Background.

The IJN's concept of submarine warfare was to use long-range submarines in squadrons ("sentai") to attack enemy units at extended ranges. These submarines would be coordinated by a cruiser, which would use reconnaissance aircraft to provide targeting information. Originally, it was intended that the s would be able to serve in this role, but proved unsatisfactory. By the late 1930s, the Japanese Navy had defined the need for seven cruisers to support its seven submarine squadrons. Funding for the first two vessels was approved under the 1939 4th Replenishment Program, of which only one, "Ōyodo", was begun. Construction of the second ship, intended to be named "Niyodo", was suspended on 6 November 1941 because "Ōyodo" still occupied her intended slipway and was finally cancelled on 3 August 1942.

Design and description.

"Ōyodo"s design was derived from that of the "Agano"s. "Ōyodo" retained the same general hull design with a flush deck and bulbous bow, but her superstructure and armament differed to suit her different role. "Ōyodo" had a length of overall, a beam of and a draft of. The ship displaced and had a metacentric height of at deep load. Her crew numbered 33 officers and 532 enlisted men as completed.  "Ōyodo" was powered by four geared steam turbine sets, each driving a single three-bladed propeller, using steam provided by six Kampon water-tube boilers that operated at a pressure of and a temperature of. The turbines were designed to produce for a speed of. The ship exceeded her designed speed during her sea trials reaching from. She stowed of fuel oil, which gave her a range of at. "Ōyodo" had three turbo generators of capacity and two diesel generators.

Armament and fire control.

The ship's main battery comprised six 50-caliber 155 mm (6.1 in) 3rd Year Type guns in two triple-gun turrets superfiring forward of the superstructure. The gun was originally developed as a dual-purpose (anti-surface and anti-aircraft) weapon for the ; when they had their triple 155 mm turrets replaced with twin 203 mm (8 in) turrets, the now-surplus turrets were mounted on "Ōyodo" (as well as the s). Their slow rate of fire of 5 rounds per minute and limited elevation (up to only 55 degrees) made them unsuitable for the anti-aircraft role. The guns fired shells at a muzzle velocity of to a maximum range of at +45 degrees of elevation. Each gun was provided with 150 rounds.  "Ōyodo"s heavy anti-aircraft battery consisted of eight 65-caliber 100 mm (3.9 in) Type 98 dual-purpose guns in four twin mounts. The mounts had a range of elevation from -10 degrees to +90 degrees and the guns had a muzzle velocity of with their projectiles. They had a range of and a height of at maximum elevation. The anti-aircraft armament was completed by eighteen 60-caliber Type 96 light AA guns in six triple mounts. Firing shells at a muzzle velocity of. These guns had an effective range of, and an effective ceiling of at an elevation of 85 degrees. The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the fifteen-round magazines.  The ship was equipped with a director-control tower above the bridge with a Type 94 gunnery director controlling the main armament. The director was fitted with a rangefinder and the upper gun turret mounted a rangefinder. The Type 98 10 cm guns were controlled by a pair of Type 94 directors positioned at the base of the bridge and the light AA guns were provided with three Type 95 directors, all on the forward superstructure.

Aircraft.

Like the heavy cruisers, the "Ōyodo"-class ships were intended to be scouting cruisers and hence the entire deck of the ship aft of the superstructure was devoted to aircraft facilities. The weight saved by not fitting torpedo tubes was invested instead in a hangar that could house four floatplanes, with two more stowed on deck, and a heavy-duty catapult that was necessary for the new Kawanishi E15K "Shiun" floatplane (Allied reporting name "Norm") that was intended to perform reconnaissance for the submarine flotilla in areas where the enemy had air superiority. To achieve this, the plane was designed with two retractable underwing stabilizing floats and a large central float that could be jettisoned to increase speed. However, the aircraft performed poorly and only fifteen were completed before it was canceled in February 1944. "Ōyodo" did carry two or three Aichi E13A "Jake" reconnaissance floatplanes during her career.

Protection.

The ship's armor was designed to protect against 155 mm shells and bombs dropped from an altitude of. It had a waterline belt had a maximum thickness of of copper alloy homogeneous armor that protected the propulsion machinery and the bomb magazine; it extended above the waterline and below. The armored deck rested on the upper edge of the belt armor and was thick except over the bomb magazine where it increased to. The ends of the belt armor were closed off by transverse bulkheads that also increased to 50 mm adjacent to the bomb magazine. The magazine itself had 35 mm sides and a 25 mm front. The steering gear aft was protected by an armored box with sides, a front and a 25 mm rear.  Forward of the boiler rooms, the fire-control center, the 25 mm and 155 mm magazines had armored sides. The latter magazine had plates that tapered to 40 mm at their lower edge. The armor on the other compartments was 60 mm thick reducing to 30 mm at the bottom. The roof of these spaces was 50 mm thick over the 155 mm magazines and reduced to 28 mm over the other compartments. The main gun turrets were protected by 25 mm homogeneous armor plates and their barbettes had 20 mm or 25 mm thick plates. The sides of the conning tower were 40 mm thick and it had a roof 20 mm thick.

Construction and career.

Following the Japanese ship-naming conventions for light cruisers, the ship was named after the Ōyodo River in Kyūshū. "Ōyodo" was laid down at Kure Naval Arsenal on 14 February 1941, launched on 2 April 1942 and completed on 28 February 1943 under the command of Captain Sadatoshi Tomioka. Completed without any radar, a Type 21 early-warning radar was installed in April 1943 while the ship was still working up. The war had developed in ways unanticipated by the IJN and her designed role as a submarine flotilla flagship was no longer possible or even appropriate, so the navy settled on using her as an ordinary light cruiser or as a transport. On 1 April, she was assigned to the Third Fleet and was transferred to the Main Body, Mobile Force, a month later. In response to the invasion of Attu Island on 11 May, "Ōyodo" rendezvoused with three battleships, two aircraft carriers and five heavy cruisers in Tokyo Bay on 22 May. The Americans recaptured Attu before the fleet could depart to counterattack. The following month the ship received a brief refit in Kure.  She loaded troops and supplies on 9 July at Shinagawa and, arrived at Truk, Caroline Islands, on 15 July before continuing on to Rabaul where she arrived on the 21st, returning to Truk five days later and rejoining the Third Fleet. In response to the carrier raid on Tarawa on 18 September, much of the fleet sortied for Eniwetok to search for the American forces before they returned to Truk on 23 September, having failed to locate them. The Japanese had intercepted some American radio traffic that suggested another attack on Wake Island, and on 17 October, "Ōyodo" and the bulk of the fleet sailed for Eniwetok to be in a position to intercept any such attack, but no attack occurred and the fleet returned to Truk.  Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa, commander of the Third Fleet, hoisted his flag aboard the ship on 6 December. On 30 December "Ōyodo" participated in an operation to reinforce the garrisons at Rabaul and Kavieng. While returning to Truk on 1 January 1944, "Ōyodo" was slightly damaged by US aircraft from two aircraft carriers of Task Group 50.2, with two crewmen killed and six wounded. The following day, she rescued 71 survivors from the transport "Kiyosumi Maru", which had been torpedoed by an American submarine. "Ōyodo" returned to Yokosuka on 16 February following the successful American invasion of Kwajalein, and loaded torpedoes and supplies for the Japanese garrison at Saipan, which were delivered on 22 February.

Flagship of the Combined Fleet and the Battle off Cape Engaño.

On 6 March, "Ōyodo" went into the dry dock at Yokosuka for a refit to convert her into a flagship, in which her hangar was converted into staff offices and accommodations to take advantage of her elaborate communications suite. The aircraft catapult was exchanged for the shorter () standard type, and a pair of Type 22 surface search radars were installed. 29 additional Type 96 guns were installed in six triple and eleven single mounts for a total of 47 weapons. The modifications increased her complement to 61 officers and 850 sailors. The day after the refit was finished on 31 March, "Ōyodo" became the flagship of the Combined Fleet. Admiral Soemu Toyoda, commander of the Combined Fleet, hoisted his flag on her on 4 May. "Ōyodo" remained in Japanese waters until 11 October. On 29 September, Admiral Toyoda and his staff transferred to the new underground headquarters of the IJN in Yokohama. Six additional Type 96 AA guns in single mounts were installed in early October, along with a Type 13 radar, and her Type 22 radars were modified to allow them to be used for fire control.  "Ōyodo" rejoined the Main Body of the 1st Mobile Fleet, commanded by Ozawa, on 5 October and departed Yokosuka on 11 October. En route, she was attacked by the submarine which fired six torpedoes, all of which missed. The ship departed Yashima anchorage on 20 October 1944 towards the Philippines as part of Operation "Sho-Ichi-Go"— which was intended to defeat the American invasion of the Philippines. "Ōyodo" was part of Ozawa's Northern Mobile ("Decoy") Force, which was to bait the American aircraft carrier strike force away from the main Japanese strike force by exposing the surviving Japanese carriers. "Ōyodo" was the only warship in Ozawa's force that had reconnaissance floatplanes, and both E13A1's performed reconnaissance and anti-submarine patrols over the fleet. On the morning of 24 October, the bulk of the few aircraft aboard the carriers were launched to attack the American carriers as a distraction. They inflicted no damage and caused the Americans to search in the direction from which they had attacked. The Americans finally spotted Ozawa's ships at 16:40, some east of Cape Engaño, the northeastern tip of Luzon. The American carriers were spread out and it was very late in the day to launch an airstrike, so Admiral William Halsey, commander of the Third Fleet decided to mass his carriers in a position to attack the following morning. Ozawa reversed course during the night, correctly believing that the Americans would follow him north.  Although they had lost contact during the night, the Americans did find the Japanese carriers at 07:35. They had already launched an airstrike of 180 aircraft that was orbiting ahead of the American carriers while waiting for the Japanese ships to be located. This was just the first of a total of five airstrikes that the Americans launched that day. During the first strike, "Ōyodo" suffered two near-misses, but at 08:48 she was hit by a bomb that damaged a boiler room. At 10:54, Vice Admiral Ozawa left the sinking aircraft carrier and transferred his flag to "Ōyodo". Later in the day the ship was hit by two rockets from F6F Hellcat fighter-bombers and damaged by another near-miss and Ozawa ordered his remaining forces to retire northward. Around 19:00 Ozawa learned about a force of destroyers and cruisers that sank the light carrier and drove off the Japanese destroyers rescuing survivors from some of the carriers lost earlier in the day. He ordered the two hybrid battleship/carriers and "Ōyodo" to reverse course and engage the Americans, but they were unable to find them, and they reversed course at 23:30 and headed for Amami Ōshima. When they arrived there on the 27th Ozawa transferred his flag to the battleship

Final stages of the war.

A few days later "Ōyodo" was sent to Manila on a transport run, arriving on 1 November. Three days later she departed for Brunei and remained in the South China Sea area for the next several months. On 24 December "Ōyodo", the heavy cruiser and six destroyers sortied to attack the American forces at San Jose on the island of Mindoro. They were spotted by American aircraft late the next day and "Ōyodo" was hit by a pair of bombs; one failed to detonate and the other only slightly damaged the cruiser. The destroyers engaged an American convoy escorted by PT boats while the cruisers fired star shells to illuminate the area. They later bombarded a supply dump and set it on fire before returning to Cam Ranh Bay, French Indochina.  "Ōyodo" arrived in Singapore on 1 January 1945 and was repaired from 9 to 29 January. The following month she was assigned to Operation Kita together with the two "Ise"-class battleship/carriers and three destroyers. The ships were loaded with critically needed strategic war supplies (aviation gasoline, rubber, tin, zinc, and mercury) and 1,150 surplus oil workers to be ferried back to Japan. The ships sailed from Singapore on 10 February and was spotted by the British submarine the following day. "Tantalus" was forced to submerge by a maritime patrol aircraft and was unable to attack. On 13 February the submarine unsuccessfully attacked the ships as did the submarine. Later that afternoon, "Ōyodo" launched one of her floatplanes which spotted the submarine on the surface ahead of the convoy. "Hyūga" opened fire with her main guns and forced "Bashaw" to submerge when one of her shells landed within of the submarine. The convoy reached the Matsu Islands, off the Chinese coast, on the 15th and was unsuccessfully attacked by the submarine before they reached Zhoushan Island, near Shanghai, that night. The convoy reached Kure on 20 February, having evaded or escaped pursuit by twenty-three Allied submarines along the way.  "Ōyodo" was transferred to the Kure Training Force on 1 March, and, a few weeks later, Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher's Task Force 58 made the first carrier attack on Kure on 19 March. Three 500 lb bombs hit "Ōyodo"; one hit the port engine room and started fires that badly damaged the propulsion machinery compartments. Another hit the base of the funnel and destroyed the boiler uptakes and the last one detonated inside the ship. Near-misses ruptured some hull plating forward and the cruiser started to flood, but she was towed to Etajima and beached to prevent her from sinking. The bombs killed or wounded 54 crewmen. She was refloated and entered a dry dock for repairs on 23 March which were completed on 4 May. On 24 July US Task Force 38 launched a massive attack to destroy any and all remaining units of the Japanese Navy. "Ōyodo" was strafed and hit by five bombs, two of which hit near her catapult and punched holes in her deck. Two more hit amidships near the engine rooms and the last struck forward of the bridge and started a fire that could not be extinguished for two days. Four days later, a day-long attack was launched by the US carrier fleet. "Ōyodo" was near-missed by bombs in the morning and the shock waves from their detonations ruptured her hull plating abreast of the forward engine room and No. 5 boiler room that flooded those two compartments. The asymmetric weight of the water on the starboard side caused her to capsized to starboard in shallow water about 25 minutes later. Permission to abandon ship was granted by Captain Shoichi Taguchi before she capsized, but about 300 crewmen were killed.  "Ōyodo" was removed from the navy list on 20 November. Her wreck was raised on 20 September 1947 and towed to a dry dock to be demolished. The ship was scrapped from 6 January to 1 August 1948.

The ship reverted to her previous roles when the headquarters of the Combined Fleet was moved ashore in September. The following month, she participated in the Battle off Cape Engaño, where she escorted the Japanese carriers attempting to decoy the American carrier fleet supporting the invasion of Leyte away from the landing beaches. Afterwards, the ship was transferred to Southeast Asia and engaged American forces in the Philippines in December where she was slightly damaged by American bombers. In early 1945, "Ōyodo" participated in Operation Kita, during which she transported aviation gasoline and other strategic materials back to Japan. The ship was damaged by American carrier aircraft in March and repairs were completed two months later. She was sunk with the loss of about 300 men during American airstrikes in July. After the war, "Ōyodo" was salvaged and scrapped in 1947–1948.

Ójodo (: ) byl lehký křižník japonského císařského námořnictva z éry druhé světové války. Ve službě byl v letech 1943–1945. V závěru války byl v přístavu potopen americkými bombardéry.


Career.

Born in Weimar, Gundermann moved with his family to Hoyerswerda in 1967. After completing his secondary education, he studied for a year at the military academy in Löbau, but was expelled in 1975, after which he was forced to seek work in the coal mining area of the Spreetal (in today's Saxony). In 1976 he began night school, and was recruited by the East German secret police, the Stasi (codename "Grigori"). In 1977 he applied to join the ruling party, the SED, but was asked to leave the following year (after expressing contrary opinions), although this was reduced to a "strong rebuke" after he appealed. In 1983 he married Conny. The following year he was again expelled from the party and also from the Stasi.  Gundermann's first appearances as a singer-songwriter came in 1986, and a year later he won the grand prize and a recording contract in the East German national song contest. His first LP "Männer, Frauen und Maschinen" (Men, Women, and Machines) appeared in 1988, but in contrast to his solo acoustic performances it was a rock record with a backing band, with uptempo numbers like "Halte durch" (Keep Up). It included an ode to his hometown, Hoyerswerda, "Hoy Woy."  After the fall of the Berlin Wall, Gundermann ran unsuccessfully for a seat in the Volkskammer in the March 1990 elections, running for the leftist alliance "Aktionsbündnis Vereinigte Linke".  Gundermann lived an ascetic lifestyle, eschewing alcohol, drugs, and smoking, and was a committed vegetarian. However, he was a workaholic, and slept little; besides a full recording and performing schedule, Gundermann continued to work operating a giant excavator, digging up seams of brown coal; he was worried that his music would lose its authenticity if it became his sole way of life. Perhaps because of overwork, Gundermann died of a stroke on June 21, 1998 at the age of 43 at his home in Spreetal. He left behind four children. His death followed that of his friend and collaborator Tamara Danz, also 43, by less than two years.  In 2018, a biographical movie by director Andreas Dresen, "Gundermann". Gundermann was portraited by Alexander Scheer. The movie was awarded with six German Movie Awards (Deutscher Filmpreis) in 2019 by 10 nominations, among them the "german Oscars" for the best movie, best actor, best screenplay (Laila Stieler) and best director.

Gerhard Rüdiger Gundermann, who generally performed as simply Gundermann (February 21, 1955 – June 21, 1998), was a German singer-songwriter and rock musician. An excavator operator, his musical career began in the former East Germany, where he became known for his clever, often melancholic lyrics imbued with social commentary. After German reunification, he became especially popular among former East Germans who felt disenfranchised in the reunited country.

Gerhard Gundermann (21. února 1955 Weimar ‒ 21. června 1998 Spreetal) byl německý písničkář. Je považován za jednoho z nejvýznamnějších folkrockových autorů a zpěváků v oblasti bývalé NDR.


Life and career.

Alicia de Larrocha was born in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. She began studying piano with Frank Marshall at the age of three. Both her parents were pianists and she was also the niece of pianists. Beginning her career at the age of three, she gave her first public performance at the age of five at the International Exposition in Barcelona. She performed her first concert at the age of six at the World's Fair in Seville in 1929, and had her orchestral debut at the age of 11. By 1943, her performances were selling out in Spain. She began touring internationally in 1947, and in 1954 toured North America with the Los Angeles Philharmonic. In 1966, she engaged in a first strenuous tour of Southern Africa which proved so wildly popular that three further tours were completed In 1969, de Larrocha performed in Boston for the Peabody Mason Concert series.  De Larrocha, writes Jed Distler, "started composing at age seven and continued on and off until her 30th year, with a prolific spurt in her late teens," and while she never performed her works in public, she gave her family the choice of making them available after her death, which they have done.  De Larrocha made numerous recordings of the solo piano repertoire and in particular the works of composers of her native Spain. She is best known for her recordings of the music of Manuel de Falla, Enrique Granados, Federico Mompou, and Isaac Albéniz, as well as her 1967 recordings of Antonio Soler's keyboard sonatas. She recorded for Hispavox, CBS/Columbia/Epic, BMG/RCA and London/Decca, winning her first Grammy Award in 1975 and her last one in 1992, at the age of almost seventy. She received the Prince of Asturias Award for the Arts in 1994.  De Larrocha spoke in a 1978 interview with Contemporary Keyboard,  I don't believe there is a 'best' of anything in this life. I would say, though, that Granados was one of the great Spanish composers, and that, in my opinion, he was the only one that captured the real Romantic flavor. His style was aristocratic, elegant and poetic — completely different from Falla and Albéniz. To me, each of them is a different world. Falla was the one who really captured the spirit of the Gypsy music. And Albéniz, I think was more international than the others. Even though his music is Spanish in flavor, his style is completely Impressionistic.  Less than five feet tall and with small hands for a pianist, spanning an interval of barely a tenth on the keyboard, in her younger years she was nonetheless able to tackle all the big concertos (all five by Beethoven, Liszt's No. 1, Brahms's No. 2, Rachmaninoff's Nos. 2 and 3, both of Ravel's, Prokofiev's No. 3, those of Bliss and Khachaturian, and many more), as well as the wide spans demanded by the music of Granados, Albéniz, and de Falla. She had a "long fifth finger" and a "wide stretch between thumb and index finger" which helped make her more technically gifted.  As she grew older she began to play a different style of music; more Mozart and Beethoven were featured in her recitals and she became a regular guest at the "Mostly Mozart Festival" of the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts in New York. In 2001, she was named Honorary Member of the Foundation for Iberian Music at The City University of New York. De Larrocha retired from public performance in October 2003, aged 80, following a 76-year career. Alicia de Larrocha died on 25 September 2009 in Quiron Hospital, Barcelona, aged 86. She had been in declining health since breaking her hip five years previously. Her husband, the pianist Juan Torra, with whom she had two children, had died in 1982.

List of awards and nominations.

De Larrocha won several individual awards throughout her lifetime. Her extended discography has been recognized with 14 Grammy nominations (1967, 1971, 1974,1975 (x2), 1977 (x2), 1982 (x2), 1984, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1992), of which she won four. She received honorary degrees from universities in Michigan, Middlebury College, Vermont, and Carnegie Mellon.

Alicia de Larrocha y de la Calle (23 May 192325 September 2009) was a Spanish pianist and composer. She was considered one of the great piano legends of the 20th century. Reuters called her "the greatest Spanish pianist in history", "Time" "one of the world's most outstanding pianists", and "The Guardian" "the leading Spanish pianist of her time".

Alicia de Larrocha (23. května 1923 Barcelona – 25. září 2009 Barcelona) byla španělská klavíristka. Proslula jako interpretka Mozarta, Schumanna či Rachmaninova, pomohla též rozšířit slávu španělských skladatelů ve světě. Vyznačovala se velmi malou postavou, čemuž musela přizpůsobit techniku hry.


Russian trolls.

Aro saw the actions of Kremlin-connected internet trolls as "a threat to Finnish people's freedom of speech" telling "Deutsche Welle" (DW) she "was really astonished to find out that it's quite big—super big actually."  After a visit to St Petersburg to investigate the Internet Research Agency, where she interviewed employees at the "troll factory" who create fake online accounts and produce fake stories, she encountered a significant backlash from pro-Russian trolls. She has described abusive responses including a phone call from a Ukrainian number with the sound of a pistol firing on the other end, as well as a cell phone text message purporting to be from her father (who had died 20 years earlier) indicating he was keeping watch on her. Russian nationalist websites described her as working for the West's security agencies. A vocal critic was Johan Bäckman, who made false claims about her assisting the Estonian and United States security services. Aro told "Foreign Policy" magazine: "The goal of these campaigns is to discredit the voices in Finland that are critical of Russia." Her series of articles led to Aro receiving Bonnier's Award for Journalism in March 2016.  Officials with the European Union told the "Sydney Morning Herald" it was an escalation of Russian "information warfare" against the West. In 2016 Aro published an article in the journal of the centre-right European Peoples Party describing the "brutal" harassment that she attributes to Russian trolls. This behaviour includes doxing such as revealing her conviction for drug possession when she was 20, which was turned into a false claim she is a "NATO drug dealer".  Aro told "Foreign Policy" that the US State Department had informed her in January 2019 that she would be one of the winners of the 2019 International Women of Courage Awards. The notification, described as a "regrettable error" by a State Department representative, was rescinded shortly before the award ceremony. According to Aro and U.S. officials familiar with the internal deliberations, the award was rescinded after U.S. officials reviewed Aro’s social media posts and found she had criticized President Donald Trump. A US State Department spokesperson did not respond to questions on the identity of the decision maker or the reasons for the decision. The relevant award was presented to Sri Lanka's Marini De Livera instead. An editorial in "The Washington Post" commented: "Ms. Aro deserved the award. She should hold her head high for courage, unlike those who denied her the honor." The United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations requested an investigation by the Office of the Inspector General of the Department of State.

Legal case.

In October 2018, the Helsinki District Court found, Johan Bäckman and a woman guilty of sustained defamation against Aro. The final judgement said the two men had committed "an exceptionally aggravated set of crimes". Janitskin, the founder of the "MV-Lehti" website was sentenced to 22 months in jail on 16 criminal counts while Bäckman received a year's suspended jail sentence for aggravated defamation and stalking. They were required to pay damages to Aro and other plaintiffs in the case. "The New York Times" called this "the first time that a European country had taken action against pro-Russian disinformation spread through social media, websites and news outlets controlled by or linked to Russia". Bäckman described his conviction as "another dirty trick by NATO."

Jessikka Aro (born c.1980) is a Finnish journalist working for Finland's public service broadcaster Yle. In September 2014, she began to investigate pro-Russian Internet trolls, but became a victim of their activities herself. This harassment led to three people being convicted in October 2018. In 2019 she was notified that she was to receive an International Women of Courage Award but this was rescinded just before the ceremony.

Jessikka Aro (* 1980) je finská investigativní novinářka, expertka na ruskou dezinformační válku. Pracuje pro finskou veřejnoprávní rozhlasovou a televizní společnost Yle Kioski, od roku 2014 se specializuje na odhalování ruských internetových trollů, šířících falešné zprávy mezi obyvateli Finska. Za svou práci byla šiřiteli ruských fake news pronásledována a stala se obětí nepřetržitého kyberstalkingu z jejich strany.


Early life.

Amanda Ava Koci was born Amanda Koci, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on February 16, 1994. She was born to Albanian parents from Tirana and Sarandë, and has an older brother. Three years before Max was born, they left Albania and lived in a church in Paris for a year. They eventually moved to Wisconsin after receiving passports from a woman. During her childhood, Max often saw her parents struggle to earn an income, as they each worked three jobs without speaking English. Her mother was a trained opera singer who belted arias in the house, while her father played the piano.  She moved with her family to Virginia when she was 8 years old, where she competed in numerous Radio Disney singing competitions in malls before she entered high school. At the age of 13, she came up with the middle name "Ava" which she adopted as her first name, claiming that "I never felt like an Amanda". When she was 14 years old, she moved with her mother to Los Angeles in pursuit of a music career, finding the city to be overwhelming. She went to South Carolina a year later, where she began writing songs about relationships she had observed, including those of her brother. Max stated that she was grateful because it allowed for a normal childhood. She eventually returned to Los Angeles when she was 17 years old.

Career.

2013–2017: Career beginnings.

Under the stage name Ava, her debut song "Take Away the Pain" was published in May 2013, which was remixed by Canadian DJ and producer duo Project 46 in July 2015. After years of having demos rejected and not returned by record producers and songwriters, she met Canadian record producer Cirkut at a dinner party in 2014, who was also a friend of her brother. Max sang "Happy Birthday" to him, which led to the two working together, writing hundreds of songs and releasing "Anyone but You" on SoundCloud in July 2016. The song gained traction and attracted the attention of various record labels that contacted her through email, ultimately leading her to sign a record deal with Atlantic Records. Max acknowledged that working with him changed her life, as she considered leaving the music industry after being creatively stifled.  After signing the deal, she began searching for a last name to use as her stage name, eventually coming up with "Max". She chose the name, as it combined elements of being both masculine and feminine. Around 2016–2017, Max adopted her signature hair style titled the "Max Cut", which can be seen in her logo as a substitute for the "A". On August 4, 2017, Max was featured on the Le Youth song "Clap Your Hands", where she sang two different melodies.

2018–present: Breakthrough.

On April 20, 2018, "My Way" was released, which peaked at number 38 on the Romanian Airplay 100 chart. On May 11, 2018, "Slippin", a collaboration with Gashi, was released. On June 8, 2018, she featured on "Into Your Arms" by American rapper Witt Lowry. A month later, "Salt" was sent to SoundCloud. On August 13, 2018, she released "Not Your Barbie Girl" as a promotional single. "Sweet but Psycho" was released on August 17, 2018. The song became Max's commercial breakthrough, reaching number one in more than 26 countries including Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Norway, Sweden, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, where it stayed at number one for four consecutive weeks. In January 2019, the song reached the top of the "Billboard" Dance Club Songs chart, and later reached top 10 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. Max was also featured on the Vice and Jason Derulo song "Make Up" on October 23, 2018, and made an appearance on David Guetta's 2018 album "7" on the track "Let It Be Me".  On March 7, 2019, she released the follow-up single "So Am I", which reached the top 10 in Poland, Norway, Scotland, and Sweden. A remix of the song was released on July 3, 2019, which featured South Korean boy band NCT 127. The songs "Blood, Sweat & Tears" and "Freaking Me Out" were simultaneously released in July 2019 as promotional singles. On August 7, 2019, Max was featured on the song "Slow Dance" by American singer-songwriter AJ Mitchell, and released "Torn" as a single on August 19, 2019. On September 4, 2019, she entered a joint co-publishing deal with Warner Chappell Music and Artist Publishing Group. On October 31, 2019, she released a music video for "Freaking Me Out" as a Halloween special. Max won best Best Push Act at the 2019 MTV Europe Music Awards. On November 6, 2019, a duet called "Tabú" between Max and Pablo Alborán was released. The previously released song "Salt" was sent to digital streaming platforms on December 12, 2019. She collaborated with British-Norwegian DJ and record producer Alan Walker on the song "Alone, Pt. II", which was released on December 27, 2019. "On Somebody" was released as a promotional single on December 30, 2019.  On March 12, 2020, Max released "Kings & Queens" as the lead single from her upcoming debut studio album. She also appeared as a featured artist on the country song "On Me" along with Thomas Rhett and Kane Brown. It was included on the "Scoob!" soundtrack on May 15, 2020, accompanied with a music video. She will release "Who's Laughing Now?" as a single from her album in 2020.

Musical style and influences.

Max has been labeled as a pop and dance-pop singer. She grew up listening to artists such as Alicia Keys, Norah Jones, Celine Dion, Aretha Franklin, Fugees, Mariah Carey, and Whitney Houston. She has also cited Beyoncé, Madonna, Gwen Stefani, Fergie, Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera, and Lady Gaga as some of her influences. She stated that Carey is her biggest influence, recalling how she grew up listening to her music on loop, such as "Vision of Love".

Public image and personal life.

Max has often been compared to Lady Gaga for her music and "ostentatious presentation", which includes her platinum blonde hair, persona, and stage name. Chris DeVille of Stereogum criticized Max's production for being too similar to Gaga, stating that it "falls short in terms of lyrics, production, melody, dynamics, personality, and every other conceivable metric", despite recognizing that the latter was also highly compared to Madonna. Max acknowledged that she often goes against the grain while making public appearances, often seeking designers who are overlooked, and wearing outlandish outfits, as she wants "to give people an experience". However, she preferred making music in the studio than appearing in public, stating that she did not like the attention of the fashion and cameras on the red carpet.  Her self-cut "Max Cut" hairstyle consists of her asymmetric peroxide blonde hair parted down the center, with the right side containing a chin-length bob cut, while the left side was longer and wavy. She explained that she did not feel authentic with her normal haircut, and that it was about embracing herself and being unique.  Max has described herself as "100% Albanian" and stated that she wants to give back to the community. She is able to speak the language, but cannot read it. She is also outspoken about female empowerment, which is featured in her music. In a 2019 interview with "Attitude", Max revealed that she had been attracted to women in the past, but has chosen not to label her sexuality, stating "Personally, I like it when it's about who you are as a person. I don't like people putting me, or anyone else I know in a box".

Amanda Ava Koci (born Amanda Koci; February 16, 1994), known professionally as Ava Max, is an American singer-songwriter. After moving across several states to pursue a music career in her childhood, Max signed with Atlantic Records in 2016, where she released the song "Sweet but Psycho" on August 17, 2018. It became her breakthrough single after topping the charts in 26 countries such as the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Sweden, and New Zealand, while also peaking at number two in Australia, and number 10 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. She is also known for her signature hair style labeled the "Max Cut", which consists of the right side of her hair chopped as a bob cut, with the left side long and loose.

Amanda Ava Koci (* 16. února 1994, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA), známá spíše jako Ava Max, je americká zpěvačka a textařka albánského původu. Jejím hitem je singl "Sweet but Psycho".


Childhood and education.

Coretta Scott was born in Heiberger, Alabama, the third of four children of Obadiah Scott (1899–1998) and Bernice McMurry Scott (1904–1996). She was born in her parents' home with her paternal great-grandmother Delia Scott, a former slave, presiding as midwife. Coretta's mother became known for her musical talent and singing voice. As a child, Bernice attended the local Crossroads School and only had a fourth-grade education. Bernice's older siblings, however, attended boarding school at the Booker T. Washington-founded Tuskegee Institute. The senior Mrs. Scott worked as a school bus driver, a church pianist, and for her husband in his business ventures. She served as Worthy Matron for her Eastern Star chapter and was a member of the local Literacy Federated Club.  Obie, Coretta's father, was one of the first black people in their town to own a vehicle. Before starting his own businesses, he worked as a policeman. Along with his wife, he ran a clothing shop far from their home and later opened a general store. He also owned a lumber mill, which was burned down by white neighbors after Scott refused to lend his mill to a white male logger. Her maternal grandparents were Mollie (née Smith; 1868 – d.) and Martin van Buren McMurry (1863–1950) – both were of African American and Irish descent. Mollie was born a slave to plantation owners Jim Blackburn and Adeline (Blackburn) Smith. Coretta's maternal grandfather, Martin, was born to a slave of Black Native American ancestry, and her white master who never acknowledged Martin as his son. He eventually owned a 280-acre farm. Because of his diverse origins, Martin appeared to be white. However, he displayed contempt for the notion of passing. As a self-taught reader with little formal education, he is noted for having inspired Coretta's passion for education. Coretta's paternal grandparents were Cora (née McLaughlin; 1876 – 1920) and Jefferson F. Scott (1873–1941). Cora died before Coretta's birth. Jeff Scott was a farmer and a prominent figure in the rural black religious community; he was born to former slaves Willis and Delia Scott.  At age 10, Coretta worked to increase the family's income. She had an older sister named Edythe Scott Bagley (1924–2011), an older sister named Eunice who did not survive childhood, and a younger brother named Obadiah Leonard (1930–2012). According to a DNA analysis, she was partly descended from the Mende people of Sierra Leone. The Scott family had owned a farm since the American

New England Conservatory of Music and Martin Luther King Jr..

Coretta transferred out of Antioch when she won a scholarship to the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston. It was while studying singing at that school with Marie Sundelius that she met Martin Luther King Jr. after mutual friend Mary Powell gave King her phone number after he asked about girls on the campus. Coretta was the only one remaining after Powell named two girls and King proved to not be impressed with the other. Scott initially showed little interest in meeting him, even after Powell told her that he had a promising future, but eventually relented and agreed to the meeting. King called her on the telephone and when the two met in person, Scott was surprised by how short he was. King would tell her that she had all the qualities that he was looking for in a wife, which Scott dismissed since the two had only just met. She told him "I don't see how you can say that. You don't even know me." But King was assured and asked to see her again. She readily accepted his invitation to a weekend party.  She continued to see him regularly in the early months of 1952. Two weeks after meeting Scott, King wrote to his mother that he had met his wife. Their dates usually consisted of political and racial discussions, and in August of that year Coretta met King's parents Martin Luther King, Sr. and Alberta Williams King. Before meeting Martin, Coretta had been in relationships her entire time in school but never had any she cared to develop. Once meeting with her sister Edythe face-to-face, Coretta detailed her feelings for the young aspiring minister and discussed the relationship as well. Edythe was able to tell her sister had legitimate feelings for him, and she also became impressed with his overall demeanor.  Despite envisioning a career for herself in the music industry, Coretta knew that it would not be possible if she were to marry Martin Luther King. However, since King possessed many of the qualities she liked in a man, she found herself "becoming more involved with every passing moment." When asked by her sister what made King so "appealing" to her she responded, "I suppose it's because Martin reminds me so much of our father." At that moment, Scott's sister knew

Civil Rights Movement.

On September 1, 1954, Martin Luther King Jr. became the full-time pastor of Dexter Avenue Baptist Church. It was a sacrifice for Coretta, who had to give up her dreams of becoming a classical singer. Her devotion to the cause while giving up on her own ambitions would become symbolic of the actions of African American women during the movement. The couple moved into the church's parsonage on South Jackson Street shortly after this. Coretta became a member of the choir and taught Sunday school, as well as participating in the Baptist Training Union and Missionary Society. She made her first appearance at the First Baptist Church on March 6, 1955, where according to E. P. Wallace, she "captivated her concert audience."  The Kings welcomed their first child Yolanda on November 17, 1955, who was named at Coretta's insistence and became the church's attention. After her husband became involved in the Montgomery Bus Boycott, King often received threats directed towards him. In January 1956, King answered numerous phone calls threatening her husband's life, as rumors intended to make African Americans dissatisfied with King's husband spread that Martin had purchased a Buick station wagon for her. Martin Luther King Jr. would give her the nickname "Yoki," and thereby, allow himself to refer to her out of her name. By the end of the boycott, Mrs. King and her husband had come to believe in nonviolent protests as a way of expression consistent with biblical teachings. Two days after the integration of Montgomery's bus service, on December 23, a gunshot rang through the front door of the King home while King, her husband and Yolanda were asleep. The three were not harmed. On Christmas Eve of 1955, King took her daughter to her parents' house and met with her siblings as well. Yolanda was their first grandchild. King's husband joined them the next day, at dinner time.  On February 21, 1956, King's husband announced he would return to Montgomery after picking up Coretta and their daughter from Atlanta, who were staying with his parents. During Martin Luther King Sr.'s opposition to his son's choice to return to Montgomery, Mrs. King picked up her daughter and went upstairs, which he would express dismay in later and tell her that she "had run out on him." Two days later, Coretta and her husband drove back to Montgomery. Coretta took an active role in advocating for civil rights legislation. On April 25, 1958, King made her first appearance at a concert that year at Peter High School Auditorium in Birmingham, Alabama. With a performance sponsored by the Omicron Lambda chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, King changed a few songs in the first part of the show but still continued with the basic format used two years earlier at the New York gala as she told the story of the Montgomery Bus Boycott. The concert was important for Coretta as a way to continue her professional career and participate in the movement. The concert gave the audience "an emotional connection to the messages of social, economic, and spiritual transformation."  On September 3, 1958, King accompanied her husband and Ralph Abernathy to a courtroom. Her husband was arrested outside the courtroom for "loitering" and "failing to obey an officer." A few weeks later, King visited Martin's parents in Atlanta. At that time, she learned that he had been stabbed while signing copies of his book "Stride Toward Freedom" on September 20, 1958. King rushed to see her husband, and stayed with him for the remainder of his time in the hospital recovering. On February 3, 1959, King, her husband and Lawrence Reddick started a five-week tour of India. The three were invited to hundreds of engagements. During their trip, Coretta used her singing ability to enthuse crowds during their month-long stay. The two returned to the United States on March 10, 1959.

Assassination of her husband.

Martin Luther King Jr. was shot and killed in Memphis, Tennessee on April 4, 1968. She learned of the shooting after being called by Jesse Jackson when she returned from shopping with her eldest child Yolanda. King had difficulty settling her children with the news that their father was deceased. She received a large number of telegrams, including one from Lee Harvey Oswald's mother, which she regarded as the one that touched her the most.  In an effort to prepare her daughter Bernice, then only five years old, for the funeral, she tried to explain to her that the next time she saw her father he would be in a casket and would not be speaking. When asked by her son Dexter when his father would return, King lied and told him that his father had only been badly hurt. Senator Robert Kennedy ordered three more telephones to be installed in the King residence for King and her family to be able to answer the flood of calls they received and offered a plane to transport her to Memphis. Coretta spoke to Kennedy the day after the assassination and asked if he could persuade Jacqueline Kennedy to attend her husband's funeral with him.  Robert Kennedy promised her that he would help "any way" he could. King was told to not go ahead and agree to Kennedy's offer by Southern Christian Leadership Conference members, who told her about his presidential ambitions. She ignored the warnings and went along with his request. On April 5, 1968, King arrived in Memphis to retrieve her husband's body and decided that the casket should be kept open during the funeral with the hope that her children would realize upon seeing his body that he would not be coming home. King called photographer Bob Fitch and asked for documentation to be done, having known him for years. On April 7, 1968, former Vice President Richard Nixon visited King and recalled his first meeting with her husband in 1955. Nixon also went to Martin Luther King, Jr.'s funeral on April 9, 1968, but did not walk in the procession. Nixon believed participating in the procession would be "grandstanding."  On April 8, 1968, King and her children headed a march with sanitation workers that her husband had planned to carry out before his death. After the marchers reached the staging area at the Civic Center Plaza in front of Memphis City Hall, onlookers proceeded to take pictures of King and her children but stopped when she addressed everyone at a microphone. She said that despite the Martin Luther King Jr. being away from his children at times, "his children knew that Daddy loved them, and the time that he spent with them was well spent." Prior to Martin's funeral, Jacqueline Kennedy met with her. The two spent five minutes together and despite the short visit, Coretta called it comforting. King's parents arrived from Alabama. Robert and Ethel Kennedy came, the latter being embraced by King. King and her sister-in-law Christine King Farris tried to prepare the children for seeing Martin's body. With the end of the funeral service, King led her children and mourners in a march from the church to Morehouse College, her late husband's alma mater.

Later life.

Every year after the assassination of her husband in 1968, Coretta attended a commemorative service at Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta to mark his birthday on January 15. She fought for years to make it a national holiday. In 1972, she said that there should be at least one national holiday a year in tribute to an African-American man, "and, at this point, Martin is the best candidate we have." Murray M. Silver, an Atlanta attorney, made the appeal at the services on January 14, 1979. Coretta Scott King later confirmed that it was the "...best, most productive appeal ever..." Coretta Scott King was finally successful in this campaign in 1986, when Martin Luther King, Jr. Day was made a federal holiday.  After the death of J. Edgar Hoover, King made no attempt to hide her bitterness towards him for his work against her husband in a long statement. Coretta Scott King attended the state funeral of Lyndon B. Johnson in 1973, as a very close friend of the former president. On July 25, 1978, King held a press conference in defense of then-Ambassador Andrew Young and his controversial statement on political prisoners in American jails. On September 19, 1979, King visited the Lyndon B. Johnson ranch to meet with Lady Bird Johnson. In 1979 and 1980 Dr. Noel Erskine and King co-taught a class on "The Theology of Martin Luther King, Jr." at the Candler School of Theology (Emory University). On September 29, 1980, King's signing as a commentator for CNN was announced by Ted Turner.  On August 26, 1983, King resented endorsing Jesse Jackson for president, since she wanted to back up someone she believed could beat Ronald Reagan, and dismissed her husband becoming a presidential candidate had he lived. On June 26, 1985, King was arrested with her daughter Bernice and son Martin Luther King III while taking part in an anti-apartheid protest at the Embassy of South Africa in Washington, D.C.  When President Ronald Reagan signed legislation establishing the Martin Luther King Jr. Day, she was at the event. Reagan called her to personally apologize for a remark he made during a nationally televised conference, where he said we would know in "35 years" whether or not King was a communist sympathizer. Reagan clarified his remarks came from the fact that the papers had been sealed off until the year 2027. King accepted the apology and pointed out the Senate Select Committee on Assassinations had not found any basis to suggest her husband had communist ties. On February 9, 1987, eight civil rights activists were jailed for protesting the exclusion of African Americans during the filming of "The Oprah Winfrey Show" in Cumming, Georgia. Oprah Winfrey tried to find out why the "community has not allowed black people to live there since 1912." King was outraged over the arrests, and wanted members of the group, "Coalition to End Fear and Intimidation in Forsyth County," to meet with Georgia Governor Joe Frank Harris to "seek a just resolution of the situation." On March 8, 1989, King lectured hundreds of students about the civil rights movement at the University of San Diego. King tried to not get involved in the controversy around the naming of the San Diego Convention Center after her husband. She maintained it was up to the "people within the community" and that people had tried to get her involved in with "those kind of local situations."  On January 17, 1993, King showed disdain for the U.S. missile attack on Iraq. In retaliation, she suggested peace protests. On February 16, 1993, King went to the FBI Headquarters and gave an approving address on Director William S. Sessions for having the FBI "turn its back on the abuses of the Hoover era." King commended Sessions for his "leadership in bringing women and minorities into the FBI and for being a true friend of civil rights." King admitted that she would not have accepted the arrangement had it not been for Sessions, the then-current director. On January 17, 1994, the day marking the 65th birthday of her husband, King said "No injustice, no matter how great, can excuse even a single act of violence against another human being." In January 1995, Qubilah Shabazz was indicted on charges of using telephones and crossing state lines in a plot to kill Louis Farrakhan. King defended her, saying at Riverside Church in Harlem that federal prosecutors targeted her to tarnish her father Malcolm X's legacy. During the fall of 1995, King chaired an attempt to register one million African American female voters for the presidential election next year with fellow widows Betty Shabazz and Myrlie Evers and was saluted by her daughter Yolanda in a Washington hotel ballroom. On October 12, 1995, King spoke about the O. J. Simpson murder case, which she negated having a long-term effect on relations between races when speaking to an audience at Soka University in Aliso Viejo, California. On January 24, 1996, King delivered a 40-minute speech at the Loyola University's Lake Shore campus in Rogers Park. She called for everyone to "pick up the torch of freedom and lead America towards another great revolution." On June 1, 1997, Betty Shabazz suffered extensive and life-threatening burns after her grandson Malcolm Shabazz started a fire in their home. In response to the hospitalization of her longtime friend, King donated $5,000 to a rehabilitation fund for her. Shabazz died on June 23, 1997, three weeks after being burned.  During the 1990s, King was subject to multiple break-ins and encountered Lyndon Fitzgerald Pace, a man who admitted killing women in the area. He broke into the house in the middle of the night and found her while she was sitting in her bed. After nearly eight years of staying in the home following the encounter, King moved to a condominium unit which had also been the home, albeit part-time, for singers Elton John and Janet Jackson. In 1999, the King family finally succeeded in getting a jury verdict saying her husband was the victim of a murder conspiracy after suing Loyd Jowers, who claimed six years prior to having paid someone other than James Earl Ray to kill her husband. On April 4, 2000, King visited her husband's grave with her sons, daughter Bernice and sister-in-law. Regarding plans to construct a monument for her husband in Washington, D.C., King said it would "complete a group of memorials in the nation's capital honoring democracy's greatest leaders, including Abraham Lincoln, George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and now Martin Luther King, Jr." She became vegan in the last 10 years of her life.

Illness and death.

By the end of her 77th year, Coretta began experiencing health problems. Her husband's former secretary, Dora McDonald, assisted her part-time in this period. Hospitalized in April 2005, a month after speaking in Selma at the 40th anniversary of the Selma Voting Rights Movement, she was diagnosed with a heart condition and was discharged on her 78th and final birthday. Later, she suffered several small strokes. On August 16, 2005, she was hospitalized after suffering a stroke and a mild heart attack. Initially, she was unable to speak or move her right side. King's daughter Bernice reported that she had been able to move her leg on Sunday, August 21 while her other daughter and oldest child Yolanda asserted that the family expected her to fully recover. She was released from Piedmont Hospital in Atlanta on September 22, 2005, after regaining some of her speech and continued physiotherapy at home. Due to continuing health problems, King canceled a number of speaking and traveling engagements throughout the remainder of 2005. On January 14, 2006, Coretta made her last public appearance in Atlanta at a dinner honoring her husband's memory. On January 26, 2006, King checked into a rehabilitation center in Rosarito Beach, Mexico under a different name. Doctors did not learn her real identity until her medical records arrived the next day, and did not begin treatment due to

Family life.

Martin often called Coretta "Corrie," even when the two were still only dating. The FBI captured a dispute between the couple in the middle of 1964, where the two both blamed each other for making the Civil Rights Movement even more difficult. Martin confessed in a 1965 sermon of his secretary having to remind him of his wife's birthday and the couple's wedding anniversary. For a time, many accompanying her husband would usually hear Coretta argue with him in telephone conversations. King resented her husband whenever he failed to call her about the children while he was away, and learned of his plans to not include her in formal visits, such as the White House. However, when King failed to meet to his own standards by missing a plane and fell into a level of despair, Coretta told her husband over the phone that "I believe in you, if that means anything." Author Ron Ramdin wrote "King faced many new and trying moments, his refuge was home and closeness to Coretta, whose calm and soothing voice whenever she sang, gave him renewed strength. She was the rock upon which his marriage and civil rights

Lawsuits.

The King family has mostly been criticized for their handling of Martin Luther King Jr.'s estate, both while Coretta was alive and after her death. The King family sued a California auction in 1992, the family's attorneys filing claims of stolen property against Superior Galleries in Los Angeles Superior Court for the document's return. The King family additionally sued the auction house for punitive damages.  In 1994, "USA Today" paid the family $10,000 in attorney's fees and court costs and also a $1,700 licensing fee for using the "I Have a Dream" speech without permission from them. CBS was sued by the King estate for copyright infringement in November 1996. The network marketed a tape containing excerpts of the "I Have a Dream" speech. CBS had filmed the speech when Martin Luther King Jr. delivered it in 1963 and did not pay the family a licensing fee.  On April 8, 1998, King met with attorney general Janet Reno as requested by President Bill Clinton. Their meeting took place at the Justice Department four days after the thirtieth anniversary of her husband's death. On July 29, 1998, Mrs. King and her son Dexter met

Legacy.

Coretta was viewed during her lifetime and posthumously as having strived to preserve her husband's legacy. The King Center, which she created the year of his assassination, allowed her husband's tomb to be memorialized. King was buried with her husband after her death, on February 7, 2006. King "fought to preserve his legacy" and her construction of the King Center is said to have aided in her efforts.  King has been linked and associated with Jacqueline Kennedy and Ethel Kennedy, as the three all lost their husbands to assassinations. The three were together when Coretta flew to Los Angeles after the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy to be with Ethel and shared "colorblind compassion." She has also been compared to Michelle Obama, the first African-American First Lady of the United States.  She is seen as being primarily responsible for the creation of the Martin

Recognition and tributes.

Coretta Scott King was the recipient of various honors and tributes both before and after her death. She received honorary degrees from many institutions, including Princeton University, Duke University, and Bates College. She was honored by both of her alma maters in 2004, receiving a Horace Mann Award from Antioch College and an Outstanding Alumni Award from the New England Conservatory of Music.  In 1970, the American Library Association began awarding a medal named for Coretta Scott King to outstanding African-American writers and illustrators of children's literature.  In 1978, Women's Way awarded King with their first Lucretia Mott Award for showing a dedication to the advancement of women and justice similar to Lucretia Mott's.  Many individuals and organizations paid tribute to Scott King following her death, including U.S. President George W. Bush, the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force, the Human Rights Campaign, the National Black Justice Coalition, and her alma mater Antioch College.  In 1983 she received the Four Freedom Award for the Freedom of Worship. She received the Key of Life award from the NAACP. In 1987 she received a Candace Award for Distinguished Service from the National Coalition of 100 Black Women.  In 1997, Coretta Scott King was the recipient of the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement  In 2004, Coretta Scott King was awarded the prestigious Gandhi Peace Prize by the Government of India.  In 2006, the Jewish National Fund, the organization that works to plant trees in Israel, announced the creation of the Coretta Scott King forest in the Galilee region of Northern Israel, with the purpose of "perpetuating her memory of equality and peace", as well as the work of her husband. When she learned about this plan, King wrote to Israel's parliament:  On April 3, 1968, the day before he was killed, Martin delivered his last public address. In it he spoke of the visit he and I made to Israel. Moreover, he spoke to us about his vision of the Promised Land, a land of justice and equality, brotherhood and peace. Martin dedicated his life to the goals of peace and unity among all peoples, and perhaps nowhere in the world is there a greater appreciation of the desirability and necessity of peace than in Israel.  In 2007, The Coretta Scott King Young Women's Leadership Academy (CSKYWLA) was opened in Atlanta, Georgia. At its inception, the school served girls in grade 6 with plans for expansion to grade 12 by 2014. CSKYWLA is a public school in the Atlanta Public Schools system. Among the staff and students, the acronym for the school's name, CSKYWLA (pronounced "see-skee-WAH-lah"), has been coined as a protologism to which this definition has given – "to be empowered by scholarship, non-violence, and social change." That year was also the first observance of Martin Luther King Jr. Day following her death, and she was also honored. Super Bowl XL was dedicated to King and Rosa Parks. Both were memorialized with a moment of silence during the pregame ceremonies. The children of both Parks and King then helped Tom Brady with the ceremonial coin toss. In addition two choirs representing the states of Georgia (King's home state) and Alabama (Park's home state) accompanied Dr. John, Aretha Franklin and Aaron Neville in the singing of the National Anthem.  She was inducted into the Alabama Women's Hall of Fame in 2009. She was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in 2011.

Congressional resolutions.

Upon the news of her death, moments of reflection, remembrance, and mourning began around the world. In the United States Senate, Majority Leader Bill Frist presented Senate Resolution 362 on behalf of all U.S. Senators, with the afternoon hours filled with

Coretta Scott King (née Scott; April 27, 1927 – January 30, 2006) was an American author, activist, civil rights leader, and the wife of Martin Luther King Jr. An active advocate for African-American equality, she was a leader for the Civil rights movement in the 1960s. King was also a singer who often incorporated music into her civil rights work. King met her husband while attending graduate school in Boston. They both became increasingly active in the American Civil Rights Movement.

Coretta Scott Kingová (27. dubna 1927 – 30. ledna 2006) byla americká autorka, aktivistka především v oblasti občanských práv a manželka Martina Luthera Kinga Jr.


History.

Monopoly.

During his trip to the United States in 1867–1868 the 23-year-old Belgian Georges Nagelmackers was impressed by the Pullman night trains. Upon his return home, he decided to establish a network of such trains in Europe. He envisioned that such trains should be luxurious and travel across borders.  In 1874 Nagelmackers founded the "Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits" and the "et des Grands Express Européens" addition became part of the name ten years later. By 1886 his company had become the main organiser for most European heads of state. The symbol "WL" held by two lions became a well-known trade mark.  The company ran either complete trains of "Wagon-Lits" cars or individual sleeping and dining cars were coupled onto services operated by the state railways of the European countries through which the "Wagon-Lits" cars passed. These cars were always drawn by locomotives of the various state railways, as "Wagon-Lits" did not operate its own fleet of locomotives.  Prior to World War I, CIWL held a monopoly being the only group catering to the needs of the international railroad traveller. The company introduced famous services, such as the "Orient-Express", the "Nord Express", and the "Sud Express" and expanded to markets outside Europe with involvement in the "Trans-Siberian Railway" across Russia. The Company's trains also reached Manchuria ("Trans-Manchurian Express"), China (Peking, Shanghai, and Nanking) and Cairo.

Hotels.

In 1894 the "Compagnie Internationale des Grands Hotels" was founded as a subsidiary and began operating a chain of luxury hotels in major cities. Among these were the "Hôtel Terminus" in Bordeaux and Marseille, the "Hôtel Pera Palace" in Istanbul, the "Hôtel de la Plage" in Ostend, and the "Grand Hôtel des Wagons-Lits" in Beijing (Peking).

Competition with Mitropa.

With the start of World War I CIWL's coaches were confiscated for military use. In Germany and Austro-Hungary Mitropa was founded to take over the property and services of CIWL. In 1919, the communists in Russia expropriated CIWL's local rolling stock and hotels. After the conclusion of World War I CIWL demanded to have its central European service routes restored. It regained these for Austria, Poland, and Czechoslovakia; however, in Germany the Reichsbahn and Mitropa sabotaged this process. On April 23, 1925, CIWL and Mitropa agreed to separate spheres of influence. CIWL received transit routes through Germany and routes between Germany and Belgium, France, Italy, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania and Czechoslovakia. Mitropa took over the routes between Germany and the Netherlands and Scandinavia, as well as trains within Germany, and to Gdańsk. Trains between Germany and Austria were served by both companies.  In the interbellum period CIWL flourished again. The company's blue and gold livery was introduced. In 1925 Wagon-Lits opened its first "Travel Palace" in Paris. Services extended to the Middle Eastern cities of Aleppo, Baghdad, Cairo, and Tehran. Metal coaches, replacing older wooden ones constructed of teak, became available in 1926. In 1931 the fleet reached its maximum of 2268 vehicles. This period can be considered the zenith of luxury rail travel. CIWL's carriages were decorated by such renowned artists as Réné Prou, René Lalique and Morrison. CIWL also commissioned renowned artists such as Adolphe Mouron Cassandre to design posters advertising its services.

Decline.

With anschluss in 1938, the Austrian market was lost to Mitropa (it was recovered after 1945). Because of World War II and the subsequent communist expansion, CIWL lost more markets in central and eastern Europe.  After World War II, CIWL increasingly focused on the travel agency and management business. Accordingly, it was renamed "Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits et du Tourisme" (CIWLT) in 1967, and later just called "Wagons-Lits".  By 1971 the rolling stock of CIWL had become aged and outdated, and the renovation and replacement needed was beyond the company. It sold or rented its coaches to the SNCF, FS, SBB, DB, ÖBB, NMBS/SNCB, NS, DSB and RENFE. An international sleeping car pool named TEN (Trans Euro Night) was founded at that time and took over and managed (until 1995) many of the carriages of CIWL and of the Mitropa-successor DSG.

Today.

Wagons-Lits is headquartered in Paris. Currently CIWL provides service on night trains in Austria, Italy and Portugal and meal and catering services in daytime trains of France, Italy, Portugal and on Eurostar services to the United Kingdom.  A number of sleeping-cars on the European continent are owned by CIWL. The cars are maintained by the sister company Rail Service International (RSI) in the Netherlands and leased to train operating companies.

Corporate history.

The company currently operates in Austria, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and the UK. The specifics of the services provided vary based on mergers and splits within the company and the surrounding business climate.

Thomas Cook.

In 1927, Thomas Cook was sold to CIWL after poor financial results; CIWL took a back-role in the running of the subsidiary.

Accor.

In 1991, "Wagons-Lits" became part of the French multi-national Accor Hotel and Leisure Group.  At the time, CIWL included the hotel brands Altea, Arcade, Etap, PLM and Pullman. Catering organisation Eurest and, in the automobile world, Wagons-Lits included Europcar rental and motorway break specialists Relais Autoroute.  Following the 1992 purchase, the Pullman hotels were gradually rebranded to Sofitel, allowing the Pullman name to be reused in 2007 for a new class of conference hotel. Sixty-eight existing Accor hotels will be transferred over, including some Sofitel that were originally Pullman hotels.  In May 2011, Accor announced plans to auction residual historic assets of Wagons-Lits, including posters and tableware.

Wagons-Lits Diffusion.

In 1996, all copyrights and trademarks concerning the use of historical brands and archive photographs were transferred to Wagons-Lits Diffusion in Paris. Wagons-Lits Diffusion manages the historic brands and logos derived from Compagnie des Wagons-Lits past activities.

Newrest.

In July 2010, the rail catering operations of Wagons-Lits were transferred from Accor to the catering company "Newrest", since then operating under the name "newrest wagons-lits".

Carlson Wagonlit Travel.

In 1997, the Europe business travel and leisure retail arm of Wagons-Lits (Wagonlit Travel) was merged on an equal basis with that of Carlson Travel Network (operating in the United States). The result was a new company called "Carlson Wagonlit Travel" jointly owned by Accor and Carlson Holdings Inc., the former parent companies of the merged entities.  The Carlson side of the merger had grown from a travel agency founded by Ward Forster in the United States in 1888. Originally called "Ask Mr. Foster Travel Agency", the chain was renamed to "Carlson Travel Network" following an earlier purchase by the Carlson Group and later to CWT.  Accor sold its 50% of Carlson Wagonlit Travel in 2006 for €500m to Carlson Companies and One Equity Partners. However, Accor maintains its interest in the railway service sector of Wagon Lits.

Famous CIWL trains.

Orient Express.

From 1883, the Orient Express operated between Paris and Istanbul in three nights and three times per week in each direction. The Orient Express deployed the first sleeping and dining cars for long-distance train travel in Europe. In 2003, the company restored seven cars of the famous "Pullman Orient Express" and made it available for tourist events. After 2007, the night sleeper service named Orient Express only operated between Strasbourg and Vienna. Made obsolete by Europe's high-speed rail network, the Orient Express made its last run on 14 December 2009.

Nord Express.

The Northern Express connected Paris with St. Petersburg (later Riga), via Germany, Poland and Eastern Europe. Begun in 1884, the service is now run by DB NachtZug from Paris as far as Hamburg, although it previously served Copenhagen.  The famous Art Deco poster "Nord Express: (1927) by Cassandre (Adolphe Mouron Cassandre) shows a stylised version of the train that traveled from London and Paris to Riga and Warsaw (Varsovie)

Sud Express.

The Southern Express connected Paris–Lisbon starting in 1887, to provide the second-half of the through connection from St. Petersburg (Finland/Russia) via Paris to the west coast of Portugal. In Lisbon, travellers could transfer to trans-Atlantic steamships.

Train Bleu.

The Blue Train linked Paris/Calais–Southern France overnight and used Wagons-Lits cars up until 1938. It was actually operated by French company called Chemins de fer de Paris à Lyon et à la Méditerranée.

Transsibérien.

The Trans-Siberian Express operated with the permission of the Russian Tsar until 1917 during World War I. The service ran from Moscow to Vladivostok and Peking, taking over one week in each direction.

Night Ferry.

The "Night Ferry" was a through London Victoria to Paris Gare du Nord overnight boat train. Wagons-Lits operated the service from October 1936 until December 1976 with specially constructed cars designed to fit the smaller British loading gauge. It was taken over by British Rail in January 1977, before ceasing in October 1980. Before the introduction of high-speed Eurostar services, this was the only through service. The train's English Channel segment between Dover and Dunkirk was made by train ferry.

London Vichy Pullman Express.

The Londres-Vichy Pullman Express ran between London and Vichy in France primarily to serve visitors to Vichy's famous thermal baths. Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits operated the service from 14 May 1927 until 19 September 1930.

List of CIWL services.

Basic data is listed. Further details are in the article regarding the specific train.

1918 Armistice coach.

The 1918 Armistice with Germany was signed in CIWL #2419 (""). Returned to CIWL service afterwards, it was retired later to join the French presidential train before being withdrawn in 1921 and placed on display in the Cour des Invalides, Paris until 1927, when it was moved to Compiègne for display. It remained on display in its own building, the "Clairiere de l'Armistice" until 1940, when it was removed by the German army and used to receive the 1940 Armistice with France between France and Nazi Germany. Following this, the carriage itself was taken to Berlin as a trophy of war, along with pieces of a large stone tablet which bore the inscription (in French):  Following this period of display in Berlin, CIWL #2419 was moved to Ohrdruf in Thuringia for storage in 1945. Following the Allied advance into Germany in early 1945, the detachment of SS troops protecting the carriage set it ablaze before burying the remains to prevent them from falling into Allied hands. Some remnants were later exhumed and moved back to the restored Compiègne site for display, while CIWL later donated another carriage from the same construction order, 1913-built CIWL #2439, in 1950 as a replacement. This carriage had also been at Compiègne on 11 November 1918, and it was renumbered as #2419D for display at Compiègne where it was installed on Armistice Day 1950.

CIWL phototheque and historical archives.

CIWL archives are rich of more than 100 years of posters, historical photos, plans and communication material that represent a tremendous interest for cultural, academic or commercial projects. The greatest creators and artists have been hired by CIWL since 1883 in order to create luxury conditions and confort in travel, as well as a particular graphic style that is now recognized worldwide by its quality. Great effort are made to digitalize images (photos, plans and posters), where as vast paper archives are preserved, waiting to be sorted and classified in a near future. As of today, available digital archives consist of more than 250 CIWL posters, 800 Paris–Lyon–Méditerranée (PLM) posters and more than 6,000 archives photos. Probably one of the most extensive poster collection in the world from the end of nineteenth century to the late 1950s. These archives are regularly used for all types of publishing and media projects, all over the world, as well as Cultural Events.

In popular culture.

Agatha Christie set two of her Hercule Poirot mysteries on or around CIWL trains:  Sidney Gilliat and Clifford Grey wrote the script for the 1932 British film directed by Walter Forde:  In 1991, David Copperfield performed a televised illusion which caused a recently restored "Orient Express dining car" (in fact an American dining car decorated in Wagon-Lits colours) to seemingly vanish into thin air.  CIWL model railway cars have been manufactured by many companies including Märklin, Fleischmann, Trix, Jouef, Bachmann, France Trains, LS Models and Tri-ang. Rivarossi also produced very detailed models, discontinued in the late nineties, production restarted lately with the new society affiliated to Hornby.

Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits (English: "International Sleeping-Car Company"), also CIWL, Compagnie des Wagons-Lits, or just Wagons-Lits, is an international hotel and travel logistics company, particularly known for its on-train catering and sleeping car services, as well as being the historical operator of the Orient Express.

Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits (CIWL, Compagnie des Wagons-Lits, Wagons-Lits) je mezinárodní hotelová a cestovní logistická společnost, obzvláště známá pro služby jídelních a lůžkových vozů, jakož i historický operátor Orient expresu."


Early accounts.

The first post-Roman record of the ruins at Vindolanda was made by the antiquarian William Camden, in his "Britannia" (1586). Occasional travellers reached the site over the next two hundred years, and the accounts they left predate much of the stone-stealing that has damaged the site. The military bath-house was still partly roofed when Christopher Hunter visited the site in 1702. In about 1715 an excise officer named John Warburton found an altar there, which he removed. In 1814 the first real archaeological work was begun, by the Rev. Anthony Hedley. Hedley died in 1835, before writing up his discoveries. Little more was done for a long time, although in 1914 a workman found another altar at the site, set up by the civilians living at the fort in honour of the Divine House and Vulcan. Several names for the site are used in the early records, including "Chesters on Caudley", "Little Chesters", "The Bower", and "Chesterholm"; the altar found in 1914 confirmed that the Roman name for the site was "Vindolanda", which had been in dispute as one early source referred to it as "Vindolana".

Garrison.

The garrison consisted of infantry or cavalry auxilia, not components of Roman legions. From the early third century onwards, this was the Cohors IV Gallorum equitata also known as the Fourth Cohort of Gauls. It had been presumed that this title was, by this time, purely nominal, with auxiliary troops being recruited locally, but an inscription found in a recent season of excavations suggests that native Gauls were still to be found in the regiment and that they liked to distinguish themselves from British soldiers. The inscription reads:  A translation of this is "The troops from Gaul dedicate this statue to the goddess Gallia with the full support of the British-born troops".

Fort and village.

Early wooden forts.

The earliest Roman forts at Vindolanda were built of wood and turf. The remains are now buried as much as deep in the anoxic waterlogged soil. There are five timber forts, built (and demolished) one after the other. The first, a small fort, was probably built by the 1st Cohort of Tungrians about 85 AD. By about 95 AD this was replaced by a larger wooden fort built by the 9th Cohort of Batavians, a mixed infantry-cavalry unit of about 1000 men. That fort was repaired in about 100 AD under the command of the Roman prefect Flavius Cerialis. When the 9th Cohort of Batavians left in 105 AD, their fort was demolished. The 1st Cohort of Tungrians returned to Vindolanda, built a larger wooden fort, and remained here until Hadrian's Wall was built around 122 AD, when they moved, most likely to Vercovicium (Housesteads Roman Fort).

Stone forts, stone huts.

Soon after Hadrian's Wall was built, most of its men were moved north to the Antonine Wall. A stone fort was built at Vindolanda, possibly for the 2nd Cohort of Nervians. From 208 to 211 AD, there was a major rebellion against Rome in Britain, and the Emperor Septimius Severus led an army to Britain to cope with it personally. The old stone fort was demolished, and replaced by an unconventional set of army buildings on the west, and an unusual array of many round stone huts where the old fort had been. Some of these circular huts are visible by the north and the southwest walls of the final stone fort. The Roman army may have built these to accommodate families of British farmers in this unsettled period. Septimius Severus died at York in 211 AD; his sons paid off the rebels and left for Rome. The stone buildings were demolished, and a large new stone fort was built where the huts had been, for the 4th Cohort of Gauls.

Vicus.

A "vicus", a self-governing village, developed to the west of the fort. The "vicus" contains several rows of buildings, each containing several one-room chambers. Most are not connected to the existing drainage system. The one that does was perhaps a butchery where, for health reasons, an efficient drain would have been important. A stone altar found in 1914 (and exhibited in the museum) proves that the settlement was officially a "vicus", and that it was named Vindolanda. To the south of the fort is a thermae (a large imperial bath complex), that would have been used by many of the individuals on the site. The later stone fort, and the adjoining village, remained in use until about 285 AD, when it was largely abandoned for unknown reasons.

4th century forts.

About 300, the fort was again rebuilt, but the "vicus" was not reoccupied, so most likely the area remained too unsafe for life outside the defended walls of the fort. In about 370, the fort was roughly repaired, perhaps by irregular soldiers. There is no evidence for the traditional view that Roman occupation ended suddenly in 410; it may have declined slowly.

Excavation.

In the 1930s, the house at Chesterholm where the museum is now located was purchased by archaeologist Eric Birley, who was interested in excavating the site. The excavations have been continued by his sons, Robin and Anthony, and his grandson, Andrew Birley, into the present day. They are undertaken each summer, and some of the archaeological deposits reach depths of six metres. The anoxic conditions at these depths have preserved thousands of artefacts, such as wooden writing tablets and over 160 boxwood combs, that normally disintegrate in the ground, thus providing an opportunity to gain a fuller understanding of Roman life – military and otherwise – on the northern frontier. A study of spindle whorls from the north-western quadrant has indicated the presence of spinners of low- and high- status in the fort in the 3rd and 4th century AD. Along with ongoing excavations (in season) and excavated remains, a full-size replica of a section of Hadrian's Wall in both stone and turf can be seen on the site. As of yet there is no reconstruction of the Vallum.  Nearly 2000-year-old Roman boxing gloves were uncovered at Vindolanda in 2017 by the Vidolanda Trust experts led by Dr Andrew Birley. According to the Guardian, being similar in style and function to the full-hand modern boxing gloves, these two gloves found at Vindolanda look like leather bands date back to 120 AD. It is suggested that based on their difference from gladiator gloves warriors using this type of gloves had no purpose to kill each other. These gloves were probably used in a sport for promoting fighting skills. The gloves are currently displayed at Vindolanda’s museum. According to Birley, they are not part of a matching pair: Recent excavations have been accompanied by new archaeological methodologies. 3D imaging has been used to investigate the use of an ox cranium in target practice.

Media attention.

In addition to the older initial findings of ink tablets, shoes and combs, several more artifacts and discoveries of note have been covered by the media. In 2017, the British newspaper "The Guardian" focused on a discovery of cavalry barracks that were uncovered during the excavation season that held a large number of artifacts including swords, ink tablets, textiles, arrowheads, and other military paraphernalia. Relative dating of the barracks had determined that they were built around 105 AD. "The Guardian" also publicized the discovery of a cache of 25 ink tablets found earlier in the 2017 season. The tablets were discovered in a trench in one of the earliest layers of the fort, dating to the 1st century AD. This discovery was considered to be the second-largest discovery of ink tablets in the world, with the first being a cache that was also discovered at Vindolanda in 1992.  In the 2014 excavation season, BBC ran a story about the discovery of one of the few surviving examples of a wooden toilet seat to be found in the Roman Empire. In the same year, they also recorded the discovery of the only (very old, very worn) gold coin ever to be found on the site with a mint date of 64 or 65 AD, lying in a site layer dating to the 4th century AD.  In 2010, the BBC announced the discovery of the remains of a child between the ages of 8 and 10 years, which was uncovered in a shallow pit in a barrack room in a position suggesting that its arms may have been bound. Further archaeological analysis indicated that it could be female. She is believed to have died about 1,800 years ago.  Another find publicised on the BBC website in 2006 was a bronze and silver fibula modelled with the figure of Mars, with the name Quintus Sollonius punched into its surface.

Site museum.

The Vindolanda site museum, also known as Chesterholm Museum, conserves and displays finds from the site. The museum is set in gardens, which include full-sized reconstructions of a Roman temple, a Roman shop, a Roman house and Northumbrian croft, all with audio presentations. Exhibits include Roman boots, shoes, armour, jewellery and coins, infrared photographs of the writing tablets and, from 2011, a small selection of the tablets themselves, on loan from the British Museum. 2011 saw the reopening of the museum at Vindolanda, and also the Roman Army Museum at Magnae Carvetiorum (Carvoran), refurbished with a grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund.

Vindolanda Trust.

In 1970, the Vindolanda Trust, a registered charity, was founded to administer the site and its museum, and in 1997, the Trust took over the running of the Roman Army Museum at Carvoran to the west, another Hadrian's Wall fort, which it had acquired in 1972.

Vindolanda was a Roman auxiliary fort ("castrum") just south of Hadrian's Wall in northern England, which it originally pre-dated. Archaeological excavations of the site show it was under Roman occupation from roughly 85 AD to 370 AD. Located near the modern village of Bardon Mill in Northumberland, it guarded the Stanegate, the Roman road from the River Tyne to the Solway Firth. It is noted for the Vindolanda tablets, a set of wooden leaf-tablets that were, at the time of their discovery, the oldest surviving handwritten documents in Britain.

Pevnost se nacházela v blízkosti moderní vesnice Bardon Mill v hrabství Northumberland. Střežila Stanegate, strategicky důležitou římskou silnici. Pevnost proslavily zejména vindolandské tabulky, přibližně dva tisíce tenkých dřevěných tabulek popsaných inkoustem, které byly v době svého objevu nejstaršími zachovanými rukou psanými dokumenty v Británii.


Birth and education.

Barish was born in Omaha, Nebraska, the son of Lee and Harold Barish. His parents' families were Jewish immigrants from a part of Poland that is now in Belarus. Just after World War II, the family moved to Los Feliz in Los Angeles. He attended John Marshall High School and other schools.  He earned a B.A. degree in physics (1957) and a Ph.D. degree in experimental high energy physics (1962) at the University of California, Berkeley. He joined Caltech in 1963 as part of a new experimental effort in particle physics using frontier particle accelerators at the national laboratories. From 1963 to 1966, he was a research fellow, and from 1966 to 1991 an Assistant Professor, Associate Professor, and Professor of Physics. From 1991 to 2005, he became Linde Professor of Physics, and after that Linde Professor of Physics, Emeritus. From 1984 to 1996, he was the principal investigator of Caltech High Energy Physics Group.

Research.

Firstly, Barish's experiments were performed at Fermilab using high-energy neutrino collisions to reveal the quark substructure of the nucleon. Among others, these experiments were the first to observe a current that was weak and neutral, a linchpin of the electroweak unification theories of Salam, Glashow, and Weinberg.  In the 1980s, he directed MACRO, an experiment in a cave in Gran Sasso, Italy, that searched for exotic particles called magnetic monopoles and also studied penetrating cosmic rays, including neutrino measurements that provided important confirmatory evidence that neutrinos have mass and oscillate.  In 1991, Barish was named the Maxine and Ronald Linde Professor of Physics at Caltech.  In the early 1990s, he spearheaded GEM (Gammas, Electrons, Muons), an experiment that would have run at the Superconducting Super Collider which was approved after the former project L* led by Samuel Ting (and Barish as chairman of collaboration board) was rejected by SSC director Roy Schwitters. Barish was GEM spokesperson.  Barish became the principal investigator of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO) in 1994 and director in 1997. He led the effort through the approval of funding by the NSF National Science Board in 1994, the construction and commissioning of the LIGO interferometers in Livingston, LA and Hanford, WA in 1997. He created the LIGO Scientific Collaboration, which now numbers more than 1000 collaborators worldwide to carry out the science.  The initial LIGO detectors reached design sensitivity and set many limits on astrophysical sources. The Advanced LIGO proposal was developed while Barish was director, and he has continued to play a leading role in LIGO and Advanced LIGO. The first detection of the merger of two 30 solar mass black holes was made on September 14, 2015. This represented the first direct detection of gravitational waves since they were predicted by Einstein in 1916 and the first ever observation of the merger of a pair of black holes. Barish delivered the first presentation on this discovery to a scientific audience at CERN on February 11, 2016, simultaneously with the public announcement.  From 2001 to 2002, Barish served as co-chair of the High Energy Physics Advisory Panel subpanel that developed a long-range plan for U.S. high energy physics. He has chaired the Commission of Particles and Fields and the U.S. Liaison committee to the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP). In 2002, he chaired the NRC Board of Physics and Astronomy Neutrino Facilities Assessment Committee Report, "Neutrinos and Beyond".  From 2005 to 2013, Barish was Director of the Global Design Effort for the International Linear Collider (ILC). The ILC is the highest priority future project for particle physics worldwide, as it promises to complement the Large Hadron Collider at CERN in exploring the TeV energy scale. This ambitious effort is being uniquely coordinated worldwide, representing a major step in international collaborations going from conception to design to implementation for large scale projects in physics.

Honors and awards.

In 2002, he received the Klopsteg Memorial Award of the American Association of Physics Teachers. Barish was honored by the University of Bologna (2006) and University of Florida ( 2007) where he received honorary doctorates. In 2007, delivered the Van Vleck lectures at the University of Minnesota. The University of Glasgow honored Barish with an honorary degree of science in 2013.  Barish was honored as a "Titan of Physics" in the On the Shoulders of Giants series at the 2016 World Science Festival.  In 2016, Barish received the Enrico Fermi Prize "for his fundamental contributions to the formation of the LIGO and LIGO-Virgo scientific collaborations and for his role in addressing challenging technological and scientific aspects whose solution led to the first detection of gravitational waves".  Barish was a recipient of the 2016 "Smithsonian" magazine's American Ingenuity Award in the Physical Science category.  Barish was awarded the 2017 Henry Draper Medal from the National Academy of Sciences "for his visionary and pivotal leadership role, scientific guidance, and novel instrument design during the development of LIGO that were crucial for LIGO's discovery of gravitational waves from colliding black holes, thus directly validating Einstein's 100-year-old prediction of gravitational waves and ushering a new field of gravitational wave astronomy."  Barish was a recipient of the 2017 Giuseppe and Vanna Cocconi Prize of the European Physical Society for his "pioneering and leading role in the LIGO observatory that led to the direct detection of gravitational waves, opening a new window to the Universe."  Barish was a recipient of the 2017 Princess of Asturias Award for his work on gravitational waves (jointly with Kip Thorne and Rainer Weiss).  Barish was a recipient of the 2017 Fudan-Zhongzhi Science Award for his leadership in the construction and initial operations of LIGO, the creation of the international LIGO Scientific Collaboration, and for the successful conversion of LIGO from small science executed by a few research groups into big science that involved large collaborations and major infrastructures, which eventually enabled gravitational-wave detection" (jointly with Kip Thorne and Rainer Weiss).  In 2017, he won the Nobel Prize in Physics (jointly with Rainer Weiss and Kip Thorne) "for decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves".  In 2018, Barish was honored as the Alumnus of the year by the University of California, Berkeley.  In 2018, he received an honorary doctorate at Southern Methodist University.  In 2018, he was conferred the Honorary Degree Doctor Honoris Causa of Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski  In the Fall 2019 Vol. 14 No.4 of "UCR", the UC Riverside magazine, Barish was honored with a profile detailing his career and accomplishments.  Barish has been elected to and held fellowship at the following organizations:

Family.

Barry Barish is married to Samoan Barish. They have two children, Stephanie Barish and Kenneth Barish, professor and chair of Physics & Astronomy at University of California, Riverside, and three grandchildren, Milo Barish Chamberlin, Thea Chamberlin, and Ariel Barish.

Barry Clark Barish (born January 27, 1936) is an American experimental physicist and Nobel Laureate. He is a Linde Professor of Physics, emeritus at California Institute of Technology. He is a leading expert on gravitational waves.

Barry Clark Barish (* 27. ledna 1936, Omaha) je americký fyzik židovského původu. V roce 2017 získal Nobelovu cenu za fyziku, za objev gravitačních vln. Cenu získal společně s Kipem Thornem a Reinerem Weissem.