Clement VII agreed to create it but only as honorific, without jurisdiction and without clergy. In addition, the Patriarch was banned from actually residing in the Americas. Antonio de Rojas, archbishop of Granada and bishop of Palencia, was the first patriarch. The following patriarchs were the bishop of Jaén Esteban Gabriel Merino (1530–1535) and the archbishop of Granada Fernando Niño de Guevara (not the homonymous cardinal) (1546–1552). After the Niño de Guevara's death, the office remained vacant because Philip II, against the Holy See policy, wished an actual jurisdictional Patriarchate. Finally, the king agreed in 1591 to propose the archbishop of Mexico City (but who was actually resident in Madrid as President of the Council of the Indies) Pedro Moya de Contreras. However, the new patriarch died before he could take the oath of his new office. In 1602, Philip III abandoned the idea of a jurisdictional Patriarchate and used it as an honorific title for noble clergymen.

Merge with the Spanish Military Vicariate.

In 1705, Pope Clement XI named Patriarch Carlos de Borja Centellas the Military Vicar (General) of the Spanish Armies. Beginning in 1736, Pope Clement XII merged the office of Vicar General of the Spanish Armies with the Patriarchate of the West Indies "pro tempore et ad septennium", that is, "temporarily for seven years", and added to those titles the Royal Palace's Chaplaincy in 1741. Clement XIII decreed the merger of the Patriarchate and the Military Vicariate in 1762.

Last incumbent and current status.

In 1933, Patriarch Ramón Pérez Rodríguez was appointed Bishop of Cádiz and Ceuta. The previous year, the Republican Government had abolished the Military Vicariate. Thus, the Patriarchate remained vacant. During the Civil War, the Nationalists organized a religious military service and the Holy See appointed Cardinal Isidro Gomá, Archbishop of Toledo, as interim Pontifical Delegate. In 1940, Gomá died and the auxiliary bishop Gregorio Modrego was commissioned with the deceased cardinal's military duties. In 1942, Modrego was appointed bishop of Barcelona. During all that time, the Patriarchate remained vacant. In 1946, the Bishop of Madrid Leopoldo Eijo y Garay was appointed Patriarch of the West Indies, but without the Military Ordinariate, which was established once more as a military archbishopric in 1950, this time without any association with the patriarch's title. Since Eijo's death, this titular patriarchate has remained vacant and is not considered likely to be filled.

The Titular Patriarchate of the West Indies () is a Latin Rite titular patriarchate of the Roman Catholic Church. It is vacant since the death of its last holder in 1963.

Patriarcha Západní Indie (latinsky "Patriarchatus Indiarum Occidentalium") byl čestný titul patriarchy v rámci římskokatolické církve. Španělský král Ferdinand II. Aragonský požádal papeže Lva X. o vytvoření patriarchátu pro církevní správu území v Americe, objevené Španělskem. Svatý stolec nebyl ochoten vytvořit autonomní americkou církev a papež Klement VII. v roce 1524 souhlasil s vytvořením patriarchátu jako čestného titulu, bez pravomocí a kněží, s tím, že patriarcha Západní Indie nesmí sídlit v Americe.


Biography.

Early life.

Luns was born in a Roman Catholic, francophile and artistic family. His mother's family originated from Alsace-Lorraine but had moved to Belgium after the annexation of the region by the German Empire in 1871. His father, Huib Luns, was a versatile artist and a gifted educationalist who ended his career as professor of architectural drawing at the Delft University of Technology. Luns received his secondary education in Amsterdam and Brussels. He opted to become a commissioned officer of the Dutch Royal Navy but registered too late to be selected. Therefore, Luns decided to study law at Amsterdam University from 1932 to 1937.  Like his father, Luns demonstrated a preference for conservative and authoritarian political parties and an interest in international politics. As a young student he positioned himself on the political right, favouring a strong authority for the state and being of the opinion that socialism, because of its idealistic ideology, had fostered the rise of fascism and nazism. Luns joined the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands (NSB) in 1933 and left three years later but when questioned about it in later years, never admitted that it might have been "a youthful misjudgment".  His choice for a diplomatic career was inspired by his father. He joined the Dutch Diplomatic Service in 1938 and, after a two-year assignment at the Private Office of the Foreign Minister, was appointed as attaché in Bern (Switzerland) in 1940. In late 1941, he moved to Lisbon, Portugal. In both countries, he was involved in assistance to Dutch refugees, political espionage and counterintelligence. In 1943, he was transferred to the Dutch embassy in London. Ambassador Edgar Michiels van Verduynen discovered Luns's great affinity for the political element in international affairs and entrusted him with important files on Germany, which Luns handled with great skill.  In 1949, Luns was appointed as deputy Dutch permanent representative to the United Nations. He worked closely with his new chief, Von Balluseck, a political appointee without diplomatic experience. After the Netherlands became a member of the Security Council, he temporarily chaired the Disarmament Commission. Luns was sceptical of the importance of the United Nations for international peace, believing it at times to be more like a forum for propaganda than a centre for solving international conflicts. Still, he thought that it was worthwhile to keep the UN in shape because it was the sole international organisation which offered opportunities for discussions between all states.

Minister of Foreign Affairs (1952–1971).

Because of the tenacity of the Dutch Catholic People's Party to occupy the Foreign Ministry after the 1952 elections, Luns entered Dutch politics as the favourite of its political leader Carl Romme. His co-minister was Johan Beyen, an international banker not affiliated to any political party but the protégé of Queen Juliana. The two ministers had a completely different style of operating and clashed repeatedly on policy even before the end of 1952. However, they accommodated and avoided future conflicts by a very strict division of labour. Luns was responsible for bilateral relations, Benelux and international organisations. After the 1956 elections, Beyen left office and Luns stayed as Foreign Minister until 1971 in both centre-left and centre-right governments. Bilateral relations with Indonesia and the Federal Republic of Germany, security policy and European integration were the most important issues during his tenure. Atlantic co-operation was a fundamental aspect of Luns's foreign policy, and Dutch foreign policy in general. Luns believed that Western Europe could not survive the Cold War without American nuclear security and so he promoted strong and intensified political and military co-operation in NATO. Luns accepted American leadership of NATO as such but expected better co-operation between the United States States and its allies since, he thought that the United States too often acted independently of its allies, particularly in decolonisation issues. Luns could also be critical of US foreign policy, and, in bilateral relations, he defended Dutch national interests strongly and expected American support in the bilateral difficulties with Indonesia.  In 1952 Luns expected to improve relations with Indonesia without transferring the disputed area of West New Guinea to the former colony. By 1956, however, this policy had proved ineffectual, but Luns and the Dutch government were still determined not to transfer West New Guinea to the Republic of Indonesia. When, in 1960, it became obvious that allied support for this policy, particularly from the United States, was waning, Luns tried to find an intermediate solution by transferring the administration of the territory to the United Nations, but that attempt to keep West New Guinea out of Indonesian hands failed as well. After difficult negotiations, the area was finally transferred to the Republic of Indonesia in 1963 after a short interim administration of the UN. Despite his personal anger over this outcome, which was considered a personal defeat by Luns, the foreign minister still worked to restore relations with Indonesia in the aftermath of the West New Guinea problem.  Luns was more successful in the normalisation of the bilateral relations with West Germany. Luns shared Dutch public opinion in demanding that Germany recognise the damage it had caused during the Second World War, and so a "mea culpa" required. He demanded that before any negotiations on other bilateral disputes could start, the amount of damages to be paid to Dutch war victims had to be agreed upon. During the final stages of the negotiations on bilateral disputes between the two countries, Luns decided to come to an arrangement with his German colleague on his own accord. He made concessions and so the Dutch parliament threatened not to ratify the agreement. With the full support of the government however, Luns was able to overcome the crisis.  European integration was permanently on Luns's political agenda. Beyen had introduced the concept of the European Economic Community. In March 1957, Luns signed the Treaties of Rome establishing the EEC and Euratom. Although he preferred integration of a wider group of European states he accepted the treaty and defended the supranational structure it was based on. The endeavours of French president Charles de Gaulle to subordinate the institutions of the Six to an intergovernmental political structure, could count on strong opposition from Luns: such plans would, in his view, serve only French ambitions of a Europe independent of the United States.  Initially, Luns stood alone and was afraid that Franco-German co-operation would result in anti-Atlantic and anti-American policies that harmed the interests of the West. He made British membership of the European institutions conditional for his political co-operation. Gradually his views on Gaullist foreign policies were shared by the other EEC members and they joined Luns in his objections. Two of De Gaulle's decisions stiffened the opposition: his denial of EEC membership to the United Kingdom in January 1963 and France's retreat from the integrated military structure of NATO in 1966. Luns played a vital role in the negotiations unwinding French participation and continuing its political membership of the Alliance. By then, Luns had internationally established his reputation as an able and reliable negotiator and was seen as an important asset in London and Washington. After the retreat of De Gaulle in 1968, the EEC Summit of The Hague, in December 1969, ended the long crisis of the EEC integration process, opened the way to British membership and agreed on new venues for political co-operation, a common market and monetary union.  Throughout his years as Dutch foreign minister, Luns had gained an international status uncommon for a foreign minister of a small country. He owed this to his personal style in which duress, a high level of information, political leniency and diplomatic skills were combined with wit, gallant conversation and the understanding that diplomacy was a permanent process of negotiations in which a victory should never be celebrated too exuberantly at the cost of the loser.

NATO Secretary-General (1971–1984).

In 1971, Luns was appointed as NATO Secretary-General. At the time of his appointment, public protests against American policies in Vietnam were vehement throughout Western Europe and among European politicians the credibility of the American nuclear protection was in doubt. Though there were initial doubts about his skills for the job he soon proved that he was capable of managing the alliance in crisis. He regarded himself as the spokesman of the alliance and he aimed at balancing the security and political interests of the alliance as a whole.  Luns was in favour of negotiating with the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact members on the reduction of armaments if the Western defence was kept in shape during such negotiations. European members of NATO, according to Luns, should understand that the United States carried international responsibilities while the latter should understand that in-depth consultation with the European governments was conditional to forging a united front on the international stage, which could be accepted and endorsed by all members of NATO.  US-Soviet negotiations on mutual troop reductions and the strategic nuclear arsenal caused severe tensions. Luns convinced American leaders that it undermined the credibility in Western Europe of their nuclear strategy by neglecting European fears of a change of strategy which would leave Europe unprotected in case of a Soviet nuclear attack. The modernisation of the tactical nuclear forces by the introduction of the neutron bomb and cruise missiles caused deep divisions. In the end, Luns succeeded in keeping NATO together in the so-called Double-Track Decision of December 1979. The deployment of these new weapon systems was linked to success in American-Soviet arms reduction talks.  It was also the duty of the Secretary-General to mediate in cause of conflicts within the alliance. He was successful in the conflict between Great Britain and Iceland, the so-called Second Cod War not by pressuring the Icelandic government to end its aggressive behaviour against British trawlers but by convincing the British government that it had to take the first step by calling back its destroyers to open the way to negotiations. Luns failed however in the conflict between Greece and Turkey over the territorial boundaries and Cyprus. Lack of co-operation on both sides made Luns unable to mediate or advise on procedures to find a way out.  Between 1964 and 1984 he participated in every annual conference of the Bilderberg Group.

Late life.

Luns retired as Secretary-General in 1984, staying in office for a full 13 years. Because of the changes the 1960s and 1970s had brought to Dutch society and culture, the strongly conservative Luns decided not to return to his home country but instead settled in Brussels to spend his remaining years in retirement. Luns died at 90.

Honours and awards.

Luns was awarded many high-ranking awards during his lifetime, among them the Grand Cross of the Légion d'Honneur in 1954, Member of Order of the Companions of Honour by Queen Elizabeth II in 1971 and the Presidential Medal of Freedom by then President Ronald Reagan in 1984. In his home country, he was awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion, the highest civil decoration of the Netherlands, in 1953.

Personal life.

Luns married Baroness Lia van Heemstra, who was a niece of Baroness Ella van Heemstra, the mother of actress Audrey Hepburn. The Lunses had two children − a son and a daughter.  He remained a practising Catholic throughout his life and was generally sympathetic to the traditionalist Catholic position but never affiliated himself with dissident groups. Luns visited the Tridentine Mass held by the Assumptionist priest Winand Kotte, who opposed the modernising policies of the Second Vatican Council, in the Saint Wilibrord Church of Utrecht in August 1971. This seems to have been something of a misunderstanding on Luns' part however, since he had never heard of Kotte's anti-Council movement and did not wish to be affiliated with it.  An avid stamp collector, his favourite reading material included classical literature, history books (Luns was an expert on the history of the Napoleonic era) and detective novels. Because of his interests in international navies, the latest edition of "Jane's Fighting Ships" was always within his reach in his office.

Joseph Marie Antoine Hubert Luns (28 August 1911 – 17 July 2002) was a Dutch politician and diplomat of the defunct Catholic People's Party (KVP) now merged into the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) party and jurist. He served as Secretary General of NATO from 1 October 1971 until 25 June 1984.

Joseph Luns (28. srpna 1911 Rotterdam – 17. července 2002 Brusel) byl nizozemský křesťanskodemokratický politik. Byl ministrem zahraničí Nizozemska v letech 1952–1971, tedy 19 let, což je historický rekord. V letech 1971–1984 byl generálním tajemníkem NATO.


Early and personal life.

On January 6, 1987, Zhang was born in Haidian Deistrict, Beijing City. He is the second son to his parents Zhang Zhongquan (张仲泉) and Zhang Fenglan (张凤兰). He has an elder brother Zhang Cong (张琮) who is five years his senior. Both of his parents are employed by a property management company.  Zhang began swimming at the age of seven. In 2000, he decided to be a professional swimmer. His swimming idol is Australian Grant Hackett.  Zhang is an alumnus of Beijing 101 Middle School. Since 2016, Zhang has been studying in Beijing Sport University.

Swimming.

Career.

Zhang specialized in the 200 m, 400 m, 800 m and 1500 m freestyle events. Zhang was selected for the national team in 2002.  At the 2003 World Aquatics Championships, he was the only Chinese male swimmer to reach the individual finals, finishing in eighth place. In 2005, he broke China's 400 freestyle record at the National Games, and was crowned 200 and 1,500 freestyle champion.  Zhang Lin won a silver medal in the men's 400 meter freestyle at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing with a time of 3:42.44, 0.58 seconds behind gold medalist South Korean Park Tae-hwan, and making him at the time the third fastest 400 meter freestyler in history (and setting a Chinese Record in the process). Zhang's silver was the first Olympic swimming medal ever by a Chinese male swimmer.  At 2009 World Aquatics Championships in Rome, Zhang won a bronze medal in the men's 400 meter freestyle and a gold medal in the men's 800 meter freestyle (7:32.12); this was a world record and a first by a Chinese male in a world swimming competition in the past 73 years, and was also the penultimate men's swimming world record achieved in the high-tech slick-suit The high-tech slick-suits were immediately banned thereafter from official-sanctioned major competition use under new FINA regulations after the 2009 World Championships. Zhang was named "2009 Pacific Rim Male Swimmer of the Year" by ’‘Swimming World Magazine’‘, it's also the first Chinese male swimmer to win this award.  Zhang was coached by Zhang Yadong and Chen Yinghong. He was also coached by Australian Denis Cotterell since late 2007, who was the former coach of distance champion Grant Hackett. In the fall of 2011, he trained with Dave Salo at the Trojan Swim Club for a 52-day training camp.  In 2010, Zhang found that he suffered a rare kind of asthma, and it led his decline. He missed the 2012 Summer Olympics.  Zhang announced his retirement around 2013. He sometimes attends some sport activities.

Rivalry.

Zhang's greatest rivals were countryman Sun Yang and Korean Park Tae-hwan. They competed in many top-class competitions, including the Olympic Games, FINA World Championships and Asian Games. All three are regarded as the greatest Asian male swimmers in history; they set many Asian swimming milestones. Zhang is the first Chinese male swimmer to become world champion, to win an Olympic medal and to hold a world record. They have also become friends outside the pool.

Zhang Lin (; born January 6, 1987) is a retired Chinese competitive male swimmer. He is an Olympic silver medalist, world champion, and the current world-record holder in the 800 metre freestyle.

Čang Lin (narozen 6. ledna 1987) je čínský plavec a světový rekordman, který se specializuje na střední až dlouhé disciplíny ve volném způsobu.


Recording.

Recorded in his hometown of Belfast, the album was described as containing ten new original songs although "Close Enough for Jazz" had featured as an instrumental on his 1993 release "Too Long In Exile". The album was recorded live at the studio and features a six piece band of musicians, with Morrison on vocals, piano, guitar and alto-saxophone.

Composition.

One of the album's themes and some of the songs reflect on the current worldwide financial crisis. Morrison has spoken out that he felt the need to comment on what he perceives as "the worldwide preoccupation with money, materialism, income equality, and the greed that has poisoned society" while further remarking: "I’m not proselytizing, it’s not some kind of manifesto. Songs are just ideas, concepts, and you just put the mic there and go."

Single.

Single "Open the Door (To Your Heart)" was released by EMI on 24 September 2012. It featured as the Record of the Week on BBC Radio 2 during the week commencing 25 August 2012.  The "Daily Nebraskan" described the song as beginning "the album with a jaunty rhythm of bass, oscillating tones of an organ and an electric guitar accentuating the off-beats. The tempo is much slower but for those fans more intimately familiar with Morrison’s catalog of songs, it feels oddly similar to “Wild Night,” which appeared on his 1971 album “Tupelo Honey.” Casting off the wildness of youth, this easy-paced speed more fully exposes the intricate dialog between the instruments; not only on this song but throughout the album."

Pre release.

Blue Note's president Don Was, who oversaw the release, argued that the album features "great, really incisive songwriting. It's a cool record." Was commented that Blue Note Records was "incredibly honored" that Morrison had chosen the label, referring to him as "one of the greatest singer/songwriter/musicians of all time".  In an interview with John Bennett in the "Belfast Telegraph", Morrison described his meaning of the title as: "Well it’s all about doing what you’re meant to do and no frills, like Mose Allison said about me, if you want to look it up, ‘There's no smoke or mirrors, there’s no lights. It is what you get.' That’s basically what you get. I’m not a tap dancing act. It’s just singing."

Critical reception.

David Fricke with "Rolling Stone" gave the album four out of five stars calling it a "vividly irritated, vocally compelling record". Fricke concluded: "At 67, on his 35th studio album, Morrison feels like an endangered species, surrounded by jive and crooks, with nothing to fall back on but his sinuous growl – like gravel rolling through velvet – and scatting hallelujahs."  A four out of five star review by Thom Jurek with Allmusic described the music: "Employing his trademark Celtic soul, the album also showcases incursions into jazz and blues and sometimes all three within the same tune."  Stephen Graham with Jazzwise gave the album four out of five stars and wrote: "On this, his first studio album since "Keep it Simple", this time recorded unusually in his home town of Belfast, Morrison has come up with the goods once again after the commercial and critical success of "Keep It Simple" and the huge interest shown when he followed it by releasing a live album based on his great 1960s masterpiece, "Astral Weeks"." Previously in August 2012, journalist Mike Flynn wrote an early review of the unreleased album in "Jazzwise" commenting that "initial listens suggest it’s his strongest album for some time" and that the album "finds Morrison emphatically moving back into jazz territory, and has resulted in a wonderfully laconic, live-in-the-studio atmosphere. Yet the laidback feel is counterbalanced with some of his most acerbic, politically charged and socially conscious lyrics to date."  A reviewer in the "Belfast Telegraph" rated the album with four out of five stars and called it "effortless, cool and classy" and commented that "when Plan A is this good, there's no reason to look any further".  "The Guardian"'s Dave Simpson reviewed the album and gave it four out of five stars. In his review of the album he wrote: "His 35th solo studio album is his jazziest: the warm brass and catchy, sweet melodies recall 1970's "Moondance". But the music's velvet glove delivers some of his hardest-hitting lyrics." A review in "The Observer" again rated the album four out of five stars and found "Morrison's voice remains peerless. A keeper, a goodie."  The album received a four star rating in musicOMH and reviewer John Murphy commented on the band being "particularly wonderful, with a muted trumpet and double bass making for memorable solos." He concluded that the album "will probably be an acquired taste for some (the jazzy backing may put some off, as may Morrison's tendency to incessantly repeat lines and start scatting every so often), but it's yet another example of his sometimes erratic genius." Another four star rating was given the album by "The Independent"'s reviewer Andy Gill who called it "Van Morrison's best album in some while" and "a set of songs that, despite the relaxed tone of their jazz-blues settings, foam with indignation about the venality of capitalist adventurism." The album was also reviewed with a four star rating in "The New Zealand Herald" where it was referred to as "Another worthwhile late-career high from Van" by reviewer Graham Reid.  Jason Heller with "The A.V. Club" gave the album a C+ rating noting "His voice remains in sturdy form, all rumble and husk, and his once sinuous cadence feels wizened, not weakened, by the occasional arthritic crick" and that ending songs of the album, one of which the critic found "cynical" and another "exhausted R&B", but wrote it was salvaged by "solid, serviceable, latter-day Morrison material." Uncut gave the album 7 out 10 stars with reviewer, Graeme Thomson concluding that the album "remains a vibrant and timely reaffirmation of Morrison’s talents. It is not the transcendent album some may have read in the runes, but it contains several hints that such greatness may, finally, be within his grasp once more."  Tony Clayton with "Irish Times" gave the new album three out of five stars commenting that "While lyrically he ruminates on financial crises and (once again) the pressures of being Van the Man, musically it’s all jazzy breezes (Going Down to Monte Carlo) and leisurely blues (Pagan Heart). Nothing new then, but the same-old same-old somehow sounds fresher. Life in the old dog yet." Brandon Stewart with 612 ABC Brisbane praised the album and commented: "The sound is warm and immediately familiar, as Van and his road band swing through the freshest set of songs we’ve heard from Morrison in some years."  Colm O Hare of "Hot Press" writes that the new album "is chock-full of that newfound energy, lyrically and musically..." and that it "harks back to his ‘70s heyday". He concludes with "With superb accompaniment from a stellar band, the performances and arrangements on Born To Sing: Plan B are close to perfection. His best album since 1995’s Days Like This."

Born to Sing: No Plan B is the 34th studio album recorded by Northern Irish singer/songwriter Van Morrison. It was released on 2 October 2012 on Blue Note Records. Produced by Van Morrison, it marked his first studio album of original songs since 2008's "Keep It Simple".

Born to Sing: No Plan B je 34. studiové album irského písničkáře Van Morrisona. Album vyšlo 2. října 2012 kdy vyjde u Blue Note Records. U tohoto vydavatelství již Morrison vydal své album "What's Wrong with This Picture?" z roku 2003. Nahrávání alba probíhalo v Belfastu. Jde o jeho první studiovou desku od roku 2008, kdy vyšlo album "Keep It Simple".


Naming.

Egyptians generally call their vernacular "Arabic" (, ) when juxtaposed with non-Arabic languages; "Colloquial Egyptian" (, ) or simply "'Aamiyya" (, "colloquial") when juxtaposed with Standard Arabic and the Egyptian dialect (, ) or simply Masri (,, "Egyptian") when juxtaposed with other vernacular Arabic dialects. Sometimes it is also called Modern Egyptian language (, ).  The term Egyptian Arabic is usually used synonymously with ""Cairene Arabic"", which is technically a dialect of Egyptian Arabic. The country's native name, "Maṣr", is often used locally to refer to Cairo itself. As is the case with Parisian French, Cairene Arabic is by far the most prevalent dialect in the country.

Geographic distribution.

The total number of Egyptian Arabic users in all countries is over 51 million, 49 million of whom are native speakers in Egypt, including several regional dialects. In addition, there are immigrant Egyptian communities in the Middle East, Europe, North America, Latin America, Australia and South East Asia. Among the spoken varieties of Arabic, Standard Egyptian Arabic (based on the dialect of the Egyptian capital) is the only one to have become a lingua franca in other parts of the Arabic-speaking world for two main reasons: the proliferation and popularity of Egyptian films and other media in the region since the early 20th century as well as the great number of Egyptian teachers and professors who were instrumental in setting up the education systems of various countries in the Arabian Peninsula and also taught there and in other countries such as Algeria and Libya. Also, many Lebanese artists choose to sing in Egyptian and Lebanese. Standard Egyptian Arabic when used in documents, broadcast media, prepared speeches and sometimes in liturgical purpose, is Cairene Arabic with loanwords from Modern Standard Arabic origin or code-switching between Cairene Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic.

History.

Arabic was spoken in parts of Egypt such as the Eastern Desert and Sinai before Islam. However, Nile Valley Egyptians slowly adopted Arabic as a written language following the Muslim conquest of Egypt in the seventh century. Until then, they had spoken either Koine Greek or Egyptian in its Coptic form. A period of Coptic-Arabic bilingualism in Lower Egypt lasted for more than three centuries. The period would last much longer in the south. Arabic had been already familiar to Valley Egyptians since Arabic had been spoken throughout the Eastern Desert and Sinai. Arabic was also a minority language of some residents of the Nile Valley such as Qift in Upper Egypt through pre-Islamic trade with Nabateans in the Sinai Peninsula and the easternmost part of the Nile Delta. Egyptian Arabic seems to have begun taking shape in Fustat, the first Islamic capital of Egypt, now part of Cairo.  One of the earliest linguistic sketches of Cairene Arabic is a 16th-century document entitled "" (, "The Removal of the Burden from the Language of the People of Cairo") by Yusuf al-Maghribi (). With Misr here meaning Cairo. It contains key information on early Cairene Arabic and the language situation in Egypt in the Middle Ages. The main purpose of the document was to show that while the Cairenes' vernacular contained many critical "errors" vis-à-vis Classical Arabic, according to al-Maghribi, it was also related to Arabic in other respects. With many waves of immigration from the Arabian peninsula such as the Banu Hilal exodus, together with the ongoing Islamization and Arabization of the country, multiple Arabic varieties, one of which is Egyptian Arabic, slowly supplanted spoken Coptic. Local chroniclers mention the continued use of Coptic as a spoken language until the 17th century by peasant women in Upper Egypt. Coptic is still the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.

Status.

Egyptian Arabic has no official status and is not officially recognized as a language. Standard Arabic is the official language of Egypt. Interest in the local vernacular began in the 1800s (in opposition to the language of the ruling class, Turkish), as the Egyptian national movement for self-determination was taking shape. For many decades to follow, questions about the reform and the modernization of Arabic were hotly debated in Egyptian intellectual circles. Proposals ranged from developing neologisms to replace archaic terminology in Modern Standard Arabic to the simplification of syntactical and morphological rules and the introduction of colloquialisms to even complete "Egyptianization" ("tamṣīr") by abandoning the so-called Modern Standard Arabic in favor of Masri or Egyptian Arabic.  Proponents of language reform in Egypt included Qasim Amin, who also wrote the first Egyptian feminist treatise, former President of the Egyptian University, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, and noted intellectual Salama Moussa. They adopted a modernist, secular approach and disagreed with the assumption that Arabic was an immutable language because of its association with the Qur'an. The first modern Egyptian novel in which the dialogue was written in the vernacular was Muhammad Husayn Haykal's "Zaynab" in 1913. It was inly in 1966 that Mustafa Musharafa's "Kantara Who Disbelieved" was released, the first novel to be written entirely in Egyptian Arabic. Other notable novelists, such as Ihsan Abdel Quddous and Yusuf Idris, and poets, such as Salah Jahin, Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi and Ahmed Fouad Negm, helped solidify vernacular literature as a distinct literary genre.  Amongst certain groups within Egypt's elite, Egyptian Arabic enjoyed a brief period of rich literary output. That dwindled with the rise of Egyptian Arab nationalism, which had gained wide popularity in Egypt by the final years of the Muhammad Ali dynasty, as demonstrated vividly by Egypt's involvement in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War under King Farouk of Egypt. The Egyptian revolution of 1952, led by Mohammed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser, further enhanced the significance of Arab nationalism, making it a central element of Egyptian state policy. The importance of Modern Standard Arabic was reemphasised in the public sphere by the revolutionary government, and efforts to accord any formal language status to the Egyptian vernacular were ignored. Egyptian Arabic was identified as a mere dialect, one that was not spoken even in all of Egypt, as almost all of Upper Egypt speaks Sa'idi Arabic. Though the revolutionary government heavily sponsored the use of the Egyptian vernacular in films, plays, television programmes, and music, the prerevolutionary use of Modern Standard Arabic in official publications was retained.  Linguistic commentators have noted the multi-faceted approach of the Egyptian revolutionaries towards the Arabic language. Whereas Egypt's first president, Mohammed Naguib exhibited a preference for using Modern Standard Arabic in his public speeches, his successor, Gamal Abdel Nasser was renowned for using the vernacular and for punctuating his speeches with traditional Egyptian words and expressions. Conversely, Modern Standard Arabic was the norm for state news outlets, including newspapers, magazines, television, and radio. That was especially true of Egypt's national broadcasting company, the Arab Radio and Television Union, which was established with the intent of providing content for the entire Arab world, not merely Egypt, hence the need to broadcast in the standard, rather than the vernacular, language. The Voice of the Arabs radio station, in particular, had an audience from across the region, and the use of anything other than Modern Standard Arabic was viewed as eminently incongruous.  As the status of Egyptian Arabic as opposed to Classical Arabic can have such political and religious implications in Egypt, the question of whether Egyptian Arabic should be considered a "dialect" or "language" can be a source of debate. In sociolinguistics, Egyptian Arabic can be seen as one of many distinct varieties that, despite arguably being languages on "abstand" grounds, are united by a common "dachsprache" in Modern Standard Arabic (MSA).

Publications.

During the early 1900s many portions of the Bible were published in Egyptian Arabic. These were published by the Nile Mission Press. By 1932 the whole New Testament and some books of the Old Testament had been published in Egyptian Arabic in Arabic script.

Spoken varieties.

Sa‘īdi Arabic is a different variety than Egyptian Arabic in Ethnologue.com and ISO 639-3 and in other sources, and the two varieties have limited mutual intelligibility. It carries little prestige nationally but continues to be widely spoken, with 19,000,000 speakers.  The traditional division between Upper and Lower Egypt and their respective differences go back to ancient times. Egyptians today commonly call the people of the north'() and those of the south'(). The differences throughout Egypt, however, are more wide-ranging and do not neatly correspond to the simple division. The language shifts from the eastern to the western parts of the Nile Delta, and the varieties spoken from Giza to Minya are further grouped into a Middle Egypt cluster. Despite the differences, there are features distinguishing all the Egyptian Arabic varieties of the Nile Valley from any other varieties of Arabic. Such features include reduction of long vowels in open and unstressed syllables, the postposition of demonstratives and interrogatives, the modal meaning of the imperfect and the integration of the participle.  The Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic variety of the western desert differs from all other Arabic varieties in Egypt in that it linguistically is part of Maghrebi Arabic. Northwest Arabian Arabic is also distinct from Egyptian Arabic.

Regional variation.

Egyptian Arabic varies regionally across its "sprachraum", with certain characteristics being noted as typical of the speech of certain regions.

Alexandria.

The dialect of Alexandria (West Delta) is noted for certain shibboleths separating its speech from that of Cairo (South Delta). The ones that are most frequently noted in popular discourse are the use of the word "falafel" as opposed to "ṭa`meyya" for the fava-bean fritters common across the country and the pronunciation of the word for the Egyptian pound as, rather than the Cairene (closer to the pronunciation of the origin of the term, the British guinea). The speech of the older Alexandrian families is also noted for use of the first-person plural even when they speak in the singular.

Port Said.

Port Said's dialect (East Delta) is noted for a "heavier", more guttural sound, compared to other regions of the country.

Phonology.

Egyptian Arabic has a phonology that differs slightly from that of other varieties of Arabic and has its own inventory of consonants and vowels.

Morphology.

Nouns.

In contrast to CA and MSA, nouns are not inflected for case and lack nunation (with the exception of certain fixed phrases in the accusative case, such as, "thank you"). As all nouns take their pausal forms, singular words and broken plurals simply lose their case endings. In sound plurals and dual forms, where, in MSA, difference in case is present even in pausal forms, the genitive/accusative form is the one preserved. Fixed expressions in the construct state beginning in "abu", often geographic names, retain their "-u" in all cases.

Color/defect nouns.

A common set of nouns referring to colors, as well as a number of nouns referring to physical defects of various sorts ("ʔaṣlaʕ" "bald"; "ʔaṭṛaʃ" "deaf"; "ʔaxṛas" "dumb"), take a special inflectional pattern, as shown in the table. Note that only a small number of common colors inflect this way: "ʔaḥmaṛ" "red"; "ʔazraʔ" "blue"; "ʔaxḍaṛ" "green"; "ʔaṣfaṛ" "yellow"; "ʔabyaḍ" "white"; "ʔiswid" "black"; "ʔasmaṛ" "brown-skinned, brunette"; "ʔaʃʔaṛ" "blond(e)". The remaining colors are invariable, and mostly so-called "nisba" adjectives derived from colored objects: "bunni" "brown" (< "bunn" "coffee powder"); "ṛamaadi" "gray" (< "ṛamaad" "ashes"); "banafsigi" "purple" (< "banafsig" "violet"); "burtuʔaani" "orange" (< "burtuʔaan" "oranges"); "zibiibi" "maroon" (< "zibiib" "raisins"); etc., or of foreign origin: "beeع" "beige" from the French; "bamba" "pink" from Turkish "pembe".

Pronouns.

Egyptian Arabic object pronouns are clitics, in that they attach to the end of a noun, verb, or preposition, with the result forming a single phonological word rather than separate words. Clitics can be attached to the following types of words:  With verbs, indirect object clitic pronouns can be formed using the preposition "li-" plus a clitic. Both direct and indirect object clitic pronouns can be attached to a single verb: "agíib" "I bring", "agíb-hu" "I bring it", "agib-húu-lik" "I bring it to you", "m-agib-hu-lkíi-ʃ" "I do not bring it to you".

Verbs.

Verbs in Arabic are based on a stem made up of three or four consonants. The set of consonants communicates the basic meaning of a verb. Changes to the vowels in between the consonants, along with prefixes and/or suffixes, specify grammatical functions such as tense, person, and number, in addition to changes in the meaning of the verb that embody grammatical concepts such as causative, intensive, passive or reflexive.  Each particular lexical verb is specified by two stems, one used for the past tense and one used for non-past tenses along with as subjunctive and imperative moods. To the former stem, suffixes are added to mark the verb for person, number, and gender, while to the latter stem, a combination of prefixes and suffixes are added. (Very approximately, the prefixes specify the person and the suffixes indicate number and gender.) The third person masculine singular past tense form serves as the "dictionary form" used to identify a verb, similar to the infinitive in English (Arabic has no infinitive). For example, the verb meaning "write" is often specified as "kátab", which actually means "he wrote". In the paradigms below, a verb will be specified as "kátab/yíktib" (where "kátab" means "he wrote" and "yíktib" means "he writes"), indicating the past stem ("katab-") and non-past stem ("-ktib-", obtained by removing the prefix "yi-").  The verb classes in Arabic are formed along two axes. One axis (described as "form I", "form II", etc.) is used to specify grammatical concepts such as causative, intensive, passive, or reflexive, and involves varying the stem form. For example, from the root K-T-B "write" is derived form I kátab/yíktib "write", form II káttib/yikáttib "cause to write", form III ká:tib/yiká:tib "correspond", etc. The other axis is determined by the particular consonants making up the root. For example, defective verbs have a W or Y as the last root consonant, which is often reflected in paradigms with an extra final vowel in the stem (e.g. ráma/yírmi "throw" from R-M-Y); meanwhile, hollow verbs have a W or Y as the middle root consonant, and the stems of such verbs appear to have only two consonants (e.g. gá:b/yigí:b "bring" from G-Y-B).

Strong verbs.

Strong verbs are those that have no "weakness" (e.g. W or Y) in the root consonants. Each verb has a given vowel pattern for Past (a or i) and Present (a or i or u). Combinations of each exist.

Regular verbs, form I.

Form I verbs have a given vowel pattern for past (a or i) and present (a, i or u). Combinations of each exist:

Regular verb, form I, fáʕal/yífʕil.

Example: kátab/yíktib "write"  Note that, in general, the present indicative is formed from the subjunctive by the addition of "bi-" ("bi-a-" is elided to "ba-"). Similarly, the future is formed from the subjunctive by the addition of "ḥa-" ("ḥa-a-" is elided to "ḥa-"). The "i" in "bi-" or in the following prefix will be deleted according to the regular rules of vowel syncope:  Example: kátab/yíktib "write": non-finite forms

Regular verb, form I, fíʕil/yífʕal.

Example: fíhim/yífham "understand"  Boldfaced forms fíhm-it and fíhm-u differ from the corresponding forms of katab (kátab-it and kátab-u due to vowel syncope). Note also the syncope in ána fhím-t "I understood".

Regular verb, form II, fáʕʕil/yifáʕʕil.

Example: dárris/yidárris "teach"  Boldfaced forms indicate the primary differences from the corresponding forms of katab:

Regular verb, form III, fá:ʕil/yifá:ʕil.

Example: sá:fir/yisá:fir "travel"  The primary differences from the corresponding forms of darris (shown in boldface) are:

Defective verbs.

Defective verbs have a W or Y as the last root consonant.

Defective verb, form I, fáʕa/yífʕi.

Example: ráma/yírmi "throw away" (i.e. trash, etc.)  The primary differences from the corresponding forms of katab (shown in boldface) are:

Defective verb, form I, fíʕi/yífʕa.

Example: nísi/yínsa "forget"  This verb type is quite similar to the defective verb type ráma/yírmi. The primary differences are:  Note that some other verbs have different stem variations, e.g. míʃi/yímʃi "walk" (with "i" in both stems) and báʔa/yíbʔa "become, remain" (with "a" in both stems). The verb láʔa/yilá:ʔi "find" is unusual in having a mixture of a form I past and form III present (note also the variations líʔi/yílʔa and láʔa/yílʔa).  Verbs other than form I have consistent stem vowels. All such verbs have "a" in the past (hence form stems with "-é:-", not "-í:-"). Forms V, VI, X and IIq have "a" in the present (indicated by boldface below); others have "i"; forms VII, VIIt, and VIII have "i" in both vowels of the stem (indicated by italics below); form IX verbs, including "defective" verbs, behave as regular doubled verbs:

Hollow verbs.

Hollow have a W or Y as the middle root consonant. Note that for some forms (e.g. form II and form III), hollow verbs are conjugated as strong verbs (e.g. form II "ʕáyyin/yiʕáyyin" "appoint" from ʕ-Y-N, form III "gá:wib/yigá:wib" "answer" from G-W-B).

Hollow verb, form I, fá:l/yifí:l.

Example: gá:b/yigí:b "bring"  This verb works much like dárris/yidárris "teach". Like all verbs whose stem begins with a single consonant, the prefixes differ in the following way from those of regular and defective form I verbs:  In addition, the past tense has two stems: gíb- before consonant-initial suffixes (first and second person) and gá:b- elsewhere (third person).

Hollow verb, form I, fá:l/yifú:l.

Example: ʃá:f/yiʃú:f "see"  This verb class is identical to verbs such as gá:b/yigí:b except in having stem vowel "u" in place of "i".

Doubled verbs.

Doubled verbs have the same consonant as middle and last root consonant, e.g. ḥább/yiḥíbb "love" from Ḥ-B-B.

Doubled verb, form I, fáʕʕ/yifíʕʕ.

Example: ḥább/yiḥíbb "love"  This verb works much like gá:b/yigí:b "bring". Like that class, it has two stems in the past, which are ḥabbé:- before consonant-initial suffixes (first and second person) and ḥább- elsewhere (third person). Note that "é:-" was borrowed from the defective verbs; the Classical Arabic equivalent form would be *ḥabáb-, e.g. *ḥabáb-t.  Other verbs have "u" or "a" in the present stem: baṣṣ/yibúṣṣ "to look", ṣaḥḥ/yiṣáḥḥ "be right, be proper".  As for the other forms:

Assimilated verbs.

Assimilated verbs have W or Y as the first root consonant. Most of these verbs have been regularized in Egyptian Arabic, e.g. wázan/yíwzin "to weigh" or wíṣíl/yíwṣal "to arrive". Only a couple of irregular verbs remain, e.g. wíʔif/yúʔaf "stop" and wíʔiʕ/yúʔaʕ "fall" (see below).

Doubly weak verbs.

"Doubly weak" verbs have more than one "weakness", typically a W or Y as both the second and third consonants. This term is in fact a misnomer, as such verbs actually behave as normal defective verbs (e.g. káwa/yíkwi "iron (clothes)" from K-W-Y, ʔáwwa/yiʔáwwi "strengthen" from ʔ-W-Y, dá:wa/yidá:wi "treat, cure" from D-W-Y).

Irregular verbs.

The irregular verbs are as follows:  Example: gé/yí:gi "come": non-finite forms

Table of verb forms.

In this section all verb classes and their corresponding stems are listed, excluding the small number of irregular verbs described above. Verb roots are indicated schematically using capital letters to stand for consonants in the root: Hence, the root F-M-L stands for all three-consonant roots, and F-S-T-L stands for all four-consonant roots. (Traditional Arabic grammar uses F-ʕ-L and F-ʕ-L-L, respectively, but the system used here appears in a number of grammars of spoken Arabic dialects and is probably less confusing for English speakers, since the forms are easier to pronounce than those involving "ʕ".)  The following table lists the prefixes and suffixes to be added to mark tense, person, number and gender, and the stem form to which they are added. The forms involving a vowel-initial suffix, and corresponding stem or, are highlighted in silver. The forms involving a consonant-initial suffix, and corresponding stem, are highlighted in gold. The forms involving a no suffix, and corresponding stem or, are unhighlighted.  The following table lists the verb classes along with the form of the past and non-past stems, active and passive participles, and verbal noun, in addition to an example verb for each class.  Notes:

Negation.

One characteristic of Egyptian syntax which it shares with other North African varieties as well as some southern Levantine dialect areas is in the two-part negative verbal circumfix  The structure can end in a consonant or in a vowel, varying according to the individual or region. The fuller ending is considered rural, and nowadays Cairene speakers usually use the shorter. However, was more common in the past, as attested in old films.  The negative circumfix often surrounds the entire verbal composite including direct and indirect object pronouns: However, verbs in the future tense typically instead use the prefix /miʃ/: Interrogative sentences can be formed by adding the negation clitic "(miʃ)" before the verb: Addition of the circumfix can cause complex changes to the verbal cluster, due to the application of the rules of vowel syncope, shortening, lengthening, insertion and elision described above:  In addition, certain other morphological changes occur:

Syntax.

In contrast with Classical Arabic, but much like the other varieties of Arabic, Egyptian Arabic prefers subject–verb–object (SVO) word order; CA and to a lesser extent MSA prefer verb–subject–object (VSO). For example, in MSA "Adel read the book" would be'whereas EA would say '.  Also in common with other Arabic varieties is the loss of unique agreement in the dual form: while the dual remains productive to some degree in nouns, dual nouns are analyzed as plural for the purpose of agreement with verbs, demonstratives, and adjectives. Thus "These two Syrian professors are walking to the university" in MSA (in an SVO sentence for ease of comparison) would be "" "", which becomes in EA "" ",".  Unlike most other forms of Arabic, however, Egyptian prefers final placement of question words in interrogative sentences. This is a feature characteristic of the Coptic substratum of Egyptian Arabic.

Coptic substratum.

Egyptian Arabic appears to have retained a significant Coptic substratum in its lexicon, phonology, and syntax. Coptic is the latest stage of the indigenous Egyptian language spoken until the mid-17th century when it was finally completely supplanted among Egyptian Muslims and a majority of Copts by the Egyptian Arabic. Some features that Egyptian Arabic shares with the original ancient Egyptian language include certain prefix and suffix verbal conjugations, certain emphatic and glottalized consonants, as well as a large number of biliteral and triliteral lexical correspondences.  Two syntactic features that are particular to Egyptian Arabic inherited from Coptic are:  Also since Coptic, like other North African languages, lacked interdental consonants it could possibly have influenced the manifestation of their occurrences in Classical Arabic as their dental counterparts and the emphatic dental respectively. (see consonants)

Sociolinguistic features.

Egyptian Arabic is used in most social situations, with Modern Standard and Classical Arabic generally being used only in writing and in highly-religious and/or formal situations. However, within Egyptian Arabic, there is a wide range of variation. El-Said Badawi identifies three distinct levels of Egyptian Arabic based chiefly on the quantity of non-Arabic lexical items in the vocabulary: "ʿĀmmiyyat al-Musaqqafīn" (Cultured Colloquial or Formal Spoken Arabic), "ʿĀmmiyyat al-Mutanawwirīn" (Enlightened or Literate Colloquial), and "ʿĀmmiyyat al-'Ummiyīn" (Illiterate Colloquial). Cultured Colloquial/Formal Spoken Arabic is characteristic of the educated classes and is the language of discussion of high-level subjects, but it is still Egyptian Arabic; it is characterized by use of technical terms imported from foreign languages and MSA and closer attention to the pronunciation of certain letters (particularly "qāf"). It is relatively standardized and, being closer to the standard, it is understood fairly well across the Arab world. On the opposite end of the spectrum, Illiterate Colloquial, common to rural areas and to working-class neighborhoods in the cities, has an almost-exclusively Arabic vocabulary; the few loanwords generally are very old borrowings (e.g. ', "shrimp", from Italian "gamberi", "shrimp" (pl.)) or refer to technological items that find no or poor equivalents in Arabic (e.g. ', television). Enlightened Colloquial ("ʿĀmmiyyat al-Mutanawwirīn") is the language of those who have had some schooling and are relatively affluent; loanwords tend to refer to items of popular culture, consumer products, and fashions. It is also understood widely in the Arab world, as it is the "lingua franca" of Egyptian cinema and television.  In contrast to MSA and most other varieties of Arabic, Egyptian Arabic has a form of the T-V distinction. In the singular, "enta"/"enti" is acceptable in most situations, but to address clear social superiors (e.g. older persons, superiors at work, certain government officials), the form "", meaning "Your Grace" is preferred (compare Spanish "usted").  This use of "" is linked to the system of honorifics in daily Egyptian speech. The honorific taken by a given person is determined by their relationship to the speaker and their occupation.  Other honorifics also exist.  In usage, honorifics are used in the second and third person.

Study.

Egyptian Arabic has been a subject of study by scholars and laypersons in the past and the present for many reasons, including personal interest, egyptomania, business, news reporting, and diplomatic and political interactions. Egyptian Colloquial Arabic (ECA) is now a field of study in both graduate and undergraduate levels in many higher education institutions and universities in the world. When added to academic instruction, Arabic -language schools and university programs provide Egyptian Arabic courses in a classroom fashion, and others facilitate classes for online study.

Sample text.

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights  Egyptian/Masri (Arabic script; spelling not standardised):  Franco/Arabic Chat Alphabet (has no strict standard):  el e3lan el 3alami le 72u2 el ensan, el band el awalani  el bani2admin kollohom mawlodin 7orrin we metsawyin fel karama wel 7o2u2. Etwahablohom el 3a2l wel damir, wel mafrud ye3amlo ba3dihom be ro7 el akhaweya. IPA Phonemic transcription (for comparison with Literary Arabic):  IPA phonemic transcription (for a general demonstration of Egyptian phonology):  IPA phonetic transcription morphologically (in fast speech, long vowels are half-long or without distinctive length):  A suggested alphabet:  El-Eɛlan el-Ɛalami le Ḥoquq el-Ensan, el-band el-awwalani:  El-bani'admin kollohom mawludin ḥorrin we metsawyin fek-karama wel-ḥoquq. Etwahablohom el-ɛaql weḍ-ḍamir, wel-mafruḍ yeɛamlo baɛḍihom be roḥ el-axaweyya. English:  Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights  All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in the spirit of brotherhood.

Egyptian Arabic, locally known as Colloquial Egyptian (, pronounced: ) or simply Masri (), is the spoken vernacular Arabic dialect of Egypt.

Egyptská arabština (مصرى, "masrí)" je hovorový dialekt (nebo skupina dialektů) arabštiny, který se vyvinul na území Egypta. Ve svých počátcích byl ovlivněn koptštinou. Od spisovné arabštiny se liší ve fonologii, slovní zásobě, morfologii i syntaxi. Příkladem fonologického rysu je realizace hlásky ج, která se ve spisovné arabštině čte "dž," v egyptské "g," v některých dalších dialektech pak třeba "ž:" např. „hora“ se spisovně řekne "džabal," egyptsky "gebel" a marocky "žbel."


Biography.

Early life.

Vujcic was born on 20 July 1960 in the eastern Serbian city of Požarevac to father Jefrem and mother Nadežda and it was in Požarevac that he completed his elementary education. In 1975, Vujcic enrolled in the Požarevac Gymnasium. That same year, he won the Zmaj Award (awarded annually by the Association of Writers of Serbia for the book of the year) for his collection of poetry titled "Pesnik i pesma" and the award was presented to him by Desanka Maksimović. In late 1977, he visited Canada and the United States for the first time where he met one of his literary influences Charles Bukowski. Vujcic then read and presented his poetry with Bukowski on tour for fourteen days. Vujcic completed his "matura" and graduated from the Požarevac Gymnasium in 1979. In the early 1980s, he was the leader of the Požarevac section of the Grobari, the supporters group of Partizan Belgrade. In 1983, Vujcic wrote a book of poetry titled "Razmišljanja jednog leša" which was banned by the Communist government in Yugoslavia by court order in 1983. In 1984, Vujcic was imprisoned in Tuzla for seven days (for his writing and criticizing of Yugoslavia's communist regime) where he wrote his second book of poetry titled "Kastriranje vetra" which was also banned by the Communist government.

Canada.

In January 1987, Vujcic moved to Canada. Upon arrival in Canada, he helped raise funds for the construction of the Church of Saint Sava in Belgrade and the Živojin Mišić monument in Mionica. On 28 June 1989, Vujcic helped organize ceremonies throughout Canada commemorating the 600th anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo. The "Canada Gazette" wrote about Vujcic and his beginnings in Canada in a 1989 edition. In 1992, he founded the United Serbs FC soccer club for which he and Mike Stojanovic played (as a child, Vujcic played soccer in the youth categories of FK Železničar Požarevac). During this period, Vujcic was a contributor to Serbian magazine "Pogledi". In 1999, he was one of the organizers of the Toronto-based demonstrations against the bombing of Yugoslavia. In terms of the Serbian diaspora, the demonstrations lasted all 78 days only in Toronto.  Vujcic is a member of the Association of Writers of Serbia, the Royal Canadian Legion, the Canadian Association of Journalists, the Serbian Literary Guild, the Association of Writers of Republika Srpska and the US-based International Association of Writers. In 2007, the International Association of Writers named him a Poetry Ambassador of the United States. He is also an honourable member of the Desanka Maksimović Serbian Canadian Association. Vujcic is featured in the book "Moždana veza sa Srbijom, 100 dragulja srpskog rasejanja" ("Brain Connection with Serbia, 100 Jewels of the Serbian Diaspora)" by Radivoje Petrović, PhD. The book features the "one hundred most-known Serbs throughout the world-wide Serbian diaspora." He was also featured on the cover of the Ministry of Diaspora of the Republic of Serbia book called "U čast pisaca iz rasejanja / In honour of writers in the diaspora" in which literary critics Miodrag Perišić and Čedomir Mirković said that "Vujcic is one of the most significant living Serbian poets and dissidents."  He is the founder of the Urban Book Circle, based in Canada.

Personal life.

Vujcic has four children.

Prvoslav Vujcic (, ; born 20 July 1960) is a Canadian writer, poet, translator, columnist and aphorist of Serbian origin. He has been described as one of the most prominent writers of Serbian origin.

Prvoslav Vujčić, cyrilicí Првослав Вујчић (20. červenec 1960 Požarevac, Srbsko), je srbský prozaik, básník a esejista. Většinu svých děl psal v srbštině v ekavském nářečí.


Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (5.6%) is water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 12,182 people, 3,921 households, and 3,164 families residing in the county. Zapata County is estimated to be the eleventh fastest growing county (+15.8%) in the state of Texas since the year 2000 (based on % of population change). The population density was 12 people per square mile (5/km2). There were 6,167 housing units at an average density of 6 per square mile (2/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 84.07% White, 0.41% Black or African American, 0.32% Native American, 0.19% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 12.64% from other races, and 2.33% from two or more races. 84.78% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 3,921 households out of which 43.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.20% were married couples living together, 13.00% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.30% were non-families. 17.50% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.10 and the average family size was 3.52.  In the county, the population was spread out with 33.00% under the age of 18, 10.00% from 18 to 24, 24.10% from 25 to 44, 18.60% from 45 to 64, and 14.30% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 96.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.70 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $24,635, and the median income for a family was $26,722. Males had a median income of $26,294 versus $14,579 for females. The per capita income for the county was $10,486. About 29.30% of families and 35.80% of the population were below the poverty line, including 46.10% of those under age 18 and 21.30% of those age 65 or over.

Government and politics.

Zapata County in most elections always overwhelmingly supported the Democratic Party. However, on three occasions, it gave record-setting margins to Republican Presidential nominees when it delivered the highest percentage of the vote of any county in the nation to them. First in 1896 when it gave 96.3% of the vote to William McKinley, though he lost Texas as a whole (30.8%), but won the national election. The second time in 1908, when it went 99.1% to William Howard Taft, despite losing the state to William Jennings Bryan with just 22.4%. The third and final time was in 1912 when it again gave incumbent President Taft 80.9%, but against the state and nation's preference for Democrat victor Woodrow Wilson (Taft only received 9.5% statewide). It last voted Republican for President (Warren Harding) in 1920, and has consistently voted Democrat for president since 1924.  In the November 4, 2008, general election Barack Obama defeated John McCain, the presidential winner in Texas, by 1,939 votes (67.7 percent) to 918 (32 percent). Incumbent President Obama again won in 2012 over Mitt Romney by 2,527 votes (71.3%) to 997 (28%), but lost the state overall.

Education.

All of Zapata County is a part of the Zapata County Independent School District.

Communities.

There are no incorporated areas in Zapata County and hence no municipal governments.

Zapata County is a county located in the U.S. state of Texas. As of the 2010 census, its population was 14,018. Its county seat is Zapata. The county is named for Colonel Jose Antonio de Zapata, a rancher in the area who rebelled against Mexico.

Zapata County je okres ve státě Texas v USA. K roku 2010 zde žilo 14 018 obyvatel. Správním městem okresu je Zapata. Celková rozloha okresu činí 2 740 km2.


Therapy.

Asthenopic (eye strain) symptoms in the eye are responsible for much of the severity in CVS. Proper rest to the eye and its muscles is recommended to relieve the associated eye strain. Observations from persons experiencing chronic eye strain have shown that most people who claim to be getting enough sleep are actually not. This, unaware to them, causes the eye strain to build up over a period of time, when if they had obtained seven to eight hours of uninterrupted sleep, their eye muscles would have recovered during the sleep and the strain would not have built up.  Computer workers are often advised to take breaks and look at distant objects. A routinely recommended approach is to consciously blink the eyes every now and then (this helps replenish the tear film) and to look out the window to a distant object or to the sky—doing so provides rest to the ciliary muscles. One of the catch phrases is the "20–20–20 rule": every 20 minutes, focus the eyes on an object 20 feet (6 meters) away for 20 seconds. This basically gives a convenient distance and timeframe for a person to follow the advice from the optometrist and ophthalmologist. Otherwise, the patient is advised to close their eyes (which has a similar effect) and relax the face and neck muscles for two minutes, at least every half-hour.  A number of computer and smartphone applications, such as f.lux, redshift and Night Shift adjust the computer video color temperature, reducing the amount of blue light emitted by the screen, particularly at night.  Dry eye is a symptom that is targeted in the therapy of CVS. The use of over-the-counter artificial-tear solutions can reduce the effects of dry eye in CVS. Prior to using artificial tear solutions, it is necessary to check if dry eye is the actual cause of the problem (measured by a tear meniscus test) or whether there are no actual symptoms of dry eye at all. Dry eyes because of CVS can also be treated using moisture chamber glasses or humidifier machines. Office spaces with artificially dry air can worsen CVS syndromes, in which case, a desktop or a room humidifier can help the eyes keep a healthy moisture level.  At night, CVS can become worse. It is recommended to use a dark user interface while working at night on the computer. Several browser and OS add-ons exist to darken the user interface.  When working on computer screens people tend to blink less which leads to the eyes drying out faster. Reminding people to blink or do blinking exercises is achieved via static reminders (such as eyeleo).  Real-time feedback based blink reminders (such as VisionProtect) actively measure the blinking rate of the user and notify the user via visual/audial alert. The effectiveness of real-time feedback based blink reminder systems is proven in a study by Osamu Fukushima and Masao Saito.  A 2017 randomized controlled trial evaluated macular carotenoid supplements (lutein, zeaxanthin, and mesozeaxanthin) in people with high screen time usage. The supplement group had statistically significant reduction in self-reported headache, eye strain, eye fatigue and sleep complaints, but no reduction in neck strain or blurry vision.

Eyeglasses.

Decreased focusing capability is mitigated by wearing a small plus-powered (+1.00 to +1.50) over-the-counter pair of eyeglasses. Wearing these eyeglasses helps such patients regain their ability to focus on near objects. People who are engaged in other occupations—such as tailors engaged in embroidery—can experience similar symptoms and can be helped by these glasses.  A Pacific University research study of 36 participants found significant differences in irritation or burning of the eyes, tearing, or watery eyes, dry eyes, and tired eyes, that were each improved by amber colored lenses versus placebo lenses, but in a follow-up study in 2008, the same team was not able to reproduce the results of the first study.  Competing research has shown blue light-filtering lenses decrease specific aspects of light emissions. Theoretical reductions in phototoxicity were 10.6% to 23.6%. Additionally, melatonin suppression was reduced by 5.8% to 15.0% and scotopic sensitivity by 2.4% to 9.6%. Over 70% of the participants in this testing were unable to detect these changes. The expansion of technology has led to more individuals utilizing computers and televisions which increase the overall exposure to blue light. This has opened up opportunities for companies such as Gunnar Optiks and Razer Inc. to create glasses focused on reducing the exposure to blue light.  Amber-tinted lenses have been shown to affect the circadian rhythm and treat delayed sleep phase disorder.

Prevalence.

According to the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, computer vision syndrome affects about 90% of the people who spend three hours or more a day at a computer. There has been much debate as to whether blue light is in fact dangerous and causes computer vision syndrome but accredited medical doctors including Dr Shelby Temple believe that blue light can in fact be more dangerous than ultraviolet light to the back of the eye.  Another study in Malaysia was conducted on 795 university students aged between 18 and 25. The students experienced headaches along with eyestrain, with 89.9% of the students surveyed feeling any type of symptom of CVS. Americans spend an average of 8 hours a day in front of a screen, whether that be a television screen, phone/tablet, or a computer screen. This has increased the prevalence of individuals affected by computer vision syndrome.

Computer vision syndrome (CVS) is a condition resulting from focusing the eyes on a computer or other display device for protracted, uninterrupted periods of time and the eye's muscles being unable to recover from the constant tension required to maintain focus on a close object. Some symptoms of CVS include headaches, blurred vision, neck pain, fatigue, eye strain, dry eyes, irritated eyes, double vision, vertigo/dizziness, polyopia, and difficulty refocusing the eyes. These symptoms can be further aggravated by improper lighting conditions (i.e. glare, strong blue-spectrum backlights, or bright overhead lighting) or air moving past the eyes (e.g. overhead vents, direct air from a fan).

Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS) neboli „syndrom počítačového vidění“ (také známý v ČR pod názvem „Syndrom z opakovaného přetížení“ nebo „syndrom unaveného oka“) je dočasný stav zraku, který vzniká jako důsledek dlouhodobého namáhání očí při práci na počítači. Příznaky se objevují v důsledku nadměrného napětí očních svalů a nepřirozeného držení těla při sezení u PC. Podle amerického Národního institutu pro bezpečnost a ochranu zdraví (National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health) se potýká se syndromem až 90 % lidí, kteří tráví u počítače alespoň tři hodiny denně.