History.

Early years.

The earliest remains of a building on the site are of a late-Roman mausoleum, identified during excavations in 1980. An abbey church was built in Wells in 705 by Aldhelm, first bishop of the newly established Diocese of Sherborne during the reign of King Ine of Wessex. It was dedicated to St Andrew and stood at the site of the cathedral's cloisters, where some excavated remains can be seen. The font in the cathedral's south transept is from this church and is the oldest

Seat of the bishop.

The cathedral is thought to have been conceived and commenced in about 1175 by Reginald Fitz Jocelin, who died in 1191. Although it is clear from its size that from the outset, the church was planned to be the cathedral of the diocese, the seat of the bishop moved between Wells and the abbeys of Glastonbury and Bath, before settling at Wells. In 1197 Reginald's successor, Savaric FitzGeldewin, with the approval of Pope Celestine III, officially moved his seat to Glastonbury Abbey. The title of Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury was used until the Glastonbury claim was abandoned in 1219.  Savaric's successor, Jocelin of Wells, again moved the bishop's seat to Bath Abbey, with the title Bishop of Bath. Jocelin was a brother of Hugh (II) of Lincoln and was present at the signing of the Magna Carta. Jocelin continued the building campaign begun by Reginald and was responsible for the Bishop's Palace, the choristers' school, a grammar school, a hospital for travellers

Building the cathedral.

The building programme, begun by Reginald Fitz Jocelin, Bishop in the 12th century, continued under Jocelin of Wells, who was a canon from 1200, then bishop from 1206. Adam Locke was master mason from about 1192 until 1230. It was designed in the new style with pointed arches, later known as Gothic, which was introduced at about the same time at Canterbury Cathedral. Work was halted between 1209 and 1213 when King John was excommunicated and Jocelin was in exile, but the main parts of the church were complete by the time of the dedication by Jocelin in 1239.  By the time the cathedral, including the chapter house, was finished in 1306, it was already too small for the developing liturgy, and unable to accommodate increasingly grand processions of clergy. John Droxford initiated another phase of building under master mason Thomas of Whitney, during

Tudors and Civil War.

By the reign of Henry VII the cathedral was complete, appearing much as it does today (though the fittings have changed). From 1508 to 1546, the eminent Italian humanist scholar Polydore Vergil was active as the chapter's representative in London. He donated a set of hangings for the choir of the cathedral. While Wells survived the Dissolution of the Monasteries better than the cathedrals of monastic foundation, the abolition of chantries in 1547 resulted in a reduction in its income. Medieval brasses were sold, and a pulpit was placed in the nave for the first time. Between 1551 and 1568, in two periods as dean, William Turner established a herb garden, which was recreated between 2003 and 2010.  Elizabeth I gave the chapter and the Vicars Choral a new charter in

1660–1800.

In 1661, after Charles II was restored to the throne, Robert Creighton, the king's chaplain in exile, was appointed dean and was bishop for two years before his death in 1672. His brass lectern, given in thanksgiving, can be seen in the cathedral. He donated the nave's great west window at a cost of £140. Following Creighton's appointment as bishop, the post of dean went to Ralph Bathurst, who had been chaplain to the king, president of Trinity College, Oxford and fellow of the Royal Society. During Bathurst's long tenure the cathedral was restored, but in the Monmouth Rebellion of

Victorian era to present.

By the middle of the 19th century, a major restoration programme was needed. Under Dean Goodenough, the monuments were moved to the cloisters and the remaining medieval paint and whitewash removed in an operation known as "the great scrape". Anthony Salvin took charge of the extensive restoration of the choir. Wooden galleries installed in the 16th century were removed and the stalls were

Ministry.

Since the 13th century, Wells Cathedral has been the seat of the Bishop of Bath and Wells. Its governing body, the chapter, is made up of five clerical canons (the dean, the precentor, the canon chancellor, the canon treasurer, and the archdeacon of Wells) and four lay members: the administrator (chief executive), Keeper of the Fabric, Overseer of the Estate and the chairman of the cathedral shop and catering boards. The current Bishop of Bath and Wells is Peter Hancock, who was installed in a service in the Cathedral on 7 June 2014. John Davies has been Dean of Wells since 2016.  Employed staff include the organist and master of choristers, head virger, archivist, librarian and the staff of the shop, café and restaurant. The chapter is advised by specialists such as architects, archaeologists and financial analysts.  More than a thousand services are held every year. There are daily services of Matins, Holy Communion and Choral Evensong, as well as major celebrations of Christian festivals such as Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and saints' days. The cathedral is also used for the baptisms, weddings and funerals of those with close connections to it. In July 2009 the cathedral undertook the funeral of Harry Patch, the last British Army veteran of World War I, who died at the age of 111.  Three Sunday services are led by the resident choir in school terms and choral services are sung on weekdays. The cathedral hosts visiting choirs and does outreach work with local schools as part of its Chorister Outreach Project. It is also a venue for musical events such as an annual concert by the Somerset Chamber Choir.  Each year about 150,000 people attend services and another 300,000 visit as tourists. Entry is free, but visitors are encouraged to make a donation towards the annual running costs of around £1.5 million in 2015.

Dean and chapter.

As of

Architecture.

Dates, styles and architects.

Construction of the cathedral began in about 1175, to the design of an unknown architect. Wells is the first cathedral in England to be built, from its foundation, in Gothic style. According to art historian John Harvey, it is the first truly Gothic cathedral in the world, its architects having entirely dispensed with all features that bound the contemporary east end of Canterbury Cathedral and the earlier buildings of France, such as the east end of the Abbey of Saint Denis, to the Romanesque. Unlike these churches, Wells has clustered piers rather than columns and has a gallery of identical pointed arches rather than the typically Romanesque form of paired openings. The style, with its simple lancet arches without tracery and convoluted mouldings, is known as Early English Gothic.  From about 1192 to 1230, Adam Lock, the earliest architect at Wells for whom a name is known, continued the transept and nave

Plan.

Wells has a total length of. Like Canterbury, Lincoln and Salisbury cathedrals, it has the distinctly English arrangement of two transepts, with the body of the church divided into distinct parts: nave, choir, and retro-choir, beyond which extends the Lady Chapel. The façade is wide, with

Elevation.

In section, the cathedral has the usual arrangement of a large church: a central nave with an aisle on each side, separated by two arcades. The elevation is in three stages, arcade, triforium gallery and clerestory. The nave is in height, very low compared to the Gothic

Exterior.

The exterior of Wells Cathedral presents a relatively tidy and harmonious appearance since the greater part of the building was executed in a single style, Early English Gothic. This is uncommon among English cathedrals where the exterior usually exhibits a plethora of styles. At Wells, later changes in the Perpendicular style were universally applied, such as filling the Early English lancet windows with simple tracery, the construction of a parapet that encircles the roof, and the addition of pinnacles framing each gable, similar to those around the chapter house and on the west front. At the eastern end there is a proliferation of tracery with repeated motifs in the Reticulated style, a stage between Geometric and Flowing Decorated tracery.

West front.

The west front is high and wide, and built of Inferior Oolite of the Middle Jurassic period, which came from the Doulting Stone Quarry, about to the east. According to the architectural historian Alec Clifton-Taylor, it is "one of the great sights of England".  West fronts in general take three distinct forms: those that follow the elevation of the nave and aisles, those that have paired towers at the end of each aisle, framing the nave, and those that screen the form of the building. The west front at Wells has the paired-tower form, unusual in that the towers do not indicate the location of the aisles, but extend well beyond them, screening the dimensions and profile of the building.  The west front rises in three distinct stages, each clearly defined by a horizontal course. This horizontal emphasis is counteracted by six strongly projecting buttresses defining the cross-sectional divisions of nave, aisles and

Crossing tower.

The central tower appears to date from the early 13th century. It was substantially reconstructed in the early 14th century during the remodelling of the east end, necessitating the internal bracing of the piers a decade or

North porch.

The north porch is described by art historian Nikolaus Pevsner as "sumptuously decorated", and intended as the main entrance. Externally it is simple and rectangular with plain side walls. The entrance is a steeply arched portal framed by rich mouldings of eight shafts with stiff-leaf capitals

Cloisters.

The cloisters were built in the late 13th century and largely rebuilt from 1430 to 1508 and have wide openings divided by mullions and transoms, and tracery in the Perpendicular Gothic style. The vault has lierne ribs that form octagons at the centre of each compartment, the joints of each rib having decorative bosses. The eastern range is of two

Restoration.

In 1969, when a large chunk of stone fell from a statue near the main door, it became apparent that there was an urgent need for restoration of the west front. Detailed studies of the stonework and of conservation practices were undertaken under the cathedral architect, Alban D. R. Caroe and a restoration committee formed. The methods selected were those devised by Eve and Robert Baker. W. A. (Bert) Wheeler, clerk of works to the cathedral 1935–1978, had previously experimented with washing and surface treatment of architectural carvings on the building and his techniques were among those tried on the statues.  The conservation was carried out between 1974 and 1986, wherever possible using non-invasive procedures such as washing with water and a solution of lime, filling gaps and damaged surfaces with soft mortar to prevent the ingress of water and stabilising statues that were fracturing through corrosion of metal dowels. The surfaces were finished by painting with a thin coat of mortar and silane to resist further erosion and attack by pollutants. The restoration of the façade revealed much paint adhering to the statues and their niches, indicating that it had once been brightly coloured.

Interior.

Choir, transept and nave.

The particular character of this Early English interior is dependent on the proportions of the simple lancet arches. It is also dependent on the refinement of the architectural details, in particular the mouldings.  The arcade, which takes the same form in the nave, choir and transepts, is distinguished by the richness of both mouldings and carvings. Each pier of the arcade has a surface enrichment of 24 slender shafts in eight groups of three, rising beyond the capitals to form the deeply undulating mouldings of the arches. The capitals themselves are remarkable for the vitality of the stylised foliage, in a style known as "stiff-leaf". The liveliness contrasts with the formality of the moulded shafts and the smooth unbroken areas of ashlar masonry in the spandrels. Each capital is different, and some contain small figures illustrating narratives.  The vault of the nave rises steeply in a simple quadripartite form, in harmony with the nave

Lady Chapel and retrochoir.

Wells Cathedral has a square east end to the choir, as is usual, and like several other cathedrals including Salisbury and Lichfield, has a lower Lady Chapel projecting at the eastern end, begun by Thomas Witney in about 1310, possibly before the chapter house was completed. The Lady Chapel seems to have begun as a free-standing structure in the form of an elongated octagon, but the plan changed and it was linked to the eastern end by extension of the choir and construction of a second transept or retrochoir east of the choir, probably by William Joy.  The Lady Chapel has a vault of complex and somewhat irregular pattern, as the chapel is not symmetrical about both axes. The main ribs are

Chapter house.

The chapter house was begun in the late 13th century and built in two stages, completed about 1310. It is a two-storeyed structure with the main chamber raised on an undercroft. It is entered from a staircase which divides and turns, one branch leading through the upper storey of Chain Gate to Vicars' Close. The Decorated interior is described by Alec Clifton-Taylor as "architecturally the most beautiful in England". It is octagonal, with its ribbed vault supported on a central column. The column is surrounded by shafts of Purbeck Marble, rising to a single continuous rippling foliate capital of stylised oak leaves and acorns, quite different in character from the Early English stiff-leaf foliage. Above the moulding spring 32 ribs of strong profile, giving an effect generally likened to "a great palm tree". The windows are large with Geometric Decorated tracery that is beginning to show an elongation of form, and ogees in the lesser lights that are characteristic of Flowing Decorated tracery. The tracery lights still contain ancient glass. Beneath the windows are 51 stalls, the canopies of which are enlivened by carvings including many heads carved in a light-hearted manner.

Art works and treasures.

Stained glass.

Wells Cathedral contains one of the most substantial collections of medieval stained glass in England, despite damage by Parliamentary troops in 1642 and 1643. The oldest surviving glass dates from the late 13th century and is in two windows on the west side of the chapter-house staircase. Two windows in the south choir aisle are from 1310–20.  The Lady Chapel has five windows, of which four date from 1325–30 and include images of a local saint, Dunstan. The east window was restored to a semblance of its original appearance by Thomas Willement in 1845. The other windows have complete canopies, but the pictorial sections are fragmented.  The east window of the choir is a broad, seven-light window dating from 1340–1345. It depicts the "Tree of Jesse" (the

Carvings.

The greater part of the stone carving of Wells Cathedral comprises foliate capitals in the stiff-leaf style. They are found ornamenting the piers of the nave, choir and transepts. Stiff-leaf foliage is highly abstract. Though possibly influenced by carvings of acanthus leaves or vine leaves, it cannot be easily identified with any particular plant. Here the carving of the foliage is varied and vigorous, the springing leaves and deep undercuts casting shadows that contrast with the surface of the piers. In the transepts and towards the crossing in the nave the capitals have many small figurative carvings among the leaves. These include a man with toothache and a series of four scenes depicting the "Wages of Sin" in a narrative of fruit stealers who creep into an orchard

Misericords.

Wells Cathedral has one of the finest sets of misericords in Britain. Its clergy has a long tradition of singing or reciting from the Book of Psalms each day, along with the customary daily reading of the Holy Office. In medieval times the clergy assembled in the church eight times daily for the canonical hours. As the greater part of the services was recited while standing, many monastic or collegiate churches fitted stalls whose seats tipped up to provide a ledge for the monk or cleric to lean against. These were "misericords" because their installation was an act of mercy. Misericords typically have a carved figurative bracket beneath the ledge framed by two floral motifs known, in heraldic manner, as "supporters".  The misericords date from 1330 to 1340. They may have been carved under the direction of Master Carpenter John Strode, although his name is not recorded before 1341. He was assisted by Bartholomew Quarter, who is documented from 1343. They originally numbered 90, of which 65 have survived. Sixty-one are installed in the choir, three are displayed in the cathedral, and one is held by the Victoria and Albert Museum. New stalls were ordered when the eastern end of the choir was extended in the early 14th century. The canons complained that they had borne the cost of the rebuilding and ordered the prebendary clerics to pay for their own stalls. When the newly refurbished choir opened in 1339 many misericords were left unfinished, including one-fifth of the surviving 65. Many of the clerics had not paid, having been called to contribute a total sum of £200. The misericords survived better than the other sections of the stalls, which

Fittings and monuments.

Some of the cathedral's fittings and monuments are hundreds of years old. The brass lectern in the Lady Chapel dates from 1661 and has a moulded stand and foliate crest. In the north transept chapel is a 17th-century oak screen with columns, formerly used in cow stalls, with artisan Ionic capitals and cornice, set forward over the chest tomb of John Godelee. There is a bound oak chest from the 14th century, which was used to store the chapter seal and key documents. The bishop's throne dates from 1340, and has a panelled, canted front and stone doorway, and a deep nodding cusped ogee canopy above it, with three-stepped

Clock.

In the north transept is Wells Cathedral clock, an astronomical clock from about 1325 believed to be by Peter Lightfoot, a monk of Glastonbury. Its mechanism, dated between 1386 and 1392, was replaced in the 19th century and the original moved to the Science Museum in London, where it still operates. It is the second oldest surviving clock in England after the Salisbury Cathedral clock.  The clock has its original medieval face. Apart from the time on a 24-hour dial, it shows the motion of the Sun and Moon, the phases of the Moon, and

Music.

Organ and organists.

The first record of an organ at this church dates from 1310. A smaller organ, probably for the Lady Chapel, was installed in 1415. In 1620 an organ built by Thomas Dallam was installed at a cost of £398 1s 5d.  The 1620 organ was destroyed by parliamentary soldiers in 1643. An organ built in 1662 was enlarged in 1786 and again in 1855. In 1909–1910 an organ was built by Harrison & Harrison of Durham, with the best parts of the old organ retained. It has been serviced by the same company ever since.  The cathedral also

Cathedral choir.

There has been a choir of boy choristers at Wells since 909. Currently there are 18 boy choristers and a similar number of girl choristers, aged from eight to fourteen. The Vicars Choral was formed in the 12th century and the sung liturgy provided by a traditional cathedral choir of men and boys until the formation of an additional choir of girls in 1994. The boys and girls sing alternately with the Vicars Choral and are educated at Wells Cathedral School.  The Vicars

Voluntary Choir.

The Wells Cathedral Voluntary Choir is a mixed adult choir of 30 members, formed in 1986 to sing at the midnight service on Christmas Eve, and invited to sing at several other special services.It now sings

Wells Cathedral Oratorio Society.

The cathedral is home to Wells Cathedral Oratorio Society (WCOS), founded in 1896. With around 160 voices, the society gives three concerts a year under the direction of Matthew

Bells.

The bells at Wells Cathedral are the heaviest ring of ten bells in the world, the tenor bell (the 10th and largest), known

Library.

The library above the eastern cloister was built between 1430 and 1508. Its collection is in three parts: early documents housed in the Muniment Room; the collection predating 1800 housed in the Chained Library; and the post-1800 collection housed in the Reading Room. The chapter's earlier collection was destroyed during the Reformation, so that the present library consists chiefly of early printed books, rather than medieval manuscripts. The earlier books in the Chained Library number 2,800 volumes and give an indication of the variety of interests of the members of the cathedral chapter from the Reformation until 1800. The focus of the collection is predominantly theology, but there are volumes on science, medicine, exploration, and languages. Books of particular interest include Pliny's "Natural History" printed in 1472, an "Atlas of the World" by Abraham Ortelius, printed in 1606, and a set of the works by Aristotle that once belonged to Erasmus. The library is open to the public at appointed times in the summer and presents a small exhibition of documents and books.

Original records.

Three early registers of the Dean and Chapter edited by W. H. B. Bird for the Historical Manuscripts Commissioners – "Liber Albus I" (White Book; R I), "Liber Albus II" (R III) and "Liber Ruber" (Red

Precincts.

Adjacent to the cathedral is a large lawned area, Cathedral Green, with three ancient gateways: Brown's Gatehouse, Penniless Porch and Chain Gate. On the green is the 12th-century Old Deanery, largely rebuilt in the late 15th century by Dean Gunthorpe and remodelled by Dean Bathurst in the late 17th century. No longer the dean's residence, it is used as diocesan offices.  To the south of the cathedral is the moated Bishop's Palace, begun about 1210 by Jocelin of Wells but dating

In the arts and popular culture.

The English painter J. M. W. Turner visited Wells in 1795, making sketches of the precinct and a water colour of the west front, now in the Tate gallery. Other artists whose paintings of the cathedral are in national collections are Albert Goodwin, John Syer and Ken Howard.  The cathedral served to inspire Ken Follett's novel "The Pillars of the Earth" and with a modified central tower, featured as the fictional Kingsbridge Cathedral at the end of the 2010 television adaptation of that novel. The interior of the cathedral was used for a "Doctor Who" episode, 'The Lazarus Experiment', while the exterior shots were filmed at Southwark Cathedral.  An account of the damage to the cathedral during the Monmouth Rebellion is included in Arthur Conan Doyle's historical novel "Micah Clarke".  The cathedral provided scenes for the 2019–2020 television series "The Spanish Princess".

Wells Cathedral is an Anglican cathedral in Wells, Somerset, England, dedicated to St Andrew the Apostle and seat of the Bishop of Bath and Wells, whose "cathedra" it holds as mother church of the Diocese of Bath and Wells. Built in 1176–1450 to replace an earlier church on the site since 705, it is moderately sized for an English cathedral. Its broad west front and large central tower are dominant features. It has been called "unquestionably one of the most beautiful" and "most poetic" of English cathedrals.

Wellská katedrála je katedrála anglikánské církve nacházející se v městě Wells v jihozápadní Anglii, asi 20 km jižně od Bristolu. Je sídlem biskupa diecéze Bath a Wells. Byla postavena v letech 1175 až 1490. Převážná část je postavena v raněgotickém slohu. Na její východní straně se dochovala původní mozaiková okna, což je skutečnost v rámci Anglie neobvyklá.


Structure and reactivity.

BBP is a diester. Since BBP contains two ester bonds it can react in a variety of chemical pathways. Both the carbonyl C-atoms are weakly electrophilic and therefore targets for attacks by strong nucleophilic compounds. Besides the carbonyl C-atom target, it contains a C-H bond whereas the H-atom is weakly acidic, which makes it susceptible for deprotonation by a strong base. BBP is hydrolyzed under either acidic or basic conditions. The hydrolysis under acidic conditions is a reversion of the Fischer-Speier esterification, whereas the hydrolysis under basic conditions is performed by saponification. Since BBPcontains two ester bonds it is difficult to perform a chemoselective reaction.  Under basic conditions BBP can undergo saponification. The saponification number of BBP is 360 mg KOH/g. The amount of carboxylic functional groups per molecule are relatively high (2 carboxylic functional groups with a molecular weight of 312.36). This makes the compound relatively unsaponifiable.

Synthesis.

Concentrated sulfuric acid dehydrates "n"-butyl alcohol to yield 1-butene, which reacts with phthalic anhydride to produce "n"-butyl phthalate. Phthalic anhydride does react directly with 1-butanol to form this same intermediate, but further reaction to form dibutyl phthalate does occur to a significant extent. Carrying out the procedure using 1-butene avoids this side reaction. Monobutyl phthalate is isolated and then added to a mixture of benzyl bromide in acetone in the presence of potassium carbonate (to keep the pH high to facilitate the substitution reaction required to form the second ester linkage), from which BBP can then be isolated.

Metabolism.

BBP can be absorbed by the human body in a variety of ways. First of all, it can be taken up dermally, meaning that the compound is absorbed by the skin. Studies in rats show that 27% of the uptake of BBP occurs via this route. During this process, the structure of the phthalate diester determines the degree of dermal absorption.  BBP can also be taken up orally. The amount of the compound that is being absorbed by the body depends on the dose that has been administered. Absorption seems to be limited at high doses, meaning that small amounts are taken up more easily than great amounts. Finally, BBP can be inhaled. In this case, BBP is absorbed via the lungs.  BBP is biotransformed in the human body in numerous of ways. Gut esterases metabolize BBP to monoester metabolites. Those are mainly monobutyl and mono-benzyl phthalate (MBzP) plus small amounts of mono-n-butyl phthalate. The ratio of monobutyl to monobenzyl phthalate has been determined to be 5:3. These metabolites can be absorbed and excreted directly or undergo a phase II reaction. In the latter, they are conjugated with glucuronic acid and then excreted as glucuronate. Studies in rats have shown that 70% of BBP is not conjugated while 30% is conjugated. At high concentrations of BBP, relatively less metabolite is conjugated. This indicates that the conjugation pathway (glucuronidation) is saturated at high amounts of administered BBP. The metabolites of BBP are excreted rapidly, 90% of them has left the body within 24 hours. As a consequence, the half-life of BBP in the blood is quite low and counts up to only 10 minutes. However, monoester metabolites of BBP (such as monophthalate) have a longer half-life of 6 hours.  BBP is metabolized quite efficiently within the body. While a major part of the BBP is excreted as a mono-benzyl phthalate metabolite, a minor fragment of the BBP is excreted in the form of mono-butyl phthalate. BBP is rarely found in the bile in its original form. Nevertheless, metabolites like monobutyl glucuronide and monobenzyl phthalate glucuronide as well as trace amounts of free monoesters can be found there.

Mode of action.

Relatively little is known about the modes of action of BBP. Experimental research does hint at a number of mechanisms, though. One phenomenon is that BBP binds to the estrogen receptor of rats. In vitro-experiments do show a weak potential of BBP to have an influence on estrogen-mediated gene expression. This is because phthalates like BBP are mimicking estrogens. Metabolites of BBP, on the other hand, are only weakly reactive with the estrogen receptor. Not much is known about if and how this mechanism plays out in vivo.  Furthermore, BBP binds to intracellular steroid receptors and causes genomic effects by doing so. BBP also interferes with ion-channel receptors which cause non-genomic effects. The underlying mechanism is that BBP blocks the calcium signaling that is coupled with P2X receptors. Calcium signaling, mediated via P2X, eventually has an influence in cell proliferation and bone remodeling. During developmental phases of bone remodelling, high environmental exposure of BBP might therefore pose a problem.

Exposure.

The exposure of the general population to BBP has been estimated by several authorities. One of the authorities, the International Program on Chemical Safety (IPCS), came to the conclusion that exposure to BBP is mainly caused by food intake. BBP, as many other phthalates, is used to increase the flexibility of plastics. However, phthalates are not bound to the plastics which means that they can easily be released into the environment. From there it can be taken up into food during crop cultivation. Alternatively, BBP can enter food via food packaging materials. Moreover, children may be exposed to BBP by mouthing of toys. Various studies by authorities, between the 1980s and 2000s, have been done to estimate the general population exposure to BBP in different countries with varying results. The adult exposure was estimated to be 2 μg/kg body weight/day in the U.S. BBP exposure to children is likely to be higher due to differences in food intake. Nonetheless, these estimates should be interpreted with caution as they are based on different food types, different assumptions were used in calculations, levels of BBP in food vary in different countries and levels of BBP in food changes over time. Next to general exposure there is also occupation-related exposure to BBP. This can occur via inhalation of vapors or via skin contact. This has been estimated to be 286 μg/kg body weight/day. However, in general the occupational exposure is thought be lower than this. The NOAEL of BBP was experimentally found to be 50 mg/kg body weight/day and the associated margin of safety is ca. 4,800 or more. Thus, BBP does not seem to pose a very high risk under conditions of general or occupational exposure based on current estimates.

Toxicity and adverse effects.

No primary irritation or sensitization reactions were found in a patch test involving 200 volunteers. However, if BBP is taken up by the body it can exert toxic effects. It has a LD50 for rats ranging from 2 to 20 g/kg body weight.

Occupational hazards.

Workers in the PVC processing industry are exposed to higher levels of BBP than the general public and are thus more at risk of experiencing negative health effects. No effects of the respiratory or peripheral nerve system have been observed in workers. Although slightly higher levels of BBP metabolites were found in their urine. Long-term occupational exposure to BBP does, however, significantly increase the risk of multiple myeloma.

Children.

Children are possibly exposed to higher levels of BBP than adults. Since children form a vulnerable group for chemical exposure, studies have been conducted to evaluate the effects of BBP exposure. PVC flooring has been linked to a significant increase in the risk of bronchial obstruction in the first two years of life and in the development of language delay in pre-school aged children. BBP has also been positively associated with airway inflammation in children living in urban areas. Moreover, there is evidence suggesting that prenatal exposure to BBP coming from in house dust affects the risk of childhood eczema. The exact mechanism of how phthalates and their metabolites reach the fetus remain unclear. However, since these chemicals seem to be able to reach the fetus they are thought to affect fetal health and development. Further research is needed to establish the effect of prenatal exposure on fetal development.

Teratogenicity and reproductive effects.

Only a few studies have been done on reproductive effects of BBP on humans, but the results are inconclusive. According to the NTP-CERHR the adverse reproductive effects are negligible for exposed men. Yet, one study found a link between altered semen quality and exposure to monobutyl phthalate, a major metabolite of BBP. No research has been done on the teratogenic effects of BBP on humans. However, numerous studies have been conducted with animals. Prenatal exposure to high levels of BBP in rats can lead to lower fetal body weight, increased incidence of fetal malformations, post-implantation loss and even embryonic death. The precise teratogenic effects observed in rat fetuses seem to be related to the period of exposure in development. Exposure to BBP in the first half of pregnancy lead to embryolethality while exposure in the second half to teratogenicity.  In a two-generational study male offspring were found to have macroscopic and microscopic changes in the testes, decreased serum testosterone concentrations in addition to reduced sperm production. Additionally, reduced seminal vesicle weight has been observed. These results indicate a clear negative effect on the fertility.

Other toxicity studies in animals.

Numerous studies have been carried out in animals to elucidate the adverse effects of BBP exposure. Long-term BBP exposure in rats leads to reduced body weight, increased weight of the liver and kidneys and carcinogenicity. In male rats the incidence of pancreatic tumors increased while in female rats the incidence for both pancreatic and bladder tumors increased Although BBP has been linked to carcinogenicity, studies indicate that BBP is not genotoxic.

Environmental toxicology.

BBP, like other low molecular weight phthalate esters, is toxic to aquatic organisms. This includes unicellular freshwater green algae such as Selenastrum capricornutum. BBP has also been shown to be toxic to freshwater invertebrates like D. magna. For these organisms, the toxic effect correlates with the water solubility of the phthalate which is relatively high for BBP compared to high molecular weight phthalates. BBP affects saltwater invertebrates significantly. Experiments with mysid shrimp show that BBP is acutely toxic to these organisms. Among the species of fish, the sweetwater fish bluegills were shown to be toxically affected by BBP. Furthermore, a rapid lethal effect has been observed for the saltwater fish Parophrys vetulus.

Degradation.

When the degradation of BBP is taken into consideration, one should be aware of the fact that it contains two ester functional groups. This gives organisms a handle for biotransformations. The ester groups gives BBP hydrophilic properties and will therefore hydrolyze fairly easy. Following an examination performed in 1997, it was found that biotransformations play a very important role in the degeneration of BBP. Furthermore, the solubility in water plays a significant role in the effectiveness of biotransformation in an environment. The butyl group gives BBP a slightly more hydrophobic property, compared to other plasticizer it is relatively good soluble. The longer the alkyl chain the less soluble and the less well it is degenerated.

Legislation measures.

BBP was listed as a developmental toxicant under California's Proposition 65 on December 2, 2005. California's Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA), on July 1, 2013, approved a Maximum Allowable Dose Level of 1,200 micrograms per day for BBP. Canadian Authorities have restricted the usage of phthalates, including BBP, in soft vinyl children's toys and child care articles.  According to EU Council Directive 67/548/EEC1, BBP is classified as reproductive toxicant and therefore restricted in use. The restriction covers the placing on the market and use in any type of toys and childcare articles. These restrictions are in place since 16 January 2017. Due to the classification and labelling of BBP companies have moved to the use of alternatives. Restrictions are not limited to toys. Since 22 November 2006 cosmetic products containing BBP shall not be supplied to consumers in the EU.

Benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) is a phthalate, an ester of phthalic acid, benzyl alcohol, and "n"-butanol. BBP is a clear liquid with the chemical formula CHO. It was mostly used as a plasticizer for PVC. It is considered a toxicant.

Butyl-benzyl-ftalát (BBP) je lipofilní ester kyseliny ftalové, za běžných podmínek ve formě bezbarvé kapaliny. Je prodáván pod komerčními názvy Palatinol BB, Unimoll BB, Sicol 160 nebo Santicizer 160.


Life.

Alexander Dukhnovych was born in the village of Topolya, Kingdom of Hungary (now Topoľa in Eastern Slovakia). The son of a Greek Catholic priest, he went to a Hungarian school in Ungvár (now Uzhhorod) (1816 to 1821). Later Alexander studied philosophy at an academy in Kassa (now Košice) (1821–1823), and theology at the Theological Seminary in Ungvár (Uzhhorod) (1824–1827).  In (1827–1830 and 1832), Dukhnovych worked as an archivist and a teacher. Later, in 1833-1838, he worked as a Greek Catholic priest in remote villages of Carpathian Ruthenia (present-day Zakarpattia oblast of Ukraine) and as a notary in Ungvár (Uzhhorod) (1838–1844). Dukhnovych started to write poems in his early years. He wrote in the Ruthenian, Russian, and Hungarian languages. His early works are said to have been influenced by Hungarian Romanticism.  Dukhnovych supported education and cultural revival of Carpathian Ruthenians. He saw his role as a defender of Ruthenian culture against Magyarization. In 1850 Dukhnovych established the first Ruthenian cultural association, the Eperjes (now Prešov) Literary Society. The society under his guidance published a series of books. His most famous patriotic poem "Ia rusyn byl, ies'm i budu" (I Was, Am, and Will Be a Ruthenian) was published as part of an anthology in 1851. This poem would later become the national anthem of Carpatho-Ruthenians. Dukhnovych also published a number of pedagogical and religious books, elementary school textbook and a Grammar. His most famous scholarly works were "The History of the Eparchy of Prjašev" (1877), originally published in Latin and later translated in Russian and English, and a "History of Carpathian Ruthenians" (1853).  His last years were devoted to development of education and schooling among local Ruthenians. In an effort to forestall the Magyarization of the Ruthenian population Dukhnovych founded in Eperjes (Prešov) together with Adolf Dobryansky the St. John the Baptist Society (1862). On March 30, 1865 Dukhnovych died in Eperjes (Prešov).

Assessment.

Dukhnovych is regarded to be one of the outstanding Ruthenian humanists and educators. In the words of Ivan Franko "he made everything so that forgotten Ruthenians revived spiritually". His views were based on Christian principles and idealism.  Dukhnovych also actively participated in the Russophile movement in the territory of today's Western Ukraine at the end of the 19th century. Even though Dukhnovych wrote in the local language he did not believe it to be a separate language nor did he wish to contribute to a creation of a literary language of Carpathian Ruthenians. Instead Dukhnovych wrote his scholarly works in a peculiar dialect called iazychie made of Church-Slavonic and local Lemko-Rusyn.

Alexander Vasilyevich Dukhnovych (, "Aleksander Vasyl’jevyč Duxnovič";, "Oleksandr Vasylovych Dukhnovych"; ;, "Aleksandr Vasilevich Dukhnovich"; 24 April 1803 – 30 March 1865) was an Transcarpathian Ruthenian priest, poet, writer, pedagogue, and social activist of the Russophile orientation. He is considered as the awakener (Rusyn: Будитиль, "Budytyl’") of the Rusyns.

Alexander Duchnovič, rusínsky Александер Духновіч (24. dubna 1803, Topoľa – 30. března 1865, Prešov) byl rusínský národní buditel, žijící na území dnešního Slovenska, spisovatel, řeckokatolický farář v Beloveži a Chmeľové. Od roku 1990 je po něm pojmenováno rusínské Divadlo Alexandra Duchnoviča v Prešově. Je autorem slov rusínské hymny.


Morphological Description.

The appearance of the Chimaera Monstrosa shares characteristics of its close relative of Sharks. The Chimaera Monstrosa characteristically has a large head and a tapering body that ends in its whip-like tail. The Chimaera Monstrosa has a short snout with an overhanging mouth. The top dorsal fin is positioned high on the spine of the fish, and is triangular and tall in height. Positioned in the mid-section of the fish, the spine runs throughout the length of the fish and continuously joins with the upper part of the caudal fin; this dorsal spine is also mildly poisonous that can cause painful stings. One distinguishing feature of the Chimera Monstrosa to its close relatives is the anal fin, which is distinctly separated from its lancet shaped caudal fin. The color is silver-green with spots of brown. Additionally, the Chimaera Monstrosa cay have marmor-white stripes in all directions with a distinct lateral line can be seen clearly on the head.  The rabbit fish can grow up to long, and weigh. More specifically when regarding growth of the Chimaera Monstrosa species is characterized by a slow-growth rate, and a long life expectancy. In the study, according to the data of the study, the theoretical asymptotic length of the Chimaera Monstrosa is 78.87 (cm) with a yearly growth rate of 6.73% per year. With these estimates of growth, the study also suggests the maximum ages of the fish to be 30 years for males and 26 for females with the maturity age of the sample being 13.4 years for males and 11. 2 years for females.

Distribution and habitat.

The geographic habitat of the Chimaera Monstrosa has registered around the Mediterranean Sea and the Eastern parts of the Atlantic Ocean. This geographic range starts northwards Morrocco and extends to the northern areas of Norway and Iceland in the Northern North Sea.  Within these geological areas, the Chimaera Monstrosa prefers the upper to middle continental slope habitats at depths of 300 m to 500 m (980-1,640 ft). The range of the Chimaera Monstrosa is 50 m to 1,000 m, however, is most abundant between 300 and 500 m. Within these parameters, the waters of the habitats of the Chimaera Monstrosa is most commonly between 4.7 - 8 C° (40.46 - 46.4 F°). There have been reports of summer inshore migration of the Chimaera Monstrosa to lay eggs in depth as low as 100 m.

Diet.

The Chimaera Monstrosa are classified as benthophagous species. This means that their main diet comprises bottom-feeding invertebrates. This includes animals such as crabs, mollusks, octopuses, sea-worms, and sea urchins. However, studies have also shown that the Chimaera Monstrosa are opportunistic feeders. Comparing the digestive tracts of the species with varying body sizes, the study found that the diet of Chimaera Monstrosa was widely diverse in relation to size. Specimens smaller than 22 cm mainly fed on amphipods, while those with lengths between 22 and 46 cm fed on amphipods and decapods. Larger individuals (>46 cm) had a narrow diet spectrum, consuming mainly decapods. Conditioned by predator size group, significant differences in diet were observed between geographical areas and depths. This suggests that despite some degree of prey specialization according to predator size, this deep-water species can change its diet in accordance with the food-restricted environment that characterizes its habitat.

Reproduction.

Chimaera Monstrosa are fish that have distinct sex from birth. They reproduce by internal fertilization of male and female. For reproduction, Chimaera Monstrosa displays a small club like structure with a bulbous tip armed with numerous sharp denticles located on the top of the head. This structure is suggested to be used by male fish to grasp the pectoral fin of the female during copulation Chimaera Monstrosa are also Oviparous fish, meaning that the embryo development happens in eggs, and not in the female. Specifically, when referring to the Reproductive tendencies of the Chimaera Monstrosa show sexual segregation in different depths of water, with the female living in lower depth in water. The segregation of sex is attributed to two main factors: the regulation of sperm in males in warmer and shallower waters, and less aggression of sex. For males, they live in water 500-600 m to regulate sperm. For the females, they prefer deeper waters of 800 m, but go up to depths of 500-600 to mate with males. Once mating, they will migrate inshore to lay eggs in the spring of summer.

Conservation.

According to the IUCN Red List, the Chimaera Monstrosa are categorized as “near threatened”. Due to its high levels of lipids, the Chimaera Monstrosa has gained interest in fisheries for its liver oils to manufacture dietary supplements. Aside from its values for oil, the Chimaera Monstrosa is mainly discarded as bycatch product in fishing.

Further reading.

FAO Aquatic Species Distribution Map of Chimaera monstrosa- http://www.fao.org/geonetwork/srv/en/metadata.show?currTab=simple&id=54897

Chimaera monstrosa, also known as the rabbit fish or rat fish, is a northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean species of fish in the family Chimaeridae. The Chimaera Monstrosa is known for its characteristically large head, and small tapering body. With large eyes, nostrils, and tooth plates, the Chimaera gives them a rabbit-like appearance, hence the nickname “Rabbitfish”. These fish range in size growing up to 1.5 M long (5 ft) and can age up `to 30 years old.

Chiméra podivná ("Chimaera monstrosa" Linnaeus, 1758) je druh mořské paryby z čeledi chimérovitých žijící v Atlantském oceánu. Dorůstá velikosti okolo 1,5 metru. V hřbetní ploutvi se nachází jedový trn. Jed chiméry může být pro člověka nebezpečný.


WFIS Worldwide Committee.

The WFIS Worldwide Committee is the chief executive body of the World Federation of Independent Scouts and is composed of elected volunteers. WFIS-Worldwide acts as an umbrella association for each of the regional Scout organisations.

Regional divisions.

The WFIS is divided into eight regions:  The Asian Region and Middle East Region are currently inactive, although there are WFIS Associations operating there.

List of members.

Including prospected members

WFIS Africa.

5860 members in 2010

WFIS Asia.

155,303 members in 2010

WFIS Europe.

10,834 members in 2010

WFIS America.

3643 members in 2010

Jamborees and international camps.

WFIS has held World Jamborees in 2002, 2007, and 2011.  In addition to World Jamborees, the WFIS also regularly host regional international camps, such as Eurocamp. The following camps having taken place or are scheduled:  WFIS also hosts a Jamboree On The Internet:  Member Associations also regularly invite each other to their own camps, examples including:

International Scout Fellowship.

The International Scout Fellowship is an affiliate of WFIS, but not a member. It is open to former and current adult members of WFIS, to other adult friends of Independent Scouting who wish to contribute to independent Scouting, regardless of their Scouting backgrounds.  The ISF is governed by its World Council which is composed of representatives of each member Chapter. It meets once a year, usually electronically. Its day-to-day affairs are directed by the Executive Committee, which is elected by the World Council.  All positions in the ISF are staffed by volunteers. There are no paid employees.

Uniform.

The badge is that of the WFIS in reverse colours. There is no set uniform of the ISF. Member chapters determine their own uniforms with the badge of the ISF. Other chapters may use casual dress such as T-shirts, etc.  The emphasis of the ISF is on tangible results in supporting Independent Scouting associations, not on formalities.

The World Federation of Independent Scouts (WFIS) is a non-governmental international Scouting organization with 82 affiliated Scout organizations in 41 countries. The affiliate Scout organizations collectively had an estimated 200,000 members in 3562 Scout Groups in 2010. WFIS was formed in Laubach, Germany, in 1996 by Lawrie Dring, a British Scouter with the independent Baden-Powell Scouts' Association (BPSA).

Světová federace nezávislých skautů (, "WFIS") byla založena roku 1996 v Německu. Jedná se o alternativní mezinárodní federaci skautských organizací k dominatní Světové organizaci skautského hnutí (WOSM); na rozdíl od WOSM, která přijímá jen jednu skautskou organizaci z dané země, WFIS přijímá libovolné skautské organizace nespojené s jinou mezinárodní organizací, a sdružuje tak především alternativní národní skautské organizace. V Česku jsou členy Skaut – český skauting ABS (od roku 2009) a Svaz skautů a skautek České republiky (od roku 2012).


History.

As Zilch.

The band originally formed in 1997 under the name, "Zilch". Zilch began as dc Talk's traveling band, forming into an independent act in 1997. The initial recording lineup was lead singer and guitarist Mark Lee Townsend, keyboardist Jason Halbert, bassist Otto "Sugar Bear" Price and drummer Rick May. Zilch released its first album, "Platinum", in 1997 on Gotee Records but received little publicity. "Platinum" featured a modern rock sound with clear influences from 1960s pop music. One review cited the sound as being similar to that of All Star United, and another to Weezer plus pop and hip-hop influences.  This release was not praise and worship music, which the band would soon become known for, but contained more standard fare, including songs on topics like friendship, complacency, and priorities. Overall, the band was characterized as not taking themselves seriously, for instance by including a cover of the Schoolhouse Rock! song "My Hero, Zero", and reflected in the band's name, which was taken from the song by the same name written by The Monkees. Likewise, the title of the album was a play on their own status as musicians. "We're appointing ourselves superstars with a 'Platinum' album..." Jason Halbert told one reporter, "That basically means Zilch!," Their song "In The Sky" is an answer to two hits at the time, Joan Osborne "One of Us" and Dishwalla "Counting Blue Cars", opening with the line, "... she asked if God was just a slob like us, well maybe something there is lacking," the second verse begins with, "Let me tell you all my thoughts on God, cause I just met with Him this morning..."  In early 1998 Mark Lee Townsend stepped down from the role of lead singer and was replaced by then-independent artist Jeff Deyo. Zilch would play shows, sometimes ending them with a praise song such as "Lord, I Lift Your Name on High." The band found that playing such music changed the nature of audience interaction with their performance, in positive ways.

Formation of Sonicflood.

Their label took notice as well, and eventually suggested that the band consider recording a full-length praise and worship album. This idea was initially met with resistance from the band, which was already in the process of recording a second album under the title "Millennium". Eventually, the band agreed to do a praise and worship as a one-off, with no intention of continuing beyond the single album. However, as the recording progressed, the band decided to commit to the project. Jeff Deyo characterized the band's name change as a sign of that commitment, saying that it was similar to the story of the conversion of Paul of Tarsus.  Sonicflood began rotating personnel making changes that would heavily impact the future of the band. Otto Price played bass, co-produced, and shared some writing credits on the album, but not wanting to continue touring, dropped out of the core band. Price would eventually take the spot of vice president of A&R at Word Records. Mark Lee Townsend did similarly, and was listed on "Sonicflood" as an additional musician. Already an industry veteran, he went on to produce albums for The OC Supertones and Relient K, among others. Additionally, he intended to release a second project under the name Zilch. However, despite occasional status updates throughout the first decade of the 2000s, that album is yet unreleased.  Seven Day Jesus guitarist Dwayne Larring and drummer Aaron Blanton became members of the band, bringing their number to four. The original lineup, under which the album "Sonicflood" was recorded consisted of Deyo, Halbert, Blanton, and Larring. Heil, then the Big Tent Revival bass guitar player, took over on bass guitar in early 1999 and joined as a founding member before Sonicflood began touring, but did not appear on the album.

"Sonicflood" and "Sonicpraise".

Sonicflood released its debut album in February 1999. With this release, the band became one of many bands in the burgeoning genre of praise and worship music, joining Delirious?, Hillsong, Matt Redman, and others at a time when the genre was a fast-growing part of the Christian music industry. The album landed on Billboard charts including the Billboard 200, the top 10 Christian albums, and peaking at No. 2 on the Heatseekers Chart. The band would stay on the top 10 Christian album charts well into the year 2000 (for over 72 weeks), and becoming possibly the best known praise and worship band in America.  The release had two No. 1 hits on Christian radio, "I Want to Know You" (written by Andy Park) and "I Could Sing Of Your Love Forever" (written by Martin Smith of Delirious?), and several lesser charting singles. The latter was probably their most well known song, and would gain an additional Dove nomination the following year, in the "Song of the Year" category. The band garnered three Dove Award nominations in 2000 and one win, for "Praise and Worship Album". In 1999 the band recorded a live album at the Flevo Festival but featuring content from other shows as well. Originally scheduled for a late 2000 release, changes in the band's structure would delay the album until 2001..  In the fall of 1999 the band toured with speaker Josh McDowell. The following Spring Sonicflood joined the "Love Liberty Disco Tour", headlined by the Newsboys. The band also recorded a track for the compilation album "" with Peter Furler as lead vocalist. This release would take a Dove award for "Special Event Album" in 2001, although by that time the band would bear no resemblance to the one which recorded it.  Sonicflood dissolved throughout the year 2000, citing differences over the vision of the band. Issues that led to the band dissolving included whether the band should return to a more conventional musical strain or continue making praise and worship music and how the band should sound. These were complicated by the fact that the band had no true leadership; the original arrangement was equal ownership for each member. In a corporate fashion, this meant that each one had equal say in the direction of the band. By the fall of that year, all members except Heil had departed. Heil took the role of lead singer and began recruiting new members to fill the band's touring obligations and continue making praise and worship music.  By spring 2001, "Sonicflood" had gone Gold and the legal complexities that surrounded the band's name and ownership had been resolved. "Sonicpraise", the live album recorded in 1999, was finally released. Similar to their eponymous album, it featured a mix of songs from that "Sonicflood" and new covers written by other praise artists. This album earned a Grammy nomination for "Best Gospel Rock Album", and the band was on Billboard charts once again.

Under Rick Heil.

With Heil at the helm, the band recruited Tom Michael, Todd Shay and Brett Vargason, each of whom were members of the John Cox Band and David "Moose" Alan, who played keyboards for Big Tent Revival. The band switched record labels, leaving Gotee and partnering with newly formed INO Records. Heil began developing a praise and worship album, designing it similarly to the band's 1999 release, with a mix of covers and original songs. The result of these efforts became "Resonate", released in the fall of 2001. Their 2003 release "Cry Holy" takes an acoustic rock sound, drawing comparisons to Chris Tomlin.  Following the 2005 release of "This Generation", the band toured internationally, recording their performances along the way. While in Muslim-dominated Turkey the band filmed a music video for their song "This Generation". Sonicflood toured with sponsorship by Compassion International in the Spring of 2006, and continued to tour in Europe in the Summer. These recordings were released as "Glimpse: Live Recordings From Around The World" in fall 2006. As support for "Glimpse", the band embarked on a United States tour, with sponsorship from the Southern Baptist Convention's International Mission Board, and included missionaries as speakers.  In 2007, the band appeared on Trinity Broadcasting Network's Praise the Lord to promote their appearance at an upcoming World Harvest Church-sponsored event. Bandleader Rick Heil appeared again the following year, in support of "A Heart Like Yours", telling the story of his healing from Crohn's disease Heil contracted the disease at the age of 11, and was afflicted with it for 26 years. Heil's case was particularly bad and, he was told,, leaving his only hope for cure in miracles. While Heil does not profess to have experienced a miracle "per se", he does say that "Jesus is the great physician... the healer of the heart, the soul, the mind."  The band went on to record "A Heart Like Yours" in 2008 which has a rock and piano-dominated sound. Then, in 2009 recorded a Christmas album, "When Love First Cried."  In 2009, guitarist Phil Baquie received notice of his military unit's activation, and orders to deploy to Afghanistan in October as part of Operation Enduring Freedom. Though not yet a United States citizen, Baquie is in the military reserve, which is a possible path to citizenship. Baquie's final album appearance was on their 2009 Christmas album, "When Love First Cried".

Members.

Current  Former  Lead vocals  Bass guitar  Drums  Keyboards  Guitar

Sonicflood (sometimes stylized as SONICFLOOd) is an American contemporary worship music band from Nashville, Tennessee, that has been touted as "The Fathers of the Modern Worship Movement." The group took the name "Sonicflood", a reference to a line in the Book of Revelation, chapter 19, verse 6.

Sonicflood (někdy také psáno SONICFLOOd) je americká hudební skupina hrající křesťanskou Pop music. Byla založena v Nashvillu ve státě Tennessee. Debutové album vydané v roce 1999 mělo stejný název - SONICFLOOd.


Biography.

Moore was born in New Castle, Delaware, only a couple of miles from fellow musicians George Thorogood (and The Delaware Destroyers). He began his professional career at age 12 after receiving a guitar as a Christmas present. During a 2018 interview, Moore stated, "I got my first guitar for Christmas when I was like 12, basically just because I saw a picture of a guitar in a catalog, a JCPenney's catalog. I thought, 'Hey that looks pretty cool. I want that.' That was my motivation at the time, and I got it for Christmas, and really didn't bother with it a whole lot. Then, I started taking lessons for the next year. Then I really started to get obsessed with it."R.Y.A.N. - Season 2, Episode 5: Vinnie Moore During that same interview, Moore was asked who his earliest teachers were, and he stated, "The first teacher was Mary Biddle, and I studied for a year with her, just some basic lessons at the local music shop. After about a year, I had advanced, and she referred me to another guy named Nick Bucci, who was a great player in my local area. He was studying jazz guitar with Pat Martino, and was also a rock guy, and he just taught me a lot of stuff; theory, and exercises, and all different kinds of stuff to make me become a better player and musician."R.Y.A.N. - Season 2, Episode 5: Vinnie Moore Moore played clubs and bars until Shrapnel executive Mike Varney discovered him via a demo and bio that Vinnie submitted to the Spotlight column, which Varney headed for "Guitar Player Magazine". His connection to Varney led to an opportunity to appear in a Pepsi commercial in 1985 (only Vinnie's hands appeared in the commercial as his guitar playing is heard). Following this, Moore recorded his first solo album, "Mind's Eye" (1986), released on Shrapnel Records and featuring Tony MacAlpine on keyboards. The album received several awards from guitar magazines and sold over 100,000 copies.  Vinnie Moore played lead guitar with the heavy metal band Vicious Rumors on their debut album, "Soldiers of the Night" (1985). The album features Moore's solo-song "Invader", which was in the style of Van Halen's "Eruption". The shred guitar craze of the late eighties led to more releases for Shrapnel. Moore also began performing with other hard rock and heavy metal bands.  Moore joined Alice Cooper's band for a tour and then appeared on the "Hey Stoopid" (1991) album. Moore released two instructional videos on guitar playing.  Moore has been the lead guitarist for UFO since June 2003, releasing his first studio album with them "You Are Here" the following year in 2004. This has been followed by "The Monkey Puzzle" (2006), "The Visitor" (2009), "Seven Deadly" (2012) and "A Conspiracy of Stars" (2015).  On August 5, 2013, Moore came on stage to perform live with Peter Frampton on Frampton's Guitar Circus concert at Musikfest in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.  Moore is playing guitar on Red Zone Rider's debut album "Red Zone Rider" released September 16, 2014.

Equipment.

Moore is currently endorsed by Dean guitars, with whom he has several signature models. Prior to his endorsement with Dean, he used guitars made by various other brands over the years including Ibanez and Fender, most notably the Talon model that was manufactured by Heartfield, one of Fender's sub brands. Moore also currently uses ENGL amplifiers and DiMarzio pickups.

Vincent "Vinnie" Moore (born April 14, 1964) is an American guitarist and a member of the British hard rock band UFO. Moore is one of the most influential and important guitarists to emerge from the virtuoso boom in the mid to late eighties.

Vinnie Moore (* 14. dubna 1964, New Castle, Delaware) je americký kytarista a člen anglické hard rockové skupiny UFO. Spolu s Yngwie Malmsteenem, Tony MacAlpinem a jinými kytaristy, je Vinnie Moore známý jako jeden z nejvlivnějších kytaristů tzv. shredderského boomu v polovině 80. let.


Origins of the term.

The term is a derogatory epithet, yet it is used by many historians anyway, as in Wiggins (1991), Baggett (2003), Rubin (2006) and Wetta (2012). The word "scalawag", originally referring to low-grade farm animals, was adopted by their opponents to refer to Southern whites who formed a Republican coalition with black freedmen and Northern newcomers (called carpetbaggers) to take control of their state and local governments. Among the earliest uses in this new meaning were references in Alabama and Georgia newspapers in the summer of 1867, first referring to all Southern Republicans, then later restricting it to only white ones.  Historian Ted Tunnel writes that  Reference works such as Joseph E. Worcester's 1860 Dictionary of the Caribbean Spanish Language defined scalawag as "A low worthless fellow; a scapegrace." Scalawag was also a word for low-grade farm animals. In early 1868 a Mississippi editor observed that scalawag "has been used from time immemorial to designate inferior milch cows in the cattle markets of Virginia and Kentucky." That June the Richmond Enquirer concurred; scalawag had heretofore "applied to all of the mean, lean, mangy, hidebound skiny [sic], worthless cattle in every particular drove." Only in recent months, the Richmond paper remarked, had the term taken on political meaning. During the 1868–69 session of Judge "Greasy" Sam Watts' court in Haywood County, North Carolina, Dr. William Closs, D.D. testified that a scalawag was "a Native born Southern white man who says he is no better than a negro and tells the truth when he says it". Some accounts record his testimony as "a native Southern white man, who says that a negro is as good as he is, and tells the truth when he says so".  By October 1868 a Mississippi newspaper was defining the expression scathingly in terms of Redemption politics. The term continued to be used as a pejorative by conservative pro-segregationist southerners well into the 20th century. But historians commonly use the term to refer to the group of historical actors with no pejorative meaning intended.

History.

After the American Civil War during the Reconstruction Era 1863 to 1869, Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson undertook policies designed to bring the South back to normal as soon as possible, while the Radical Republicans used Congress to block the president, impose harsh terms, and upgrade the rights of the Freedmen (the ex-slaves). In the South, Black Freedmen and White Southerners with Republican sympathies joined forces with Northerners who had moved south (called "Carpetbaggers" by their southern opponents) to implement the policies of the Republican party.  Despite being a minority, scalawags gained power by taking advantage of the Reconstruction laws of 1867, which disenfranchised the majority of Southern white voters as they could not take the Ironclad oath, which required they had never served in Confederate armed forces or held any political office under the state or Confederate governments. Historian Harold Hyman says that in 1866 Congressmen "described the oath as the last bulwark against the return of ex-rebels to power, the barrier behind which Southern Unionists and Negroes protected themselves."  The coalition controlled every former Confederate state except Virginia, as well as Kentucky and Missouri (which were claimed by the North and the South) for varying lengths of time between 1866 and 1877. Two of the most prominent scalawags were General James Longstreet, one of Robert E. Lee's top generals, and Joseph E. Brown, who had been the wartime governor of Georgia. During the 1870s, many scalawags left the Republican Party and joined the conservative-Democrat coalition. Conservative Democrats had replaced all Republican minority governments in the South by 1877, after the disputed presidential election of 1876, in which the remaining Reconstruction governments had certified the Republican electors despite the Democratic candidate having carried the states.  Historian John Hope Franklin gives an assessment of the motives of Southern Unionists. He noted that as more Southerners were allowed to vote and participate:  A curious assortment of native Southerners thus became eligible to participate in Radical Reconstruction. And the number increased as the President granted individual pardons or issued new proclamations of amnesty... Their primary interest was in supporting a party that would build the South on a broader base than the plantation aristocracy of Antebellum days. They found it expedient to do business with Negroes and so-called carpetbaggers, but often they returned to the Democratic party as it gained sufficient strength to be a factor in Southern politics.  Eventually most scalawags joined the Democratic Redeemer coalition. A minority persisted as Republicans and formed the "tan" half of the "Black and Tan" Republican party. It was a minority element in the GOP in every Southern state after 1877.  Most of the 430 Republican newspapers in the South were edited by scalawags—only 20 percent were edited by carpetbaggers. White businessmen generally boycotted Republican papers, which survived through government patronage.

Alabama.

In Alabama, Wiggins says scalawags dominated the Republican Party. Some 117 Republicans were nominated, elected, or appointed to the most lucrative and important state executive positions, judgeships, and federal legislative and judicial offices between 1868 and 1881. They included 76 white southerners, 35 northerners, and 6 former slaves. In state offices during Reconstruction, white southerners were even more predominant: 51 won nominations, compared to 11 carpetbaggers and one black. 27 scalawags won state executive nominations (75%), 24 won state judicial nominations (89%), and 101 were elected to the Alabama General Assembly (39%). However, fewer scalawags won nominations to federal offices: 15 were nominated or elected to Congress (48%) compared to 11 carpetbaggers and 5 blacks. 48 scalawags were members of the 1867 constitutional convention (49.5% of the Republican membership); and seven scalawags were members of the 1875 constitutional convention (58% of the minuscule Republican membership.)  In terms of racial issues, Wiggins says:  White Republicans as well as Democrats solicited black votes but reluctantly rewarded blacks with nominations for office only when necessary, even then reserving the more choice positions for whites. The results were predictable: these half-a-loaf gestures satisfied neither black nor white Republicans. The fatal weakness of the Republican party in Alabama, as elsewhere in the South, was its inability to create a biracial political party. And while in power even briefly, they failed to protect their members from Democratic terror. Alabama Republicans were forever on the defensive, verbally and physically."

South Carolina.

In South Carolina there were about 100,000 scalawags, or about 15% of the white population. During its heyday, the Republican coalition attracted some wealthier white southerners, especially moderates favoring cooperation between open-minded Democrats and responsible Republicans. Rubin shows that the collapse of the Republican coalition came from disturbing trends to corruption and factionalism that increasingly characterized the party's governance. These failings disappointed Northern allies who abandoned the state Republicans in 1876 as the Democrats under Wade Hampton reasserted control. They used the threat of violence to cause many Republicans to stay quiet or switch to the Democrats.

Louisiana.

Wetta shows that New Orleans was a major Scalawag center. Their leaders were well-to-do well-educated lawyers, physicians, teachers, ministers, businessmen, and civil servants. Many had Northern ties or were born in the North, moving to the boom city of New Orleans before the 1850s. Few were cotton or sugar planters. Most had been Whigs before the War, but many had been Democrats. Nearly all were Unionists during the War. They had joined a Republican coalition with blacks but gave at best weak support to black suffrage, black office holding, or social equality. Wetta says that their "cosmopolitanism broke the mold of southern provincialism" typical of their southern-democratic opponents. That is, scalawags had "a broader worldview."

Mississippi.

The most prominent scalawag of all was James L. Alcorn of Mississippi. He was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1865, but like all southerners was not allowed to take a seat while the Republican Congress was pondering Reconstruction. He supported suffrage for freedmen and endorsed the Fourteenth Amendment, as demanded by the Republicans in Congress. Alcorn became the leader of the scalawags, who composed about a third of the Republicans in the state, in coalition with carpetbaggers and freedmen. Elected governor by the Republicans in 1869, he served from 1870 to 1871. As a modernizer he appointed many like-minded former Whigs, even if they were Democrats. He strongly supported education, including public schools for blacks only, and a new college for them, now known as Alcorn State University. He maneuvered to make his ally Hiram Revels its president. Radical Republicans opposed Alcorn and were angry at his patronage policy. One complained that Alcorn's policy was to see "the old civilization of the South "modernized"" rather than lead a total political, social and economic revolution.  Alcorn resigned the governorship to become a U.S. Senator (1871–1877), replacing his ally Hiram Revels, the first African American senator. Senator Alcorn urged the removal of the political disabilities of white southerners, rejected Radical Republican proposals to enforce social equality by federal legislation, he denounced the federal cotton tax as robbery and defended separate schools for both races in Mississippi. Although a former slaveholder, he characterized slavery as "a cancer upon the body of the Nation" and expressed the gratification which he and many other Southerners felt over its destruction.  Alcorn led a furious political battle with Senator Adelbert Ames, the carpetbagger who led the other faction of the Republican Party in Mississippi. The fight ripped apart the party, with most blacks supporting Ames, but many—including Revels, supporting Alcorn. In 1873, they both sought a decision by running for governor. Ames was supported by the Radicals and most African Americans, while Alcorn won the votes of conservative whites and most of the scalawags. Ames won by a vote of 69,870 to 50,490, and Alcorn retired from state politics.  Newton Knight has gained increased attention since the 2016 release of the feature film "Free State of Jones".

Mountains.

The mountain districts of Appalachia were often Republican enclaves. People there held few slaves, and they had poor transportation, deep poverty, and a standing resentment against the Low Country politicians who dominated the Confederacy and conservative Democrats in Reconstruction and after. Their strongholds in West Virginia, eastern Kentucky and Tennessee, western Virginia and North Carolina, and the Ozark region of northern Arkansas, became Republican bastions. These rural folk had a long-standing hostility toward the planter class. They harbored pro-Union sentiments during the war. Andrew Johnson was their representative leader. They welcomed Reconstruction and much of what the Radical Republicans in Congress advocated.

Outside the US.

The term'scally' is also used in the United Kingdom to refer to elements of the working class and petty criminality, in a similar vain to the more contemporary chav. In Philippines, scalawags were used to denote rogue police or military officers.

Accusations of corruption.

Scalawags were denounced as corrupt by Redeemers. The Dunning School of historians sympathized with the claims of the Democrats. Agreeing with the Dunning School, Franklin said that the scalawags "must take at least part of the blame" for graft and corruption.  The Democrats alleged the scalawags to be financially and politically corrupt, and willing to support bad government because they profited personally. One Alabama historian claimed: "On economic matters scalawags and Democrats eagerly sought aid for economic development of projects in which they had an economic stake, and they exhibited few scruples in the methods used to push beneficial financial legislation through the Alabama legislature. The quality of the book keeping habits of both Republicans and Democrats was equally notorious." However, historian Eric Foner argues there is not sufficient evidence that scalawags were any more or less corrupt than politicians of any era, including Redeemers.

Who were the scalawags?

White Southern Republicans included formerly closeted Southern abolitionists as well as former slaveowners who supported equal rights for freedmen. (The most famous of this latter group was Samuel F. Phillips, who later argued against segregation in "Plessy v. Ferguson".) Included, too, were people who wanted to be part of the ruling Republican Party simply because it provided more opportunities for successful political careers. Many historians have described scalawags in terms of social class, showing that on average they were less wealthy or prestigious than the elite planter class.  As Thomas Alexander (1961) showed, there was persistent Whiggery (support for the principles of the defunct Whig Party) in the South after 1865. Many ex-Whigs became Republicans who advocated modernization through education and infrastructure—especially better roads and railroads. Many also joined the Redeemers in their successful attempt to replace the brief period of civil rights promised to African Americans during the Reconstruction era with the Jim Crow era of segregation and second-class citizenship that persisted into the 20th century.  Historian James Alex Baggett's "The Scalawags" provides a quantitative study of the population.

In United States history, scalawags (sometimes spelled scallawags or scallywags) were white Southerners who supported Reconstruction after the American Civil War.

Scalawagové (anglicky: "Scalawags" či česky "darebáci") bylo označení pro bílé obyvatele jižních států USA, kteří z velké části pocházeli z ekonomicky slabých vrstev nebo se jednalo o bývalé členy whigů. Tito jedinci začali po porážce Konfederace v Americké občanské válce podporovat republikány. Označení mělo na Jihu významně pejorativní charakter (zakrslíci, darebáci) a svědčilo o vztahu většiny bílého obyvatelstva ke Scalawagům.


Etymology.

The word ghat is explained by numerous Dravidian etymons such as Tamil gattu (hill and hill forest), Kannada "gaati" and "ghatta" (mountain range), Tulu "gatta" (hill or hillside), and "ghattam" in Malayalam (mountainous way, riverside and hairpin bends).  "Ghat", a term used in the Indian subcontinent, depending on the context could either refer to a range of stepped-hill such as the Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats; or the series of steps leading down to a body of water or wharf, such bathing or cremation place along the banks of a river or pond, Ghats in Varanasi, Dhoby Ghaut or Aapravasi Ghat. Roads passing through ghats are called Ghat Roads.

Geology.

The Western Ghats are the mountainous faulted and eroded edge of the Deccan Plateau. Geologic evidence indicates that they were formed during the break-up of the supercontinent of Gondwana some 150 million years ago. Geophysical evidence indicates that the west coast of India came into being somewhere around 100 to 80 mya after it broke away from Madagascar. After the break-up, the western coast of India would have appeared as an abrupt cliff some in elevation. Basalt is the predominant rock found in the hills reaching a thickness of. Other rock types found are charnockites, granite gneiss, khondalites, leptynites, metamorphic gneisses with detached occurrences of crystalline limestone, iron ore, dolerites and anorthosites. Residual laterite and bauxite ores are also found in the southern hills.

Geography.

The Western Ghats extend from the Satpura Range in the north, stretching from Gujarat to Tamil Nadu. It traverses south through the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. Major gaps in the range are the Goa Gap, between the Maharashtra and Karnataka sections, and the Palghat Gap on the Tamil Nadu and Kerala border between the Nilgiri Hills and the Anaimalai Hills. The mountains intercept the rain-bearing westerly monsoon winds, and are consequently an area of high rainfall, particularly on their western side. The dense forests also contribute to the precipitation of the area by acting as a substrate for condensation of moist rising orographic winds from the sea, and releasing much of the moisture back into the air via transpiration, allowing it to later condense and fall again as rain.  The northern portion of the narrow coastal plain between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is known as the Konkan, the central portion is called Kanara and the southern portion is called Malabar. The foothill region east of the Ghats in Maharashtra is known as Desh, while the eastern foothills of the central Karnataka state is known as Malenadu. The range is known as "Sahyadri" in Maharashtra and Karnataka. The Western Ghats meet the Eastern Ghats at the Nilgiri mountains in northwestern Tamil Nadu. The Nilgiris connect the Biligiriranga Hills in southeastern Karnataka with the Shevaroys and Tirumala hills. South of the Palghat Gap are the Anamala Hills, located in western Tamil Nadu and Kerala with smaller ranges further south, including the Cardamom Hills, then Aryankavu pass, and Aralvaimozhi pass near Kanyakumari. The range is known as "Sahyan" or "Sahian" in Kerala. In the southern part of the range is Anamudi (), the highest peak in the Western Ghats.

Peaks.

The Western Ghats have many peaks that rise above 2,000 meters, with Anamudi () being the highest peak.

Water bodies.

The Western Ghats form one of the four watersheds of India, feeding the perennial rivers of India. The major river systems originating in the Western Ghats are the Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna, Thamiraparani and Tungabhadra rivers. The majority of streams draining the Western Ghats join these rivers, and carry a large volume of water during the monsoon months. These rivers flow to the east due to the gradient of the land and drain out into the Bay of Bengal. Major tributaries include the Bhadra, Bhavani, Bhima, Malaprabha, Ghataprabha, Hemavathi and Kabini rivers. The Periyar, Bharathappuzha, Pamba, Netravati, Sharavathi, Kali, Mandovi and Zuari rivers flow westwards towards the Western Ghats, draining into the Arabian Sea, and are fast-moving, owing to the steeper gradient. The rivers have been dammed for hydroelectric and irrigation purposes with major reservoirs spread across the states. The reservoirs are important for their commercial and sport fisheries of rainbow trout, mahseer and common carp. There are about 50 major dams along the length of the Western Ghats. Most notable of these projects are the Koyna in Maharashtra, Linganmakki and Shivanasamudra in Karnataka, Mettur and Pykara in Tamil Nadu, Parambikulam, Malampuzha and Idukki in Kerala. During the monsoon season, numerous streams fed by incessant rain drain off the mountain sides leading to numerous waterfalls. Major waterfalls include Dudhsagar, Unchalli, Sathodi, Magod, Hogenakkal, Jog, Kunchikal, Shivanasamudra, Meenmutty Falls, Athirappilly Falls. Talakaveri is the source of the river Kaveri and the Kuduremukha range is the source of the Tungabhadra. The Western Ghats have several man-made lakes and reservoirs with major lakes at Ooty () in Nilgiris, Kodaikanal () and Berijam in Palani Hills, Pookode lake, Karlad Lake in Wayanad, Vagamon lake, Devikulam () and Letchmi () in Idukki, Kerala.

Climate.

The area including Agumbe, Hulikal and Amagaon in Karnataka, Mahabaleshwar and Tamhini in Maharashtra are often referred to as the "Cherrapunji of southwest India" or the "rain capital of southwest India". Kollur in Udupi district, Kokkali and Nilkund in Sirsi, Samse in Mudigere of Karnataka, and Neriamangalam in the Ernakulam district of Kerala are the wettest places in the Western Ghats. Heavy precipitation does occur in the surrounding regions due to the long continuity of the mountains without passes and gaps. Changes in the direction and pace of the wind do affect the average rainfall and the wettest places might vary. However, Maharashtra and the northern part of Western Ghats in Karnataka on average receive heavier rainfall than Kerala and the southern part of Western Ghats in Karnataka.  The climate in the Western Ghats varies with altitudinal gradation and distance from the equator. The climate is humid and tropical in the lower reaches tempered by the proximity to the sea. Elevations of and above in the north and and above in the south have a more temperate climate. The average annual temperature is around. In some parts frost is common, and temperatures reach the freezing point during the winter months. Mean temperatures range from in the south to in the north. It has also been observed that the coldest periods in the South Western Ghats coincide with the wettest.  During the monsoon season between June and September, the unbroken Western Ghats chain acts as a barrier to the moisture-laden clouds. The heavy, eastward-moving rain-bearing clouds are forced to rise and in the process deposit most of their rain on the windward side. Rainfall in this region averages to with localised extremes reaching. The eastern regions of the Western Ghats, which lie in the rain shadow, receive far less rainfall (about ), resulting in an average rainfall of across all regions. The total amount of rain does not depend on the spread of the area; areas in northern Maharashtra receive heavy rainfall followed by long dry spells, while regions closer to the equator receive less annual rainfall and have rain spells lasting several months in a year.

Rainfall.

The Karnataka region on average receives heavier rainfall than the Kerala, Maharashtra and Goa. Meanwhile, the Ghats in Karnataka have fewer passes and gaps and therefore the western slopes of Karnataka receive heavy rainfall, over 400 cm more than other regional parts of the Western Ghats.  Some of the wettest places in the Western Ghats are:

Ecoregions.

The Western Ghats are home to four tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregions – the North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, North Western Ghats montane rain forests, South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, and South Western Ghats montane rain forests. The northern portion of the range is generally drier than the southern portion, and at lower elevations makes up the North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests ecoregion, with mostly deciduous forests made up predominantly of teak. Above 1,000 meters elevation are the cooler and wetter North Western Ghats montane rain forests, whose evergreen forests are characterised by trees of the family "Lauraceae".  The evergreen forests in Wayanad mark the transition zone between the northern and southern ecoregions of the Western Ghats. The southern ecoregions are generally wetter and more species-rich. At lower elevations are the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, with "Cullenia" the characteristic tree genus, accompanied by teak, dipterocarps, and other trees. The moist forests transition to the drier South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests, which lie in its rain shadow to the east. Above 1,000 meters are the South Western Ghats montane rain forests, also cooler and wetter than the surrounding lowland forests, and dominated by evergreen trees, although some montane grasslands and stunted forests can be found at the highest elevations. The South Western Ghats montane rain forests are the most species-rich ecoregion in peninsular India; eighty percent of the flowering plant species of the entire Western Ghats range are found in this ecoregion.

Biodiversity protection.

Historically the Western Ghats were covered in dense forests that provided wild foods and natural habitats for native tribal people. Its inaccessibility made it difficult for people from the plains to cultivate the land and build settlements. After the arrival of the British in the area, large swathes of territory were cleared for agricultural plantations and timber. The forest in the Western Ghats has been severely fragmented due to human activities, especially clear-felling for tea, coffee, and teak plantations from 1860 to 1950. Species that are rare, endemic and habitat specialists are more adversely affected and tend to be lost faster than other species. Complex and species rich habitats like the tropical rainforest are much more adversely affected than other habitats.  The area is ecologically sensitive to development and was declared an ecological hotspot in 1988 through the efforts of ecologist Norman Myers. The area covers five percent of India's land; 27% of all species of higher plants in India (4,000 of 15,000 species) are found here and 1,800 of these are endemic to the region. The range is home to at least 84 amphibian species, 16 bird species, seven mammals, and 1,600 flowering plants which are not found elsewhere in the world. The Government of India has established many protected areas including 2 biosphere reserves, 13 national parks to restrict human access, several wildlife sanctuaries to protect specific endangered species and many reserve forests, which are all managed by the forest departments of their respective state to preserve some of the ecoregions still undeveloped. The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, comprising of the evergreen forests of Nagarahole and deciduous forests of Bandipur in Karnataka, adjoining regions of Wayanad-Mukurthi in Kerala and Mudumalai National Park-Sathyamangalam in Tamil Nadu, forms the largest contiguous protected area in the Western Ghats. Silent Valley in Kerala is among the last tracts of virgin tropical evergreen forest in India.  In August 2011, the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP) designated the entire Western Ghats as an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) and assigned three levels of Ecological Sensitivity to its different regions. The panel, headed by ecologist Madhav Gadgil, was appointed by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests to assess the biodiversity and environmental issues of the Western Ghats. The Gadgil Committee and its successor, the Kasturirangan Committee, recommended suggestions to protect the Western Ghats. The Gadgil report was criticised as being too environment-friendly and the Kasturirangan report was labelled as being anti-environmental.  In 2006, India applied to the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) for the Western Ghats to be listed as a protected World Heritage Site. In 2012, the following places were declared as World Heritage Sites:

Fauna.

The Western Ghats are home to thousands of animal species including at least 325 globally threatened species.

Mammals.

There are at least 139 mammal species. Of the 16 endemic mammals, 13 are threatened. Among the 32 threatened species are the critically endangered Malabar large-spotted civet, the endangered lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri tahr, Bengal tiger and Indian elephants, the vulnerable Indian leopard, Nilgiri langur and gaur.  These hill ranges serve as important wildlife corridors and form an important part of Project Elephant and Project Tiger reserves. The largest population of tigers outside the Sundarbans is in the Western Ghats, where there are seven populations with an estimated population size of 336 to 487 individuals occupying of forest in three major landscape units spread across Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The Western Ghats ecoregion has the largest Indian elephant population in the wild with an estimated 11,000 individuals across eight distinct populations. The endemic Nilgiri tahr, which was on the brink of extinction, has recovered and has an estimated 3,122 individuals in the wild. The critically endangered endemic Malabar large-spotted civet is estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals, with no sub-population greater than 50 individuals. About 3500 lion-tailed macaques live scattered over several areas in the Western Ghats.

Reptiles.

The major population of the snake family Uropeltidae is restricted to the region. Several endemic reptile genera occur here, including the cane turtle Vijayachelys silvatica, lizards like Salea, Ristella, Kaestlea, snakes like Melanophidium, Plectrurus, Teretrurus, Platyplectrurus, Xylophis, Rhabdops and so on. Species-level endemism is much higher and is common to almost all genera present here. Some enigmatic endemic reptiles include the venomous snakes such as the striped coral snake, the Malabar pit viper, the large-scaled pitviper and the horseshoe pitviper. The region has a significant population of the vulnerable mugger crocodile.

Amphibians.

The amphibians of the Western Ghats are diverse and unique, with more than 80% of the 179 amphibian species being endemic to the rainforests of the mountains. The endangered purple frog was discovered in 2003. Several families of frogs, namely of the genera Micrixalus, Indirana, Nyctibatrachus, are endemic to this region. Endemic genera include the toads Pedostibes, Ghatophryne, Xanthophryne; arboreal frogs such as Ghatixalus, Mercurana and Beddomixalus; and microhylids like Melanobatrachus. New frog species were described from the Western Ghats in 2005, and more recently a new species, monotypic of its genus Mysticellus, was discovered. The region is also home to many caecilian species.

Fish.

, 288 freshwater fish species were listed for the Western Ghats, including 35 also known from brackish or marine water. Several new species have been described from the region since then (e.g., "Dario urops" and "S. sharavathiensis"). There are 118 endemic species, including 13 genera entirely restricted to the Western Ghats ("Betadevario", "Dayella", "Haludaria", "Horabagrus", "Horalabiosa", "Hypselobarbus", "Indoreonectes", "Lepidopygopsis", "Longischistura", "Mesonoemacheilus", "Parapsilorhynchus", "Rohtee" and "Travancoria").  There is a higher fish richness in the southern part of the Western Ghats than in the northern, and the highest is in the Chalakudy River, which alone holds 98 species. Other rivers with high species numbers include the Periyar, Bharatapuzha, Pamba and Chaliyar, as well as upstream tributaries of the Kaveri, Pambar, Bhavani and Krishna rivers. The most species rich families are the Cyprinids (72 species), hillstream loaches (34 species; including stone loaches, now regarded a separate family), Bagrid catfishes (19 species) and Sisorid catfishes (12 species). The region is home to several brilliantly coloured ornamental fishes like the Denison (or red line torpedo) barb, melon barb, several species of "Dawkinsia" barbs, zebra loach, "Horabagrus" catfish, dwarf pufferfish and dwarf Malabar pufferfish. The rivers are also home to "Osteobrama bakeri", and larger species such as the Malabar snakehead and Malabar mahseer. A few are adapted to an underground life, including some "Monopterus" swampeels, and the catfish "Horaglanis" and "Kryptoglanis".  According to the IUCN, 97 freshwater fish species from the Western Ghats were considered threatened in 2011, including 12 critically endangered, 54 endangered and 31 vulnerable. All but one ("Tor khudree") of these are endemic to the Western Ghats. An additional 26 species from the region are considered data deficient (their status is unclear at present). The primary threats are from habitat loss, but also from overexploitation and introduced species.

Birds.

There are at least 508 bird species. Most of Karnataka's five hundred species of birds are from the Western Ghats region. There are at least 16 species of birds endemic to the Western Ghats including the endangered rufous-breasted laughingthrush, the vulnerable Nilgiri wood-pigeon, white-bellied shortwing and broad-tailed grassbird, the near threatened grey-breasted laughingthrush, black-and-rufous flycatcher, Nilgiri flycatcher, and Nilgiri pipit, and the least concern Malabar (blue-winged) parakeet, Malabar grey hornbill, white-bellied treepie, grey-headed bulbul, rufous babbler, Wayanad laughingthrush, white-bellied blue-flycatcher and the crimson-backed sunbird.

Insects.

There are roughly 6,000 insect species. Of 334 Western Ghats butterfly species, 316 species have been reported from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The Western Ghats are home to 174 species of odonates (107 dragonflies and 67 damselflies), including 69 endemics. Most of the endemic odonate are closely associated with rivers and streams, while the non-endemics typically are generalists. There are several species of leeches found all along the Western Ghats.

Molluscs.

Seasonal rainfall patterns of the Western Ghats necessitate a period of dormancy for its land snails, resulting in their high abundance and diversity including at least 258 species of gastropods from 57 genera and 24 families. A total of 77 species of freshwater molluscs (52 gastropods and 25 bivalves) have been recorded from the Western Ghats, but the actual number is likely higher. This include 28 endemics. Among the threatened freshwater molluscs are the mussels "Pseudomulleria dalyi", which is a Gondwanan relict, and the snail "Cremnoconchus", which is restricted to the spray zone of waterfalls. According to the IUCN, 4 species of freshwater molluscs are considered endangered and 3 are vulnerable. An additional 19 species are considered data deficient.

Flora.

Of the 7,402 species of flowering plants occurring in the Western Ghats, 5,588 species are native or indigenous and 376 are exotics naturalised; 1,438 species are cultivated or planted as ornamentals. Among the indigenous species, 2,253 species are endemic to India and of them, 1,273 species are exclusively confined to the Western Ghats. Apart from 593 confirmed subspecies and varieties; 66 species, 5 subspecies and 14 varieties of doubtful occurrence are also reported, amounting to 8,080 taxa of flowering plants.

The Western Ghats, also known as Sahyadri (Benevolent Mountains), are a mountain range that covers an area of in a stretch of parallel to the western coast of the Indian peninsula, traversing the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the eight hot-spots of biological diversity in the world. It is sometimes called the Great Escarpment of India. It contains a large proportion of the country's flora and fauna, many of which are only found in India and nowhere else in the world. According to UNESCO, the Western Ghats are older than the Himalayas. They influence Indian monsoon weather patterns by intercepting the rain-laden monsoon winds that sweep in from the south-west during late summer. The range runs north to south along the western edge of the Deccan Plateau, and separates the plateau from a narrow coastal plain, called Konkan, along the Arabian Sea. A total of thirty-nine areas in the Western Ghats, including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserve forests, were designated as world heritage sites in 2012 – twenty in Kerala, ten in Karnataka, six in Tamil Nadu and four in Maharashtra.

Západní Ghát (hindsky पश्चिमी घाट, "Paščimí Ghát," maráthsky सह्याद्री, "Sahjádrí" nebo पश्चिम घाट, "Paščim Ghát," kannadsky ಸಹ್ಯಾದ್ರಿ, "Sahjádri" nebo ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಘಟ್ಟಗಳು, "Paščima Ghattagalu," malajálamsky പശ്ചിമഘട്ടം, "Paščimaghattam" nebo സഹ്യപര് വ്വതം, "Sahjaparvvatam," tamilsky மேற்குத் தொடர்ச்சி மலை, "Mérkut totarčči malaj," anglicky "Western Ghāts)" je pohoří, které se táhne v délce 1500 km podél téměř celého západního pobřeží Indie.