Career in Russia.

Ivan Mozzhukhin was born in Kondol, in the Saratov Governorate of the Russian Empire (present-day Penza Oblast in Russia), the youngest of four brothers. His mother Rachel Ivanovna Mozzhukhina (née Lastochkina) was the daughter of a Russian Orthodox priest, while his father Ilya Ivanovich Mozzhukhin came from peasants and served as an estate manager for the noble Obolensky family. He inherited this position from his own father — a serf whose children were granted freedom as a gratitude for his service.  While all three elder brothers finished seminary, Ivan was sent to the Penza gymnasium for boys and later studied law at the Moscow State University. In 1910, he left academic life to join a troupe of traveling actors from Kiev, with which he toured for a year, gaining experience and a reputation for dynamic stage presence. Upon returning to Moscow, he launched his screen career with the 1911 adaptation of Tolstoy's "The Kreutzer Sonata". He also starred in "A House in Kolomna" (1913, after Pushkin), Pyotr Chardynin directed drama "Do You Remember?" opposite the popular Russian ballerina Vera Karalli (1914), "Nikolay Stavrogin" (1915, after Dostoyevsky's "The Devils" aka "The Possessed"), "The Queen of Spades" (1916, after Pushkin) and other adaptations of Russian classics.

The Kuleshov Effect.

Mosjoukine's most lasting contribution to the theoretical concept of film as image is the legacy of his own face in recurring representation of illusory reactions seen in Lev Kuleshov's psychological montage experiment which demonstrated the Kuleshov Effect. In 1918, the first full year of the Russian Revolution, Kuleshov assembled his revolutionary illustration of the application of the principles of film editing out of footage from one of Mosjoukine's Tsarist-era films which had been left behind when he, along with his entire film production company, departed for the relative safety of Crimea in 1917.

Career in France.

At the end of 1919, Mosjoukine arrived in Paris and quickly established himself as one of the top stars of the French silent cinema, starring in one successful film after another. Handsome, tall, and possessing a powerful screen presence, he won a considerable following as a mysterious and exotic romantic figure.  The first film of his French career was also his final Russian film. "L'Angoissante Aventure (The Harrowing Adventure)" was a dramatized record of the difficult and dangerous journey of Russian actors, directors and other film artists as they made their way from Crimea into the chaos of Ottoman Turkey in the midst of the post-World War I fall of the Sultanate. The group was headed by the renowned director Yakov Protazanov and included Mosjoukine's frequent leading lady Natalya Lisenko (billed in France as Nathalie Lissenko), whom he married and later divorced. Their ultimate destination was Paris, which became the new capital for most of the exiled former aristocrats and other refugees escaping the Russian Civil War. The film was completed and released in Paris in November 1920. Mosjoukine's film stardom was assured and during the 1920s, his face with the trademark hypnotic stare appeared on covers of film magazines all over Europe. He wrote the screenplays for most of his starring vehicles and directed two of them, "L'Enfant du carnaval" ("Child of the Carnival"), released on 29 August 1921 and "Le Brasier ardent" ("The Blazing Inferno"), released on 2 November 1923. The leading lady in both films was the then-"Madame Mosjoukine", Nathalie Lissenko. "Brasier", in particular, was highly praised for its innovative and inventive concepts, but ultimately proved too surreal and bizarre to become financially successful. Styled like a semi-comic Kafkaesque nightmare, the film has him playing a detective known only as "Z" hired by an older husband to follow his adventurous young wife. However, the plot was only the device which Mosjoukine and his assistant director Alexandre Volkoff used to experiment with the audience's perception of reality. Many of the scenes seem to be taking place on sets that are disconcertingly larger than normal and one particularly striking staging has the husband entering the detective agency to find a synchronized line of men, presumably detectives, all wearing tuxedos and gliding about in formation. Mosjoukine received praise for his enthusiastic acting and display of emotion.

"Surrender" in Hollywood.

According to popular myth, when Rudolph Valentino died on August 23, 1926, Hollywood producers began searching for another face or image that might capture some iota of that unique screen presence radiated by "The Great Lover". However, Mosjoukine was signed by Universal before Valentino's death, as the August 14, 1926 edition of Motion Picture News mentions Mosjoukine's role in "Michel Strogoff" as Universal had just announced that they were bringing the film to the American market. Universal's Laemmle was mentioned as having signed Mosjoukine to come to America that fall. A few of the French productions which starred Mosjoukine were seen in large U.S. cities, where multitudes of cinemas regularly presented European films, but he was a generally unfamiliar persona to the large majority of American audiences. Universal's Carl Laemmle, who had employed Valentino as a supporting actor in two 1919-1920 films, found out that Mosjoukine was frequently described by the European press as the Russian Valentino.  However, as it turned out, "Surrender", filmed in the summer of 1927, did not trust Mosjukine to carry the storyline. He was only the film's co-star, with the top billing and the central role going to Mary Philbin, a popular leading lady of the period who, eighteen months earlier, had the showy role of Christine, the focus of Lon Chaney's obsession and love in "The Phantom of the Opera". The recent Russian Revolution was a popular film subject of the time, with the 1926 John Barrymore-Camilla Horn teaming in "The Tempest" and the Emil Jannings vehicle "The Last Command", released three months after "Surrender", being two examples of the genre. Since Laemmle's new star was a genuine survivor of the Revolution, it seemed only natural that the story would be set in that milieu.  Symptomatic of Mosjoukine's co-star status, he does not even appear in the first fifteen minutes of the film, which are occupied with the depiction of life in an Eastern European Jewish settlement on the eve of World War I. Eventually, at the centerpiece of the plot Mary Philbin, as the virginal daughter of the village rabbi, is confronted with the startling choice of willingly "surrendering" her maidenhood to Mosjoukine's aristocratic leader of the Cossack detachment sent to wipe out her village, or refusing and seeing him carry out his assignment. While this type of personality fitted into Valentino's past "Son of the Sheik" characterization of a dominant, forceful lover who initially takes women against their will, until they melt under the radiance of his sheer animal magnetism, it ran against Mosjoukine's European "Casanova" image as a fatalistically irresistible to whom women flock and "surrender" without any hint of force or threat, but simply because of their inability to resist.  This basic misunderstanding of the dissimilarity between Valentino and Mosjoukine combined with journeyman direction by Edward Sloman and Mary Philbin's unresponsiveness and lack of chemistry with her leading man, consigned the film to a tepid reception by the critics and the public. Although moderately profitable, it was not the money-making hit that Laemmle expected. Mosjoukine received some good notices, but a number of critics doubted his suitability for American audiences. An even more ominous note, however, was sounded at the film's Broadway premiere on 10 October 1927. Another film, playing across the street, had its premiere four days earlier, on 6 October. "The Jazz Singer" was attracting much bigger audiences than "Surrender" and, as it was ushering in voice-on-film, would soon sound the death knell for Mosjoukine's career as a silent film star, as his heavy Russian accent eventually dealt a crippling blow to his hopes of continuing in talkies.

Return to Europe.

After the unsuccessful attempt at a Hollywood career, Mosjoukine returned to Europe. The reminder of his film career, appearing in a new film every year until at least 1936, was spent in Europe. He appeared mainly in German films in the last years of the Weimar Republic, moving to France after the rise of the Nazis to power. In both countries he was often given roles in films with a Russian background. Many of his films were directed by fellow Russian emigres Vladimir Strizhevsky, Victor Tourjansky, and Alexandre Volkoff.

Personal life.

Mosjoukine had three elder brothers. Alexander Mozzhukhin (1878—1972) was a famous opera singer who also left Russia for Paris in 1926. After his death his wife Cleo Carini returned to the Soviet Union, bringing her husband's archives along with her which included many documents. Among them was an autobiography and many letters from his family members, including Ivan. They are currently stored in the Russian State Archive of Literature and Art and in several museums.  Mosjoukine's second brother Aleksey (born 1880) served as an officer in the Imperial Russian Army and was later enrolled to the Red Army. In 1931 he was arrested and sentenced to three years in prison for Anti-Soviet agitation. In 1937 he was arrested for the second time on the same account and by the NKVD troika's decision sentenced to death. Konstantin Mozzhukhin (born 1882) was also an army officer who served in the Imperial Russian Navy. In 1935 he and his father were arrested and sent to Yrgyz in the Kazakh SSR. In 1937 he was arrested for the second time, also for Anti-Soviet agitation, and sentenced to ten years of labor camps. The date of his death is unknown.  Mosjoukine was officially married three times. His first wife was the Russian actress Natalya Lisenko (1884–1960). They married in the first half of the 1910s and divorced in 1927. In 1928 Mosjoukine married a Dutch actress Agnes Petersen (1906—1973). His third wife was a French actress of Russian origin Tania Fédor (1905–1985), although they were married only for a brief period of time.  As a teenager Mosjoukine became romantically involved with Olga Bronitskaya (born Telegina) — an actress from the popular traveling troupe led by her brother Petr Zarechny. In 1908 she gave birth to their illegitimate son Aleksandr who was registered as the son of Petr Zarechny under his official family name. Thus the boy was raised as Aleksandr Petrovich Telegin, although he was made aware of his real father. For several years Mosjoukine traveled with his civil wife and his son before returning to Moscow and marrying Natalya Lisenko. According to Telegin, his father always supported them by sending letters, money and packages until his name came under a ban in the Soviet Union. Telegin and his family lived in Moscow, although they had to conceal their origin. To this day he remains Mosjoukine's only confirmed offspring.  French novelist Romain Gary claimed that his birth was the result of an affair between Mosjoukine and his mother Nina Owczyńska, a Polish-Jewish actress who later married Arieh Kacew. In 1960 he wrote a novelized autobiographical account of his mother's struggles and triumphs, "La promesse de l'aube" ("Promise at Dawn"), which became the basis for an English-language play and a French-American film. The play, Samuel A. Taylor's "First Love", opened on Broadway at the Morosco Theatre on Christmas Day 1961 and closed on 13 January 1962, after 24 performances. In 1970, returning to its original title, it was adapted for the screen and directed by Jules Dassin as a vehicle for his wife Melina Mercouri (then aged 49), who played Nina. Dassin, who was 59 years old at the time, chose to play Mosjoukine himself in the single scene that the character appears in the film.

Death.

Ivan Mosjoukine died of tuberculosis in a Neuilly-sur-Seine clinic. All available sources give his age as 49 and year of birth as 1889. However, his gravestone at the Russian cemetery in the Parisian suburb of Sainte-Genevieve-des-Bois is inscribed with the year 1887.

Ivan Ilyich Mozzhukhin (; —18 January 1939), usually billed using the French transliteration Ivan Mosjoukine, was a Russian silent film actor.

Ivan Mozžuchin (Иван Ильич Мозжухин, Ivan Mosjoukine;, Penza – 18. ledna 1939, Neuilly-sur-Seine) byl ruský filmový herec. Opustil studia práv a dal se k divadlu, v roce 1911 debutoval ve filmové adaptaci "Kreutzerovy sonáty". Hrál ve filmech režisérů Chanžonkova a Protazanova. Od roku 1919 žil v exilu ve Francii. Pro svůj uhrančivý pohled byl nazývaný „Ruský Rudolph Valentino“. Jeho manželkou byla herečka Natalia Lisenková.


Gameplay.

"Borderlands 2" is an action role-playing game played from a first-person perspective. The gameplay revolves around the completion of missions and the collection of randomly generated loot (such as weapons, shields, skins, and other items) with various rarities, statistics, and elemental effects. Four playable character classes are available in the base game, each with their own unique abilities and skill trees: Axton, "the Commando", can summon a turret to provide offensive support. Maya, "the Siren", can "phaselock" enemies by trapping them in a sphere of energy for a few seconds. Zer0, "the Assassin", can temporarily become invisible and spawn a hologram decoy to distract enemies; an attack delivered in this state provides bonus damage. Salvador, "the Gunzerker", can use his titular ability to temporarily dual-wield weapons.  New gameplay elements added to "Borderlands 2" include a trading

Plot.

Characters.

Like its predecessor, "Borderlands 2" features four playable characters: Axton the Commando, Maya the Siren, Salvador the Gunzerker, and Zer0 the Assassin. New to "Borderlands 2" are two additional characters available as downloadable content: Gaige the Mechromancer and Krieg the Psycho.  The four player characters from the first game, Roland, Lilith, Brick,

Setting.

Five years have passed since the events of "Borderlands", when the four Vault Hunters, Roland, Mordecai, Lilith, and Brick were guided by a mysterious entity known as "The Guardian Angel" on the planet of Pandora to the Vault, a mysterious alien structure that was rumored to hold ancient and exotic technology and riches. Instead, these Vault Hunters were confronted by an alien abomination known as "The

Story.

The game opens with six Vault Hunters (Axton, Gaige, Krieg, Maya, Salvador, and Zer0) aboard a Hyperion train on Pandora. Jack, supposedly supporting them, suddenly sabotages the train and leaves the Vault Hunters for dead in a frozen wasteland. The Vault Hunters are found by the last remaining CL4P-TP ("Claptrap") unit. The Guardian Angel contacts the Vault Hunters and instructs them to accompany Claptrap to the city of Sanctuary, and to join the Crimson Raiders, an anti-Hyperion resistance movement made up of former Atlas soldiers and Pandoran citizens, in order to defeat Handsome Jack.  Upon arriving at the gates of Sanctuary, the Vault Hunters are asked to rescue Roland, now leader of the Crimson Raiders, who has been captured by a bounty hunter called the Firehawk. The

Development.

Following the unexpected success of the first "Borderlands", which sold between three to four-and-a-half million copies since release, creative director Mike Neumann stated that there was a chance of a "Borderlands 2" being created, adding that the decision "seems like a no-brainer." On August 2, 2011, the game was confirmed and titled as "Borderlands 2", with Anthony Burch announced as the writer the next day. The first look at the game was shown at Gamescom 2011, and an extensive preview was included in the September edition of "Game Informer" magazine, with "Borderlands 2" being the cover story. Like the first game, "Borderlands 2" was developed by Gearbox Software and published by 2K Games, running on a heavily modified version of Epic Games' Unreal Engine 3. The game was released on September 18, 2012 in North America and on September 21, 2012 internationally.

Marketing and release.

On August 20, 2012, it was announced that a four issue "Borderlands" comic would be released in November 2012 to tie in with "Borderlands 2". The miniseries was written by Mikey Neumann and published by IDW. It tells the story of how the original four Vault Hunters came to be together at the beginning of "Borderlands", filling in their backstory and setting up the events of both games.  Claptrap appears as an opponent in the crossover title "Poker Night 2", with players able to unlock new "Borderlands 2" content upon the completion of certain objectives.  A 4.6 GB portion of "Borderlands 2" became available for pre-load through Steam on September 14, 2012, allowing customers to download encrypted game files to their computer before the game was released. When the game was released, customers were able to unlock the files on their hard drives and play the game immediately, without having to wait for the whole game to download. "Borderlands 2" was also available for download on the PlayStation Network on its release date for retail price.  On January 20, 2015, Gearbox announced that it would release ""—a port of "Borderlands 2" and "" for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, on March 24, 2015. On March 26, 2020, Gearbox announced that it would release both games, plus the original "Borderlands", for Nintendo Switch as the "Borderlands Legendary Collection" on May 29, 2020.

Patches.

Since its release, several PC patches have been published to address technical issues and improve overall gameplay. On November 13, 2012, patch 1.2.0 was released to fix several game issues such as the infinite golden key glitch. The most significant of these is the overpowered "The Bee" shield which was given reduced capabilities and effectiveness. A patch later added a

Golden Keys.

Golden Keys are a part of Gearbox's SHiFT rewards program. Codes are released on various social media sites that can be redeemed in the

Virtual reality port.

On October 9, 2018, a port of the game was announced for PlayStation VR, released on December 14, 2018. It is

Downloadable content.

Season one.

Four major packs of downloadable content (DLC) and multiple smaller pieces of content have been made available for "Borderlands 2". The "Borderlands 2 Season Pass" allows users who purchase it to access the first four major DLC packs at a reduced cost compared to purchasing them separately as soon as they become available. Also available are two additional character classes (Gaige the Mechromancer and Krieg the Psycho), an additional area known as the "Creature Slaughter Dome", the "Ultimate Vault Hunter Pack" which raises the level cap and multiple heads and skins for character customization. A "Game of the Year Edition" containing the main game, all four major DLC packs, the two character packs, and the first Ultimate Vault Hunter Pack was released on October 8, 2013.

"Captain Scarlett and Her Pirate's Booty".

"Captain Scarlett and Her Pirate's Booty" is the first post-release downloadable content pack and includes new campaign content. The content was released on October 16, 2012. The storyline takes place in a vast desert that used to be an ocean. Captain Scarlett, a sand pirate captain, works with the Vault Hunters to search for Captain Blade's Lost Treasure of the

"Mr. Torgue's Campaign of Carnage".

"Mr. Torgue's Campaign of Carnage" is the second downloadable content pack and was released on November 20, 2012. The campaign's plot is centered around a new Vault discovered in Pandora buried in the center of the "Badass Crater of Badassitude" that will only open "once the champion of Pandora feeds it the blood of the ultimate coward". To find this "champion", Mr. Torgue, CEO and spokesman of the Torgue weapons manufacturer, sets up a tournament in which the Vault Hunters compete. The new areas also feature a new weapons vending machine, which sells high-end Torgue weapons exclusively

"Sir Hammerlock's Big Game Hunt".

"Sir Hammerlock's Big Game Hunt" is the third downloadable campaign add-on and was released on January 15, 2013. The title, screenshots, and details were leaked on December 14, 2012. It chronicles Sir Hammerlock and the Vault Hunters going on a quest to find rare animals of Pandora and their battle with former Hyperion scientist Professor Nakayama, who is trying to create a clone of Handsome

"Tiny Tina's Assault on Dragon Keep".

"Tiny Tina's Assault on Dragon Keep" was the fourth piece of downloadable content and final part to be released for free for Season Pass holders. It was released for PC, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 users on June 25, 2013.  The campaign is set within the world of a tabletop role-playing game known as "Bunkers and Badasses", with Tiny Tina serving as a game master, sometimes modifying the game world according to her whims. The world is fantasy-themed, with skeletons, orcs, treants (similar to J. R. R. Tolkien's Ents) and dragons featuring as enemies, along with appearances by other "Borderlands" characters as residents in this world. The campaign's frame story surrounds Tiny Tina's struggle to accept the death of Roland.  "Tiny Tina's Assault on Dragon Keep" was met with praise and acclaim from multiple gaming websites and journalists such as IGN.com's Vince Ingenito, who gave the expansion a 9.2 out of 10, praising its use of the fantasy

Season two.

"T.K. Baha's Bloody Harvest".

Gearbox planned to release three, shorter "Headhunter Pack" DLCs by the end of 2013. The first was called "T.K. Baha's Bloody Harvest", bringing back the character last

"The Horrible Hunger of the Ravenous Wattle Gobbler".

The second Headhunter Pack was released on November 26, 2013. It is a parody of

"How Marcus Saved Mercenary Day".

The third additional "Headhunter Pack" was released on December 17, 2013. It is

"Mad Moxxi and the Wedding Day Massacre".

The fourth Headhunter Pack was released on February 11, 2014. It is about Mad Moxxi's plan to have two Goliaths, one from the

"Sir Hammerlock vs. the Son of Crawmerax".

The fifth, and final Headhunter Pack was released on April 15, 2014. In the DLC, Sir Hammerlock, Brick, Mordecai, and Lilith are on a vacation on Wam Bam Island when a large monster kidnaps Hammerlock. The DLC culminates in a battle against Crawmerax Jr., the son of the great crab worm from the original game's "The Secret Armory of General Knoxx" add-on, who is seeking vengeance on Roland, Lilith, Brick and Mordecai. The plot introduces Sparky Flynt, son of the boss character Captain Flynt who, along with five other people whose family and friends have been killed by the six new Vault Hunters, seeks revenge. Before they can be introduced in person, separate allies of the Vault Hunters kill (or in Salvador's case, arrange the death of) the five would-be assassins, before Sparky is killed by the Vault Hunters themselves.

Other content.

"Premiere Club: Mechromancer Pack".

The "Premiere Club" was a pre-order bonus that comes with golden guns, a relic, a golden key and early access to a fifth playable class, the Mechromancer. The golden key can be redeemed in-game to open a special, golden chest that includes

"Psycho" and "Ultimate Vault Hunter Upgrade Pack".

On March 23, 2013, Gearbox announced two new downloadable content packs for "Borderlands 2", only one of which is part of the Season Pass. The first pack is called the "Ultimate Vault Hunter Upgrade Pack". It adds a level cap raise from 50 to 61 and a new game mode called the Ultimate Vault Hunter Mode. This is a third playthrough mode that supersedes playthrough 2.5 and scales

"Ultimate Vault Hunter Upgrade Pack 2: Digistruct Peak Challenge".

Released on September 3, 2013, the DLC increases the level cap from 61 to 72 and introduces the "Digistruct Peak Challenge", a new map where Patricia Tannis will let players

"Commander Lilith and the Fight for Sanctuary".

"Commander Lilith and the Fight for Sanctuary" was announced and released on June 9, 2019. The DLC was released for PC, and for "The Handsome Collection" version of the game on Xbox One and PlayStation 4. It was available as a free download for the first month after release. The story of the DLC picks up after the events of "Borderlands 2" and acts as a bridge to the story of "Borderlands 3", setting up the transition to the new Sanctuary 3 base ship

Reception.

"Borderlands 2" was met with critical acclaim. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 91/100, the PC version 89/100 and the Xbox 360 version 89/100. IGN awarded the game a 9.0 out of 10, praising the game's sense of humor, world structure, and role-playing systems, while feeling disappointed by the game's lack of meaningful visual customization and the sharing of loot during co-op play. They stated that the game had roughly 30 hours of gameplay, and was worth playing multiple times. IGN also nominated the game as one of its ten finalists for Game of the Year 2012. Game Informer gave the game a score of 9.75 out of 10, claiming that the game is one of "the most rewarding gaming experiences" of the current console generation. "Borderlands 2" would go on to win X-Play's game of the year.  "Borderlands 2" was one of the best-selling games of 2012, and has become the best-selling game in the history of 2K

Sequel.

Gearbox CEO Randy Pitchford stated in February 2014 that there were no plans for a third, main installment in the franchise; the company believed that a sequel to "Borderlands 2" would have to be "massive", but that "when you think of what "Borderlands 3" should be... No, we don't know what that is yet. We can imagine what it must achieve, but we don't know what it is yet." However, the company still believed that there was an audience for new "Borderlands" content; in April 2014, Gearbox announced that 2K Australia was developing a game set in between the events of the first two "Borderlands" games, "", released October 14, 2014. The game focuses on the rise of Handsome Jack, and features four of his henchmen—Athena (from "The Secret Armory of General Knoxx" DLC), Claptrap, Nisha (Lynchwood's sheriff from "Borderlands 2"), and Wilhelm (a Hyperion cyborg who was a boss in "Borderlands 2")—as playable characters.  At a panel during PAX South in January 2015, Pitchford announced that the studio was preparing to begin work on a new "Borderlands" game—which he described as "the big one", and began to offer a number of new staff openings related to the game. The game would be developed specifically for the eighth-generation consoles Xbox One and PlayStation 4. Randy Pitchford confirmed at the April 2016 PAX East convention that a "Borderlands" sequel will be Gearbox's next game after "Battleborn", though he is not sure if it will be called "Borderlands 3". Pitchford and Randy Varnell said they would put Easter eggs to the next "Borderlands" in the DLC for "Battleborn". "Borderlands 3" was officially revealed on March 28, 2019 and released on September 13, 2019 on the Epic Games store and six months later, will appear on other store fronts such as Steam.

Borderlands 2 is an action role-playing first-person shooter video game developed by Gearbox Software and published by 2K Games. It is the second game in the "Borderlands" series and the sequel to 2009's "Borderlands". The game was released for Windows, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and OS X on September 18, 2012. It was ported to the PlayStation Vita on May 13, 2014, and released for Linux on September 30, 2014.

Borderlands 2 je akční dynamická střílečka z pohledu první osoby z roku 2012 vyvinutá firmou Gearbox stejně jako první díl. Využívá hodně prvků z RPG. Hráč si může svou postavu vylepšovat podle svého vlastního vkusu a herního stylu. Hra rovněž stejně jako jednička využívá možnost kooperativního multiplayeru, kdy si můžete přizvat kamaráda do své zrovna rozpracované mise a nechat si pomoct například při obtížných bojích. Celá hra se odehrává na fiktivní planetě Pandora jako první díl. Hra si získala svou oblíbenost převážně díky zajímavému grafickému zpracování připomínající komiks a neobvyklému hernímu stylu.


Description.

"Nanuqsaurus" has been estimated to have been about 5-6 meters (16-20 ft) long, about half the length of "Tyrannosaurus rex". Its weight has been estimated to be 500-900 kilograms (1100-2000 lbs). This diminutive size was postulated by Fiorillo and Tykoski as being an adaptation to its high-latitude habitat.  "Nanuqsaurus" bears a particularly shaped ridge on its head indicating the carnivore was related to "Tyrannosaurus rex". The length of the reconstructed skull, based on the proportions of related animals, is.  Classified as a tyrannosaurine, "Nanuqsaurus" is diagnosed by: a thin, rostrally forked, median spur of the fused parietals on the dorsal skull roof that overlaps and separates the frontals within the sagittal crest, frontals with a long, rostrally pointed process separating the prefrontal and lacrimal facets and that the first two dentary teeth are much smaller than the dentary teeth behind them.

Discovery and naming.

In 2006, at the Kikak-Tegoseak Quarry, in North Slope Borough in the north of Alaska, fossils were found of a medium-sized theropod, with an estimated skull length of. These were first referred to "Gorgosaurus" and later to "Albertosaurus". After preparation in the Perot Museum of Nature and Science (Dallas Museum of Natural History) it was recognised these represented a species new to science. The holotype, DMNH 21461, has been found in a layer of the Prince Creek Formation, dated at 69.1 million years. It consists of a partial skull with a lower jaw, which were found very close together. It contains the nasal branch of the right maxilla; a partial skull roof including partial parietals, frontals and a right laterosphenoid; and the front of the left dentary. The specimen is from a fully mature individual, as it has a smooth nasal contact.  "Nanuqsaurus" was first described and named by Anthony R. Fiorillo and Ronald S. Tykoski in 2014. The type species is "Nanuqsaurus hoglundi". The generic name is derived from the Iñupiaq word for "polar bear", "nanuq", and the Greek word "sauros", meaning "lizard". The specific name honours the philanthropist Forrest Hoglund, for his work on philanthropy and cultural institutions.

Classification.

"Nanuqsaurus" is a highly derived tyrannosaurine. It is considered the sister taxon to a clade containing "Tyrannosaurus", "Tarbosaurus", and probably "Zhuchengtyrannus". Below is a cladogram illustrating the relationships of all tyrannosaurid genera:

Paleobiology.

According to paleontologists, about 70 million years ago northern Alaska was a part of an ancient subcontinent called Laramidia and experienced cold weather and long periods of darkness and light, in addition to seasons in which food was not readily available. Prey availability likely would have increased suddenly during the summer, but then declined in the dark winter, leaving predators with little to eat.  Fiorillo stated that this lack of food might explain "Nanuqsaurus"'s unusually small size, as a large animal cannot survive on scarce resources. However, it was also found that the normal length of "Troodon" increased by 50% in Alaska, although it was speculated this was caused by a larger eye size, leading to better competition. "Nanuqsaurus" likely shrank in size because of the decrease in year-round food supply, caused by the colder temperatures.

Senses.

The shape of its skull suggested it had an inflated area of its brain devoted to smell, which suggests the animal relied heavily on scent to hunt its prey, similar to "Tyrannosaurus rex". The heightened sense of smell in tyrannosaurines suggests that it is more likely that they actively hunted prey instead of scavenging carcasses.

Paleoecology.

The holotype specimen assigned to "Nanuqsaurus" comes from the Maastrichtian age Prince Creek Formation. At an age of 71–68 million years ago, the Kikak-Tegoseak Quarry region Prince Creek Formation dates to the early Late Maastrichtian. An average age found in dating rocks from the formation is 69.1 ± 0.3 million years ago, so it is likely that "Nanuqsaurus" is from around that age. The formation is along the Colville River on the North Slope Borough, and is made up of alluvial sediments. It is one of a few dinosaurs to live at very high-latitude areas.

Nanuqsaurus (meaning "polar bear lizard") is a genus of carnivorous tyrannosaurid theropod known from the Late Cretaceous (early Late Maastrichtian stage) Prince Creek Formation of the North Slope of Alaska, USA. It contains a single species, Nanuqsaurus hoglundi, known only from a partial skull.

Nanuqsaurus ("ještěr - lední medvěd") byl menším masožravým dinosaurem (teropodem) z čeledi Tyrannosauridae, který žil asi před 69 miliony let (geologický stupeň maastricht) na území dnešní Aljašky v USA. Byl menším a geologicky starším příbuzným populárního tyranosaura, dosahoval jen asi poloviny jeho délky (kolem 6 metrů). Lebka byla dlouhá asi 60 až 70 cm a představuje jedinou část kostry, která se dochovala. Holotyp dinosaura má katalogové označení "DMNH 21461" a je uložen v Dallaském muzeu přírodní historie.


Plot.

After filming a porn video and being ripped off by the producer (Arthur Roberts), India (Joe Lia) meets a street hustler. Moments later they are attacked by a pair of gay bashers. They split up and run and the bashers pursue India in their Jeep. They stop short at the sight of India standing next to Destiny (Allan Louis) a vigilante African American drag queen pointing a gun at them. Destiny vandalizes the Jeep and takes the coat from one of the bashers. Destiny invites the homeless India to live with her. There he meets Lester (Minerva Vier), a young lesbian and another of Destiny's "orphans."  The next morning, upon learning that Destiny is a porn director India panics and plans to leave. He tells Destiny about being ripped off and she asks if he wants to kill the producer. He says yes, and that he wants to kill all straight people. India goes to the producer's home with a gun. He finds the producer and pulls the trigger, but the gun is not loaded.  A few days later, as they discuss plans to foment the collapse of the straight world, Destiny, India and Lester meet Spencer (Lance Lee Davis), a graffiti artist and self-proclaimed "bomber," They immediately "adopt" him. After spending the night together, Spencer and India discover the basher's address inside his coat and decide they want to go bash him.  As Destiny and her friend Matinee (Tara Nova) socialize in Destiny's car, Officer Vic Damone (Vince Parenti) comes to warn them that the police are on the lookout for roving bands of vigilante drag queens and to watch out for themselves. Destiny (realizing that Vic is attracted to her) advises him that they're already always watching out for themselves.  Spencer and India are approached on the street by a photographer. As the pair pose together nude on a bed, Spencer recites a litany of injuries he has received at the hands of his parents and other straights. India tries to comfort him but Spencer says he no longer has feelings and doesn't let anyone in. India vows to protect him from the straights.  The next morning, on the way to the basher's house, India discovers a detonator in Spencer's backpack. Spencer tells him that he plans to blow up his parents. India tries to dissuade him but Spencer is not convinced that bombing straights isn't the way to go.  India and Spencer spot the basher in his neighborhood and argue over whether they should bash him as Spencer wants or try to "save" him as India wants. India has adopted Destiny's theory, that all gay bashers are themselves repressed gays who need to be saved.  India returns the basher's jacket. The basher, Guy (Adam Larson), admits that he's gay. He packs his things and tells the other basher, his roommate Quentin (Josh Paul) that he's gay, he loves him and believes Quentin loves him too.  Quentin has a gun to his head, contemplating suicide, but is interrupted by his brother. Quentin angrily acknowledges that he is gay and drives away.  Destiny tells Vic she's in love with him and Vic tells Destiny he's in love with her too. As Vic leaves for work, he passes India, Spencer and Guy with his gun pointed in their general direction. They confront Destiny about being involved with a cop, until Destiny realizes who Guy is and orders him out. India and Spencer threaten to leave with him, but Guy agrees to go. India appeals to Destiny and she relents. India and Spencer chase after him but can't find him. Meanwhile, Guy returnes to the apartment and apologizes for attacking them. Destiny accepts him and Lester nicknames him "Killer."  India wants to make plans for the evening with Spencer but Spencer already has plans, to blow up his parents. India begs him not to go, saying that he won't come back from it.  Destiny interrupts another gay bashing. The basher strikes her with a baseball bat and Destiny shoots him. Later, Vic comforts her and Destiny tells him he has to be careful around her kids. They all have "police stories."  Quentin, in response to a message from Guy, arrives at Destiny's apartment, where he finds Guy in bed with India and Spencer. Quentin orders him to come away with him, giving him the choice of "straight or dead." The boys argue that Quentin is in love with Guy and Quentin breaks down, admitting how much in love with Guy he is. Quentin again points the gun at his own head but Guy stops him and they kiss.  India appeals again to Spencer not to blow up his parents. He says that if Spencer really wants to kill them, he will help, but if Spencer really wants to blow them away, he will stay with India. "All we have to do is kiss, because when two guys kiss it's like a bomb going off in the straight world. Our kisses are louder than bombs." Spencer admits that he has fallen in love with India but is terrified because he's losing control. But he also feels safe, like he's home. India tells him that wherever they are, as long as they are together they're home. They kiss, and with each kiss they call out a target that their kiss has destroyed like a bomb, finally declaring that they will blow up the whole straight world.

Critical response.

"FAQs" was generally poorly received by mainstream critics. The "Los Angeles Times", while calling Louis' Destiny a "striking mix of Grace Jones and Catwoman," found that the "campier aspects are not enough to make up for its lapses into melodrama and just plain silliness." The "Philadelphia City Paper" largely concurred, finding the film hard to take seriously with its premise that every gay basher is really a closet homosexual and the concept of Destiny's character completely unbelievable. While finding a "reasonable tale" in Lewis' story and praising the performances, particularly those of Louis and Lia, nonetheless the conclusion is that the film is "awash in aimless, campless hyperbole and hysteria." The "LA Weekly" offered kudos to Lewis for his "adept[ness] at modulating both tension and free-flowing interpersonal relationships" and praising cinematographer Kelly, but notes that the film "seems less comfortable in its own skin than his other work...the dialogue is blunter, and harder for his amateur cast to pull off, while Lewis’ stridency, however justified, ultimately jars against the film's tender, all-is-love fantasia."

FAQs is a 2005 LGBT-themed independent film written and directed by Everett Lewis. The film tells the story of a group of young queer kids who have been discarded by straight society. They come together to form a "de facto" family under the wing of an African American vigilante drag queen named Destiny.

FAQs (tj. "Často kladené otázky") je americký hraný film z roku 2005, který režíroval Everett Lewis podle vlastního scénáře. Film vypráví příběh skupiny mladých lidí na okraji společnosti v západním Hollywoodu. Snímek měl světovou premiéru na Mezinárodním gay a lesbickém filmovém festivalu ve Filadelfii 16. července 2005.


Membrane processes classifications.

Microfiltration (MF).

Microfiltration removes particles higher than 0.08-2 μm and operates within a range of 7-100 kPa. Microfiltration is used to remove residual suspended solids (SS), to remove bacteria in order to condition the water for effective disinfection and as a pre-treatment step for reverse osmosis.  Relatively recent developments are membrane bioreactors (MBR) which combine microfiltration and a bioreactor for biological treatment.

Ultrafiltration (UF).

Ultrafiltration removes particles higher than 0.005-2 μm and operates within a range of 70-700kPa. Ultrafiltration is used for many of the same applications as microfiltration. Some ultrafiltration membranes have also been used to remove dissolved compounds with high molecular weight, such as proteins and carbohydrates. Also, they can remove viruses and some endotoxins.

Nanofiltration (NF).

Nanofiltration is also known as “loose” RO and can reject particles smaller than 0,002 μm. Nanofiltration is used for the removal of selected dissolved constituents from wastewater. NF is primarily developed as a membrane softening process which offers an alternative to chemical softening.  Likewise, nanofiltration can be used as a pre-treatment before directed reverse osmosis. The main objectives of NF pre-treatment are: (1). minimize particulate and microbial fouling of the RO membranes by removal of turbidity and bacteria, (2) prevent scaling by removal of the hardness ions, (3) lower the operating pressure of the RO process by reducing the feed-water total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration.

Reverse osmosis (RO).

Reverse osmosis is commonly used for desalination. As well, RO is commonly used for the removal of dissolved constituents from wastewater remaining after advanced treatment with microfiltration. RO excludes ions but requires high pressures to produce deionized water (850-7000 kPa).

Nanostructured Membranes.

An emerging class of membranes rely on nanostructure channels to separate materials at the molecular scale. These include carbon nanotube membranes, graphene membranes, membranes made from polymers of intrinsic microporosity (PIMS), and membranes incorporating metal-organic-frameworks (MOFs). These membranes can be used for size selective separations such as nanofiltration and reverse osmosis, but also adsorption selective separations such as olefins from paraffins and alcohols from water that traditionally have required expensive and energy intensive distillation.

Membrane configurations.

In the membrane field, the term module is used to describe a complete unit composed of the membranes, the pressure support structure, the feed inlet, the outlet permeate and retentate streams, and an overall support structure. The principal types of membrane modules are:

Membrane process operation.

The key elements of any membrane process relate to the influence of the following parameters on the overall permeate flux are:

Flux, pressure, permeability.

The total permeate flow from a membrane system is given by following equation:  Where Qp is the permeate stream flowrate [kg·s], F is the water flux rate [kg·m·s] and A is the membrane area [m]  The permeability (k) [m·s·bar] of a membrane is given by the next equation:  The transmembrane pressure (TMP) is given by the following expression:  where P is the Transmembrane Pressure [kPa], P the inlet pressure of feed stream [kPa]; P the pressure of concentrate stream [kPa]; P the pressure if permeate stream [kPa].  The rejection (r) could be defined as the number of particles that have been removed from the feedwater.  The corresponding mass balance equations are:  To control the operation of a membrane process, two modes, concerning the flux and to the TMP (Trans Membrane Pressure), can be used. These modes are (1) constant TMP and (2) constant flux.  The operation modes will be affected when the rejected materials and particles in the retentate tend to accumulate in the membrane. At a given TMP, the flux of water through the membrane will decrease and at a given flux, the TMP will increase, reducing the permeability (k). This phenomenon is known as fouling, and it is the main limitation to membrane process operation.

Dead-end and cross-flow operation modes.

Two operation modes for membranes can be used. These modes are:  Filtration leads to an increase in the resistance against the flow. In the case of the dead-end filtration process, the resistance increases according to the thickness of the cake formed on the membrane. As a consequence, the permeability (k) and the flux rapidly decrease, proportionally to the solids concentration and, thus, requiring periodic cleaning.  For cross-flow processes, the deposition of material will continue until the forces of the binding cake to the membrane will be balanced by the forces of the fluid. At this point, cross-flow filtration will reach a steady-state condition, and thus, the flux will remain constant with time. Therefore, this configuration will demand less periodic cleaning.

Fouling.

Fouling can be defined as the potential deposition and accumulation of constituents in the feed stream on the membrane.  Fouling can take place through several physicochemical and biological mechanisms which are related to the increased deposition of solid material onto the membrane surface. The main mechanisms by which fouling can occur, are:

Fouling control and mitigation.

Since fouling is an important consideration in the design and operation of membrane systems, as it affects pre-treatment needs, cleaning requirements, operating conditions, cost and performance, it should prevent, and if necessary, removed. Optimizing the operation conditions is important to prevent fouling. However, if fouling has already taken place, it should be removed by using physical or chemical cleaning.  Physical cleaning techniques for membrane include membrane relaxation and membrane backwashing.  Chemical cleaning. Relaxation and backwashing effectiveness will decrease with operation time as more irreversible fouling accumulates on the membrane surface. Therefore, besides the physical cleaning, chemical cleaning may also be recommended. They include:  Optimizing the operation condition. Several mechanisms can be carried out to optimize the operating conditions of the membrane to prevent fouling, for instance:

Applications.

Distinct features of membranes are responsible for the interest in using them as additional unit operation for separation processes in fluid processes. Some advantages noted include:  Membranes are used with pressure as the driving processes in membrane filtration of solutes and in reverse osmosis. In dialysis and pervaporation the chemical potential along a concentration gradient is the driving force. Also pertraction as a membrane assisted extraction process relies on the gradient in chemical potential.  However, their overwhelming success in biological systems is not matched by their application. The main reasons for this are named

A membrane is a selective barrier; it allows some things to pass through but stops others. Such things may be molecules, ions, or other small particles. Biological membranes include cell membranes (outer coverings of cells or organelles that allow passage of certain constituents); nuclear membranes, which cover a cell nucleus; and tissue membranes, such as mucosae and serosae. Synthetic membranes are made by humans for use in laboratories and industry (such as chemical plants).

Membrána (latinsky "membrana", někdy také "blána" nebo "diafragma") je tenká, planární struktura nebo materiál, která tvoří rozhraní mezi prostředími, která navzájem odděluje. Pro membrány je typická pružnost a obvykle také schopnost selektivní propustnosti pro některé látky z jednoho prostředí skrze membránu do druhého ("polopropustná membrána"). Často funguje jako neprostupná bariéra a to nejen vůči proti prostupnosti látek, ale třeba také el. nábojů, tj. el. proudu.


History.

In the 1960s, when the Kansai region was rapidly losing trade to Tokyo, planners proposed a new airport near Kobe and Osaka. The city's original international airport, Itami Airport, located in the densely populated suburbs of Itami and Toyonaka, was surrounded by buildings; it could not be expanded, and many of its neighbours had filed complaints because of noise pollution problems.  After the protests surrounding New Tokyo International Airport (now Narita International Airport), which was built with expropriated land in a rural part of Chiba Prefecture, planners decided to build the airport offshore. The new airport was part of a number of new developments to revitalize Osaka, which had been losing economic and cultural ground to Tokyo for most of the century.  Initially, the airport was planned to be built near Kobe, but the city of Kobe refused the plan, so the airport was moved to a more southerly location on Osaka Bay. There it could be open 24 hours per day, unlike its predecessor in the city.

Construction.

An artificial island, long and wide, was proposed. Engineers needed to overcome the extremely high risks of earthquakes and typhoons (with storm surges of up to ). The water depth is 18 m on top of 20 m of soft Holocene clay which holds 70% water. A million sand drains were built into the clay to remove water and solidify the clay.  Construction started in 1987. The sea wall was finished in 1989 (made of rock and 48,000 tetrapods). Three mountains were excavated for, and was used to construct island 1. 10,000 workers and 10 million work hours over three years, using eighty ships, were needed to complete the (or 40 m) layer of earth over the sea floor and inside the sea wall. In 1990, a three kilometer bridge was completed to connect the island to the mainland at Rinku Town, at a cost of $1 billion. Completion of the artificial island increased the area of Osaka Prefecture just enough that it is no longer the smallest prefecture in Japan (Kagawa Prefecture is now the smallest).  The bidding and construction of the airport was a source of international trade friction during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone responded to American concerns, particularly from Senator Frank Murkowski, that bids would be rigged in Japanese companies' favour by providing special offices for prospective international contractors, which ultimately did little to ease the participation of foreign contractors in the bidding process. Later, foreign airlines complained that two-thirds of the departure hall counter space had been allocated to Japanese carriers, disproportionately to the actual carriage of passengers through the airport.  The island had been predicted to sink by the most optimistic estimate as the weight of the material used for construction compressed the seabed silts. However, by 1999, the island had sunk – much more than predicted. The project became the most expensive civil works project in modern history after twenty years of planning, three years of construction and US$15bn of investment. Much of what was learned went into the successful artificial islands in silt deposits for New Kitakyushu Airport, Kobe Airport, and Chūbu Centrair International Airport. The lessons of Kansai Airport were also applied in the construction of Hong Kong International Airport.  In 1991, the terminal construction commenced. To compensate for the sinking of the island, adjustable columns were designed to support the terminal building. These are extended by inserting thick metal plates at their bases. Government officials proposed reducing the length of the terminal to cut costs, but architect Renzo Piano insisted on keeping the terminal at its full planned length. The airport was opened on 4 September 1994.  On 17 January 1995, Japan was struck by the Kobe earthquake, the epicenter of which was about away from KIX and killed 6,434 people on Japan's main island of Honshū. Due to its earthquake engineering, the airport emerged unscathed, mostly due to the use of sliding joints. Even the glass in the windows remained intact. On 22 September 1998, the airport survived a typhoon with wind speeds over.  On 19 April 2001, the airport was one of ten structures given the "Civil Engineering Monument of the Millennium" award by the American Society of Civil Engineers. , the total cost of Kansai Airport was $20 billion including land reclamation, two runways, terminals and facilities. Most additional costs were initially due to the island sinking, expected due to the soft soils of Osaka Bay. After construction the rate of sinking was considered so severe that the airport was widely criticized as a geotechnical engineering disaster. The sink rate fell from per year during 1994 to per year in 2008.

Operation.

Opened on 4 September 1994, the airport serves as a hub for several airlines such as All Nippon Airways, Japan Airlines, and Nippon Cargo Airlines. It is the international gateway for Japan's Kansai region, which contains the major cities of Kyoto, Kobe, and Osaka. Other Kansai domestic flights fly from the older but more conveniently located Osaka International Airport in Itami, or from the newer Kobe Airport.  The airport had been deeply in debt, losing $560 million in interest every year. Airlines had been kept away by high landing fees (about $7,500 for a Boeing 747), the second most expensive in the world after Narita's. In the early years of the airport's operation, excessive terminal rent and utility bills for on-site concessions also drove up operating costs: some estimates before opening held that a cup of coffee would have to cost US$10. Osaka business owners pressed the government to take a greater burden of the construction cost to keep the airport attractive to passengers and airlines.  On 17 February 2005, Chubu Centrair International Airport opened in Nagoya, just east of Osaka. The opening of the airport was expected to increase competition between Japan's international airports. Despite this, passenger totals were up 11% in 2005 over 2004, and international passengers increased to 3.06 million in 2006, up 10% over 2005. Adding to the competition was the opening of Kobe Airport, less than away, in 2006 and the lengthening of the runway at Tokushima Airport in Shikoku in 2007. The main rationale behind the expansions was to compete with Incheon International Airport and Hong Kong International Airport as a gateway to Asia, as Tokyo area airports were severely congested. Kansai saw a 5% year-on-year increase in international traffic in summer 2013, largely supported by low-cost carrier traffic to Taiwan and Southeast Asia overcoming a decrease in traffic to China and South Korea.  The airport authority was allotted 4 billion yen in government support for fiscal year 2013, and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport and Ministry of Finance have agreed to reduce this amount in stages through fiscal year 2015, although local governments in the Kansai region have pressed for continued subsidies.  Kansai has been marketed as an alternative to Narita Airport for international travelers from the Greater Tokyo Area. By flying to Kansai from Haneda Airport and connecting to international flights there, travelers can save the additional time required to get to Narita: up to one and a half hours for many residents of Kanagawa Prefecture and southern Tokyo.

Expansion.

The airport was at its limit during peak times, owing especially to freight flights, so a portion of Phase II expansion—the second runway—was made a priority. Thus, in 2003, believing that the sinking problem was almost over, the airport operators started to construct a second runway and terminal.  The second runway opened on 2 August 2007, but with the originally planned terminal portion postponed. This lowered the project cost to JPY¥910 billion (approx. US$8 billion), saving ¥650 billion from the first estimate. The additional runway development, which was opened in time for the IAAF world athletics championships in Osaka, has expanded the airport size to. The second runway is used for landings and when there are incidents prohibiting take off use of runway A. The new runway allowed the airport to start 24-hour operations in September 2007.  A new terminal building opened in late 2012. There are additional plans for several new aprons, a third runway (06C/24C) with a length of, a new cargo terminal and expanding the airport size to. However, the Japanese government has currently postponed these plans for economic reasons.

Relationship with Itami Airport.

Since July 2008, Osaka Prefecture governor Toru Hashimoto has been a vocal critic of Itami Airport, arguing that the Chuo Shinkansen maglev line will make much of its domestic role irrelevant, and that its domestic functions should be transferred to Kansai Airport in conjunction with upgraded high-speed access to Kansai from central Osaka. In 2009, Hashimoto also publicly proposed moving the functions of Marine Corps Air Station Futenma to Kansai Airport as a possible solution for the political crisis surrounding the base.  In May 2011, the Diet of Japan passed legislation to form a new Kansai International Airport Corporation using the state's existing equity stake in Kansai Airport and its property holdings at Itami Airport. The move was aimed at offsetting Kansai Airport's debt burden.  The merger of the Itami and Kansai airport authorities was completed in July 2012. Shortly following the merger, Kansai Airport announced a 5% reduction in landing fees effective October 2012, with additional reductions during overnight hours when the airport is underutilized, and further discounts planned for the future, including subsidies for new airlines and routes. these moves were intended to bring Kansai's fees closer to the level of Narita International Airport, where landing fees were around 20% lower than Kansai's, and to improve competitiveness with other Asian hubs such as Incheon International Airport in Korea.  Since its formation, the new operating company has also made efforts toward international expansion, bidding for operating concessions at Yangon International Airport and Hanthawaddy International Airport in Myanmar.  KIAC conducted a public tender to sell the operating rights for Kansai and Itami Airport in May 2015. Orix and Vinci SA were the sole bidder for the 45-year contract, at a price of around $18 billion. The new operating company, Kansai Airports, took over on 1 April 2016. It is 80% owned by Orix and Vinci, with the remaining 20% owned by Kansai-based enterprises such as Hankyu Hanshin Holdings and Panasonic.

Typhoon Jebi.

On 4 September 2018, the airport was hit by Typhoon Jebi. The airport had to pause operations after seawater surges inundated the island; runways were hit, and the water reached up to the engines of some aircraft. The situation was further exacerbated when a large tanker crashed into the bridge that links the airport to the mainland, effectively stranding the people remaining at the airport. All flights at the airport were cancelled until 6 September, at which date Prime Minister Shinzō Abe announced the airport would partially resume domestic operations.

Terminals.

Terminal 1.

The main KIX passenger terminal, Terminal 1, is a single four-storey building designed by Renzo Piano Building Workshop (Renzo Piano and Noriaki Okabe), and has a gross floor space of., at a total length of from end to end, Terminal 1 is the longest airport terminal in the world. It has a sophisticated people mover system called the Wing Shuttle, which moves passengers from one end of the pier to the other.  The terminal's roof is shaped like an airfoil. This shape is used to promote air circulation through the building: giant air conditioning ducts blow air upwards at one side of the terminal, circulate the air across the curvature of the ceiling, and collect the air through intakes at the other side. Mobiles are suspended in the ticketing hall to take advantage of the flowing air.  The ticketing hall overlooks the international departures concourse, and the two are separated by a glass partition. During Kansai's early days, visitors were known to throw objects over the partition to friends in the corridor below. The partition was eventually modified to halt this practice.

Terminal 2.

Terminal 2 is a low-cost carrier (LCC) terminal designed to attract more LCCs by providing lower landing fees than Terminal 1. It is exclusively occupied by Peach, Spring Airlines and Jeju Air. Other LCCs serving Kansai, such as Jetstar Airways, Jetstar Japan, and Cebu Pacific Air, use the main Terminal 1.  Peach requested that Terminal 2 have a simplified design in order to minimize operating costs. The terminal is a single-story building, thus eliminating the cost of elevators. Passageways to aircraft have no air conditioning. The terminal also has no jet bridges, having one boarding gate for domestic departures and one boarding gate for international departures. In case of rain, passengers are lent umbrellas to use as they walk to the aircraft.  Terminal 2 is not directly connected to Terminal 1 or to Kansai Airport Station. Free shuttle buses run between the two terminals, and between Terminal 2 and the railway and ferry stations. It is also possible to walk between the terminals through the KIX Sora Park, a four-hectare park located adjacent to Terminal 2.

Ground transportation.

Rail.

Kansai International Airport is connected only by the Sky Gate Bridge R, a road/railroad bridge to Rinku Town and the mainland. The lower railroad level of the bridge is used by two railroad operators: JR West and Nankai Electric Railway.  JR West operates the "Haruka" limited express train services for Kansai Airport Station from Tennōji, Shin-Ōsaka, and Kyoto Station. JR West also offers "Kansai Airport Rapid" services for Kansai Airport Station from Ōsaka, Kyōbashi Station, and several stations on the way. Various connections, such as buses, subways, trams, and other railroads, are available at each station.  Nankai operates the "", a limited express train service to Namba Station on the southern edge of downtown Osaka. Osaka Metro connections are available at Namba and Tengachaya Station.

Bus.

Kansai Airport Transportation Enterprise and other bus operators offer scheduled express bus services, called "Airport Limousines", for Kansai International Airport.

Parking.

Two six story parking structures, called P1 and P2, are located above a railroad terminal station, while the other two level parking facilities, called P3 and P4, are situated next to "Aeroplaza", a hotel complex.  The airport is only accessible from the Sky Gate Bridge R, a part of Kansai Airport Expressway. The expressway immediately connects to Hanshin Expressways Route 5, "Wangan Route", and Hanwa Expressway.  Because of the damage sustained during Typhoon Jebi in September 2018, in which two road spans on the southern (airport-bound) side were dislodged and partially crushed by a tanker that had come unmoored in the storm, both lanes of traffic have been rerouted onto the northern (shore-bound) side, and customers are urged to use public transit whenever possible, especially during peak hours.

Ferry service.

In July 2007, high-speed ferry service began. OM Kobe operates "Bay Shuttle" between Kobe Airport and KIX. The journey takes about thirty minutes.

Kansai opened on 4 September 1994 to relieve overcrowding at the original Osaka International Airport, referred to as Itami Airport, which is closer to the city of Osaka and now handles only domestic flights. It consists of two terminals: Terminal 1 and Terminal 2. Terminal 1, designed by Italian architect Renzo Piano, is the longest airport terminal in the world with a length of. The airport serves as an international hub for All Nippon Airways, Japan Airlines, and Nippon Cargo Airlines, and also serves as a hub for Peach, the first international low-cost carrier in Japan.

Mezinárodní letiště Kansai (, IATA: KIX, ICAO: RJBB) je nejdelší budova umístěna na umělém ostrově 5 km od pobřeží města Ósaka v Japonsku. Bylo otevřeno 4. září 1994 a ročně odbaví 160 000 letů. Budovu v hodnotě 17 miliard dolarů realizovali v letech 1988 až 1994 vítězové soutěže založené na podkladech od Aéroports de Paris, Renzo Piano Building Workshop (architekt) a Ove Arup & Partners (inženýr). A o realizaci se postarala dvě konsorcia vedená Takinakym a Obajašim.


History.

Dual-mass flywheels were developed to address the escalation of torque and power, especially at low revs. The growing concern for the environment and the adoption of more stringent regulations have marked the development of more efficient new engines, lowering the cylinder number to 3 or even 2 cylinders, and allowing the delivery of more torque and power at low revolutions. The counterpart has been an increase in the level of vibration which traditional clutch discs are unable to absorb. This is where the dual-mass flywheels play a key role, making these mechanical developments more viable.  The absorption capacity of the vibration depends on the moving parts of the DMF, these parts are subject to wear. Whenever the clutch is replaced, the DMF should be checked for wear. The two key wear characteristics are freeplay and sideplay (rock). These should be measured to determine whether the flywheel is serviceable. The wear limit specifications can be found in vehicle or flywheel manufacturer's published documentation. Other failure modes are severely grooved/damaged clutch mating surface, grease loss, and cracking.

Types.

The main type is called a "planetary DMF". The planetary gear and the torsional damper are incorporated into the main flywheel. For this purpose, the main flywheel is divided into primary and secondary pinion-connected masses, and between them there are four different types of bent springs:

Individual bent spring.

The simplest form of the bent spring is the standard single spring.

One-phase bent springs in parallel.

The standard springs are called parallel springs of one phase. These consist of an outer and an inner spring of almost equal lengths and connected in parallel. The individual characteristic curves of the two springs are added to form the characteristic curve of the spring pair.

Two-phase bent springs in parallel.

In the case of two-stage spring there are two curved parallel springs, one inside the other, but the internal spring is shorter so that it acts later. The characteristic curve of the outer spring is adapted to increase when the engine is started. The softer outer spring only acts to increase the problematic resonance frequency range. When the torque increases, reaching the maximum value, the internal spring also acts. In this second phase, the inner and outer springs work together. The collaboration of both springs thus ensures good acoustic isolation at all engine speeds.

Three-phase bent spring.

This curved spring consists of an outer and two inner springs with different elastic characteristics connected in series. This category of bent spring uses the two concepts together: parallel and series connection in order to ensure optimal torsional compensation for each value of torque.

A dual-mass flywheel (DMF or DMFW) is a rotating mechanical device that is used to provide continuous energy (rotational energy) in systems where the energy source is not continuous, the same way as a conventional flywheel acts, but damping any violent variation of torque or revolutions that could cause an unwanted vibration. The vibration reduction is achieved by accumulating stored energy in the two flywheel half masses over a period of time but damped by a series of strong springs, doing that at a rate that is compatible with the energy source, and then releasing that energy at a much higher rate over a relatively short time. A compact dual-mass flywheel often includes the whole clutch, including the pressure plate and the friction disc.

Dvouhmotový setrvačník (DMF) je konstrukční prvek motorových vozidel, který je na rozdíl od jednohmotového rozdělen na 2 samostatné části oddělené pružným lemem, čímž lépe rozděluje svou kinetickou energii a zabraňuje tak vysoké míře kmitání. Původním záměrem výroby setrvačníku jako takového bylo snížení třecí síly, obzvláště se zvyšujícími se výkony nových modelů vozidel. Tak umožňuje i v nízkých otáčkách velmi efektivní a příjemnou jízdu.


Description.

"Anzu wyliei" is characterized by a toothless beak, a prominent crest, long arms ending in slender, relatively straight claws, long powerful legs with slender toes, and a relatively short tail. "Anzu" measured about to long, up to tall at the hips and to in weight, and was the largest North American oviraptorosaur, though the Mongolian genus "Gigantoraptor" was larger than "Anzu".  When the type specimen of "Anzu" was described, several autapomorphies (derived traits unique to a genus) were established. There is a high crescent-like crest on the skull, formed by the upper branches of the praemaxillae. The occipital condyle is wider than the foramen magnum. The front part of the lower jaw, which is fused with its counterpart, has a prominent flange on its outer side. The retroarticular process, a prominent projection at the rear of the lower jaw, is elongated, about as long as the jaw joint surface. The lower end of the radius is divided into two rounded processes. The first phalanx of the second finger has a trough along the lower edge of its inner side. The front side of the astragalus (ankle bone) has a tubercle at the base of its ascending process.  An additional four possible autapomorphies were identified in the referred specimens. The main body of the maxilla has no depression around the antorbital fenestra. The nasal branch of the maxilla is elongated and constructed like an inverted L. The branch of the jugal towards the quadratojugal is vertically deep. The same branch is forked at its rear end.

History of discovery.

Several large skeletons from the late Maastrichtian Hell Creek Formation of Montana and South Dakota were initially referred to as "cf. "Chirostenotes"", though more recent studies concluded that they represent new species.  In 1998 Fred Nuss of Nuss Fossils discovered the site containing the Holotype CM 7800. The first two partial skeletons of Anzu were discovered in 1998 by Fred Nuss Fossils on a private South Dakota ranch. The two specimens weren't buried together – the skeletons rested about 330 feet apart with the second individual in a rock layer about 11 feet below the first – but, once prepped by the commercial outfit Triebold Paleontology, it was clear that both represented the same dinosaur. Both were mostly disarticulated and appeared to have been transported by a water current. A third referred specimen, fragmentary skeleton MRF 319, studied by Tyler Lyson of the National Museum of Natural History, was discovered by Scott Haire, who spotted the bones at his uncle's ranch at Marmarth, North Dakota. A rear lower jaw fragment, FMNH PR 2296, was also referred.  These four fossils found at Hell Creek together make up a fairly complete skeleton of "Anzu wyliei", comprising about 75 to 80 per cent of the whole skeleton. Three researchers, Emma Schachner of the University of Utah, Matthew Lamanna of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History and Tyler Lyson of the Smithsonian in Washington realized in 2006 that they each had partial skeletons of the same species and began collaborating to study it, assisted by Hans-Dieter Sues, a paleontologist at the National Museum of Natural History of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington. The main fossils are being held at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh.  The genus is notable as the first well-preserved example of a North American oviraptorosaur. According to Sues, "for almost a hundred years, the presence of oviraptorosaurs in North America was only known from a few bits of skeleton, and the details of their appearance and biology remained a mystery. With the discovery of "A. wyliei", we finally have the fossil evidence to show what this species looked like and how it is related to other dinosaurs."  The creature's appearance – "big crests on their skulls, a beak, no teeth, and a very bird-like skeleton" – and its discovery in the Hell Creek Formation led to it being jokingly nicknamed the "chicken from hell". Matthew Lamanna, who devised the species' name, originally wanted to use a Latin or Greek version of "chicken from hell". However, he found that this nickname does not translate well in those languages, so he eventually settled on evoking and using the name of the bird-like daemon Anzu from the mythology of ancient Sumer, which itself roughly translates to "heavenly eagle". The specific name, "wyliei", honors Wylie J. Tuttle, the grandson of one of the museum's donors, Lee B. Foster.

Phylogeny.

"Anzu" was placed in the Oviraptorosauria, as a member of the Caenagnathidae. A cladistic analysis showed it was a possible sister species of "Caenagnathus".  It had been expected that oviraptorosaurs would be found in North America, as well as the documented specimens in Asia, as the two continents had a land connection during the Cretaceous, but the discovery of "Anzu wyliei" indicates that North American oviraptorosaurs were related more closely to each other than to their counterparts in Asia.

Paleobiology.

"Anzu" was probably an omnivore or herbivore, although the beak is not as heavily constructed as in the Asian Oviraptoridae. Other differences from its Asian cousins include size – the Asian Oviraptoridae were smaller – as well as thicker legs and different lower jaws.  The fossils of "Anzu wyliei" were found in mudstone rock that had once been part of ancient floodplains. This indicates that the species likely had a lifestyle significantly different from its Asian counterparts, which lived in arid or semi-arid conditions. Its lifestyle, according to Stephen Brusatte of the University of Edinburgh, was that of "a fast-running, ecological generalist that didn't quite fit the usual moulds of meat-eating or plant-eating dinosaur." Its jaw morphology suggests that it could eat a variety of food items, including vegetation, small animals, and possibly eggs.  While a number of its features were similar to those of modern birds, it was not an avian dinosaur and its line died out in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago, along with all the rest of the non-avian dinosaurs. Its bird-like features are instead an example of convergent evolution. Matthew Lamanna comments that "it would have had a lot of birdy behaviors. When people think of a dinosaur, they think of something like a "T. rex" or a brontosaurus, and when they think of a bird, they think of something like a sparrow or a chicken. This animal, "Anzu", has a mosaic of features of both of those groups, and so it basically provides a really nice link in the evolutionary chain."  The purpose of "Anzu's" large crest is unclear; Sues notes that it "is very large and made of paper-thin bone, so it was not able to take much stress. All oviraptosaurs have this crest but it is certainly the largest in "A. wyliei". The most likely function is for display, showing off to members of your own species. The Australian cassowary has a similar crest which is thought to be used to attract mates, so it is possible that "A. wyliei" could have used its crest in a similar fashion." The fossils showed evidence of injuries, including a healed broken rib and an arthritic toe that was probably the result of a tendon being ripped away from the bone (an avulsion fracture). It is not known whether this indicates that the animals fought each other, or were injured by predators.

Anzu (named for Anzû, a bird-like daemon in Ancient Mesopotamian religion) is a genus of caenagnathine dinosaur from the late Cretaceous (66 million years ago) of North Dakota and South Dakota, US. The type species is "Anzu wyliei".

Anzu (podle mezopotámského opeřeného démona Anzu) byl rod teropodního oviraptorosaurního dinosaura, žijícího na území Severní Ameriky (Jižní Dakota) v období svrchní křídy (souvrství Hell Creek, asi před 66 miliony let).


History.

Kearns came into existence 1 May 1942 as a World War II United States Army Air Forces training facility known as Kearns Army Air Base (also known as Kearns Center; redesignated: Camp Kearns, 1 January 1944). Construction of the base involved building airplane runways and hangars, with several taxiways and a large parking apron and a control tower. Several hundred buildings were also constructed and quickly assembled. Most base buildings, not meant for long-term use, were constructed of temporary or semi-permanent materials. Most support buildings sat on concrete foundations but were of frame construction clad in little more than plywood and tarpaper. The thousands of soldiers and airmen stationed there temporarily made the base one of the largest cities in the state. On 15 August 1946 the Air Force deactivated the base, and turned the facility over to the State of Utah. The presence of roads and other infrastructure made the area attractive to developers. Houses and business sprang up rapidly on what had just a few years earlier been farmland. A theater for "colored personnel" became part of Kearns Junior High School. A base chapel is now part of Our Lady of Perpetual Help Catholic Church. The base train station is a day-care center. A cannon that had stood next to the headquarters' flagpole stood for many years at the corner of 40th West and 54th South. The airfield part of Kearns Army Air Base today is known as South Valley Regional Airport.  1950's-2006  Kearns in the mid to late 1900s saw rapid growth in the former air base. By the 1970s and 1980s suburban development had begun expanding west of the railroad to 5600 west. In 2002 the winter Olympics brought the construction of the Olympic oval at the Oquirrh park. The last housing areas in Kearns was a area between 5600 west and 6200 south built by reliance homes from 2002-2006.  2006-present  In 2015 the township of Kearns voted to incorporate as a metro township, a new form of local government that allowed it to elect a council and mayor. The following year five council members were elected from districts and took office in 2017. The Kearns library will be finished by the fall of 2020. Every year in late July and early August there is a parade in Kearns.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of, all of it land.  The area where Kearns is situated on a natural formation called the Kearns-Benion hill this is a hill that rises about 100 feet above the valley. The hill runs in a northwest direction from the Jordan river to Bacchus hill in the Oquirrh mountains.

Climate.

This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (usually dry) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Kearns has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

Demographics.

According to estimates from the Kem C. Gardner Policy Institute of the University of Utah, as of 2015, there were 36,530 people in Kearns. The racial makeup of the county was 60.21% non-Hispanic White, 0.89% Black, 0.79% Native American, 2.07% Asian, 1.95% Pacific Islander, and 2.41% from two or more races. 31.68% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  As of the census of 2010, there were 35,731 people, 9,789 households, and 9,209 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 7,444 people per square mile (4,625.5/km2). There were 10,169 housing units at an average density of 2,118.5/sq mi (1,316.4/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 70.29% White, 1.39% African American, 1.44% Native American, 2.08% Asian, 2.64% Pacific Islander, 18.72% from other races, and 3.45% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 32.83% of the population.  There were 9,789 households out of which 54.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 67.3% were married couples living together, 13.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 13.8% were non-families. 10.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 3.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.65 and the average family size was 3.88.  In the CDP, the population was spread out with 37.2% under the age of 18, 11.2% from 18 to 24, 32.0% from 25 to 44, 13.4% from 45 to 64, and 6.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 26 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.2 males.  The median income for a household in the CDP was $45,711, and the median income for a family was $46,598. Males had a median income of $31,444 versus $22,838 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $14,110. About 5.1% of families and 7.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.3% of those under age 18 and 6.5% of those age 65 or over.

Kearns ( ) is a metro township in Salt Lake County, Utah, United States. Named after Utah's U.S. Senator Thomas Kearns, it had a population of 35,731 at the 2010 Census. This was a 6.2 percent increase over the 2000 figure of 33,659. Kearns is home to the Utah Olympic Oval, an indoor speed skating oval built for the 2002 Winter Olympics.

Kearns je město v okrese Salt Lake County v americkém státě Utah. Založeno bylo v roce 1942, pojmenováno bylo podle podnikatele a senátora Thomase Kearnse. V roce 2010 žilo ve městě, které je součástí aglomerace Salt Lake City, přibližně 36 000 obyvatel, rozloha katastrálního území činí 12,5 km2.


History and outcomes.

Pan-nationalism emerged from the nineteenth-century European nationalism, beginning with the Pan-Slavism movement, which developed among various Slavic nations within the Austro-Hungarian and Turkish empires. At the heart of this development was Ján Kollár, who maintained that the Slavs as a fundamentally single people, sharing the same cultural heritage. This was later followed by the Pan-German thought, which assumed a somewhat similar view, with a goal of German unification where a greater Germany can be created, including Austrians and other German speakers. These pan-nationalistic movements embraced the European intellectual discourses on race particularly those about the preservation of the racial unit. This gave the concept a mantle of permanence because it called upon a biological connection that bound a "Volk" together.  Pan-nationalism implies that the national group is dispersed over several existing states. It is not identical to irredentism – nationalist claims on adjoining territories on the grounds that they form part of the national homeland. Scale is a factor here, however. Greater Albania, even in the largest version, would still be a small country. An irredentist Greater Germany, even if it is limited to contiguous German-speaking regions, would have about 100 million inhabitants. Pan-nationalism is not the same as diaspora nationalism, such as Zionism, which implies the concentration of a dispersed group on an ancestral homeland. Colonies (other than settler colonies) fall outside most definitions of a nation, since both coloniser and colonised recognise that they share no ethnicity, culture, and language.  Nationalist movements in large nations, such as the German and Russian nations, are therefore difficult to distinguish from pan-nationalist movements, and often there are explicitly pan-nationalist elements. Aside from these cases, however, most pan-nationalist movements failed. Specifically pan-national states are rare. Yugoslavia attempted to unify a category of South Slavs, the prefix "jugo" means "south". After 1945, it did recognise separate internal nations, with their own governments.  Other large states are difficult to classify as pan-national. Around 1942 Nazi Germany controlled a vast collection of annexed territories, German-administered civilian entities, puppet states, collaborationist states, and front-line areas run by the military. The conquests were partly inspired by the idea of Lebensraum, but that is not in itself a pan-nationalist concept. The Soviet Union had a Soviet identity, but no "Soviet" ethnicity, culture, or language. It was influenced by pan-Russian ideas, but also by other geopolitical ideals which implied a large territory. China has a long tradition of cultural and administrative unity. (The fact that both China and India annexed territories does not necessarily make the state pan-national in character.)  The general failure of the pan-nationalist movements is illustrated by several examples, which had a clear idea of their ideal state, but never got anywhere near achieving it. Modern Turkey is the former core area of the Ottoman Empire. The present state is closely modelled on the classic European nation state, and was a deliberate break with that empire. Beside the very strong Turkish nationalism there are three pan-nationalisms. In ascending order of scale: pan-Turkism, a sometimes distinct pan-Turkic ideology referring to the Turkic peoples, and pan-Turanism, which covers most of central Asia and even Finland and Hungary. As in Turkey, pan-nationalist movements often operate on the margin of a more limited "standard-nationalist" movement, in the existing core area of the claimed mega-state.  Pan-Slavism is another notable example of an influential ideal that never resulted in the corresponding mega-state – if Russian territory was included, it would extend from the Baltic to the Pacific (west to east) and right down to central Asia and the Caucasus/Black Sea/Mediterranean in the south.  Pan-Americanism as an ideal was influential around the time of the independence movements in Latin America. However, the new nation-states soon diverged in policy and interests, and no federation emerged. The term acquired another meaning, namely U.S.-led co-operation among the separate nation-states, with a connotation of U.S. hegemony. That is why there is a pan-Latin-Americanism which proposes inter-Americanism with the United States. An important exponent of this philosophy is Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, from Peru, while Bolivarianism represents a current variation on the theme.  Pan-Arabism favors the unification of the countries of the Arab world, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Arabian Sea. Unlike most traditional pan-nationalist movements in Europe, this is not based on race or ethnicity because it has been revitalised with religion at its core.

Recent developments.

Thomas Hegghammer of the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment has outlined the emergence of "macro-nationalism" in the late Cold War era, which kept a low profile until the September 11 attacks. Hegghammer traces the origins of modern macro-nationalism to both the Western counter-jihad movement and Islamist terrorist organisations such as al-Qaeda. In the aftermath of the 2011 Norway attacks, he described the ideologies of perpetrator Anders Behring Breivik as "not fitting the established categories of right-wing ideology, like white supremacism, ultranationalism or Christian fundamentalism", but more akin to a "doctrine of civilisational war that represents the closest thing yet to a Christian version of Al-Qaeda".

Pan-nationalism (from / "all", and / "nationalism") is a specific term, used mainly in social sciences as a designation for those forms of nationalism that are trying to transcend (overcome) traditional boundaries of basic national identities, in order to create a "higher" pan-national (all-inclusive) identity, based on various common denominators. Pan-nationalism can occur as a specific variant of all common forms of nationalism. In relation to classical state nationalism, pan-nationalism manifests itself through various political movements that are advocating the creation of "higher" (pan-national) forms of political identity, based on a regional or continental grouping of national states (for examples: Pan-Americanism, Pan-Africanism), Pan-Arabism, Pan-Iranism. In terms of ethnic nationalism, pan-nationalism can also manifest itself through specific ethnic movements that are advocating the creation of "higher" (pan-national) forms of common identity that is based on ethnic grouping (for example: Pan-Germanism or Pan-Slavism). Other forms of nationalism also have their "pan-national" variants.

Pan-hnutí nebo "pan-nacionalismus" označuje určitá nacionalistická nebo náboženská uskupení a jejich ideologické pozadí, jež usilují o sjednocení všech příslušníků určitého etnika nebo jazykové skupiny v jednom státě. Nejčastěji žijí tato etnika či jazykové skupiny v době vzniku této ideologie v několika různých státech.


Early life.

Mustafa was born at the Edirne Palace on 28 January 1717. His father was Sultan Ahmed III, and his mother was Mihrişah Kadın. He had a full brother named, Şehzade Süleyman. In 1720, a large fifteen days circumcision ceremony took place for Mustafa, and his brothers, princes Süleyman, Mehmed, and Bayezid. In 1730, after the Patrona Halil revolt, led to the deposition of his father Sultan Ahmed, and the succession of his cousin Sultan Mahmud I, Mustafa, his father, and brothers were all locked up in the Topkapı Palace. In 1756, after the death of his half-brother Mehmed, he was only elder heir left for the throne.

Reign.

Accession.

Mustafa ascended the throne on 30 October 1757, after the death of his cousin Osman III, the son of Sultan Mustafa II.

Character of Mustafa's rule.

Soon after his accession to the throne, Mustafa demonstrated a special care for justice. He took a number of measures to increase prosperity in Istanbul. He regulated coinage, built large grain stores, maintained aqueducts, and established a strict fiscal policy.  He traveled frequently and started to check whether the laws he had enforced were followed. In February 1758, Mustafa launched a ship named Hısn-ı Bahri. He released prisoners from prison and the guards give them reminder that creditors should pay their debts. In June 1758, when Ayşe Sultan’s husband Silahdar Mehmed Pasha returned from a journey, and Mustafa arranged dinner for him in the Bahariye Mansion. He also met his sister Esma Sultan in her palace. On 14 March 1759, the birth of Mustafa’s first child Hibetullah Sultan, forty days celebrations were held, the city was decorated and prayers were prayed in the mosques for her long life. Shopkeepers reduced the prices on fruits and vegetables.  Grand Vizier Ragıb Pasha, who had a complex built in Koska, died on 8 April 1763. Hamza Hamid Pasha was appointed instead. As well as being a good statesman, Ragıb Pasha was an exceptional state with his readiness, culture, rich, legal knowledge, poetry and conversations. So, Acem Ali, Hindi Hasan, Armenian Kazar and others were paying bribes to Ragıb Pasha. Acem Ali's neck, which got richer and gained palaces and mansions, was shot and Kazar was hung.  On 28 March 1765, the Grand Vizier Köse Bahir Mustafa Pasha, who had a partnership with the corruption of Kethüda Ahmed Efendi, was dismissed from his position and was placed under arrest for two days. He was then exiled to Lesbos and executed there. Muhsinzade Mehmed Pasha became the Grand Vizier in his place. In April 1765, Bozok Mutasamfi Çapanoğlu Ahmed Pasha, who was executed for his persecution, was brought to Istanbul and exhibited in front of Bab-i Humayun.

Treaty with Prussia.

Mustafa much admired Frederick the Great's generalship, and in 1761 established a peace treaty with Prussia. Frederick wanted an alliance against the Habsburgs, and Mustafa wanted to modernize his state and army. Mustafa preferred recruiting his officers in Berlin, rather than in Paris and London, to re-organize his army. In 1763, the two countries exchanged their diplomats for the first time.

Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774).

Koca Ragıp Pasha, who remained grand vizier until 1763, pursued a peace policy towards neighboring countries. But the increasing influence of Russia over the Caucasus and its intention to control Poland created tension between the Ottomans and Russia. Ragıp Pasha's successor Muhsinzade Mehmed Pasha also preferred to remain at peace, and Mustafa's insistence on war with Russia led to his resignation in 1768. The Sultan expected to gain an easy victory over the Russians, but in fact the Ottomans were unprepared for a long war. During the war, military reforms were undertaken, with the assistance of French officer François Baron de Tott. They included the modernization of artillery corps and the foundation of the Naval Engineering School in 1773. The war was disastrous for the Ottoman Empire. The Russian armies occupied the Crimea, Romania and parts of Bulgaria.

Architecture.

Many monumental buildings including the Fatih Mosque, which was built by Mehmed the Conqueror was rebuilt from the ground during his reign. In addition, he had built Laleli Mosque complex, and the shore along the Yenikapı filled to set up a new neighborhood. Apart from these, he undertook other construction projects after the earthquakes of 1766.

Earthquake of 1767.

On 31 January 1767, there was another very severe earthquake in evening. Thus, four major earthquakes ruined Istanbul in eight months. Everyone left the city life by setting up tents on the countryside. Mustafa III mobilised the treasury possibilities for the restoration of Istanbul as soon as possible. Tıfli Efendi, Mehmed Ağa to the city walls, Osman Efen from Yenişehir to Baruthane, Osman Efen to Saraçhane and Arasta, Atefzade Ömer Efendi to Enderun buildings, Hezarfen Kara Mustafa Ağa, Tophane to Yedikule, Tophane Mahmud Bey was appointed as the building chief for the reconstruction of Fatih Mosque and Tomb. The fire that broke out in a galleon made the anchored ships in Kalafaytri hold. Aynalıkavak Palace, Halıcıoğlu pier were burned while the boats that got fire wandered under the influence of winds and currents.

Personal life.

Poetry.

He was a poet, his poetry being written under the pseudonym of "Cihangir".  “Yıkılupdur bu cihan sanma ki bizde düzele Devleti çarh-ı deni verdi kamu müptezele Şimdi erbab-ı saadette gezen hep hazele İşimiz kaldı hemen merhamet-i lem yezele.”  "This world has ruined, don't even think with us it recovers, It was the lousy fate that has delivered the power to vulgars, Now the perfidious ones have populated the Imperial Palace, It's now the mercy of the everlasting God that runs our business.  Mustafa had five consorts:  Mustafa had two sons:  Mustafa had seven daughters:

Death.

Mustafa died of heart attack on Friday, 21 January 1774, at the Topkapı Palace, and was buried in his own mausoleum located at Laleli Mosque, Istanbul. He was succeeded by his brother Abdul Hamid I. His death left the empire struggling with economic and administrative problems.

External links.

[aged 56]

Mustafa III (; "Muṣṭafā-yi sālis"; 28 January 1717 – 21 January 1774) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1757 to 1774. He was a son of Sultan Ahmed III (1703–30), and his consort Mihrişah Kadın. He was succeeded by his brother Abdul Hamid I (1774–89).

Mustafa III. (18./ 28. ledna 1717 – 21. ledna 1774) – byl sultánem Osmanské říše v letech 1757 – 1774. Na trůn nastoupil jako syn Ahmeda III.