Early life.

Little is known about Sir Walter Raleigh's birth but he is believed to have been born on 22 January 1552 (or possibly 1554, according to the "Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"). He grew up in the house of Hayes Barton, (in the parish of East Budleigh) in South Devon. He was the youngest of the five sons of Walter Raleigh (1510–1581) (or Rawleigh) of Fardel Manor (in the parish of Cornwood), in South Devon. Raleigh's family is generally assumed to have been a junior branch of the de Raleigh family, 11th century lords of the manor of Raleigh, Pilton in North Devon, although the two branches are known to have borne entirely dissimilar coats of arms, adopted at the start of the age of heraldry (c.1200-1215). His mother was Katherine Champernowne, the third wife of Walter Raleigh senior, and the fourth daughter of Sir Philip Champernowne (1479–1545), lord of the manor of Modbury, Devon, by his wife Catherine Carew, a daughter of Sir Edmund Carew (d.1513) of Mohuns Ottery (in the parish of Luppitt), Devon, and widow of Otes Gilbert (1513–1546/7) of Greenway (in the parish of Brixham) and of Compton Castle (in the parish of Marldon), both in Devon. (The coat of arms of Otes Gilbert and Katherine Champernowne survives in a stained glass window in Churston Ferrers Church, near Greenway.) Katherine Champernowne's paternal aunt was Kat Ashley, governess of Queen Elizabeth I, who introduced Raleigh and his brothers to the court. In addition, Raleigh's maternal uncle was Sir Arthur Champernowne (c. 1524–1578), a Member of Parliament, Sheriff of Devon and Admiral Of the West. Walter Raleigh junior's immediate family included his full brother Carew Raleigh, and half-brothers John Gilbert, Humphrey Gilbert and Adrian Gilbert. As a consequence of their kinship with the Champernowne family, all of the Raleigh and Gilbert brothers became prominent during the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I.  Raleigh's family was highly Protestant in religious orientation and had a number of near escapes during the reign of Roman Catholic Queen Mary I of England. In the most notable of these, his father had to hide in a tower to avoid execution. As a result, Raleigh developed a hatred of Roman Catholicism during his childhood, and proved himself quick to express it after Protestant Queen Elizabeth I came to the throne in 1558. In matters of religion, Elizabeth was more moderate than her half sister Mary.  In 1569, Raleigh left for France to serve with the Huguenots in the French religious civil wars. In 1572, Raleigh was registered as an undergraduate at Oriel College, Oxford, but he left a year later without a degree. Raleigh proceeded to finish his education in the Inns of Court. In 1575, he was registered at the Middle Temple. At his trial in 1603, he stated that he had never studied law. His life is uncertain between 1569 and 1575, but in his "History of the World" he claimed to have been an eyewitness at the Battle of Moncontour (3 October 1569) in France. In 1575 or 1576, Raleigh returned to England.

Ireland.

Between 1579 and 1583, Raleigh took part in the suppression of the Desmond Rebellions. He was present at the Siege of Smerwick, where he led the party that beheaded some 600 Spanish and Italian soldiers. Raleigh received (approx. 0.2% of Ireland) upon the seizure and distribution of land following the attainders arising from the rebellion, including the coastal walled town of Youghal and, further up the Blackwater River, the village of Lismore. This made him one of the principal landowners in Munster, but he had limited success inducing English tenants to settle on his estates.  Raleigh made the town of Youghal his occasional home during his 17 years as an Irish landlord, frequently being domiciled at Killua Castle, Clonmellon, County Westmeath. He was mayor there from 1588 to 1589. His town mansion of Myrtle Grove is assumed to be the setting for the story that his servant doused him with a bucket of water after seeing clouds of smoke coming from Raleigh's pipe, in the belief that he had been set alight. But this story is also told of other places associated with Raleigh: the Virginia Ash Inn in Henstridge near Sherborne, Sherborne Castle, and South Wraxall Manor in Wiltshire, home of Raleigh's friend Sir Walter Long.  Amongst Raleigh's acquaintances in Munster was another Englishman who had been granted land there, poet Edmund Spenser. In the 1590s, he and Raleigh travelled together from Ireland to the court at London, where Spenser presented part of his allegorical poem "The Faerie Queene" to Elizabeth I.  Raleigh's management of his Irish estates ran into difficulties which contributed to a decline in his fortunes. In 1602, he sold the lands to Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork, who subsequently prospered under kings James I and Charles I. Following Raleigh's death, members of his family approached Boyle for compensation on the ground that Raleigh had struck an improvident bargain.

New World.

In 1584, Queen Elizabeth granted Raleigh a royal charter authorising him to explore, colonise and rule any "remote, heathen and barbarous lands, countries and territories, not actually possessed of any Christian Prince or inhabited by Christian People," in return for one-fifth of all the gold and silver that might be mined there. This charter specified that Raleigh had seven years in which to establish a settlement, or else lose his right to do so. Raleigh and Elizabeth intended that the venture should provide riches from the New World and a base from which to send privateers on raids against the treasure fleets of Spain. Raleigh himself never visited North America, although he led expeditions in 1595 and 1617 to the Orinoco River basin in South America in search of the golden city of El Dorado. Instead, he sent others in 1585 to found the Roanoke Colony, later known as the "Lost Colony".  These expeditions were funded primarily by Raleigh and his friends but never provided the steady stream of revenue necessary to maintain a colony in America. (Subsequent colonisation attempts in the early 17th century were made under the joint-stock Virginia Company, which was able to raise the capital necessary to create successful colonies.)  In 1587, Raleigh attempted a second expedition, again establishing a settlement on Roanoke Island. This time, a more diverse group of settlers was sent, including some entire families, under the governance of John White. After a short while in America, White returned to England to obtain more supplies for the colony, planning to return in a year. Unfortunately for the colonists at Roanoke, one year became three. The first delay came when Queen Elizabeth I ordered all vessels to remain at port for potential use against the Spanish Armada. After England's 1588 victory over the Spanish Armada, the ships were given permission to sail.  The second delay came after White's small fleet set sail for Roanoke and his crew insisted on sailing first towards Cuba in hopes of capturing treasure-laden Spanish merchant ships. Enormous riches described by their pilot, an experienced Portuguese navigator hired by Raleigh, outweighed White's objections to the delay.  When the supply ship arrived in Roanoke, three years later than planned, the colonists had disappeared. The only clue to their fate was the word "CROATOAN" and letters "CRO" carved into tree trunks. White had arranged with the settlers that if they should move, the name of their destination be carved into a tree or corner post. This suggested the possibilities that they had moved to Croatoan Island, but a hurricane prevented John White from investigating the island for survivors. Other speculation includes their having starved, or been swept away or lost at sea during the stormy weather of 1588. No further attempts at contact were recorded for some years. Whatever the fate of the settlers, the settlement is now remembered as the "Lost Colony of Roanoke Island".

1580s.

In December 1581, Raleigh returned to England from Ireland as his company had been disbanded. He took part in court life and became a favourite of Queen Elizabeth I because of his efforts at increasing the Protestant Church in Ireland. In 1585, Raleigh was knighted and was appointed warden of the stannaries, that is of the tin mines of Cornwall and Devon, Lord Lieutenant of Cornwall, and vice-admiral of the two counties. He sat in parliament as member for Devonshire in 1585 and 1586. He was also granted the right to colonise America.  Raleigh commissioned shipbuilder R. Chapman of Deptford to build a ship for him. It was originally called "Ark" but became "Ark Raleigh", following the convention at the time by which the ship bore the name of its owner. The Crown (in the person of Queen Elizabeth I) purchased the ship from Raleigh in January 1587 for £5,000 (£ as of 2015). This took the form of a reduction in the sum that Sir Walter owed the queen; he received Exchequer tallies but no money. As a result, the ship was renamed "Ark Royal".  In the Armada year of 1588, Raleigh had some involvement with defence against the Spanish at Devon. The ship that he had built, "Ark Royal", was Lord High Admiral Howard's flagship.

1590–1594.

In 1592, Raleigh was given many rewards by the Queen, including Durham House in the Strand and the estate of Sherborne, Dorset. He was appointed Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard. However, he had not been given any of the great offices of state.  In 1591, Raleigh had been secretly married to Elizabeth "Bess" Throckmorton (or Throgmorton). She was one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting, 11 years his junior, and was pregnant at the time. She gave birth to a son, believed to be named Damerei, who was given to a wet nurse at Durham House, but he died in October 1592 of plague. Bess resumed her duties to the queen. The following year, the unauthorised marriage was discovered and the Queen ordered Raleigh to be imprisoned and Bess dismissed from court. Both were imprisoned in the Tower of London in June 1592. He was released from prison in August 1592 to manage a recently returned expedition and attack on the Spanish coast. The fleet was recalled by the Queen, but not before it captured an incredibly rich prize — a merchant ship (carrack) named "Madre de Deus" (Mother of God) off Flores. Raleigh was sent to organise and divide the spoils of the ship. He was sent back to the Tower, but by early 1593 had been released and become a member of Parliament.  It was several years before Raleigh returned to favour, and he travelled extensively in this time. Raleigh and his wife remained devoted to each other. They had two more sons, Walter (known as Wat) and Carew.  Raleigh was elected a burgess of Mitchell, Cornwall, in the parliament of 1593. He retired to his estate at Sherborne, where he built a new house, completed in 1594, known then as Sherborne Lodge. Since extended, it is now known as Sherborne New Castle. He made friends with the local gentry, such as Sir Ralph Horsey of Clifton Maybank and Charles Thynne of Longleat. During this period at a dinner party at Horsey's, Raleigh had a heated discussion about religion with Reverend Ralph Ironsides. The argument later gave rise to charges of atheism against Raleigh, though the charges were dismissed. He was elected to Parliament, speaking on religious and naval matters.

First voyage to Guiana.

In 1594, he came into possession of a Spanish account of a great golden city at the headwaters of the Caroní River. A year later, he explored what is now Guyana and eastern Venezuela in search of Lake Parime and Manoa, the legendary city. Once back in England, he published "The Discovery of Guiana" (1596), an account of his voyage which made exaggerated claims as to what had been discovered. The book can be seen as a contribution to the El Dorado legend. Venezuela has gold deposits, but no evidence indicates that Raleigh found any mines. He is sometimes said to have discovered Angel Falls, but these claims are considered far-fetched.

1596–1603.

In 1596, Raleigh took part in the Capture of Cadiz, where he was wounded. He also served as the rear admiral (a principal command) of the Islands Voyage to the Azores in 1597. On his return from the Azores, Raleigh helped England defend itself against the major threat of the 3rd Spanish Armada during the autumn of 1597. The Armada was dispersed in the Channel, and later was devastated by a storm off Ireland. Lord Howard of Effingham and Raleigh were able to organise a fleet that resulted in the capture of a Spanish ship in retreat carrying vital information regarding the Spanish plans.  In 1597 Raleigh was chosen member of parliament for Dorset, and in 1601 for Cornwall. He was unique in the Elizabethan period in sitting for three counties.  From 1600 to 1603, as governor of the Channel Island of Jersey, Raleigh modernised its defences. This included construction of a new fort protecting the approaches to Saint Helier, Fort Isabella Bellissima, or Elizabeth Castle.

Trial and imprisonment.

Royal favour with Queen Elizabeth had been restored by this time, but his good fortune did not last; the Queen died on 24 March 1603. Raleigh was arrested on 19 July 1603, charged with treason for his involvement in the Main Plot against Elizabeth's successor, James I, and imprisoned in the Tower of London.  Raleigh's trial began on 17 November in the converted Great Hall of Winchester Castle. Raleigh conducted his own defence. The chief evidence against him was the signed and sworn confession of his friend Henry Brooke, 11th Baron Cobham. Raleigh repeatedly requested that Cobham be called to testify. "[Let] my accuser come face to face, and be deposed. Were the case but for a small copyhold, you would have witnesses or good proof to lead the jury to a verdict; and I am here for my life!" Raleigh argued that the evidence against him was "hearsay", but the tribunal refused to allow Cobham to testify and be cross-examined. Raleigh was convicted, but King James spared his life.  He remained imprisoned in the Tower until 1616. While there, he wrote many treatises and the first volume of "The Historie of the World" (first edition published 1614) about the ancient history of Greece and Rome. His son, Carew, was conceived and born (1604) while Raleigh was imprisoned in the Tower.  While imprisoned in the Tower Raleigh wrote his incomplete "The Historie of the World." Using a wide array of sources in six languages, Raleigh was fully abreast of the latest continental scholarship. He wrote not about England, but of the ancient world with a heavy emphasis on geography. Despite his intention of providing current advice to the King of England, King James I complained that it was "too sawcie in censuring Princes."

Second voyage to Guiana.

In 1617, Raleigh was pardoned by the King and granted permission to conduct a second expedition to Venezuela in search of El Dorado. During the expedition, a detachment of Raleigh's men under the command of his long-time friend Lawrence Keymis attacked the Spanish outpost of Santo Tomé de Guayana on the Orinoco River, in violation of peace treaties with Spain, and against Raleigh's orders. A condition of Raleigh's pardon was avoidance of any hostility against Spanish colonies or shipping. In the initial attack on the settlement, Raleigh's son, Walter, was fatally shot. Keymis informed Raleigh of his son's death and begged for forgiveness, but did not receive it, and at once committed suicide. On Raleigh's return to England, an outraged Count Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, demanded that Raleigh's death sentence be reinstated by King James, who had little choice but to do so. Raleigh was brought to London from Plymouth by Sir Lewis Stukeley, where he passed up numerous opportunities to make an effective escape.

Execution and aftermath.

Raleigh was beheaded in the Old Palace Yard at the Palace of Westminster on 29 October 1618. "Let us dispatch", he said to his executioner. "At this hour my ague comes upon me. I would not have my enemies think I quaked from fear." After he was allowed to see the axe that would be used to behead him, he mused: "This is a sharp Medicine, but it is a Physician for all diseases and miseries." According to biographers, Raleigh's last words (as he lay ready for the axe to fall) were: "Strike, man, strike!"  Thomas Hariot may have introduced him to tobacco. Having been one of the people to popularise tobacco smoking in England, he left a small tobacco pouch, found in his cell shortly after his execution. Engraved upon the pouch was a Latin inscription: "Comes meus fuit in illo miserrimo tempore" ("It was my companion at that most miserable time").  Raleigh's head was embalmed and presented to his wife. His body was to be buried in the local church in Beddington, Surrey, the home of Lady Raleigh, but was finally laid to rest in St. Margaret's, Westminster, where his tomb may still be visited today. "The Lords", she wrote, "have given me his dead body, though they have denied me his life. God hold me in my wits." It has been said that Lady Raleigh kept her husband's head in a velvet bag until her death. After Raleigh's wife's death 29 years later, his head was returned to his tomb and interred at St. Margaret's Church.  Although Raleigh's popularity had waned considerably since his Elizabethan heyday, his execution was seen by many, both at the time and since, as unnecessary and unjust, as for many years his involvement in the Main Plot seemed to have been limited to a meeting with Lord Cobham. One of the judges at his trial later said: "The justice of England has never been so degraded and injured as by the condemnation of the honourable Sir Walter Raleigh."

Poetry.

Raleigh's poetry is written in the relatively straightforward, unornamented mode known as the plain style. C. S. Lewis considered Raleigh one of the era's "silver poets", a group of writers who resisted the Italian Renaissance influence of dense classical reference and elaborate poetic devices. His writing contains strong personal treatments of themes such as love, loss, beauty, and time. Most of his poems are short lyrics that were inspired by actual events.  In poems such as "What is Our Life" and "The Lie", Raleigh expresses a "contemptus mundi" (contempt of the world) attitude more characteristic of the Middle Ages than of the dawning era of humanistic optimism. But his lesser-known long poem "The Ocean's Love to Cynthia" combines this vein with the more elaborate conceits associated with his contemporaries Edmund Spenser and John Donne, expressing a melancholy sense of history. The poem was written during his imprisonment in the Tower of London.  Raleigh wrote a poetic response to Christopher Marlowe's "The Passionate Shepherd to His Love" of 1592, entitled "The Nymph's Reply to the Shepherd". Both were written in the style of traditional pastoral poetry and follow the structure of six four-line stanzas employing a rhyme scheme of AABB, with Raleigh's an almost line-for-line refutation of Marlowe's sentiments. Years later, the 20th-century poet William Carlos Williams would join the poetic "argument" with his "Raleigh was Right".

List of poems.

All finished, and some unfinished, poems written by Ralegh or plausibly attributed to him:

Writing Shakespeare.

In 1845, Shakespeare scholar Delia Bacon first proposed that a group of authors had actually written the plays later attributed to William Shakespeare, the main writer being Walter Raleigh. Later, George S. Caldwell asserted that Raleigh was actually the sole author. These claims have been supported by other scholars throughout subsequent years, including Albert J. Beveridge and Henry Pemberton, but are rejected by the majority of Shakespearean scholars today.

Legacy.

In 2002, Raleigh was featured in the BBC poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.  A galliard was composed in honour of Raleigh by either Francis Cutting or Richard Allison.  The state capital of North Carolina, its second-largest city, was named Raleigh in 1792, after Sir Walter, sponsor of the Roanoke Colony. In the city, a bronze statue, which has been moved around different locations within the city, was cast in honour of the city's namesake. The "Lost Colony" is commemorated at the Fort Raleigh National Historic Site on Roanoke Island, North Carolina.  Raleigh County, West Virginia, is named after him.  Mount Raleigh in the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains in British Columbia, Canada, was named for him, with related features the Raleigh Glacier and Raleigh Creek named in association with the mountain. Mount Gilbert, just to Mount Raleigh's south, was named for his half-brother, Sir Humphrey.  Raleigh has been widely speculated to be responsible for introducing the potato to Europe, and was a key figure in bringing it to Ireland. However, modern historians dispute this claim, suggesting it would have been impossible for Raleigh to have discovered the potato in the places he visited.  Due to Raleigh's role in the popularisation of smoking, John Lennon humorously referred to him as "such a stupid get" in the song "I'm So Tired" on the "White Album" "The Beatles" (1968).  Various colourful stories are told about him, such as laying his cloak over a puddle for the Queen, but they are probably apocryphal. The story of Raleigh's trial is included in John George Phillimore's 1850 book "The History and Principles of Evidence", and his commentary on the story is included in many law school textbooks on evidence in common law countries.  The author George Garrett's historical fiction novel "Death of the Fox" explores Raleigh's relationships with Elizabeth I and her successor James I.

Raleigh's Descendants.

Many people claim descent from Sir Walter Raleigh, but nearly all have no basis in fact.  Raleigh's only surviving child, Carew Raleigh, had three surviving children – Walter (d. 1660), Anne (d. 1708) and Philip (d. 1705). The elder son, Walter Raleigh, was knighted in June 1660, but died two months later. He was buried at West Horsley. He left three surviving children – Elizabeth, Philippa and Anne. Philippa (who married Oliver Weekes, of Tortingdon, Sussex) and Anne (who married William Knight, of Barrells, Warwickshire) left descendants. It was Philippa Weekes’ daughter, Elizabeth Elwes, who seems to have owned the main store of Raleigh memorabilia and was consulted by William Oldys in 1735 when he was writing his "Life of Raleigh".  Anne Raleigh married Sir Peter Tyrrell, of Castlethorpe, Bucks. Her granddaughter, Harriet, married Francis Mann, of Kidlington, Oxfordshire, and died in 1785, leaving descendants.  Philip Raleigh championed his grandfather's cause, publishing several of his hitherto unpublished papers. He had a family of four sons and three daughters. The youngest son, Carew Raleigh, page of honour to William III, was serving as a captain's servant on H.M.S. Bredah when he died of fever in the West Indies in 1697, aged seventeen. The second son, Lieut. Brudenell Raleigh, was also serving in the navy in the West Indies when he died of fever in June 1698, aged 22. The eldest son, Capt. Walter Raleigh, Grenadier Guards, was page of honour to Queen Mary, and was killed at the siege of Schellenberg in 1704, aged 31. He was unmarried. After Walter's death, his father was granted a pension by the crown, ‘in consideration of his 3 sons being slain in the late and present war’. The third son, Captain-Lieutenant Grenville Raleigh, served in Marlborough's army throughout the War of the Spanish Succession and died of fever in 1717, while guarding the prisoners at Chester after the 1715 Jacobite rising. He had married and had two sons and a daughter, Mary. On the death of his daughter in Bath in 1783, it was noted that she was ‘the only surviving descendant in the direct line of Sir Walter Raleigh’.  Of Philip Raleigh's daughters, Anne and Elizabeth both died unmarried. The eldest daughter, Frances, married William Honywood, eldest son of Sir William Honywood, of Evington Place, Elmsted, Kent and died in 1730. Her many descendants include the present Lord Mountbatten of Burma and Hugh Grant, the actor.

Sir Walter Raleigh (; (or 1554)29 October 1618), also spelled Ralegh, was an English landed gentleman, writer, poet, soldier, politician, courtier, spy and explorer. He was cousin to Sir Richard Grenville and younger half-brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. He is also well known for popularising tobacco in England. Raleigh was one of the most notable figures of the Elizabethan era.

Sir Walter Raleigh (asi 1552 – 29. října 1618) byl anglický spisovatel, básník, voják, dvořan a cestovatel. Vlivným se stal v době vlády Alžběty I. kdy byl na základě královského patentu zapojen do kolonizace Virginie v Americe. Poté, co se roku 1591 bez svolení královny oženil s jednou její dvorní dámou, byl na určitou dobu uvězněn. Po Alžbětině smrti byl na základě obvinění v účasti ve spiknutí proti králi Jakubovi I., který mu nebyl nakloněn, znovu uvězněn. Roku 1616 byl propuštěn, aby se účastnil druhé výpravy, která měla objevit bájné "Eldorado". Tato výprava nebyla úspěšná a Raleighovi muži napadli posádku španělské základny v San Thomé. Po návratu do země byl na nátlak Španělů odsouzen a popraven.


Biography.

Julian Seymour Schwinger was born in New York City, to Ashkenazi Jewish parents, Belle (née Rosenfeld) and Benjamin Schwinger, a garment manufacturer, who had emigrated from Poland to the United States. Both his father and his mother's parents were prosperous clothing manufacturers, although the family business declined after the Wall Street Crash of 1929. The family followed the Orthodox Jewish tradition. Schwinger attended the Townsend Harris High School and then the City College of New York as an undergraduate before transferring to Columbia University, where he received his B.A. in 1936 and his PhD (overseen by Isidor Isaac Rabi) in 1939 at the age of 21. He worked at the University of California, Berkeley (under J. Robert Oppenheimer), and was later appointed to a position at Purdue University.

Career.

After having worked with Oppenheimer, Schwinger's first regular academic appointment was at Purdue University in 1941. While on leave from Purdue, he worked at the MIT Radiation Laboratory instead of at the Los Alamos National Laboratory during World War II. He provided theoretical support for the development of radar. After the war, Schwinger left Purdue for Harvard University, where he taught from 1945 to 1974. In 1966 he became the Eugene Higgins professor of physics at Harvard.  Schwinger developed an affinity for Green's functions from his radar work, and he used these methods to formulate quantum field theory in terms of local Green's functions in a relativistically invariant way. This allowed him to calculate unambiguously the first corrections to the electron magnetic moment in quantum electrodynamics. Earlier non-covariant work had arrived at infinite answers, but the extra symmetry in his methods allowed Schwinger to isolate the correct finite corrections.  Schwinger developed renormalization, formulating quantum electrodynamics unambiguously to one-loop order.  In the same era, he introduced non-perturbative methods into quantum field theory, by calculating the rate at which electron–positron pairs are created by tunneling in an electric field, a process now known as the "Schwinger effect." This effect could not be seen in any finite order in perturbation theory.  Schwinger's foundational work on quantum field theory constructed the modern framework of field correlation functions and their equations of motion. His approach started with a quantum action and allowed bosons and fermions to be treated equally for the first time, using a differential form of Grassman integration. He gave elegant proofs for the spin-statistics theorem and the CPT theorem, and noted that the field algebra led to anomalous Schwinger terms in various classical identities, because of short distance singularities. These were foundational results in field theory, instrumental for the proper understanding of anomalies.  In other notable early work, Rarita and Schwinger formulated the abstract Pauli and Fierz theory of the spin-3/2 field in a concrete form, as a vector of Dirac spinors. In order for the spin-3/2 field to interact consistently, some form of supersymmetry is required, and Schwinger later regretted that he had not followed up on this work far enough to discover supersymmetry.  Schwinger discovered that neutrinos come in multiple varieties, one for the electron and one for the muon. Nowadays there are known to be three light neutrinos; the third is the partner of the tau lepton.  In the 1960s, Schwinger formulated and analyzed what is now known as the Schwinger model, quantum electrodynamics in one space and one time dimension, the first example of a confining theory. He was also the first to suggest an electroweak gauge theory, an formula_1 gauge group spontaneously broken to electromagnetic formula_2 at long distances. This was extended by his student Sheldon Glashow into the accepted pattern of electroweak unification. He attempted to formulate a theory of quantum electrodynamics with point magnetic monopoles, a program which met with limited success because monopoles are strongly interacting when the quantum of charge is small.  Having supervised 73 doctoral dissertations, Schwinger is known as one of the most prolific graduate advisors in physics. Four of his students won Nobel prizes: Roy Glauber, Benjamin Roy Mottelson, Sheldon Glashow and Walter Kohn (in chemistry).  Schwinger had a mixed relationship with his colleagues, because he always pursued independent research, different from mainstream fashion. In particular, Schwinger developed the source theory, a phenomenological theory for the physics of elementary particles, which is a predecessor of the modern effective field theory. It treats quantum fields as long-distance phenomena and uses auxiliary'sources' that resemble currents in classical field theories. The source theory is a mathematically consistent field theory with clearly derived phenomenological results. The criticisms by his Harvard colleagues led Schwinger to leave the faculty in 1972 for UCLA. It is a story widely told that Steven Weinberg, who inherited Schwinger's paneled office in Lyman Laboratory, there found a pair of old shoes, with the implied message, "think you can fill these?" At UCLA, and for the rest of his career, Schwinger continued to develop the source theory and its various applications.  After 1989 Schwinger took a keen interest in the non-mainstream research of cold fusion. He wrote eight theory papers about it. He resigned from the American Physical Society after their refusal to publish his papers. He felt that cold fusion research was being suppressed and academic freedom violated. He wrote, "The pressure for conformity is enormous. I have experienced it in editors' rejection of submitted papers, based on venomous criticism of anonymous referees. The replacement of impartial reviewing by censorship will be the death of science."  In his last publications, Schwinger proposed a theory of sonoluminescence as a long-distance quantum radiative phenomenon associated not with atoms, but with fast-moving surfaces in the collapsing bubble, where there are discontinuities in the dielectric constant. The mechanism of sonoluminescence now supported by experiments focuses on superheated gas inside the bubble as the source of the light.  Schwinger was jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965 for his work on quantum electrodynamics (QED), along with Richard Feynman and Shin'ichirō Tomonaga. Schwinger's awards and honors were numerous even before his Nobel win. They include the first Albert Einstein Award (1951), the U.S. National Medal of Science (1964), honorary D.Sc. degrees from Purdue University (1961) and Harvard University (1962), and the Nature of Light Award of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (1949). In 1987, Schwinger received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.

Schwinger and Feynman.

As a famous physicist, Schwinger was often compared to another legendary physicist of his generation, Richard Feynman. Schwinger was more formally inclined and favored symbolic manipulations in quantum field theory. He worked with local field operators, and found relations between them, and he felt that physicists should understand the algebra of local fields, no matter how paradoxical it was. By contrast, Feynman was more intuitive, believing that the physics could be extracted entirely from the Feynman diagrams, which gave a particle picture. Schwinger commented on Feynman diagrams in the following way,  Schwinger disliked Feynman diagrams because he felt that they made the student focus on the particles and forget about local fields, which in his view inhibited understanding. He went so far as to ban them altogether from his class, although he understood them perfectly well. The true difference is however deeper, and it was expressed by Schwinger in the following passage,  Despite sharing the Nobel Prize, Schwinger and Feynman had a different approach to quantum electrodynamics and to quantum field theory in general. Feynman used a regulator, while Schwinger was able to formally renormalize to one loop without an explicit regulator. Schwinger believed in the formalism of local fields, while Feynman had faith in the particle paths. They followed each other's work closely, and each respected the other. On Feynman's death, Schwinger described him as

Death.

Schwinger died of pancreatic cancer. He is buried at Mount Auburn Cemetery; formula_3, where formula_4 is the fine structure constant, is engraved above his name on his tombstone. These symbols refer to his calculation of the correction ("anomalous") to the magnetic moment of the electron.

Julian Seymour Schwinger (; February 12, 1918 – July 16, 1994) was a Nobel Prize winning American theoretical physicist. He is best known for his work on quantum electrodynamics (QED), in particular for developing a relativistically invariant perturbation theory, and for renormalizing QED to one loop order. Schwinger was a physics professor at several universities.

Julian Seymour Schwinger (12. února 1918 – 16. července 1994) byl americký teoretický fyzik. Formuloval teorii renormalizace a postuloval fenomén elektrono-positronových párů známý jako Schwingerův efekt. Spolu s Richardem Feynmanem a Shinichiro Tomonagou byl v roce 1965 oceněn Nobelovou cenou za fyziku za jeho práci v oblasti kvantové elektrodynamiky (QED).


Life.

Childhood.

Kraus was born in the central German town of Miltenberg in Franconia, the son of Joseph Bernhard Kraus, a county clerk in the Archbishopric of Mainz, and Anna Dorothea née Schmidt. His father's family, originally from Augsburg, had a small restaurant in Weilbach near Amorbach, while his mother was a daughter of the master-builder at Miltenberg Johann Martin Schmidt. They had 14 children, of whom seven died in childhood; Marianne Kraus was a sister of Joseph's.  After a short stay in Osterburken, the Kraus family moved in 1761 to Buchen (in the Odenwald), where Joseph Bernhard Kraus found a position as a clerk. Joseph Martin Kraus began his formal education there. His first music teachers were rector Georg Pfister (1730–1807) and cantor Bernhard Franz Wendler (1702–1782), who gave him mainly piano and violin lessons. Kraus showed his musical talent at an early age. When he was 12, he was enrolled in the Jesuit Gymnasium and Music Seminar at Mannheim, where he studied German and Latin literature and music. There he received a rigorous musical training, especially in violin technique, and philological education from P. Alexander Keck (1724–1804) and P. Anton Klein (1748–1810).

Studies.

Kraus's parents wished him to matriculate as a student of law at the University of Mainz in 1773. However, he was not satisfied with the situation at that university, and even published a satire about it. After only one year, he applied to the University of Erfurt, where he could study music too. Both Catholic and Protestant (Lutheran) music was flourishing in Erfurt, with a rich musical tradition. Kraus soon neglected his law studies and focused fully on music and literature.  A defamation trial against his father forced him to interrupt his studies for one year and to move back to Buchen. He spent his time there writing his three-act tragedy "Tolon" and several musical works for the town church of St. Oswald, including a "Te Deum" in D major and the motet "Fracto Demum Sacramento", also in D major. After this one-year break, he continued his studies of law in Göttingen. Although the Göttinger Hainbund (the German poet group that flourished in 1772-74) no longer existed, Kraus found himself very much attracted to the ideas of this group of young poets who were almost fanatically devoted to Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. In this period Kraus composed a recently rediscovered book of 19 poems titled "Versuch von Schäfersgedichten". He became increasingly involved with the "Sturm und Drang" movement, which influenced both his writing and his music.  In 1775, at the age of nineteen, Kraus wrote his Requiem, one of his earliest compositions. There is no way to know for sure whether young Kraus was induced to compose this genre of church music for personal reasons, or whether his choice may have been influenced by his attraction to "Sturm und Drang". The work is full of dramatic force and original, bold ideas.  The Requiem was followed by two oratorios: "Der Tod Jesu" and "Die Geburt Jesu" (lost), and the musical treatise "Etwas von und über Musik: fürs Jahr 1777" ("Something about Music: for the year 1777"; Frankfurt am Main 1778).  The oratorio "Der Tod Jesu" differs from the oratorios of many other composers in that Kraus wrote both the music and the text. As a librettist, Kraus showed a series of scenes that covered the full spectrum of human emotions, from sorrow and fear to joy. The work corresponds fully to a rhetorical question already raised in Kraus's treatise "Etwas von und über Musik":  "Should not church music be mostly for the heart?"  During his stay in Göttingen, Kraus had become friendly with a Swedish fellow student, Carl Stridsberg, who persuaded him to accompany him to Stockholm to apply for a position at the court of King Gustav III.

At the Swedish court.

Kraus moved to Stockholm in 1778, when he was not yet twenty-two. His first years there were not easy, and more than once he considered going back home. King Gustav's love for the fine arts had quickly become known in the rest of Europe and attracted musicians from many countries. It took Kraus three bitter years, often spent in extreme poverty, before the king noticed him. His opera "Azire" was rejected by the Royal Swedish Academy of Music, but the Academy decided to give him a second chance. Gustav III himself drafted the opera libretto "Proserpin," which the poet Johan Henric Kellgren versified. Kraus's music to this libretto was successfully premiered at Ulriksdal Palace on 6 June 1781, before the king and the royal household. Kraus was appointed "vice-Kapellmeister" of the Royal Swedish Opera and director of the Royal Academy of Music.  It was the long-awaited breakthrough. Dizzy with the success, Kraus wrote to his parents:  "Immediately after the music ended, the king talked to me for more than a quarter of an hour... it had simply given him so much satisfaction. Yesterday I was engaged by him. Of course I was not granted any great title, but quite simply that of "Kapellmeister". What is worth much more to me than 600 guilders is the favour I have been granted, which is that I am to undertake a journey to Germany, France and Italy at the King's expense."

Grand Tour.

Gustav III sent Kraus on a Grand Tour of Europe that lasted five years, to learn all he could about Theater abroad. On this trip, Kraus met Christoph Willibald Gluck, Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, Padre Martini and Joseph Haydn, for whom he wrote a symphony to play at Esterháza; it was first published under Haydn's name in Paris. Kraus's Symphonies in E minor, VB 141, and F major, VB 145, were first published in Paris in 1787, under the name of Giuseppe Cambini, a very popular composer at the time. During this time, Kraus became a member of the same masonic lodge as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.  During his journey, Kraus also wrote his famous flute quintet in D Major, VB 188, that broke with all the erstwhile conventions that governed such pieces. The outer and inner form of that work were groundbreaking comparing with everything previously composed at the time, with the astoundingly long first movement of 306 bars.  After Vienna, his journey also took him throughout Italy, France, and England, where he witnessed the Handel Centenary celebrations at Westminster Abbey in 1785. While in Paris, he experienced difficulty with cabals back in Stockholm that sought to prevent his return, but their resolution in 1786 made it possible for him to become the leading figure in Gustavian musical life.

Back to Sweden.

When Kraus returned in 1787, he was appointed as director of curriculum at the Royal Academy of Music, and the next year he succeeded Francesco Uttini as "Kapellmästare", eventually attaining a reputation as an innovative conductor, progressive pedagogue, and multi-talented composer. He also became a member of the literary circle that gathered round the Architect Erik Palmstedt (who was commissioned by King Gustav III to build the first royal opera house), a group that discussed intellectual and cultural life in the Swedish capital.  For the convening of the Riksdag of the Estates in 1789, Gustav III wanted to persuade the parliament to accede to his ongoing war with Russia, where he was opposed by the nobility but supported by the burghers and the peasantry. To further his aims, Gustav III intended to secure parliamentary approval of the Act of Union and Security that would give him broad powers over the administration of the government. The king asked Kraus to write Riksdagsmusiken for the opening ceremonies in St Nicolai Church on 9 March 1789. The music consists of a march based on the March of the Priests from Mozart's "Idomeneo", and a symphony ("Sinfonia per la chiesa"). The legislature approved the king's measures.  Kraus wrote an overture, a march and interludes for the staging of Voltaire's "Olympie" in January 1792. Although he was considered as a composer of stage music, his greatest work, "Aeneas i Cartago", remained unperformed during his lifetime. 16 March 1792, Gustav III attended a masked ball at the opera, where he was assassinated. (This inspired the plots of operas by several composers, notably Verdi's "Un ballo in maschera" premiered in 1859.) The death of Gustav III caused considerable turmoil in the cultural establishment that the monarch had nurtured. Kraus wrote a funeral cantata and the Symphonie funèbre, which were played at the burial ceremony on April 13 and May 14.  Kraus's own health deteriorated shortly thereafter, and he died in December 1792 from tuberculosis. He was buried outside Stockholm at Tivoli following a ceremony where his coffin was carried across the ice of the Brunnsviken by torchlight. His tomb (c. 1833) bears the inscription: "Här det jordiska af Kraus, det himmelska lefver i hans toner" (which translates to: "Here the earthly of Kraus; the heavenly lives in his music")

Musical output.

Works.

Bertil H. van Boer divides Kraus's sacred music into two periods. The first, from 1768 to 1777, comprises Kraus's music written as a Roman Catholic for Catholic services. For the second, from 1778 to 1790, Kraus was still Catholic, but wrote music for Lutheran services. Aside from short hymns and chorales, there was not much use for sacred music in Sweden at that time. There was also a debate going on regarding the role music should play in the church, and Kraus participated in that debate by writing three articles on the subject in the "Stockholms Posten".  Two different catalogues exist of Kraus's music, one by Karl Schreiber, "Verzeichnis der Musikalischen Werke von Jos. Kraus's", which gives each composition an A number, and Bertil van Boer's "Die Werke von Joseph Martin Kraus: Systematisch-thematisches Werkverzeichnis", which gives each composition a VB number, with renumberings in the 2nd edition (1998). See the list of compositions by Joseph Martin Kraus.  Bertil van Boer edited modern editions for Artaria Editions, recorded on four volumes of the Naxos Records complete set of Kraus symphonies, and also wrote the programme notes for those discs as well as the article on Kraus in the "New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians". Volume 1 won the Cannes Classical Award in 1999, while Volume 2 contains world première recordings of three of Kraus's symphonies. The orchestra Concerto Köln won several prizes for its recordings on period instruments of the complete symphonies of Joseph Martin Kraus.

Musical style.

Kraus's music is characterized by sudden dramatic contrasts in register, character, and most striking of all, harmony. His contrapuntal abilities were first-rate, but his motivic development does not seem as advanced as either Mozart's or Haydn's. Compared to other contemporaries, his lyrical gifts are apparent.

Kraus's symphonies.

Many of Kraus's symphonies have been lost, or attributed to other composers. Of those definitely of Kraus's authorship, only about a dozen remain. Most of Kraus's extant symphonies are in three movements, without a minuet. Most are scored for two horns and strings, many include two flutes and two oboes, while the later ones also include two bassoons and two additional horns. The musicologist Bertil van Boer identifies Kraus's Symphony in C-sharp minor as "one of only two symphonies in this key written during the eighteenth century." It was later reworked in a more'manageable' key as Symphony in C minor, VB 142.  It is still disputed whether the symphony dedicated to Haydn was the Symphony in D major VB 143 or the Symphony in C minor VB 142. The minor key and the mood of Symphony VB 142 seem to be reminiscent of Haydn's "Sturm und Drang" period around 1770, comparable with his earlier minor-key works, although based on the first measures of Gluck's overture to Iphigénie en Aulide. In any case, Haydn had a very high opinion of the work. Many years after Kraus's death, Haydn remarked to a common friend, Swedish diplomat Fredrik Samuel Silverstolpe:  "The symphony he wrote here in Vienna especially for me will be regarded as a masterpiece for centuries to come; believe me, there are few people who can compose something like that."

Kraus Viola Concerti.

Kraus wrote two viola concerti that were lost or attributed to other composers in his lifetime. The C-Major Concerto was attributed to Roman Hoffstetter, and both works were recently found to be Kraus's compositions and were recorded professionally by David Aaron Carpenter. () Joseph Kraus's two viola concertos and his concerto for viola, cello, and orchestra are on an Ondine CD (ODE 1193-2), which is 61 minutes long.

Chamber music.

Kraus's chamber music includes quartets, solo sonatas, and sonatas for violin and piano.

Joseph Martin Kraus (20 June 1756 – 15 December 1792), was a composer in the classical era who was born in Miltenberg am Main, Germany. He moved to Sweden at age 21, and died at the age of 36 in Stockholm. He has been referred to as "the Swedish Mozart", and had a life span very similar to Mozart's.

Joseph Martin Kraus (20. června 1756, Miltenberg, Německo – 15. prosince 1792, Stockholm, Švédsko) byl německý hudební skladatel z období klasicismu působící ve Švédsku. Bývá nazýván švédským Mozartem, neboť jeho životní příběh byl velmi podobný Mozartovu.


Structure.

"Gödel, Escher, Bach" takes the form of interweaving narratives. The main chapters alternate with dialogues between imaginary characters, usually Achilles and the tortoise, first used by Zeno of Elea and later by Lewis Carroll in "What the Tortoise Said to Achilles". These origins are related in the first two dialogues, and later ones introduce new characters such as the Crab. These narratives frequently dip into self-reference and metafiction.  Word play also features prominently in the work. Puns are occasionally used to connect ideas, such as "the Magnificrab, Indeed" with Bach's "Magnificat in D"; "SHRDLU, Toy of Man's Designing" with Bach's "Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring"; and "Typographical Number Theory", or "TNT", which inevitably reacts explosively when it attempts to make statements about itself. One dialogue contains a story about a genie (from the Arabic "Djinn") and various "tonics" (of both the liquid and musical varieties), which is titled "Djinn and Tonic".  One dialogue in the book is written in the form of a crab canon, in which every line before the midpoint corresponds to an identical line past the midpoint. The conversation still makes sense due to uses of common phrases that can be used as either greetings or farewells ("Good day") and the positioning of lines that double as an answer to a question in the next line. Another is a sloth canon, where one character repeats the lines of another, but slower and negated.

Themes.

The book contains many instances of recursion and self-reference, where objects and ideas speak about or refer back to themselves. One is Quining, a term Hofstadter invented in homage to Willard Van Orman Quine, referring to programs that produce their own source code. Another is the presence of a fictional author in the index, Egbert B. Gebstadter, a man with initials E, G, and B and a surname that partially matches Hofstadter. A phonograph dubbed "Record Player X" destroys itself by playing a record titled "I Cannot Be Played on Record Player X" (an analogy to Gödel's incompleteness theorems), an examination of canon form in music, and a discussion of Escher's lithograph of two hands drawing each other. To describe such self-referencing objects, Hofstadter coins the term "strange loop"—a concept he examines in more depth in his follow-up book "I Am a Strange Loop". To escape many of the logical contradictions brought about by these self-referencing objects, Hofstadter discusses Zen koans. He attempts to show readers how to perceive reality outside their own experience and embrace such paradoxical questions by rejecting the premise—a strategy also called "unasking".  Elements of computer science such as call stacks are also discussed in "Gödel, Escher, Bach", as one dialogue describes the adventures of Achilles and the Tortoise as they make use of "pushing potion" and "popping tonic" involving entering and leaving different layers of reality. Subsequent sections discuss the basic tenets of logic, self-referring statements, ("typeless") systems, and even programming. Hofstadter further creates BlooP and FlooP, two simple programming languages, to illustrate his point.

Puzzles.

The book is filled with puzzles, including Hofstadter's famous MU puzzle. Another example can be found in the chapter titled "Contracrostipunctus", which combines the words "acrostic" and "contrapunctus" (counterpoint). In this dialogue between Achilles and the Tortoise, the author hints that there is a contrapunctal acrostic in the chapter that refers both to the author (Hofstadter) and Bach. This can be spelled out by taking the first word of each paragraph, to reveal: Hofstadter's Contracrostipunctus Acrostically Backwards Spells 'J. S. Bach'. The second acrostic is found by taking the first letters of the words (shown in bold), and reading them backwards to get "J S Bach" – just as the acrostic sentence self-referentially claims.

Impact.

"Gödel, Escher, Bach" won the Pulitzer Prize for general non-fiction and the National Book Award for Science. Martin Gardner's July 1979 column in "Scientific American" stated, "Every few decades, an unknown author brings out a book of such depth, clarity, range, wit, beauty and originality that it is recognized at once as a major literary event."  For Summer 2007, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology created an online course for high school students built around the book.  In its February 19, 2010 investigative summary on the 2001 anthrax attacks, the Federal Bureau of Investigation suggested that Bruce Edwards Ivins was inspired by the book to hide secret codes based upon nucleotide sequences in the anthrax-laced letters he allegedly sent in September and October 2001, using bold letters, as suggested on page 404 of the book. It was also suggested that he attempted to hide the book from investigators by throwing it in the trash.

Translation.

Hofstadter claims the idea of translating his book "never crossed [his] mind" when he was writing it—but when his publisher brought it up, he was "very excited about seeing [the] book in other languages, especially... French." He knew, however, that "there were a million issues to consider" when translating, since the book relies not only on word-play, but on "structural puns" as well—writing where the form and content of the work mirror each other (such as the "Crab canon" dialogue, which reads almost exactly the same forwards as backwards).  Hofstadter gives an example of translation trouble in the paragraph "Mr. Tortoise, Meet Madame Tortue", saying translators "instantly ran headlong into the conflict between the feminine gender of the French noun "tortue" and the masculinity of my character, the Tortoise." Hofstadter agreed to the translators' suggestions of naming the French character "Madame Tortue", and the Italian version "Signorina Tartaruga". Because of other troubles translators might have retaining meaning, Hofstadter "painstakingly went through every sentence of "Gödel, Escher, Bach", annotating a copy for translators into any language that might be targeted."  Translation also gave Hofstadter a way to add new meaning and puns. For instance, in Chinese, the subtitle is not a translation of "an Eternal Golden Braid", but a seemingly unrelated phrase "Jí Yì Bì" (集异璧, literally "collection of exotic jades"), which is homophonic to "GEB" in Chinese. Some material regarding this interplay is in Hofstadter's later book, "Le Ton beau de Marot", which is mainly about translation.

Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid, also known as GEB, is a 1979 book by Douglas Hofstadter. By exploring common themes in the lives and works of logician Kurt Gödel, artist M. C. Escher, and composer Johann Sebastian Bach, the book expounds concepts fundamental to mathematics, symmetry, and intelligence. Through illustration and analysis, the book discusses how, through self-reference and formal rules, systems can acquire meaning despite being made of "meaningless" elements. It also discusses what it means to communicate, how knowledge can be represented and stored, the methods and limitations of symbolic representation, and even the fundamental notion of "meaning" itself.

Gödel, Escher, Bach (zkráceně GEB, ) je kniha amerického akademika Douglase Hofstadtera, popsaná autorem jako: „metaforické okno do myslí a strojů v duchu Lewise Carrolla“. Rok po svém vydání v roce 1979 kniha získala Pulitzerovu cenu.


Definition.

Thomas J. Bruneau, a professor in communication at Radford University who focused his studies on nonverbal communication, interpersonal communication, and intercultural communication, coined the term "chronemics" in the late 1970s to help define the function of time in human interaction:  Chronemics can be briefly and generally defined as the study of human tempo as it related to human communication. More specifically, chronemics involves the study of both subjective and objective human tempos as they influence and are interdependent with human behavior. Further, chronemics involves the study of human communication as it relates to interdependent and integrated levels of time-experiencing. Previously, these interdependent and integrated levels have been outlined and discussed as: biological time; psychological time; social time; and cultural time. A number of classification systems exist in the literature of time. However, such systems are not applied to human interaction directly.  Time can be used as an indicator of status. For example, in most companies the boss can interrupt progress to hold an impromptu meeting in the middle of the work day, yet the average worker would have to make an appointment to see the boss. The way in which different cultures perceive time can influence communication as well. Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. Time perceptions include punctuality, willingness to wait, and interactions. The use of time can affect lifestyles, daily agendas, speed of speech, movements and how long people are willing to listen.

Monochronic time.

A monochronic time system means that things are done one at a time and time is segmented into small precise units. Under this system, time is scheduled, arranged, and managed.  The United States considers itself a monochronic society. This perception came about during the Industrial Revolution. Many Americans think of time as a precious resource not to be wasted or taken lightly. As a communication scholar Edward T. Hall wrote regarding the American's viewpoint of time in the business world, "the schedule is sacred." Hall says that for monochronic cultures, such as the American culture, "time is tangible" and viewed as a commodity where "time is money" or "time is wasted." John Ivers, a professor of cultural paradigms, agrees with Edward Hall by stating, "In the market sense, monochronic people consume time." The result of this perspective is that monochronic cultures, place a paramount value on schedules, tasks, and "getting the job done."  Monochronic time orientation is very prominent in North European cultures, Italy, Greece, Spain, England, and the Scandinavian countries. These countries run on monochronic time orientation. For example, a businessman from the USA has a meeting scheduled, he then grows frustrated because he is waiting an hour for his partner to arrive. This is an example of a monochronic time oriented individual running in with a polychronic time oriented individual. The interesting thing is that even though America is seen as one of the most monochronic countries it "has subcultures that may lean more to one side or the other of the monochronic-polychronic divide" within the states themselves. One can see this as they compare the southern states to the northern ones. John Ivers points this out with comparing waiters in the northern and southern restaurants. The waiters from the north are "to the point" they will "engage in little" and there is usually "no small talk." They are trying to be as efficient as possible, while those in the south will work towards"establishing a nice, friendly, micro-relationship" with the customer. They are still considerate of time, but it is not the most important goal in the south.

Polychronic time.

A polychronic time system is a system where several things can be done at once, and wider view of time is exhibited and time is perceived in large fluid sections. Examples of polychronic behaviors include typing while answering telephones, or taking notes while participating in meetings. Examples of polychronic cultures are: Latin American, African, Arab, and Native American cultures. These cultures view on time can be connected to “Natural rhythms, the earth, and the seasons.” These analogies can be understood and compared because natural events can occur spontaneously and sporadically, just like polychronic time oriented people and polychronic time oriented cultures. A scenario would be an Eskimo working in a factory in Alaska, the superiors blow a whistle to alert for break times, etc. the Eskimo are not fond of that method because they determine their times by the sea tides. How long it takes place and how long it lasts. In polychronic cultures, “time spent with others” is considered a “task” and of importance to one’s daily regimen. Polychronic cultures are much less focused on the preciseness of accounting for time. Polychronic cultures are more focused on tradition and relationships rather than on tasks. Polychronic societies have no problem being late for an appointment if they are deeply focused on some work or in a meeting that ran past schedule, because the concept of time is fluid and can easily expand or contract as need be. As a result, polychronic cultures have a much less formal perception of time. They are not ruled by precise calendars and schedules.

Measuring polychronicity.

Bluedorn, Allen C., Carol Felker Kaufman, and Paul M. Lane concluded that “developing an understanding of the monochronic/polychronic continuum will not only result in a better self-management but will also allow more rewarding job performances and relationships with people from different cultures and traditions.” Researchers have examined that predicting someone’s polychronicity is plays an important role on productivity and individual well-being. Researchers have developed the following questionnaires to measure polychronicity:

Predictable patterns between cultures with differing time systems.

Cross-cultural perspectives on time.

Conflicting attitudes between the monochronic and polychronic perceptions of time can interfere with cross-cultural relations and play a role on these domains, and as a result challenges can occur within an otherwise assimilated culture. One example in the United States is the Hawaiian culture, which employs two time systems: Haole time and Hawaiian time.  When you hear someone say, 'See you at two o'clock haole time,' they mean they will just that. Haole time is when the person will meet when they say they will meet. But if you were to hear someone say, 'I'll be there at two o'clock Hawaiian time,' then something different is implied. Hawaiian time is very lax and it basically means 'when you get there.' —Nick Lewis According to Ashley Fulmer and Brandon Crosby, “as intercultural interactions increasingly become the norm rather than the exception, the ability of individuals, groups, and organizations to manage time effectively in cross-cultural settings is critical to the success of these interactions”.

Time orientations.

The way an individual perceives time and the role time plays in their lives is a learned perspective. As discussed by Alexander Gonzalez and Phillip Zimbardo, "every child learns a time perspective that is appropriate to the values and needs of his society" (Guerrero, DeVito & Hecht, 1999, p. 227).  There are four basic psychological time orientations:  Each orientation affects the structure, content, and urgency of communication (Burgoon, 1989). The past orientation has a hard time developing the notion of elapsed time and these individuals often confuse present and past happenings as all in the same. People oriented with time-line cognitivity are often detail oriented and think of everything in linear terms. These individuals also often have difficulty with comprehending multiple events at the same time. Individuals with a present orientation are mostly characterized as pleasure seekers who live for the moment and have a very low risk aversion. Those individuals who operate with future orientation are often thought of as being highly goal oriented and focused on the broad picture.  The use of time as a communicative channel can be a powerful, yet subtle, force in face-to-face interactions. Some of the more recognizable types of interaction that use time are:

Time orientation and consumers.

Time orientation has also revealed insights into how people react to advertising. Martin, Gnoth and Strong (2009) found that future-oriented consumers react most favorably to ads that feature a product to be released in the distant future and that highlight primary product attributes. In contrast, present-oriented consumers prefer near-future ads that highlight secondary product attributes. Consumer attitudes were mediated by the perceived usefulness of the attribute information.

Culture and diplomacy.

Cultural roots.

Just as monochronic and polychronic cultures have different time perspectives, understanding the time orientation of a culture is critical to becoming better able to successfully handle diplomatic situations. Americans think they have a future orientation. Hall indicates that for Americans "tomorrow is more important" and that they "are oriented almost entirely toward the future" (Cohen, 2004, p. 35). The future-focused orientation attributes to at least some of the concern that Americans have with "addressing immediate issues and moving on to new challenges" (Cohen, 2004, p. 35).  On the other hand, many polychronic cultures have a past-orientation toward time.  These time perspectives are the seeds for communication clashes in diplomatic situations. Trade negotiators have observed that "American negotiators are generally more anxious for agreement because "they are always in a hurry" and basically "problem solving oriented." In other words, they place a high value on resolving an issue quickly calling to mind the American catchphrase "some solution is better than no solution" (Cohen, 2004, p. 114). Similar observations have been made of Japanese-American relations. Noting the difference in time perceptions between the two countries, former ambassador to Tokyo, Mike Mansfield commented "We're too fast, they're too slow" (Cohen, 2004, p. 118).

Influence on global affairs.

Different perceptions of time across cultures can influence global communication. When writing about time perspective, Gonzalez and Zimbardo comment that "There is no more powerful, pervasive influence on how individuals think and cultures interact than our different perspectives on time—the way we learn how we mentally partition time into past, present and future." (Guerrero, DeVito & Hecht, 1999, p. 227)  Depending upon where an individual is from, their perception of time might be that "the clock rules the day" or that "we'll get there when we get there." Improving prospects for success in the global community requires understanding cultural differences, traditions and communication styles.  The monochronic-oriented approach to negotiations is direct, linear and rooted in the characteristics that illustrate low context tendencies. The low context culture approaches diplomacy in a lawyerly, dispassionate fashion with a clear idea of acceptable outcomes and a plan for reaching them. Draft arguments would be prepared elaborating positions. A monochronic culture, more concerned with time, deadlines and schedules, tends to grow impatient and want to rush to "close the deal."  More polychronic-oriented cultures come to diplomatic situations with no particular importance placed on time. Chronemics is one of the channels of nonverbal communication preferred by a High context Polychronic negotiator over verbal communication. The polychronic approach to negotiations will emphasize building trust between participants, forming coalitions and finding consensus. High context Polychronic negotiators might be charged with emotion toward a subject thereby obscuring an otherwise obvious solution.

Control of time in power relationships.

Time has a definite relationship to power. Though power most often refers to the ability to influence people (Guerrero, DeVito & Hecht, 1999, p. 314), power is also related to dominance and status (Guerrero, DeVito & Hecht, 1999, p. 315).  For example, in the workplace, those in a leadership or management position treat time and – by virtue of position – have their time treated differently from those who are of a lower stature position. Anderson and Bowman have identified three specific examples of how chronemics and power converge in the workplace – waiting time, talk time and work time.

Waiting time.

Researchers Insel and Lindgren (Guerrero, DeVito & Hecht, 1999, p. 325) write that the act of making an individual of a lower stature wait is a sign of dominance. They note that one who "is in the position to cause another to wait has power over him. To be kept waiting is to imply that one's time is less valuable than that of the one who imposes the wait."

Talk time.

There is a direct correlation between the power of an individual in an organization and conversation. This includes both length of conversation, turn-taking and who initiates and ends a conversation. Extensive research indicates that those with more power in an organization will speak more often and for a greater length of time. Meetings between superiors and subordinates provide an opportunity to illustrate this concept. A superior – regardless of whether or not they are running the actual meeting – lead discussions, ask questions and have the ability to speak for longer periods of time without interruption. Likewise, research shows that turn-taking is also influenced by power. Social psychologist Nancy Henley notes that "Subordinates are expected to yield to superiors and there is a cultural expectation that a subordinate will not interrupt a superior" (Guerrero, DeVito & Hecht, 1999, p. 326). The length of response follows the same pattern. While the superior can speak for as long as they want, the responses of the subordinate are shorter in length. Albert Mehrabian noted that deviation from this pattern led to negative perceptions of the subordinate by the superior. Beginning and ending a communication interaction in the workplace is also controlled by the higher-status individual in an organization. The time and duration of the conversation are dictated by the higher-status individual.

Work time.

The time of high status individuals is perceived as valuable, and they control their own time. On the other hand, a subordinate with less power has their time controlled by a higher status individual and are in less control of their time – making them likely to report their time to a higher authority. Such practices are more associated with those in non-supervisory roles or in blue collar rather than white collar professions. Instead, as power and status in an organization increases, the flexibility of the work schedule also increases. For instance, while administrative professionals might keep a 9 to 5 work schedule, their superiors may keep less structured hours. This does not mean that the superior works less. They may work longer, but the structure of their work environment is not strictly dictated by the traditional work day. Instead, as Koehler and their associates note "individuals who spend more time, especially spare time, to meetings, to committees, and to developing contacts, are more likely to be influential decision makers" (Guerrero, DeVito & Hecht, 1999, p. 327).  A specific example of the way power is expressed through work time is scheduling. As Yakura and others have noted in research shared by Ballard and Seibold, "scheduling reflects the extent to which the sequencing and duration of plans activities and events are formalized" (Ballard and Seibold, p. 6). Higher-status individuals have very precise and formal schedules – indicating that their stature requires that they have specific blocks of time for specific meetings, projects and appointments. Lower status individuals however, may have less formalized schedules. Finally, the schedule and appointment calendar of the higher status individual will take precedence in determining where, when and the importance of a specific event or appointment.

Associated theories.

Expectancy violations theory.

Developed by Judee Burgoon, expectancy violations theory (EVT) sees communication as the exchange of information which is high in relational content and can be used to violate the expectations of another which will be perceived as either positively or negatively depending on the liking between the two people.  When our expectations are violated, we will respond in specific ways. If an act is unexpected and is assigned favorable interpretation, and it is evaluated positively, it will produce more favorable outcomes than an expected act with the same interpretation and evaluation.

Interpersonal adaptation theory.

The interpersonal adaptation theory (IAT), founded by Judee Burgoon, states that adaptation in interaction is responsive to the needs, expectations, and desires of communicators and affects how communicators position themselves in relation to one another and adapt to one another's communication. For example, they may match each other's behavior, synchronize the timing of behavior, or behave in dissimilar ways. It is also important to note that individuals bring to interactions certain requirements that reflect basic human needs, expectations about behavior based on social norms, and desires for interaction based on goals and personal preferences (Burgoon, Stern & Dillman, 1995).

Chronemics is the study of the role of time in communication. It is one of several subcategories to emerge from the study of nonverbal communication. According to the "Encyclopedia of Special Education" “Chronemics includes time orientation, understanding and organization; use of and reaction to time pressures; our innate and learned awareness of time; wearing or not wearing a watch; arriving, starting, and ending late or on time.” The way someone values and perceives time plays a considerable role on his or her communication process. The use of time can affect lifestyles, personal relationships, and work life. Across cultures, people usually have different time perceptions, and this can result in conflicts between individuals. Time perceptions include punctuality, interactions, and willingness to wait. Three main types of time are used in chronemics: interactive, conceptual, and social.

Chronemika je úsek neverbální komunikace, zabývající se zacházením člověka s časem, např. jak s časem hospodaří, jak je dochvilný, kolik věnuje času jednotlivým osobám a problémům. Též se projevuje uspěchanou mluvou, ale i chováním, taktéž se může jednat o pomalou a vleklou řeč. Jde též o zbrklost v odpovědích, ale i u různých debat nedodržení daného časového rámce.


Band history.

Early career (1986–1993).

The band started in 1986 under the name Corpse and changed it to Grave in 1988. They recorded various demos from 1986 to 1991, and recorded some singles and EPs as well. Their debut full-length album "Into the Grave" was released in 1991. The release led to a European and American tour.  In 1992, the band released their second album "You'll Never See...", which was a continuation of the style featured on their debut. However, bassist Jonas Torndal left the band as a result of his increasing dislike for touring. After unsuccessfully trying to find a replacement, the group made a decision to become a trio, with guitarist Jörgen Sandström switching to bass. A European tour followed with compatriots Dismember and headliner Morbid Angel.

Two more albums, hiatus and return (1994–2003).

The band's third album, 1994's "Soulless", showed a somewhat different style, blending more experimental and industrial tones into the death metal of the previous album. Sandström departed in 1996, and Lindgren took over the vocals on their fourth album "Hating Life". This album progressed further into the style started on "Soulless". Another European and American tour followed, which resulted in the live album "Extremely Rotten Live". Thereafter, the band more or less split up.  1999 was the first year the members rejoined and started rehearsing; nevertheless the band took it slow. Ultimately this led to a warm-up European tour and a new album in 2002. "Back from the Grave" was a return to the style featured on their second album, "You'll Never See...", with minimal influence from "Soulless". As a bonus, a CD containing three demo recordings was included with the album.

"Fiendish Regression" and "As Rapture Comes" (2004–2007).

The 2004 album "Fiendish Regression" saw the departure of drummer Paulsson, who was replaced by Coercion drummer Pelle Ekegren. This album showcased more aggressive and generally somewhat faster songs. Touring followed through Europe in conjunction with the Canadian band Cryptopsy.  Two years later in 2006, "As Rapture Comes" was released, further increasing the overall speed and aggression of the band's musical style. Noteworthy is the inclusion of the Alice in Chains cover of "Them Bones". In support of the album the band toured with Dismember, Vital Remains, Demiricous, and Withered through the US and Canada. In November 2006 they toured Europe as part of the Masters of Death tour, with Unleashed, Dismember, Entombed and Exterminator. In September, Grave embarked on a European tour with Nile for their album "Ithyphallic".

Recent years (2008–present).

In 2008 the band returned with their eighth full-length studio album "Dominion VIII". Stylistically it stepped back to the band's old-school death metal roots. The next album, "Burial Ground", continued the same style. In 2010, Fredrik Isaksson left the lineup and was replaced by Dismember's Tobias Cristiansson.  In July 2011, it was reported that Grave was expected to begin recording their tenth album that fall and have it out in 2012. Titled "Endless Procession of Souls", it was released on August 27, 2012, in Europe and in North America on the next day.  Grave released their eleventh studio album "Out of Respect for the Dead" in October 2015. On September 4 the band revealed the cover artwork of the album, which was created by Costin Chioreanu.

Grave is a Swedish death metal band that was formed in 1986 by vocalist and guitarist Ola Lindgren, who is their only constant member. The band had particular success in the early 1990s, and their first four albums, "Into the Grave", "You'll Never See...", "Soulless" and "Hating Life", cemented their reputation as one of Sweden's foremost death metal bands. Grave went on hiatus in 1997, but got back together two years later. Since then, they have released seven more albums, making a total of eleven studio albums. Along with Dismember, Entombed and Unleashed, Grave is considered one of the "big four" of Swedish death metal.

Grave (česky "hrob") je švédská death metalová kapela. Lze ji zařadit do první vlny švédských death metalových skupin, které vydaly své debutní LP na počátku 90. let 20. století vedle dalších skupin jako např. Entombed, Dismember, Therion, Tiamat, Unleashed, Edge of Sanity.


Definition.

The full version of the chant, as heard prior to a free outdoor concert at the time of the Sydney 2000 Olympics and quoted by Luba Vangelova of CNNSI, is as follows:  The chant was widely used during the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games, being heard at many public entertainment venues and also on public transport. The chant came to be commonly heard at international sporting events where an Australian team was competing.

Origins and explanation.

A chant of similar form, "Oggy Oggy Oggy", has been used for decades by football crowds in Britain.  Members of the British Royal Navy claim to have used the Oggy Oggy Oggy chant, or a version of it, since the Second World War.  Englishman Ron Knox claims to have used the "Oggy" chant while playing for the Box Hill Rugby Club in Melbourne in the late 1960s. Various conflicting stories of how it was introduced from Britain to Australia can be found.  According to Stephen Alomes, a professor of Australian studies at Deakin University, the chant represents "enthusiasm for the tribe" and a "celebration of 'us' ", but at the extreme may act as a symbol of aggressive nationalism and xenophobia.  In 2012, after Foxtel offered a $10,000 prize in a competition for coming up with a new phrase to cheer on athletes, Germaine Greer argued:  "The cry is catchy. Any crowd can pick it up and it cuts through the surrounding white noise like a military tattoo. It is as jingoistic to reject it because it was originally British as it would be to prize it for the same reason... There will be no silencing Australian fans at the Olympics and they won't be bullied by Foxtel, either."

Commercial and publicity uses.

At the closing ceremony of the Sydney 2000 Olympics, the IOC President, Juan Antonio Samaranch reflected the spirit of the whole affair when, during his formal speech, he said, "What can I say? Maybe, with my Spanish accent, Aussie! Aussie! Aussie!". The response to these words came from all around the stadium, "Oi! Oi! Oi!".  In 2004, a Melbourne couple, inspired by a Dick Smith campaign supporting Australian-made products, and following publicity surrounding the ownership of the trademark for the Australian-developed Ugg boots being owned by a United States company, registered the phrase as an official trademark in an effort to protect it from overseas exploitation.  At the conclusion of winning the main event of the 2005 World Series of Poker, Australian supporters of winner Joe Hachem chanted this victoriously during the primetime viewing of the poker event on ESPN.  At the conclusion of the Prize giving ceremony for the 2008 Super 14 final at AMI Stadium in Christchurch, New Zealand, the winning team, the Crusaders, chanted "Robbie Robbie Robbie Oi Oi Oi" to farewell their Coach Robbie Deans, who was leaving to coach the Australian national team, the Wallabies.  In a promotional video for the American professional wrestling company WWE, Australian wrestler Emma chanted the song in support of the Australia national soccer team during the 2014 FIFA World Cup.  It is also a popular chant during Australian Cricket Team's matches.  The chant is also a fixture at men's basketball games at Saint Mary's College of California, a school that has regularly featured Australian players in the 21st century.  It is chanted by the Australian band Chase Atlantic on backstage before their concerts.

"Aussie Aussie Aussie, Oi Oi Oi" is a cheer or chant often performed at Australian sport events. It is a variation of the Oggy Oggy Oggy chant used by both association football and rugby union fans in Great Britain from the 1960s onwards. It is usually performed by a crowd uniting to support a sports team or athlete. The alternate is for an individual to chant the line "Aussie, Aussie, Aussie!" and the crowd to respond with "Oi! Oi! Oi!". A variation of this is for an individual to chant, "Aussie!", with the crowd responding, "Oi!", along the lines of, "Aussie, Aussie, Aussie!", "Oi, Oi, Oi!"' "Aussie!", "Oi!", "Aussie", Oi!", "Aussie, Aussie, Aussie!", "Oi, Oi, Oi!".

Aussie Aussie Aussie, Oi Oi Oi! (též psáno "Ozzie" a "oy" nebo v češtině "oj", výslovnost: ) je pokřik fanoušků, často se objevující k podpoře australských sportovců. Ve světě ho zpopularizovalo užívání při letních olympijských hrách v Sydney v roce 2000.


History.

It was formed in 1991 from the clubs Alliance Dudelange, Stade Dudelange, and US Dudelange. All three clubs had won the National Division or the Luxembourg Cup before, but each had fallen upon hard times, and the amalgamated club was expected to be more stable, in both a sporting and financial sense.  Turning the club into a title-challenging team took a while. Stade Dudelange and US Dudelange had been in Luxembourg's third tier (the 1. Division), whilst Alliance Dudelange was struggling to remain in the second league (the Division of Honour). The new club would take Alliance's place in the Division of Honour in the 1991–92 season.  F91 was promoted in its first season, and soon established itself as a competent top-flight team, not finishing outside the top half of the table until 1996–97. Towards the end of the 1990s, Dudelange gradually improved, and brought to an end Jeunesse Esch's era of dominance by storming to the 1999–00 league title by eleven points.  In 2004–05, Dudelange won the title and competed in the UEFA Champions League for the 2005–06 season. In the competition Dudelange became the first club in Luxembourg's history to reach the second qualifying round, after a remarkable victory over NK Zrinjski (they lost 0–1 at home in the first leg, in the second leg they scored a goal in the 3rd minute of stoppage time to equalize on aggregate, and then scored 3 more goals in extra time). However, Dudelange were easily beaten by Rapid Wien in the second qualifying round.  In the 2005–06 season, Dudelange completed the league and cup Double for the first time since the merger. They replicated this feat in the 2006–07 season, and won a fourth consecutive National Division title in 2007–08.  In the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League, F91 Dudelange defeated Tre Penne 11–0 on aggregate, earning them an appointment with Austrian champion Red Bull Salzburg in the second round. They defeated Salzburg 1–0 in Luxemburg, and lost 3–4 in Salzburg, to win the tie on the away goal rule. For the first time in club history, Dudelange qualified for the third round of the competition, in which they were beaten 5-1 on aggregate by Maribor.  In 2013–14, Dudelange reclaimed the title with a 3–0 victory over Fola Esch on the final day of the season. This earned the club a spot in the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League.  In 2018, F91 Dudelange became the first Luxembourgish team to reach the group stage of a major European competition, after defeating CFR Cluj 5–2 on aggregate in the UEFA Europa League play-off round. Due to Dudelange's apparent underdog status, daily newspaper "Gazeta Sporturilor" regarded CFR's elimination as "the biggest shame in the history of Romanian football". Dudelange had also previously defeated Polish side Legia Warsaw in the third qualifying round. The men from the Grand Duchy were drawn into a 'Group of Death', containing European powerhouses Milan, Olympiakos and Spanish side Real Betis. The Luxembourgers did, however, managed to pick up a famous and hard-fought point, on the last matchday, when they drew 0-0 against Real Betis at the Stade Josy Barthel.  In 2019, Dudelange qualified for the Europa League group stages for the second successive season after defeating FC Ararat-Armenia in the play-off round in a penalty shootout.  Dudelange fared much better in their second European group stage adventure, being drawn into a group with Europa League stalwarts Sevilla, Cypriot champions APOEL and Qarabağ of Azerbaijan.  On the first group stage matchday, on 19 September 2019, Dudelange became the first ever team from Luxembourg to win a game in a European group stage after beating APOEL 4–3 in Nicosia. Dudelange, whose coach Emilio Ferrera had resigned only two days prior, came back from a 3–2 deficit to defeat the Cypriots.  After losing their next four group matches, Dudelange faced Qarabag on the last matchday in Baku where they came within two minutes of recording another famous win, before the Azeri side equalised in injury time, thus the men from Luxembourg finished bottom of the group with a respectable 4 points.

F91 Dudelange, or F91 Diddeleng, () is a Luxembourgish professional football club based in Dudelange which plays in the Luxembourg National Division.

F91 Dudelange je lucemburský fotbalový klub sídlící ve městě Dudelange. Byl založen roku 1991 sloučením klubů Alliance Dudelange, US Dudelange a Stade Dudelange. Domácím hřištěm je stadion s názvem Stade Jos Nosbaum s kapacitou 2 600 diváků.