Early life.

Joplin was the second of six children born to Giles Joplin, an ex-slave from North Carolina, and Florence Givens, a freeborn African-American woman from Kentucky.. His birth date was accepted by early biographers Blesh and Haskins as November 24, 1868, although later biographer Berlin showed this was "almost certainly incorrect". There is disagreement over his exact place of birth in Texas, with Blesh identifying Texarkana, Texas, and Berlin showing the earliest record of Joplin being the June 1870 census which locates him in Linden, Texas as a two-year old.  By 1880 the Joplins moved to Texarkana, Arkansas, where Giles worked as a railroad laborer and Florence as a cleaner. As Joplin's father had played the violin for plantation parties in North Carolina, and his mother sang and played the banjo, he was given a rudimentary musical education by his family, and from the age of seven, he was allowed to play the piano while his mother cleaned.  At some point in the early 1880s, Giles Joplin left the family for another woman, and Florence struggled to support her children

Life in the southern states and Chicago.

In the late 1880s, having performed at various local events as a teenager, Joplin gave up his job as a railroad laborer and left Texarkana to become a traveling musician. Little is known about his movements at this time, although he is recorded in Texarkana in July 1891 as a member of the Texarkana Minstrels, who were raising money for a monument to Jefferson Davis, president of the former Confederate States of America. However, Joplin soon learned that there were few opportunities for black pianists. Churches and brothels were among the few options for steady work. Joplin played pre-ragtime"jig-piano" in various red-light districts throughout the

Life in Missouri.

In 1894 Joplin arrived in Sedalia, Missouri. At first, Joplin stayed with the family of Arthur Marshall, at the time a 13-year-old boy but later one of Joplin's students and a ragtime composer in his own right. There is no record of Joplin having a permanent residence in the town until 1904, as Joplin was making a living as a touring musician.  There is little precise evidence known about Joplin's activities at this time, although he performed as a solo musician at dances and at the major black clubs in Sedalia, the Black 400 Club and the Maple Leaf Club. He performed in the Queen City Cornet Band and his own six-piece dance orchestra. A tour with his own singing group, the Texas Medley Quartet, gave him his first opportunity to publish his own compositions, and it is known that he went to Syracuse, New York and Texas. Two businessmen from New York published Joplin's first two works, the songs "Please Say You Will" and "A Picture of Her Face", in 1895. Joplin's visit to Temple, Texas enabled him to have three pieces published there in 1896, including the "Great Crush Collision March", which commemorated a planned train crash on the Missouri–Kansas–Texas Railroad on September 15 that he may have witnessed. The march was described by one of Joplin's biographers as a "special... early essay in ragtime." While in Sedalia, Joplin taught piano to students who included future ragtime composers Arthur Marshall, Brun Campbell and Scott Hayden. Joplin enrolled at the George R. Smith College, where he apparently studied "...advanced harmony and composition." The college's records were destroyed in a fire in 1925, and biographer Edward A. Berlin notes that it was unlikely that a small college for African-Americans would be able to provide such a course.  In 1899, Joplin married Belle, the sister-in-law of collaborator Scott Hayden. Although there were hundreds of rags in print by the time the "Maple Leaf Rag" was published, Joplin was not far behind. His first published rag, "Original Rags", had been completed in 1897, the same year that the first ragtime work appeared in print, the "Mississippi Rag" by William Krell. The "Maple Leaf Rag" was likely to have been known in Sedalia before its publication in 1899; Brun Campbell claimed to have seen the manuscript of the work in around 1898. The exact circumstances that led to the publication of the "Maple Leaf Rag" are unknown, and a number of versions of the event contradict each other. After several unsuccessful approaches to publishers, Joplin signed a contract on August 10, 1899 with John Stillwell Stark,

Later years and death.

In 1907, Joplin moved to New York City, which he believed was the best place to find a producer for a new opera. After his move to New York, Joplin met Lottie Stokes, whom he married in 1909. In 1911, unable to find a publisher, Joplin undertook the financial burden of publishing "Treemonisha" himself in piano-vocal format. In 1915, as a last-ditch effort to see it performed, he invited a small audience to hear it at a rehearsal hall in Harlem. Poorly staged and with only Joplin on piano accompaniment, it was "a miserable failure" to a public not ready for "crude" black musical forms—so different from the European grand opera of that time. The audience, including potential backers, was indifferent and walked out. Scott writes that "after a disastrous single performance... Joplin suffered a breakdown. He was bankrupt, discouraged, and worn out." He concludes that few American artists of his

Works.

The combination of classical music, the musical atmosphere present around Texarkana (including work songs, gospel hymns, spirituals and dance music) and Joplin's natural ability have been cited as contributing significantly to the invention of a new style that blended African-American musical styles with European forms and melodies, and first became celebrated in the 1890s: ragtime.  When Joplin was learning the piano, serious musical circles condemned ragtime because of its association with the vulgar and inane songs "...cranked out by the tune-smiths of Tin Pan Alley." As a composer Joplin refined ragtime, elevating it above the low and unrefined form played by the "...wandering honky-tonk pianists... playing mere dance music" of popular imagination. This new art form, the classic rag, combined Afro-American folk music's syncopation and 19th-century European romanticism, with its harmonic schemes and its march-like tempos. In the words of one critic, "Ragtime was basically... an Afro-American version of the polka, or its analog, the Sousa-style march." With this as a foundation, Joplin intended his compositions to be played exactly as he wrote them – without improvisation. Joplin wrote his rags as "classical" music in miniature form in order to raise ragtime above its "cheap bordello" origins and produced work that opera historian Elise Kirk described as, "... more tuneful, contrapuntal, infectious, and harmonically colorful than any others of his era."  Some speculate that Joplin's achievements were influenced by his classically trained German music teacher Julius Weiss, who may have brought a polka rhythmic sensibility from the old country to the 11-year old Joplin. As Curtis put it, "The educated German could open up the door to a world of learning and music of which young Joplin was largely unaware."  Joplin's first and most significant hit, the "Maple Leaf Rag", was described as the archetype of the classic rag, and influenced subsequent rag composers for at least 12 years after its initial publication thanks to its rhythmic patterns, melody lines, and harmony, though with the exception of Joseph Lamb, they generally failed to enlarge upon it. Joplin used the "Maple Leaf Rag" as inspiration for subsequent works such as "The Cascades" in 1903, "Leola" in 1905, "Gladiolus Rag" in 1907, and "Sugar Cane Rag" in 1908. While he used similar harmonic and melodic patterns the later compositions were not simple copies, but were distinctly new works, which used dissonance, chromatic sections and the blues third.

"Treemonisha".

The opera's setting is a former slave community in an isolated forest near Joplin's childhood town Texarkana in September 1884. The plot centers on an 18-year-old woman Treemonisha who is taught to read by a white woman, and then leads her community against the influence of conjurers who prey on ignorance and superstition. Treemonisha is abducted and is about to be thrown into a wasps' nest when her friend Remus rescues her. The community realizes the value of education and the liability of their ignorance before choosing her as their teacher and leader.  Joplin wrote

Performance skills.

Joplin's skills as a pianist were described in glowing terms by a Sedalia newspaper in 1898, and fellow ragtime composers Arthur Marshall and Joe Jordan both said that he played the instrument well. However, the son of publisher John Stark stated that Joplin was a rather mediocre pianist and that he composed on paper, rather than at the piano. Artie Matthews recalled the "delight" the St. Louis players took in outplaying Joplin.  While Joplin never made an audio recording, his playing is preserved on seven piano rolls for use in mechanical player pianos. All seven were made in 1916.

Legacy.

Joplin and his fellow ragtime composers rejuvenated American popular music, fostering an appreciation for African-American music among European-Americans by creating exhilarating and liberating dance tunes. "Its syncopation and rhythmic drive gave it a vitality and freshness attractive to young urban audiences indifferent to Victorian proprieties... Joplin's ragtime expressed the intensity and energy of a modern urban America."  Joshua Rifkin, a leading Joplin recording artist, wrote, "A pervasive sense of lyricism infuses his work, and even at his most high-spirited, he cannot repress a hint of melancholy or adversity... He had little in common with the fast and flashy school of ragtime that grew up after him." Joplin historian Bill Ryerson adds that, "In the hands of authentic practitioners like Joplin, ragtime was a disciplined form capable of astonishing variety and subtlety... Joplin did for the rag what Chopin did for the mazurka. His style ranged from tones of torment to stunning serenades that incorporated the bolero and the tango." Biographer Susan Curtis wrote that Joplin's music had helped to "revolutionise American music and culture" by removing Victorian restraint.  Composer and actor Max Morath found it striking that the vast majority of Joplin's work did not enjoy the popularity of the "Maple Leaf Rag", because while the compositions were of increasing lyrical beauty and delicate syncopation they remained obscure and unheralded during his life. Joplin apparently realized that his music was ahead of its time: As music historian Ian Whitcomb mentions that Joplin, "...opined that "Maple Leaf Rag" would make him 'King of Ragtime Composers' but he also knew that he would not be a pop hero in his own lifetime. 'When I'm dead twenty-five years, people are going to recognize me,' he told a friend." Just over thirty years later he was recognized, and later historian Rudi Blesh wrote a large book about ragtime, which he dedicated to the memory of Joplin.  Although he was penniless and disappointed at the end of his life, Joplin set the standard for ragtime compositions and played a key role in the development of ragtime music. And as a pioneer composer and performer, he helped pave the way for young black artists to reach American audiences of all races. After his death, jazz historian Floyd Levin noted: "Those few who realized his greatness bowed their heads in sorrow. This was the passing of the king of all ragtime writers, the man who gave America a genuine native music."

Revival.

After his death in 1917, Joplin's music and ragtime in general waned in popularity as new forms of musical styles, such as jazz and novelty piano, emerged. Even so, jazz bands and recording artists such as Tommy Dorsey in 1936, Jelly Roll Morton in 1939 and J. Russel Robinson in 1947 released recordings of Joplin compositions. "Maple Leaf Rag" was the Joplin piece found most often on 78 rpm records.  In the 1960s, a small-scale reawakening of interest in classical ragtime was underway among some American music scholars such as Trebor Tichenor, William Bolcom, William Albright and Rudi Blesh. Audiophile Records released a two-record set, "The Complete Piano Works of Scott Joplin, The Greatest of Ragtime Composers", performed by Knocky Parker, in 1970.  In 1968, Bolcom and Albright interested Joshua Rifkin, a young musicologist, in the body of Joplin's work. Together, they hosted an occasional ragtime-and-early-jazz evening on WBAI radio. In November 1970, Rifkin released a recording called "" on the classical label Nonesuch. It sold 100,000 copies in its first year and eventually became Nonesuch's first million-selling record. The "Billboard" Best-Selling Classical LPs chart for September 28, 1974 has the record at number 5, with the follow-up "Volume 2" at number 4, and a combined set of both volumes at number 3. Separately both volumes had been on the chart for 64 weeks. In the top seven spots on that chart, six of the entries were recordings of Joplin's work, three of which were Rifkin's. Record stores found themselves for the first time putting ragtime in the classical music section. The album was nominated in 1971 for two Grammy Award categories: Best Album Notes and Best Instrumental Soloist Performance (without orchestra). Rifkin was also under consideration for a third Grammy for a recording not related to Joplin, but at the ceremony on March 14, 1972, Rifkin did not win in any category. He did a tour in 1974, which included appearances on BBC Television and a sell-out concert at London's Royal Festival Hall. In 1979, Alan Rich wrote in the magazine "New York" that by giving artists like Rifkin the opportunity to put Joplin's music on disc, Nonesuch Records "...created, almost alone, the Scott Joplin revival."  In January 1971, Harold C. Schonberg, music critic at "The New York Times", having just heard the Rifkin album, wrote a featured Sunday edition article entitled "Scholars, Get Busy on Scott Joplin!" Schonberg's call to action has been described as the catalyst for classical music scholars, the sort of people Joplin had battled all his life, to conclude that Joplin was a genius. Vera Brodsky Lawrence of the New York Public Library published a two-volume set of Joplin works in June 1971, entitled "The Collected Works of Scott Joplin", stimulating a wider interest in the performance of Joplin's music.  In mid-February 1973 under the direction of Gunther Schuller, the New England Conservatory Ragtime Ensemble recorded an album of Joplin's rags taken from the period collection "Standard High-Class Rags" called "Joplin: The Red Back Book". The album won a Grammy Award as Best Chamber Music Performance in that year, and went on to become "Billboard" magazine's Top Classical Album of 1974. The group subsequently recorded two more albums for Golden Crest Records: "More Scott Joplin Rags" in 1974 and "The Road From Rags To Jazz" in 1975.  In 1973, film producer George Roy Hill contacted Schuller and Rifkin separately, asking each man to write the score for a film project he was working on: "The Sting". Both men turned down the request because of previous commitments. Instead Hill found Marvin Hamlisch available, and brought him into the project as composer. Hamlisch lightly adapted Joplin's music for "The Sting", for which he won an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score and Adaptation on April 2, 1974. His version of "The Entertainer" reached number 3 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and the American Top 40 music chart on May 18, 1974, prompting "The New York Times" to write, "The whole nation has begun to take notice." Thanks to the film and its score, Joplin's work became appreciated in both the popular and classical music world, becoming (in the words of music magazine "Record World"), the "classical phenomenon of the decade." Rifkin later said of the film soundtrack that Hamlisch lifted his piano adaptations directly from Rifkin's style and his band adaptations from Schuller's style. Schuller said Hamlisch, "...got the Oscar for music he didn't write (since it is by Joplin) and arrangements he didn't write, and 'editions' he didn't make. A lot of people were upset by that, but that's show biz!"  On October 22, 1971, excerpts from "Treemonisha" were presented in concert form at Lincoln Center with musical performances by Bolcom, Rifkin and Mary Lou Williams supporting a group of singers. Finally, on January 28, 1972, T.J. Anderson's orchestration of "Treemonisha" was staged for two consecutive nights, sponsored by the Afro-American Music Workshop of Morehouse College in Atlanta, with singers accompanied by the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra under the direction of Robert Shaw, and choreography by Katherine Dunham. Schonberg remarked in February 1972 that the "Scott Joplin Renaissance" was in full swing and still growing. In May 1975, "Treemonisha" was staged in a full opera production by the Houston Grand Opera. The company toured briefly, then settled into an eight-week run in New York on Broadway at the Palace Theatre in October and November. This appearance was directed by Gunther Schuller, and soprano Carmen Balthrop alternated with Kathleen Battle as the title character. An "original Broadway cast" recording was produced. Because of the lack of national exposure given to the brief Morehouse College staging of the opera in 1972, many Joplin scholars wrote that the Houston Grand Opera's 1975 show was the first full production.  1974 saw the Birmingham Royal Ballet under director Kenneth MacMillan create "Elite Syncopations", a ballet based on tunes by Joplin and other composers of the era. That year also brought the premiere by the Los Angeles Ballet of "Red Back Book", choreographed by John Clifford to Joplin rags from the collection of the same name, including both solo piano performances and arrangements for full orchestra.

Scott Joplin (c. 1868 – April 1, 1917) was an American composer and pianist. Joplin achieved fame for his ragtime compositions and was dubbed the King of Ragtime. During his brief career, he wrote over 100 original ragtime pieces, one ragtime ballet, and two operas. One of his first and most popular pieces, the "Maple Leaf Rag", became ragtime's first and most influential hit, and has been recognized as the archetypal rag.

Scott Joplin (pravděpodobně * 24. listopadu 1867 – 1. dubna 1917 New York) byl americký černošský hudebník, pianista a skladatel, jeden z prvních představitelů ragtimu. Mezi jeho nejslavnější skladby patří "Maple Leaf Rag" a "The Entertainer" (známá z filmu "Podraz"), která se dokonce v roce 1974 dostala na třetí místo americké singlové hitparády.


Equivalent definition.

In addition to the definition above, there is an equivalent definition. A directed set is a set "A" with a preorder such that every finite subset of "A" has an upper bound. In this definition, the existence of an upper bound of the empty subset implies that "A" is nonempty.

Examples.

Examples of directed sets include:

Contrast with semilattices.

Directed sets are a more general concept than (join) semilattices: every join semilattice is a directed set, as the join or least upper bound of two elements is the desired "c". The converse does not hold however, witness the directed set {1000,0001,1101,1011,1111} ordered bitwise (e.g. 1000 ≤ 1011 holds, but 0001 ≤ 1000 does not, since in the last bit 1 > 0), where {1000,0001} has three upper bounds but no "least" upper bound, cf. picture. (Also note that without 1111, the set is not directed.)

Directed subsets.

The order relation in a directed set is not required to be antisymmetric, and therefore directed sets are not always partial orders. However, the term "directed set" is also used frequently in the context of posets. In this setting, a subset "A" of a partially ordered set ("P",≤) is called a directed subset if it is a directed set according to the same partial order: in other words, it is not the empty set, and every pair of elements has an upper bound. Here the order relation on the elements of "A" is inherited from "P"; for this reason, reflexivity and transitivity need not be required explicitly.  A directed subset of a poset is not required to be downward closed; a subset of a poset is directed if and only if its downward closure is an ideal. While the definition of a directed set is for an "upward-directed" set (every pair of elements has an upper bound), it is also possible to define a downward-directed set in which every pair of elements has a common lower bound. A subset of a poset is downward-directed if and only if its upper closure is a filter.  Directed subsets are used in domain theory, which studies directed complete partial orders. These are posets in which every upward-directed set is required to have a least upper bound. In this context, directed subsets again provide a generalization of convergent sequences.

In mathematics, a directed set (or a directed preorder or a filtered set) is a nonempty set "A" together with a reflexive and transitive binary relation ≤ (that is, a preorder), with the additional property that every pair of elements has an upper bound. In other words, for any "a" and "b" in "A" there must exist "c" in "A" with "a" ≤ "c" and "b" ≤ "c".

Předpokládejme, že množina A je částečně uspořádána relací R a B je podmnožina A. Řekneme, že B je dolů usměrněná množina, pokud pro každé své dva prvky obsahuje alespoň jeden prvek menší, než oba dva, tj. formula_1 Řekneme, že B je nahoru usměrněná množina, pokud pro každé své dva prvky obsahuje alespoň jeden prvek větší, než oba dva, tj. formula_2


Early life.

Carpenter was born in Las Vegas, Nevada, the daughter of Christine, a bird sanctuary worker, and Don Carpenter, a salesman. She is of Spanish (from her maternal grandfather), French, and German descent. Carpenter attended Bishop Gorman High School in Las Vegas; she was also a part of a song-and-dance troupe which performed in the Las Vegas Valley when she was nine years old.  When Carpenter was 15, her family moved to Rosarito Beach, Baja California, Mexico and then to San Diego, California. She attended Bonita Vista High School, and Chula Vista School of the Creative and Performing Arts. After graduation, Carpenter traveled throughout Europe. When she returned to San Diego, she worked as a video store clerk, an aerobics instructor, and in property management. In 1991, she worked as a cheerleader for the San Diego Chargers football team. In 1992, she moved to Los Angeles.  While swimming in San Diego in 1991, she and two of her friends were attacked by Henry Hubbard Jr., a former San Diego police officer and serial rapist who attempted to subdue her two male friends at gunpoint. During the struggle, her two friends and Hubbard were all shot, forcing him to flee the scene. Her friends survived. Hubbard was arrested, convicted and sentenced to 56 years in prison for a series of rapes and robberies. Carpenter brought Hubbard's police-issue flashlight from the beach, which he had left at the scene, and the flashlight became a key piece of evidence against him.

Career.

Carpenter was discovered by a commercial agent while waiting tables in Los Angeles to save money for her college education. This led to her role on theatrical productions and more than twenty commercials. She made her first television role in 1994 by appearing in an episode of "Baywatch". Shortly after that, she landed a starring role in the NBC short-lived teen drama/soap opera series "Malibu Shores".  In 1996, Carpenter auditioned for the title role in The WB supernatural drama series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" but instead was cast as Cordelia Chase, a snobby and popular high school student. After three seasons on "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", Carpenter was offered an even larger role as the same character on the spin-off series "Angel" alongside David Boreanaz. She played Cordelia Chase for four seasons on "Angel", as well as Jasmine for most of the fourth season. Although her character leaves the series during "Angel"s fourth season, Carpenter returned for the 100th episode in the fifth and final season because she felt the character's fans deserved closure. In 2004, Carpenter had a guest appearance in The WB fantasy drama series "Charmed" as a psychic demon named Kyra for three episodes and played a recurring role on NBC's "Miss Match", appearing in four episodes. She also had a recurring role as Kendall Casablancas in the UPN mystery drama series "Veronica Mars" for the 2005–06 season, appearing in 11 episodes. Carpenter guest-starred in the first-season finale of the ABC Family comedy-drama series "Greek" and reprised her role for two episodes of Season 2. According to TV Guide in September 2007, she was set to join the cast of "The Apprentice: Celebrity Edition", but instead she chose to do a guest appearance in the Fox comedy series "Back to You" as well as a two episode role on the short-lived series "Big Shots". Carpenter also had a guest appearance in an April 2009 episode of "" entitled "The Descent of Man".  On March 20, 2008, Paley Fest hosted a "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" reunion. Carpenter attended the event alongside "Buffy" creator Joss Whedon, producers Marti Noxon and David Greenwalt, and other "Buffy" alumni including Sarah Michelle Gellar, Nicholas Brendon, James Marsters, Emma Caulfield, Amber Benson, Seth Green, and Michelle Trachtenberg.  Carpenter has starred in an assortment of made-for-TV and direct-to-video films including the sex comedy "What Boys Like", the horror film "Voodoo Moon", and the romantic comedies "See Jane Date" and "Relative Chaos" on ABC Family (the latter of which co-starred fellow Buffy alum Nicholas Brendon). She also appeared in the original films "Flirting with Danger" and "Cheaters' Club" (both 2006) both on Lifetime and the Syfy original film "House of Bones" broadcast in 2010, around the same time as her guest spot in "Legend of the Seeker".  In 2009, Carpenter starred in production company Red Sparrow's first film, "Psychosis", which was released on January 11, 2011. In August 2010, she had a supporting role in Sylvester Stallone's "The Expendables". After the success of "The Expendables", Carpenter was cast in "Human Factor" and in the indie thriller "Crash Site". She appeared in an episode of the seventh season of "Supernatural" alongside "Buffy" co-star James Marsters. In 2012, Carpenter landed a recurring role as Rebecca Sewell in the first season of ABC Family drama series "The Lying Game". She was upgraded to a series regular for the second season. Later in the same year, she reprised her role as Lacy in "The Expendables 2".  On August 28, 2013, "Surviving Evil" (original working title: "I Survived Evil") debuted on Investigation Discovery, with Carpenter as host; in the premiere episode, Carpenter herself was featured as a crime survivor, revisiting the horrific attack she and two friends suffered at the hands of violent serial rapist and police officer Henry Hubbard Jr. on San Diego's Torrey Pines State Beach in 1991. She starred in the 2015 erotic film "Bound", alongside Morgan Obenreder, which received a lukewarm reception. She later led the television film "Mommy's Secret".

Public image.

Carpenter was named #31 on AskMen's Top 99 Most Desirable Women 2002 and #44 on their 2005 list. Despite this, Carpenter has stated she does not view herself as a sex symbol.  In the June 2004 issue of "Playboy" magazine, Carpenter appeared on the cover and in a ten-page nude layout. When she was asked by "People Magazine" in 2005 about her nude pictorial and whether she would ever pose for "Playboy" again, she replied, "I don't know. I did "Playboy" for a very specific reason. Not only was it a good financial move, but it was about the place I was at in my life. I had just had my son and I'd gained 50 pounds during pregnancy. I wanted to get back to my old self. I wanted to feel desirable and sexy. So I thought, 'What if I went full throttle'?"

Personal life.

Carpenter married Damian Hardy on October 5, 2002, in her hometown of Las Vegas. In March 2003, Carpenter gave birth to a son. In late 2007, the couple separated and their divorce was finalized on July 8, 2008.

Charisma Carpenter (born July 23, 1970) is an American actress. She played Cordelia Chase in the supernatural drama series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" (1997–1999) and its spin-off series "Angel" (1999–2004). She also starred as Kyra in "Charmed" (2004), Kendall Casablancas in "Veronica Mars" (2005–2006), Rebecca Sewell in "The Lying Game" (2012–2013), and Lacy in "The Expendables" film series (2010–2012).

Charisma Lee Carpenter (* 23. července 1970 Las Vegas, Nevada) je americká herečka. K jejím nejznámějším rolím patří Cordelie ze seriálů "Buffy, přemožitelka upírů" a "Angel". Účinkovala také v např. seriálech "Veronica Mars" nebo "The Lying Game".


Plot.

Setting and themes.

The setting for "Maria-sama ga Miteru" is, a fictional Catholic school founded in 1901 in Musashino, Tokyo, Japan; the school is depicted as an elegant, clean, pure, and very prestigious institution. Among the facilities of Lillian, aside from the classrooms, there is a church, a greenhouse, a kendo dojo, an auditorium, a park, and the Rose Mansion, where the Yamayuri Council meet. The students are very respectable and in good standing. The uniform at the school is a long, black Japanese school uniform with a white collar.  The school uses the fictional sœur system where any second- or third-year student, the "grande sœur" ("big sister"), might pick a younger girl who will become her ""sœur"" ("sister" in French). The "grande sœur" gives her the "petite sœur" ("little sister") a rosary and promises to look after her and guide her. The basic etiquette demands the "petite sœur" to call her "grande sœur" ""onee-sama"" ("older sister" in Japanese). Aside from being used in prayer, the rosary is the instrument that certifies the "sœur" union and relationship between two students. There is an implicit code of behavior between "sœurs", especially in the Yamayuri Council—the student council of the school: quietness, measure and respect towards each other; values deeply attached to traditional Japanese education.  French is occasionally used throughout the story; for example, the series is given the French subtitle "La Vierge Marie vous regarde", which means "The Virgin Mary is watching you". In keeping with the tone of the series, formal language is used: is a strictly formal and respectful greeting in Japanese, and is used both to greet and to bid farewell. By custom, this greeting is used often in the Lillian School; this has been one of the distinguishable and popular phrases of the series, and it is used to begin or to finish each volume. The Animax English-language version translates the word as "good day to you".  The Lillian Girls' Academy uses the lily symbolism as the white lily is the flower of the Virgin Mary. The white lily is a Christian symbol of virginity and purity. This lily imagery is also used as a reference to yuri: the story has some elements of romance between female characters; the use of lilies reinforces this in subtext, as do the names of the student council and of the school itself. The series is only explicit about a romantic relationship once in a flashback, but many of the sisters have romantic friendships.  The musical choices of the "Maria-sama ga Miteru" anime adaptations are generally classical music-inspired. The Christian hymn is often referred to in the series. In the context of the series, it is a children's song taught to the students at Lillian.

Story and characters.

"Maria-sama ga Miteru"'s story revolves around the students of the Lillian Girls' Academy and is character-driven, focusing on interactions between the characters rather than any sort of ongoing plot or goal to attain. When the story begins, Yumi Fukuzawa, a first-year student at Lillian, is praying in front of the Virgin Mary statue near the school entrance when she is suddenly approached by a cold second-year student named Sachiko Ogasawara who straightens Yumi's uniform neckerchief. This seemingly simple act of kindness stays with Yumi the rest of the day, and she speaks of her meeting with Sachiko to her friends during class and lunch.  After school is over, Yumi's classmate Tsutako Takeshima meets with Yumi to show her that she took a photograph of Yumi's meeting with Sachiko earlier that morning. Yumi asks if she can have the photo, but Tsutako says she will give her the snapshot under two conditions: one being that Tsutako can display it at the upcoming school festival, and two being that Yumi get Sachiko's permission to do so as well. Yumi agrees to this, which sets in motion a series of events involving the entire Yamayuri Council. A few weeks after first meeting Sachiko, Yumi accepts Sachiko's rosary and therefore agrees to become her "petite sœur". This officially inducts Yumi into the Yamayuri Council where she assists them in school matters alongside Yoshino Shimazu and Shimako Tōdō—the "petite sœurs" of Rei Hasekura and Sei Satō, respectively. Through her activities in the Yamayuri Council, Yumi becomes closer to the other members and generally finds her experiences with the group to be enjoyable.

Yamayuri Council.

Much of the story of "Maria-sama ga Miteru" revolves around the, which acts as the student council. The Yamayuri Council meet in a building called the. Located within the school, it consists of two stories, including a meeting room on the second story. The Yamayuri Council itself consists of three offices, named after roses:,, and. These are also referred to by their colors; the is "Rosa Foetida", the is "Rosa Gigantea", and the is "Rosa Chinensis".  Due to the high importance the three Rose families have in the development of the student activities within school, those who become "petites sœurs" of any of the mentioned families receive a functional "inheritance" through the "grandes sœurs" teachings, to adopt a position given certain circumstances. In this way, there are patrons recognized through the generations of the members of the Rose families. Still, after graduating, the "grandes sœurs" of the Yamayuri Council may continue with a fair participation in the events concerning their families, as shown in the novels.  A, or, is one of three senior members of the Yamayuri Council, although it is also possible to generally speak of all the members of the Yamayuri Council as roses. A Rose makes the important decisions within this group, since she has control over the student council. Candidates for the position, which lasts through the school year, are chosen through an election. Any student can run to become a Rose, although the position is usually given to the "en boutons", the Roses' "petite sœurs".  The "petite sœur" of a "Rosa" is called an, otherwise known as a. "En bouton" is French for "in bud"—as used in the example "Rosa Chinensis en bouton"—and is unofficially considered part of the Yamayuri Council, as is the "petite sœur" of the "en bouton", if she has one. The "en boutons" must be in a lower year than their "Rosa", and generally the "en boutons" execute the plans discussed by the Roses, like assistants. Although the "Rosa" positions of the Yamayuri Council are traditionally passed to the "en bouton" on the graduation of the current holder, they are nonetheless elected offices which anyone may run for.  The "petite sœur" of the "en bouton" is called —as used in the example "Rosa Chinensis en bouton petite sœur"—and is otherwise known as the. She must be in a lower year than her "en bouton" and performs small duties; such as attending to the Roses' "en bouton"s, cleaning the Rose Mansion, and making tea and snacks for the Yamayuri Council. This lasts a school year; and the following year when their "en bouton" is elected as "Rosas", the "petite sœurs" become "en boutons" automatically.

Production.

After writing her debut novel series for three years starting in March 1994, Oyuki Konno published a short story called "Maria-sama ga Miteru" in the February 1997 issue of the "shōjo" magazine "Cobalt" with illustrations by Yuma Aoi. In 1993, Konno had previously won both Cobalt's Novel Award and Readers' Award for "Yume no Miya", and by February 1997, nine volumes had been released.  In the afterword of the first "Maria-sama ga Miteru" light novel volume, Konno admitted that "Maria-sama ga Miteru" was very different from her usual genre of story-telling in "Yume no Miya", which she described as an "imperial story" set in a fictionalized classical Japan. For the basis of Lillian Girls' Academy, Konno drew from her own experiences attending an all-girl high school, and some of the scenery of Lillian was also taken from this, such as a ginkgo pathway which stretched out from the main gate. The laid-back atmosphere of the school was also incorporated into Lillian, although Konno's school did not have a "sœur" system and it was not a Catholic school. Konno had been exposed to Christianity from a young age: she attended a completely Christian kindergarten which had a sanctuary and cloister in the middle of the school. Konno notes that she put her own questions about the Virgin Mary's heart into the story via Yumi. Konno ultimately mixed together various sources and ended up with Lillian Girls' Academy.

Media.

Light novels.

After writing the "Maria-sama ga Miteru" short story, Konno expanded it into a series of novels. The first volume was published on April 24, 1998, with illustrations by Reine Hibiki. In terms of the storyline, this first novel marks the beginning of the series; the original 1997 short story was reworked and republished in the ninth volume "Cherry Blossom" in 2001. Shueisha published 39 light novels in the series, ending with "Farewell Bouquet" on April 28, 2012. Second editions will be published starting in 2018 to commemorate its 20th anniversary. In February 2003, with 12 volumes released, Konno began to publish more short stories in "Cobalt", with illustrations by Hibiki. Counting the 1997 debut, 27 short stories were published, which were included in later novels. The first five volumes of the light novel series were translated into German by Tokyopop.  Konno also wrote a spin-off series of light novels titled, also illustrated by Hibiki. These focus on Yumi's younger brother Yūki and his schoolmates at Hanadera. Shueisha published 10 volumes between August 1, 2008 and November 30, 2013.

Manga.

A manga adaptation, drawn by Satoru Nagasawa, was serialized in Shueisha's shōjo manga magazine "Margaret" between October 2003 and October 2005. Following this, the manga was transferred to Shueisha's sister magazine "The Margaret" between May 2006 and December 2007. The manga was again serialized in "The Margaret" between May and August 2010. The individual chapters were collected and published in nine "tankōbon" volumes released by Shueisha between February 2004 and October 2010. The first eight volumes were republished in five omnibus volumes in Japan between April and July 2010. The story in each volume follows the corresponding volume of the novels. The first eight volumes were translated into German by Tokyopop.  Six brief manga one-shots, illustrated by Reine Hibiki and based on some scenes from the novels, were published by Shueisha in "Cobalt" between February 2003 and December 2004. They are:,,,,, and. "Before the Festival" was later included in volume 18 of the novels, "Premium Book", and the other five were later published in volume 26 of the novels, "Illustration Collection". A one-shot of "Oshaka-sama mo Miteru", illustrated by Sakura Kenjō, was published in Shueisha's "Comic Cobalt" magazine in August 2010.

Anime.

A 13-episode anime television series adaptation of "Maria-sama ga Miteru" aired in Japan between January 7 and March 31, 2004 on TV Tokyo. Produced by Studio Deen and directed by Yukihiro Matsushita, the screenplay was written by Reiko Yoshida, and Akira Matsushima based the character design used in the anime on Reine Hibiki's original designs. The art director for the series is Nobuto Sakamoto. The sound director is Yoshikazu Iwanami, and the soundtrack is composed by Mikiya Katakura. The series was later released by Geneon to seven VHS and DVD compilation volumes from April to October 2004.  Most of the production staff would return to produce two additional television series and an original video animation (OVA) series. The 13-episode second season, titled, aired between July 4 and September 26, 2004 on TV Tokyo. The series was later released by Geneon to six VHS and DVD compilation volumes from October 2004 to April 2005. The third season, a five-episode OVA series titled "Maria-sama ga Miteru", was released on DVD from November 29, 2006 to July 25, 2007; each episode is approximately 50 minutes long. The 13-episode fourth season, again titled "Maria-sama ga Miteru", aired between January 3 and March 28, 2009 on AT-X. The series was released by Geneon to six DVD compilation volumes from March to August 2009. Instead of Yukihiro Matsushita who had directed the first three seasons, the fourth season is directed by Toshiyuki Katō.  In addition to the main anime series, a parody series called is included as a bonus on the DVD releases of the three televisions seasons and the OVA series. There are 29 episodes: seven from season one, six for season two, five for season three, and eleven for season four. The episodes consist of short segments of fake outtakes and parody skits drawn in a super deformed style and starring the cast of the anime.  Nozomi Entertainment, the licensing branch of Right Stuf Inc., had licensed the three television series and the OVA series under the title "Maria Watches Over Us" for North American distribution. The four series were released as DVD box sets with English subtitles as follows: July 29, 2008 for season one, November 25, 2008 for season two, March 24, 2009 for season three, and July 6, 2010 for season four. Maiden Japan licensed the three television series and the OVA series after Nozomi Entertainment's license to the franchise had expired. An English dub for the series was considered in 2018.

Audio CDs.

For the first "Maria-sama ga Miteru" anime series, the opening theme "Pastel Pure" and the ending theme is "Sonata Blue". Both songs are instrumental tracks composed by Mikiya Katakura of the band Ali Project and were released on a theme song album in February 2004. The original soundtrack for the first anime series was released in February 2004. For "Maria-sama ga Miteru: Printemps", the opening theme is a vocal version of "Pastel Pure" by Ali Project and the ending theme is again "Sonata Blue". The single for "Pastel Pure" was released in August 2004. The original soundtrack for "Printemps" was released in September 2004.  For the "Maria-sama ga Miteru" OVA series, the opening theme is again the instrumental version of "Pastel Pure", and there are two ending themes. The single for the first ending theme by Kotoko was released in October 2006, and the single for the second ending theme by Kotoko was released in March 2007. The original soundtrack for the OVA series was released in March 2007. For the "Maria-sama ga Miteru" fourth season, the single for the opening theme by Kukui was released in February 2009, and the single for the ending theme by Kaori Hikita was also released in February 2009. For the "Maria-sama ga Miteru" live-action film, the theme song "Heavenly Days" by CooRie was released on her album "Heavenly Days" in October 2010.  Three volumes of albums titled "Maria-sama ga Miteru: Haru Image Album" containing image songs and background music tracks were released between April and September 2005. Each image album was assigned to one of the three families of roses; the songs were sung by the voice actors of the anime series. A vocal album titled "Christmas Album" was released in December 2008. Shueisha produced 12 drama CDs between January 14, 2004 and December 14, 2007, and Frontier Works produced three additional drama CDs between July 24, 2009 and July 22, 2010; the CDs use the same voice actors from the anime series. The drama CDs are based on the stories in the novels. The fifth and tenth drama CDs by Shueisha were released in limited edition versions each with a slipcase and a pair of character mini-figures.

Internet radio show.

An Internet radio show to promote "Maria-sama ga Miteru" called was hosted by Kana Ueda, the voice of Yumi Fukuzawa, and featured other voice actors from the anime series as guests. The show features conversations and publicity, often commenting with news of the anime series and other funny situations from the plot of the novels. It had a pre-broadcast special for Christmas on December 22, 2005, and later broadcast 19 episodes between March 9 and November 24, 2006. The show was streamed online every other Thursday, and was produced by Animate TV. Three additional broadcasts followed: a New Year's Day special on January 25, 2007, a "Hinamatsuri" special on March 1, 2007, and another Christmas special on December 20, 2007.  The radio show returned to broadcast 13 main episodes and 3 specials between August 27, 2008 and September 30, 2009. Again hosted by Ueda, the show was streamed online every last Wednesday of the month, and was also produced by Animate TV. Combined, the two radio show seasons were later released on 13 CD compilation volumes by Frontier Works between August 4, 2006 and February 24, 2010.

Live-action film.

A live-action film adaptation premiered in Japanese theaters on November 6, 2010. The film is directed by Kōtarō Terauchi, and Terauchi co-wrote the script with Keiji Sagami. The film's music is composed by Chika Fujino. The film was released on Blu-ray Disc and DVD in Japan on July 29, 2011. To tie in with the film, a new edition of the first light novel was published in June 2010 with a cover featuring stars Honoka Miki and Haru.

Reception.

It was reported in April 2010 that 5.4 million copies of the original light novels have been published. Reception to the "Maria-sama ga Miteru" anime series has been generally positive, although Anime News Network (ANN) noted that the series leaves itself "wide open to cynical sniggering." Carlos Ross from Them Anime regarded it as "one of the most beautiful and graceful anime" series, adding that the animation is sometimes of questionable quality but overall "very appealing". Andrew Shelton from AMR found the series to be "fairly unique" compared to other shōjo works, explaining that although the story is "a little basic" and "overly dramatic", what is most important is the "response and actions of the character on who the story is focused." Stig Høgset, also from Them Anime, commented that the third season was criticized for being too short, but he personally did not feel "like it was lacking something." Jason Thompson credits "Maria-sama ga Miteru" with starting "the modern yuri trend." Newer anime titles that "Maria-sama ga Miteru" is compared to include "Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru", "Strawberry Panic!", "Best Student Council", and "Aria". Carlos Ross, writing about the first novel in the series, felt the story was a "classic rags-to-riches tale," but that it was "also sweet, touching and witty when it needs to be." He criticized the lack of teachers and schoolwork in the series, which led to the plot being filled with extracurricular activities, which are common to high school series. He also criticized Yumi's low self-esteem.  A characteristic element of the series is the extensive use of French titles, which Carlos Ross has criticized as "distracting". Mania.com criticized the early anime episodes as being "difficult", and saying that the first episode "throws a lot of terms and names at you". On the other hand, Ross compared the "atmosphere" presented by the series' artwork with those from other anime titles of similar setting, including the bright and vivid "Revolutionary Girl Utena". Another reviewer from Them Anime also compared "Maria-sama ga Miteru" with "Oniisama e...", but noted that the former is much less dramatic. Marc Hairston commented on the unusual character designs compared to other series, and said they are "ordinary students." ANN also noted the "clear, expressive eyes and character designs that are gifted with an understated mobility," praising the casting choices, and noting that even "peripheral" characters are "fully realized." Holly Ellingwood of Active Anime described the relationships between the characters as "intensely platonic" and "pseudo-gay" for the most part.  ANN noted that the second anime season tends to overdramatize, especially in the last three episodes. ANN also describes the second season as "more embarrassing and shoujo-ai oriented" than the first season, but that the solid characterization is still a strength of the series. Holly Ellingwood of Active Anime appreciated the focus on characters other than Yumi and Sachiko for the second season, regarding Shimako's loss of Sei and befriending Noriko as being "one of the more moving" arcs of "Printemps". ANN regarded the OVA season as the best of the first three seasons, citing the improved production standards and the less melodramatic storylines. ANN notes that the fourth season is "a return to dramatic form" after the relaxation of the OVA series, but it is not as melodramatic as the second season, due to the increased maturity of the cast. Chris Beveridge, writing for Mania.com, found it odd that Yumi and Sachiko did not spend so much time together in the fourth season, and felt that the series needed an epilogue, but enjoyed seeing Yumi taking on some "adult responsibilities."  Andrew Shelton has suggested that "Maria-sama ga Miteru"'s "reduced capacity for epic drama" is due to the lack of malicious characters; he considers the series "pure shōjo", mostly due to its character-driven storyline. Japanese reviewers for their part regard the story as a revival of the Class S genre, and specifically a modern-day equivalent of Nobuko Yoshiya's "Hana Monogatari". Hairston notes that "Maria-sama ga Miteru" emphasizes romance and emotion over sexuality, and it has a respectful treatment of its homoerotic themes. He describes the series as "one of the most interesting and touching anime series of the last two years", adding that it is "about self-discovery and self-acceptance."  A Pizza Hut tie-in campaign for the fourth anime series started on January 7, 2008. The Rose Mansion from the story was recreated in the "Second Life" virtual world and opened on February 8, 2008.

, often shortened to, is a Japanese light novel series written by with illustrations by Reine Hibiki. Originally written as a short story in 1997, Shueisha published 39 light novel volumes from April 1998 to April 2012. The story focuses on a group of teenage girls attending the Catholic Lillian Girls' Academy in Tokyo, Japan. Its storyline largely revolves around the lives and close relationships of the school's student council known as the Yamayuri Council.

Maria-sama ga miteru ( マリア様がみてる, "Panna Marie se dívá", někdy zkracováno jako "Marimite" – マリみて) je série z prostředí katolické dívčí školy. Light novely Ojuki Konna, vydávané od roku 1998, se později dočkaly zpracování v podobě anime a mangy. Manga o devíti svazcích byla vydávána v letech 2003–2010 v japonském čtrnáctideníku Margaret. Ve stejném roce se začalo vysílat i anime, které je třísezónní. Druhá sezóna nese název Maria-sama ga miteru ~ Haru ( マリア様がみてる〜春〜, podtitul znamená v překladu „jaro“). Od listopadu 2006 bylo uvedeno do prodeje 5 OVA dílů.


Morphology and volcanology.

Many kimberlite structures are emplaced as carrot-shaped, vertical intrusions termed "pipes". This classic carrot shape is formed due to a complex intrusive process of kimberlitic magma, which inherits a large proportion of CO (lower amounts of HO) in the system, which produces a deep explosive boiling stage that causes a significant amount of vertical flaring. Kimberlite classification is based on the recognition of differing rock facies. These differing facies are associated with a particular style of magmatic activity, namely crater, diatreme and hypabyssal rocks.  The morphology of kimberlite pipes and their classical carrot shape is the result of explosive diatreme volcanism from very deep mantle-derived sources. These volcanic explosions produce vertical columns of rock that rise from deep magma reservoirs. The morphology of kimberlite pipes is varied, but includes a sheeted dyke complex of tabular, vertically dipping feeder dykes in the root of the pipe, which extends down to the mantle. Within of the surface, the highly pressured magma explodes upwards and expands to form a conical to cylindrical diatreme, which erupts to the surface. The surface expression is rarely preserved but is usually similar to a maar volcano. Kimberlite dikes and sills can be thin (1–4 meters), while pipes range in diameter from about 75 meters to 1.5 kilometers.  Two Jurassic kimberlite dikes exist in Pennsylvania. One, the Gates-Adah Dike, outcrops on the Monongahela River on the border of Fayette and Greene Counties. The other, the Dixonville-Tanoma Dike in central Indiana County, does not outcrop at the surface and was discovered by miners. Similarly aged kimberlite is found in several locations in New York.

Petrology.

Both the location and origin of kimberlitic magmas are subjects of contention. Their extreme enrichment and geochemistry have led to a large amount of speculation about their origin, with models placing their source within the sub-continental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) or even as deep as the transition zone. The mechanism of enrichment has also been the topic of interest with models including partial melting, assimilation of subducted sediment or derivation from a primary magma source.  Historically, kimberlites have been classified into two distinct varieties, termed "basaltic" and "micaceous" based primarily on petrographic observations. This was later revised by C. B. Smith, who renamed these divisions "group I" and "group II" based on the isotopic affinities of these rocks using the Nd, Sr and Pb systems. Roger Mitchell later proposed that these group I and II kimberlites display such distinct differences, that they may not be as closely related as once thought. He showed that group II kimberlites show closer affinities to lamproites than they do to group I kimberlites. Hence, he reclassified group II kimberlites as orangeites to prevent confusion.

Group I kimberlites.

Group-I kimberlites are of CO-rich ultramafic potassic igneous rocks dominated by primary forsteritic olivine and carbonate minerals, with a trace-mineral assemblage of magnesian ilmenite, chromium pyrope, almandine-pyrope, chromium diopside (in some cases subcalcic), phlogopite, enstatite and of Ti-poor chromite. Group I kimberlites exhibit a distinctive inequigranular texture caused by macrocrystic () to megacrystic () phenocrysts of olivine, pyrope, chromian diopside, magnesian ilmenite, and phlogopite, in a fine- to medium-grained groundmass.  The groundmass mineralogy, which more closely resembles a true composition of the igneous rock, is dominated by carbonate and significant amounts of forsteritic olivine, with lesser amounts of pyrope garnet, Cr-diopside, magnesian ilmenite, and spinel.

Olivine lamproites.

Olivine lamproites were previously called group II kimberlite or orangeite in response to the mistaken belief that they only occurred in South Africa. Their occurrence and petrology, however, are identical globally and should not be erroneously referred to as kimberlite. Olivine lamproites are ultrapotassic, peralkaline rocks rich in volatiles (dominantly HO). The distinctive characteristic of olivine lamproites is phlogopite macrocrysts and microphenocrysts, together with groundmass micas that vary in composition from phlogopite to "tetraferriphlogopite" (anomalously Al-poor phlogopite requiring Fe to enter the tetrahedral site). Resorbed olivine macrocrysts and euhedral primary crystals of groundmass olivine are common but not essential constituents.  Characteristic primary phases in the groundmass include zoned pyroxenes (cores of diopside rimmed by Ti-aegirine), spinel-group minerals (magnesian chromite to titaniferous magnetite), Sr- and REE-rich perovskite, Sr-rich apatite, REE-rich phosphates (monazite, daqingshanite), potassian barian hollandite group minerals, Nb-bearing rutile and Mn-bearing ilmenite.

Kimberlitic indicator minerals.

Kimberlites are peculiar igneous rocks because they contain a variety of mineral species with chemical compositions that indicate they formed under high pressure and temperature within the mantle. These minerals, such as chromium diopside (a pyroxene), chromium spinels, magnesian ilmenite, and pyrope garnets rich in chromium, are generally absent from most other igneous rocks, making them particularly useful as indicators for kimberlites.  These indicator minerals are generally sought in stream sediments in modern alluvial material. Their presence may indicate the presence of a kimberlite within the erosional watershed that produced the alluvium.

Geochemistry.

The geochemistry of Kimberlites is defined by the following parameters:

Economic importance.

Kimberlites are the most important source of primary diamonds. Many kimberlite pipes also produce rich alluvial or eluvial diamond placer deposits. About 6,400 kimberlite pipes have been discovered in the world, of those about 900 have been classified as diamondiferous, and of those just over 30 have been economic enough to diamond mine. The deposits occurring at Kimberley, South Africa, were the first recognized and the source of the name. The Kimberley diamonds were originally found in weathered kimberlite, which was colored yellow by limonite, and so was called "yellow ground". Deeper workings encountered less altered rock, serpentinized kimberlite, which miners call "blue ground".  See also Mir Mine and Udachnaya pipe, both in the Sakha Republic, Siberia.  The blue and yellow ground were both prolific producers of diamonds. After the yellow ground had been exhausted, miners in the late 19th century accidentally cut into the blue ground and found gem-quality diamonds in quantity. The economic importance of the time was such that, with a flood of diamonds being found, the miners undercut each other's prices and eventually decreased the diamonds' value down to cost in a short time.

Kimberlite is an igneous rock, which sometimes contains diamonds. It is named after the town of Kimberley in South Africa, where the discovery of an diamond called the Star of South Africa in 1869 spawned a diamond rush and the digging of the open-pit mine called the Big Hole. Previously, the term kimberlite has been applied to olivine lamproites as Kimberlite II, however this has been in error.

Kimberlit je intruzivní vyvřelá hornina. Je významným zdrojem diamantů, které se z ní těží a to převážně v oblastech jižní Afriky. Tato ultrabazická hornina se skládá převážně z většího množství serpentinizovaného olivínu, který se nachází v asociaci s flogopitem, orto- a nebo klinopyroxenem, karbonáty a chromity. V některých případech se dále v hornině dá objevit malé množství pyropů, rutilu a nebo perovskitu.


Biography.

Pittheus was a son of Pelops and Dia (maybe another name for Hippodamia), father of Aethra and Henioche, and grandfather and instructor of Theseus.  He was described by Euripides as the most pious son of Pelops, a wise man, and well versed on understanding the oracle thus sought by Aegeus. Pittheus is said to have taught the art of speaking, and even to have written a book upon it. Plutarch spoke of Pittheus' account in the following verses: ""[Pittheus] had the highest repute as a man versed in the lore of his times and of the greatest wisdom. Now the wisdom of that day had some such form and force as that for which Hesiod was famous, especially in the sententious maxims of his 'Works and Days'.One of these maxims is ascribed to Pittheus, namely: — 'Payment pledged to a man who is dear must be ample and certain.' At any rate, this is what Aristotle the philosopher says, and Euripides, when he has Hippolytus addressed as 'nursling of the pure and holy Pittheus,' shows what the world thought of Pittheus.""

Mythology.

Early life.

Pelops was the strongest of the kings in Peloponnesus quite as much on account of the number of his children as the amount of his wealth. He gave many daughters in marriage to men of the highest rank, and scattered many sons among the cities as their rulers. Coming from the district of Pisatis in Elis, Pittheus and his brother Troezen were received by Aetius, son of Anthas. This Anthas was a brother of Hyperenor and the two were sons of Poseidon and Pleiad Alcyone, both reigned in Hyperea and Anthea before Aetius.  The Pelopids settled in the country and divided the power with Aetius. Thus, after these events the land was ruled by three kings instead of one: Aetius, Troezen and Pittheus but the newcomers enjoyed the real authority. This was evident after Troezen's death for Pittheus who supplanted the earlier dynasty, ruled as the sole king. Having gathered settlers together and joining the two villages of Hyperea and Anthea into a modern city, Pittheus renamed it Troezen after his sibling.  Bellerophon came to Troezen to ask Pittheus for Aethra's hand in marriage, but the hero was banished from Corinth before the nuptials took place.

Childless Aegeus.

King Aegeus of Athens reigned at the same time with Pittheus in Troezen. He was childless with his previous marriages and thus desired to have his heirs of his own. After he received from the Pythian priestess the celebrated oracle in which she bade him to have intercourse with no woman until he came to Athens. But Aegeus thought the words of the command somewhat obscure, and therefore turned aside to Troezen and asked for Pittheus' advice pertaining the words of the god, which ran as follows: — "'Loose not the wine-skin's jutting neck, great chief of the people, Until thou shalt have come once more to the city of Athens."'  Pittheus understanding the oracle on Aegeus' inquiry whether or not he was going to ever have children, had made the Athenian king drunk, who ended up spending the night with his daughter Aethra. Aethra had lain with Poseidon earlier that evening, so when Theseus was born he became Aegeus' stepson. According to Plutarch, Pittheus merely spread the report of her daughter's copulation with the god so that Theseus might be regarded as the son of Poseidon, who was much revered at Troezen.

Two heroes.

A Troezenian legend of the earliest notable event of Theseus' life is set in the house of Pittheus. After he had finished his labours, Heracles came to visit Pittheus. He laid his lion-skin down on a couch where it sat in a most lifelike fashion. A little while later Theseus, who was seven years old at this time, came into the room with some of his schoolmates. When the other children saw the skin of the Nemean lion, they ran from it in terror, thinking that it was alive. However, Theseus remained in the room, grabbed an axe from a nearby guard, and attacked the lion-skin.  When Heracles became slave of Omphale in Lydia, villains burst forth and broke in the regions of Hellas because no one would rebuke and restrain them. The journey was therefore a perilous one for travelers by land from Peloponnesus to Athens, and Pittheus, by describing each of the miscreants at length, what sort of a monster he was, and what deeds he wrought upon strangers, tried to persuade Theseus to make his journey by sea. But the hero, secretly inspired by the valor of his cousin Heracles, paid no heed of his grandfather's warnings, traveled by the road and eventually cleared it from brigands and bandits that infested it.

Misfortune of Hippolytus.

Pittheus also appeared in the myth about Hippolytos, son of Theseus and thus Pittheus's great-grandson. When Theseus, now king of Athens, married Phaedra, he sent Hippolytos to the house of Pittheus, who became his pupil and raised him as heir to the Troezen throne. However, Hippolytos later got killed by Poseidon when his father was led to believe he violated Phaedra and caused her to commit suicide.  Pittheus' tomb and the chair on which he had sat in judgment were shown at Troezene down to a late time.

In Greek mythology, Pittheus (; ) was the king of Troezen, city in Argolis, which he had named after his brother Troezen.

Pittheus (řecky Πιτθέας) je v řecké mytologii syn krále Pelopa a jeho manželky Hippodameie. Kraloval v Troizéně a z věštby slavné delfské Pýthie se dozvěděl, že jeho vnukem bude syn boha moří Poseidóna. Když se jeho dcera Aithra provdala za athénského krále Aigea, pozval ji k sobě, aby tam porodila pro větší věhlas a slávu Troizény.


Biography.

His father came from a family of merchants who lived in Ferrara and moved to Bohemia during the Napoleonic Wars. After settling in Ronov, he married an innkeeper and later served as Mayor. At first, Antonín was expected to follow in the family business, but displayed an aptitude for art, which was noticed by his grammar school teachers in Čáslav, so he was sent to Kutná Hora where he studied drawing with František Bohumír Zvěřina.  At the age of eighteen, he went to Prague, with the intent to study engineering but, instead, he enrolled at the Academy of Fine Arts. However, he was dissatisfied with the courses being offered and went to Munich instead, but he became tired of their Academic approach. He was called to Vienna for military service, but was able to obtain a deferral, and briefly enrolled at the Academy of Fine Arts. Later, he returned to the Academy in Prague to study history painting. In 1876, he participated in a protest by Czech students against Alfred Woltmann, a Professor of art history at the University of Prague, who was accused of German chauvinism, forcing him to flee the lecture hall. Clashes between Czech and German students ensued. After a police investigation and five days in jail, Chittussi and Mikoláš Aleš, who were identified as the ringleaders, were expelled from the Academy.  Afterward, Chittussi supported himself by providing illustrations for "" (The Czech Bee) and other magazines. This work introduced him to Prague's patriotic social circles and found him a patron in, a member of the Imperial Council. He also befriended Brauner's daughter, Zdenka, an aspiring artist who influenced Chittussi's approach by introducing him to the work of the Barbizon school. In 1877, he and František Ženíšek, a friend from school, opened a studio. It was then that he became primarily interested in landscapes.  Following the conclusion of the Russo-Turkish War in 1878, the Austro-Hungarian Army moved in to occupy Bosnia-Herzegovina and, as an army reservist, he was called up and sent to the front. The death and destruction he witnessed had a profound effect on him, which he attempted to work through emotionally by corresponding with Zdenka. He was able to make a series of small drawings and watercolors, which he exhibited on his return and, with the help of friends, succeeded in financing a trip to Paris.

The influence of Paris.

He arrived in time for the "Fourth Impressionist Exhibition", but was not ready to accept what he saw. Eventually, though, he concluded that most of his earlier work had "been in vain". In 1880, he rented a small studio and began to work on absorbing the new styles. He soon gained the support of the writer Élémir Bourges, who would later marry Zdenka's sister, Anna. In 1882, he was invited to spend six months painting at the Radziwiłł estate near Ermenonville. The following year, he exhibited at the Salon. Although successful, by 1884 he was ready to return home and held an auction of his works at the Hôtel Drouot. As it turned out, this meant a cooling of his relationship with Zdenka, as she actually began to spend more time in Paris than before, pursuing her career.  He soon discovered an area in Southern Bohemia that inspired him to paint and helped him to assuage his hurt feelings. Shortly after, he settled near Člunek. In 1887, he developed health problems, which were believed to be related to the time he spent outdoors, painting during inclement weather. He gradually grew weaker and was diagnosed with tuberculosis. In an effort to stop the disease's progress, he went to the Tatra Mountains, but it was too late. In 1891, he died in Prague on the way home from treatment.  A street in the Bubeneč district there is named after him and, in 1997, the Czech government used one of his paintings (a castle in Chantilly) on a postage stamp.

Antonín Chittussi (1 December 1847, in Ronov nad Doubravou – 1 May 1891, in Prague) was a Czech Impressionist landscape and cityscape painter.

Antonín Chittussi (1. prosince 1847 Ronov nad Doubravou – 1. května 1891 Praha) byl český krajinář 19. století, žák J. M. Trenkwalda a Jana Swertse, nástupce Adolfa Kosárka a předchůdce Antonína Slavíčka.


Replacement of WEP.

802.11i supersedes the previous security specification, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), which was shown to have security vulnerabilities. Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) had previously been introduced by the Wi-Fi Alliance as an intermediate solution to WEP insecurities. WPA implemented a subset of a draft of 802.11i. The Wi-Fi Alliance refers to their approved, interoperable implementation of the full 802.11i as WPA2, also called RSN (Robust Security). 802.11i makes use of the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) block cipher, whereas WEP and WPA use the RC4 stream cipher.

Protocol operation.

IEEE 802.11i enhances IEEE 802.11-1999 by providing a Robust Security Network (RSN) with two new protocols: the four-way handshake and the group key handshake. These utilize the authentication services and port access control described in IEEE 802.1X to establish and change the appropriate cryptographic keys. The RSN is a security network that only allows the creation of robust security network associations (RSNAs), which are a type of association used by a pair of stations (STAs) if the procedure to establish authentication or association between them includes the 4-Way Handshake.  The standard also provides two RSNA data confidentiality and integrity protocols, TKIP and CCMP, with implementation of CCMP being mandatory since the confidentiality and integrity mechanisms of TKIP are not as robust as those of CCMP. The main purpose to implement TKIP was that the algorithm should be implementable within the capabilities of most of the old devices supporting only WEP.  The initial authentication process is carried out either using a pre-shared key (PSK), or following an EAP exchange through 802.1X (known as EAPOL, which requires the presence of an authentication server). This process ensures that the client station (STA) is authenticated with the access point (AP). After the PSK or 802.1X authentication, a shared secret key is generated, called the Pairwise Master Key (PMK). In PSK authentication, the PMK is actually the PSK, which is typically derived from WiFi password by putting it through a key derivation function that use SHA-1 as the cryptographic hash function. If an 802.1X EAP exchange was carried out, the PMK is derived from the EAP parameters provided by the authentication server.

Four-way handshake.

The four-way handshake is designed so that the access point (or authenticator) and wireless client (or supplicant) can independently prove to each other that they know the PSK/PMK, without ever disclosing the key. Instead of disclosing the key, the access point (AP) and client encrypt messages to each other—that can only be decrypted by using the PMK that they already share—and if decryption of the messages was successful, this proves knowledge of the PMK. The four-way handshake is critical for protection of the PMK from malicious access points—for example, an attacker's SSID impersonating a real access point—so that the client never has to tell the access point its PMK.  The PMK is designed to last the entire session and should be exposed as little as possible; therefore, keys to encrypt the traffic need to be derived. A four-way handshake is used to establish another key called the Pairwise Transient Key (PTK). The PTK is generated by concatenating the following attributes: PMK, AP nonce (ANonce), STA nonce (SNonce), AP MAC address, and STA MAC address. The product is then put through a pseudo-random function. The handshake also yields the GTK (Group Temporal Key), used to decrypt multicast and broadcast traffic.  The actual messages exchanged during the handshake are depicted in the figure and explained below (all messages are sent as EAPOL-Key frames):  The Pairwise Transient Key (64 bytes) is divided into five separate keys:  The Group Temporal Key (32 bytes) is divided into three separate keys:  The Michael MIC Authenticator Tx/Rx Keys in both the PTK and GTK are only used if the network is using TKIP to encrypt the data.  This four-way handshake has been shown to be vulnerable to KRACK.

Group key handshake.

The Group Temporal Key (GTK) used in the network may need to be updated due to the expiration of a preset timer. When a device leaves the network, the GTK also needs to be updated. This is to prevent the device from receiving any more multicast or broadcast messages from the AP.  To handle the updating, 802.11i defines a "Group Key Handshake" that consists of a two-way handshake:

CCMP overview.

CCMP is based on the Counter with CBC-MAC (CCM) mode of the AES encryption algorithm. CCM combines CTR for confidentiality and CBC-MAC for authentication and integrity. CCM protects the integrity of both the MPDU Data field and selected portions of the IEEE 802.11 MPDU header.

Key hierarchy.

RSNA defines two key hierarchies:  The description of the key hierarchies uses the following two functions:  The pairwise key hierarchy utilizes PRF-384 or PRF-512 to derive session-specific keys from a PMK, generating a PTK, which gets partitioned into a KCK and a KEK plus all the temporal keys used by the MAC to protect unicast communication.  The GTK shall be a random number which also gets generated by using PRF-n, usually PRF-128 or PRF-256, in this model, the group key hierarchy takes a GMK (Group Master Key) and generates a GTK.

MAC frame formats.

Protected Frame field.

"The Protected Frame field is 1 bit in length. The Protected Frame field is set to 1 if the Frame Body field contains information that has been processed by a cryptographic encapsulation algorithm. The Protected Frame field is set to 1 only within data frames of type Data and within management frames of type Management, subtype Authentication. The Protected Frame field is set to 0 in all other frames. When the bit Protected Frame field is set to 1 in a data frame, the Frame Body field is protected utilizing the cryptographic encapsulation algorithm and expanded as defined in Clause 8. Only WEP is allowed as the cryptographic encapsulation algorithm for management frames of subtype Authentication."

IEEE 802.11i-2004, or 802.11i for short, is an amendment to the original IEEE 802.11, implemented as Wi-Fi Protected Access II (WPA2). The draft standard was ratified on 24 June 2004. This standard specifies security mechanisms for wireless networks, replacing the short "Authentication and privacy" clause of the original standard with a detailed "Security" clause. In the process, the amendment deprecated broken Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), while it was later incorporated into the published IEEE 802.11-2007 standard.

IEEE 802.11i, také známý jako WPA2, je dodatek k IEEE 802.11 standardu vylepšující autentizační a šifrovací algoritmus pro bezdrátové sítě Wi-Fi. Byl schválen 24. června 2004 a zneplatňuje tak původní zabezpečení Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), které má mnoho bezpečnostních slabin. Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) je předchůdce WPA2, ale místo implementace plného IEEE 802.11i implementuje pouze 3. návrh tohoto standardu, tedy pouze podmnožinu 802.11i.


Biography.

Family.

Della Ganga was born in 1760, at the Castello della Genga in the territory of Fabriano, to a noble family from Genga, a small town in what is now the province of Ancona, then part of the Papal States as the sixth of ten children to Ilario della Genga and Maria Luisa Periberti di Fabriano. He was the uncle of Gabriele della Genga Sermattei, who in the 19th century was the only nephew of a pope to be elevated to cardinal.

Education and ordination.

Della Genga studied theology at the Collegio Campana in Osimo from 1773 to 1778 and later at the Collegio Piceno in Rome until 1783 when he commenced studies at the Pontifical Academy of Ecclesiastical Nobles. He later received the subdiaconate in 1782 and then the diaconate and was ordained to the priesthood on 14 June 1783; he received the latter two from Cardinal Marcantonio Colonna.

Papal nuncio and episcopate.

He served as nuncio to Switzerland. In 1790 the attractive and articulate della Genga attracted favourable attention by a tactful oration commemorative of the late Emperor Joseph II. In 1794 Pope Pius VI made him a canon of Saint Peter's Basilica, and in 1793 created him Titular Archbishop of Tyre. He was consecrated in Rome in 1794 after the appointment and was despatched to Lucerne as the Apostolic Nuncio. In 1794 he was transferred to the nunciature at Cologne, but owing to the war had to make his residence in Augsburg. At this time, he believed it would be his last post and organized the construction of tombs for his mother and for himself.  During the dozen or more years he spent in Germany he was entrusted with several honourable and difficult missions, which brought him into contact with the courts of Dresden, Vienna, Munich and Württemberg, as well as with Napoleon I of France. It is charged, however, that during this period his finances were disordered, and his private life was not above suspicion. He was suspected of having allegedly fathered three illegitimate children.  After the Napoleonic abolition of the States of the Church (1798), he lived for some years at Monticelli Abbey, solacing himself with music and with bird-shooting, pastimes which he continued even after his election as Pope.

Cardinal.

In 1814 della Genga was chosen to carry Pope Pius VII's congratulations to Louis XVIII of France upon his restoration.  On 8 March 1816 he was created Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria in Trastevere and he received his red zucchetto on 11 March and his titular church on 29 April 1816. Later he was appointed as the Archpriest of the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, and appointed to the episcopal see of Sinigaglia, which he resigned in 1818 due to health reasons. He resigned without ever having entered his archdiocese.  On 9 May 1820, Pope Pius VII gave him the distinguished post of Vicar-General of His Holiness for the Diocese of Rome.

Pontificate.

Papal election.

Pope Pius VII died in 1823 after yet another long pontificate that spanned over two decades. In the conclave of 1823, della Genga was the candidate of the zelanti faction and in spite of the active opposition of France, he was elected as the new pope by the cardinals on 28 September 1823, taking the name of Leo XII.  His election had been facilitated because he was thought to be close to death, but he unexpectedly rallied. He had even remarked about his own health to the cardinals, saying that they would be electing "a dead man". It was said in the conclave that he lifted his robes to show the cardinals a pair of swollen and ulcerated legs to deter them, but that made them even more eager to elect him.  Leo XII was 63 at the time of his election and frequently fell victim to infirmities. He was tall and thin with an ascetic look and a melancholic countenance. He fell ill after his coronation but after his recovery, he showed surprising endurance in carrying out his work. Leo XII devoted himself to his work and was simple in his mode of life. He had a passion for shooting birds and was rumored to have killed a peasant with whom he argued about sporting rights.  The cardinal protodeacon Fabrizio Ruffo crowned him as pontiff on 5 October 1823.

Foreign policy.

Pius VII's Secretary of State, Ercole Consalvi, who had been Della Genga's rival in the conclave, was immediately dismissed, and Pius' policies rejected. Leo XII's foreign policy, entrusted at first to the octogenarian Giulio Maria della Somaglia and then to the more able Tommaso Bernetti, negotiated certain concordats very advantageous to the papacy. Personally most frugal, Leo XII reduced taxes, made justice less costly, and was able to find money for certain public improvements, yet he left the Church's finances more confused than he had found them, and even the elaborate jubilee of 1825 did not really mend financial matters.

Domestic policy.

Leo XII's domestic policy was one of extreme conservatism: "He was determined to change the condition of society, bringing it back to the utmost of his power to the old usages and ordinances, which he deemed to be admirable; and he pursued that object with never flagging zeal." He condemned the Bible societies, and under Jesuit influence reorganised the educational system, placing it entirely under priestly control through his bull "Quod divina sapientia" and requiring that all secondary instruction be carried out in Latin, as he required of all court proceedings, also now entirely in ecclesiastical hands. All charitable institutions in the Papal States were put under direct supervision.  Laws such as that forbidding Jews to own property and allowing them only the shortest possible time in which to sell what they owned, and that requiring all Roman residents to listen to Catholic catechism commentary, led many of Rome's Jews to emigrate, to Trieste, Lombardy and Tuscany.  "The results of his method of governing his states soon showed themselves in insurrections, conspiracies, assassinations and rebellion, especially in Umbria, the Marches and Romagna; the violent repression of which, by a system of espionage, secret denunciation, and wholesale application of the gibbet and the galleys, left behind it to those who were to come afterwards a very terrible, rankling and long-enduring debt of party hatreds, of political and social demoralisation, and— worst of all— a contempt for and enmity to the law, as such." In a regime that saw the division of the population into Carbonari and Sanfedisti, he hunted down the Carbonari and the Freemasons with their liberal sympathisers.

Vaccination controversy.

According to some contemporary authors such as G. S. Godkin, Leo XII was also said to have prohibited vaccination. More recent scholarship has been unable to find any ban or any suggestion of a ban by Leo XII and his administration. Donald J. Keefe in his paper "Tracking the footnote" traced a quote by Leo XII which strongly condemned vaccination to "an unverified citation" by Dr. Pierre Simon in Le Contredes Naissances. The response of the Papacy to the arrival of vaccination in Italy has been documented in "Pratique de la vaccination antivariolique dans les provinces de l’État pontifical au 19ème siècle", an article written by Yves-Marie Bercé and Jean-Claude Otteni for Revue d’Histoire Ecclésiastique. According to Bercé and Otteni, the biographers and contemporaries of Leo XII do not mention any interdict. The authors credit the origin of the mythical vaccination ban of Leo XII to the personality of Cardinal Della Genga when he became pope in 1823. His intransigence and piety alienated liberal opinion very quickly. His austere spirituality made him the target of criticisms and mocking remarks. English travelers visiting the peninsula and many of the diplomats established in Rome remarked on the severity of the pontiff.  The absence of a prohibition is evidenced by the fact that in 1828 the Medical-Surgical Society of Bologna was able to implement a vaccination campaign.

Activities.

Leo XII beatified a number of individuals in his pontificate which totaled at 15. He beatified: Angelina di Marsciano and Bernardo Scammacca (8 March 1825), Hippolytus Galantini (29 June 1825), Angelus of Gualdo Tadino (3 August 1825) and Angelus of Acri (18 December 1825). He also beatified in 1825: Julian of Saint Augustine, Alonso Rodriguez and James Grissinger. He beatified Imelda Lambertini (20 December 1826) and also confirmed the cultus of Jordan of Saxony in 1826. He also beatified Helen of Poland and Maddalena Panattieri on 26 September 1827 as well as Giovanna Soderini (1827) and Helen Duglioli and Juana de Aza (the mother of Saint Dominic) in 1828. Leo XII also created Peter Damian a Doctor of the Church in 1828 in addition to the formal canonization he presided over.  He collaborated with Vincent Strambi – future saint – who served as his advisor. When he was on the brink of death in 1825, Strambi offered himself to God for the survival of the pope. The pope rallied from his ailment, but Strambi died.  The pope also approved the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate on 17 February 1826 when he gave it official recognition.  He held 8 consistories in which he elevated 25 new cardinals into the cardinalate. This included Cardinal Bartolomeo Alberto Cappellari – the future Pope Gregory XVI – on 13 March 1826.  Leo XII made himself unpopular with the people due to the fact that he constrained them to endless rules that concerned private life and public affairs. He decreed that a dressmaker who sold low or transparent dresses would incur ipso facto excommunication. The pope also denied the Jews the right to possess material possessions and allowed them the shortest time to sell their belongings. He revived the regulations of the Middle Ages in regards to segregation and marks for identification.

Death and legacy.

On 5 February 1829, after a private audience with the new Cardinal Secretary of State, Tommaso Bernetti, he was suddenly taken ill and he seemed to know that his end was near. On 8 February, he asked for and received the Viaticum and was anointed. On 9 February, he lapsed into unconsciousness and on the next morning, he died. He was buried in a monument of him in Saint Peter's Basilica on 15 February 1829. His remains were transferred and buried before the altar of Pope Leo I on 5 December 1830.  Leo XII is considered to have been a man of noble character, with a passion for order and efficiency, but one who lacked insight into the temporal developments of his time. His rule was unpopular in Rome and in the Papal States, and by various measures of his reign he diminished greatly for his successors their chances of solving the new problems that confronted them.

Rumors of a liaison.

It was alleged that Leo XII had a liaison as a prelate with the wife of a Swiss Guard (known as Pfiffer). The allegation was brought to the attention of Pope Pius VI, who met with the prelate to discern the truth of the matter. He refuted all claims to the pope and the matter was dropped then and there save for the fact that Della Genga affirmed he was close to Pfiffer.

Pope Leo XII (2 August 1760 – 10 February 1829), born Annibale Francesco Clemente Melchiorre Girolamo Nicola della Genga (), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 28 September 1823 to his death in 1829.

Lev XII., vlastním jménem Annibale Francesco Clemente Melchiore Girolamo Nicola della Genga (22. srpna 1760 zámek La Genga u Spoleto - 10. února 1829 Vatikán) byl papežem katolické církve od 28. září 1823 až do své smrti 1829.


Terminology.

The origins of the name Indo-China are usually attributed jointly to the Danish-French geographer Conrad Malte-Brun, who referred to the area as in 1804, and the Scottish linguist John Leyden, who used the term "Indo-Chinese" to describe the area's inhabitants and their languages in 1808. Scholarly opinions at the time regarding China's and India's historical influence over the area were conflicting, and the term was itself controversial—Malte-Brun himself later argued against its use in a later edition of his "Universal Geography", reasoning that it over-emphasized Chinese influence, and suggested "Chin-India" instead. Nevertheless, "Indo-China" had already gained traction and soon supplanted alternative terms such as "Further India" and the "Peninsula beyond the Ganges". Later, however, as the French established the colony of French Indochina, use of the term became more restricted to the French colony, and today the area is usually referred to as Mainland Southeast Asia.

Biogeography.

In biogeography, the Indochinese bioregion is a major region in the Indomalayan realm, and also a phytogeographical floristic region in the Oriental Paleotropical Kingdom. It includes the native flora and fauna of all the countries above. The adjacent Malesian Region covers the Maritime Southeast Asian countries, and straddles the Indomalaya and Australasian regions.

Geography.

The Indochinese Peninsula projects southward from the Asian continent proper. It contains several mountain ranges extending from the Tibetan Plateau in the north, interspersed with lowlands largely drained by three major river systems running in a north–south direction: the Irrawaddy (serving Myanmar), the Chao Phraya (in Thailand), and the Mekong (flowing through Northeastern Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam). To the south it forms the Malay Peninsula, on which are located Southern Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia; the latter is variably considered part of Mainland Southeast Asia or separately as part of Maritime Southeast Asia.

Culture.

Mainland Southeast Asia contrasts with Maritime Southeast Asia, mainly through the division of largely land-based lifestyles in Indochina and the sea-based lifestyles of the Malay and Philippine archipelagos, as well as the dividing line between the Austroasiatic, Tai–Kadai, Sino-Tibetan languages (spoken in Mainland Southeast Asia) and Austronesian languages (spoken in Maritime Southeast Asia). The languages of the mainland form the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area: although belonging to several independent language families, they have converged over the course of history and share a number of typological similarities.  The countries of mainland Southeast Asia received cultural influence from both India and China to varying degrees. Some cultures, such as those of Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Malaysia are influenced mainly by India with a smaller influence from China. Others, such as Vietnam, are more heavily influenced by Chinese culture with only minor cultural influences from India, largely via the Champa civilization that Vietnam conquered during its southward expansion.  Today, most of these countries also show pronounced Western cultural influences, which began during the European imperialism in Asia and colonialism in Southeast Asia.  Overall, Mainland Southeast Asia is predominantly Buddhist.

Mainland Southeast Asia (or the Indochinese Peninsula) is the continental portion of Southeast Asia. It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south of China and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west and the Pacific Ocean to the east. It includes the countries of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (Burma), Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam.

Indočína je region v jihovýchodní Asii na poloostrově Zadní Indie. Jeho přesné vymezení je nejasné, obvykle se však uznává, že se nachází východně od Indie a jižně od Číny.