History.

1919–1940.

After the declaration of Lithuania to be an independent state on February 16, 1918, the most urgent task of the new government was to organize a military force that could repel enemy armies that were coming from all sides. The first order for the creation of a Lithuanian army came on November 23, 1918.  In January 1919, an Engineering Company was formed within the military, which contained an Aviation Squad. On March 12, 1919, the group was reorganized into an Aviation Company and became an independent military unit. Its leader was appointed to be marine engineer officer Petras Petronis. This date is considered to be the birthday of the Lithuanian Air Force.  Between March and December 1919 and between 1932 and 1940, the Kaunas Military Aviation School operated in that city. The school trained officers in many aviation disciplines: pilots, observers, gunners and mechanics.  The first aircraft (Sopwith 11⁄2 Strutter) was taken by the Lithuanian military from the Red Army, on February 5, 1919, at the city of Jieznas. On February 27, 1919, eight new reconnaissance aircraft, LVG C.VI, were received. They had been purchased in Germany. In June, five more aircraft were purchased. In the following years some aircraft were taken as war booty and repaired in Lithuanian Aviation workshops, many were purchased from various countries and a number were built by native designers Jurgis Dobkevičius and Antanas Gustaitis.  The Lithuanian Military Aviation was active in battles with the Red Army and Polish military units. The pilot performing the most military sorties was Jurgis Dobkevičius, who later became the first Lithuanian aircraft designer and builder. On May 12, 1920, Vytautas Rauba was the first Lithuanian aviator to lose his life in an aircraft crash. On October 4 of the same year, in a fight with the Polish military, the first aircraft with a Lithuanian crew was shot down. The pilot of the aircraft, Juozas Kumpis, leader of Lithuania's First Air Squadron, was severely injured and died as prisoner of the Polish military.  Starting in 1920 the military aviation branch was renamed a number of times and some time after 1928 it was named to the equivalent of the Lithuanian Air Force.  The Lithuanian Air Force supported and encouraged various aeronautics related activities, such as the sport of gliding. In 1933, in cooperation with Aero Club of Lithuania, they helped establish a Lithuanian Gliding School in Nida and send their only experienced glider pilot, Gregorius Radvenis, to be the school's instructor and supervisor.  In 1940, the Lithuanian Air Force consisted of eight Air Squadrons, including reconnaissance, fighter, bomber and training units. Air Force bases had been established in the cities and towns of Kaunas /Žagariškės, Šiauliai /Zokniai (Zokniai airfield), Panevėžys /Pajuostis. In the summer time, airports in the cities of Palanga and Rukla were also used. A total of 117 aircraft and 230 pilots and observers were listed in the books at that time.

After 1992.

On 23 January 1992, the Minister of Defense signed an order establishing the staff for the Aviation Base of the Aviation Service. But an actual base in the Šiauliai airport territory (Barysiai airfield) was not established until March, when according to the ordinance of the Government of Lithuanian Republic, all the infrastructure, buildings, territory and 24 An-2 aircraft were passed from ”Lithuanian Airlines" to the Aviation Service of the Ministry of Defense in January 1992.On 12 June 1992, the first time after regaining the independence of Lithuania, An-2 aircraft, marked with the double cross of Vytis on its wings – the distinguishing sign of Lithuanian Air Force – took off from Barysiai airfield. This date is considered to be the Aviation Base foundation date. In February 1993 four L-39C Albatros aircraft were brought from Kyrgyzstan.  After 1 March 1993 Aviation Service was reformed to the Lithuanian Air Force and Aviation Base was renamed the First Aviation Base of the Lithuanian Air Force. In January 1994 Lithuania officially applied for NATO membership. From 1995 to 1999, according to a decree of Lithuanian Government the First Aviation Base was relocated to Zokniai airfield nearby Šiauliai, which was used for fighter wing, radio-electronic fight and reconnaissance squadrons dislocation during the Soviet occupation.  According to the decree of the Minister of Defense of the Republic of Lithuania Linas Linkevičius, the First Aviation Base and the Second Aviation Base were reorganized into the Lithuanian Air Force Aviation Base as of 1 October 2004. Up to 2004, there were only light attack jet aircraft and transport aircraft located at the Air Base, after the reconstruction of First and Second Air Bases, helicopters are located at the Air Base too.

Structure.

The Lithuanian Air Force Headquarters and the Airspace Surveillance and Control Command are located in Kaunas, while the Air Space Control Centre and the Baltic Air Surveillance Network's Regional Airspace Surveillance Coordination Centre (RASCC) are located nearby in Karmėlava. Air Base, and Air Force Armament and Equipment Repair Depot are located at Šiauliai Air Base. The Air Defence Battalion, formed in 2000, is located in Radviliškis.

Air Base.

The main air base is located in Šiauliai city. It is manned with professional military and also non-military personnel. It consists of a headquarters, air operation group and operational support group. The base operates various fixed wing and rotary blade aircraft. The staff, aircraft and equipment of the Air Base has participated in many international training missions abroad and at home. Main tasks of the Air Base are:

Air Defence Battalion.

The Air Defence Battalion’s primary missions include: Development of infrastructure is one key missions of the Air Defence Battalion currently in the stage of development.

Airspace Surveillance and Control Command.

The Airspace Surveillance and Control Command works closely with the Baltic States Air Surveillance System, BALTNET. The appropriate legal documentation of the BALTNET project was developed, the Reciprocal Memorandum of Understanding concerning military personnel training was signed among Lithuanian, Estonian, Latvian, and Danish Ministries of Defence. The Regional Air Spaces Surveillance Co-ordination Centre (RASSCC), headquarters of the BALTNET project, was established in the LTAF Airspace Control Centre and has been fully functioning since early 2000. Military personnel from all the three Baltic States serve as air surveillance operators at the centre and rotate according to national timetables. The Commander of the centre is appointed for two years and represents one of the Baltic States.

Armament and Equipment Repair Depot.

The main tasks of Armament and Equipment Repair Depot:

Baltic Air Policing.

After Lithuania joined NATO organization back in 2004, its (alongside Latvia's and Estonia's) air space is protected by NATO. NATO members provide usually 4 fighter aircraft, based in Lithuania, to police the Baltic States’ airspace. The deployments rotate between NATO members (that started in March 2004 with Belgium Air Force F-16s) and most NATO members that operate fighters have made a deployment to Lithuania. The Baltic States are considering in the near future to protect their airspace on their own.

Modernisation.

In line with the set priorities, the Lithuanian Air Force are implementing modernisation plans. Since Independence in 1991, the Lithuanian Air force has bought 3 new C-27J Spartan military transport aircraft. They have replaced the older Soviet-era An-26. In 2007, two L-39ZA aircraft underwent extension of technical resources in Romania. Maintenance works included exhaustive check-up of the aircraft units and major engine repairs. New navigation equipment GNS 530 was installed and radio communication sets changed in pilot cabins. These planes are used to train fighter control officers in air policing mission and fighter command officers. Furthermore, a complex program of capital overhaul, upgrade and modernisation of the Air Force's helicopters Mi-8 and twin engine short-range transport aircraft L-410 was conducted. In 2013, three Eurocopter AS365 Dauphin search and rescue helicopters were ordered from France for roughly 52 million euros. The deal was financed by the EU and deliveries began in 2015. On October of 2019, Lithuanian armed forces announced that Lithuanian Air Force decided to buy 6 Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters from USA.

Aircraft.

Current inventory.

Note: Three C-17 Globemaster III's are available through the Heavy Airlift Wing based in Hungary.

Retired aircraft.

Previous aircraft operated by the Air Force consisted of the An-2 Colt, An-26 Curl, PZL-104 Wilga, and the Mil Mi-2 helicopter

Ranks and insignia.

Officers.

The rank insignia for commissioned officers for the air force.

Enlisted.

The rank insignia for enlisted personnel for the air force.

The Lithuanian Air Force or LAF () is the military aviation branch of the Lithuanian armed forces. It is formed from professional military servicemen and non-military personnel. Units are located at Šiauliai military airfield near the city Šiauliai, at Radviliškis and Kaunas.

Litevské letectvo () představuje vzdušné síly litevské armády. Letectvo operuje ze základny u města Šiauliai, kde v rámci mise Baltic Air Policing působí také letouny Severoatlantické aliance, jejichž úkolem je zajištění bezpečnosti vzdušného prostoru Pobaltí.


Construction.

A spraydeck is made of water-tight cloth or neoprene. It is sized to fit over the opening, or cockpit, of the canoe or kayak, with holes for the waists of the passengers. The spraydeck generally seals around the rim of the cockpit and around the torso of each passenger.  Each opening in a spraydeck must make a fairly watertight seal. The seal varies in quality. The deck can be made to seal in several ways, including elastic fabric, a hem containing an elastic cord and/or drawstring, and both.

Boat types.

Kayak spraydeck.

Spraydecks are worn by kayakers in most conditions, but especially on rough water and in inclement weather, to prevent water entering the kayak's cockpit and to help the kayaker roll.  On a kayak, the spraydeck is secured to a rim surrounding the cockpit with a line or elastic string called a rand. The line or string often runs inside the hem along the edge of the spraydeck. Alternatively elastic cord is attached directly to the edge of the spraydeck, and is tightened around the rim of the kayak's cockpit or stretched over it.  The fastening may be pulled tight or held so by its elasticity, this prevents water infiltration while allowing passengers to quickly release it if the boat should capsize. To aid easy release during a capsize, a grab loop is attached at the front of the spraydeck, which the kayaker can use to pull the spraydeck free. A properly sealed spraydeck will allow a kayaker to perform an eskimo roll and continue paddling without having to bail out.  A kayaker's spraydeck is also known as a "sprayskirt", because it is donned like a skirt before entering the boat. "Sprayskirt" is the more common term in the US.  Spraydecks for traditional kayaks are narrower, to fit narrow custom-fitted cockpits; mass-produced kayaks have larger cockpits and the spraydeck must therefore be wider at the hem.

Canoe spraydeck.

On a canoe, the spraydeck is secured to the outside of the hull with string or cords to a webbing specifically installed for this purpose. Modern designs have many features for safety and convenience such as map and paddle pockets, access openings, and tie-down straps.  Like a kayak, a spraydeck will allow a canoer to perform a kayak roll (provided he/she is strapped to the canoe) and continue paddling without having to bail out. But this manoeuvre is more difficult.  On a canoe, it is not only a safety item but may also be used for comfort. During rainy or cold weather, it keeps the lower body of the canoers dry and warm, and prevents rain from building up a puddle at the bottom of the boat.

Materials.

The most appropriate material depends on the temperature/time of year and on the type of water being paddled. Whitewater spraydecks are made totally from neoprene, whereas flatwater touring/sea kayak spraydecks may be made from either material.

Sealskin.

Sealskin is a traditional material for spraydecks. It requires labor-intensive preparation. A European description: In fair weather the kaiak-man uses the so-called half-jacket (akuilisak). This is made of water-tight skin with the hair removed, and is sewn with sinews. Round its lower margin runs a draw-string, or rather a draw-thong, by means of which the edge of the jacket can be made to fit so closely to the edge of the kaiak-ring that it can only be pressed and down down over it with some little trouble. This done, the half-jacket forms, as it were, a water-tight extension of the kaiak. The upper part of the jacket comes close up to the armpits of the kaiak-man, and is supported by braces or straps, which pass over the shoulders and can be lengthened or shortened by means of handy runners or buckles of bone, so simple and yet so ingenious that we, with all our metal buckles and so forth, cannot equal them. Loose sleeves of skin are drawn up over the arms, and are lashed to the overarm and to the wrist, thus preventing the arm from becoming wet. Watertight mittens of skin are drawn over the hands. This half-jacket is enough to keep out the smaller waves which wash over the kaiak. In a heavier sea, on the other hand, a whole-jacket (tuilik) is used. This is made in the same way as the half-jacket, and, like it, fits close to the kayak-ring, but is longer above, has sleeves attached to it, and a hood that comes right over the head. It is laced tight around the face and wrists, so that with it on the kaiak-man can go right through the breakers and can capsize and right himself again, without getting wet and without letting a drop of water into the kaiak.  —Fridtjof Nansen, "Eskimo Life", 1893, English translation by William Archer

Gut.

Sprayskirts (and tuiliks) can also be made of gut from the intestines of sea mammals or bears. The gut is turned inside-out to clean both sides, then inflated to dry. Inflated gut dries quickly. If it is dried in cold, dark, windy weather, it becomes opaque and white, and is known as "winter gut". "Summer gut" is yellowish and transparent, and stiffer. The gut is then slit open lengthwise and the strips are sewn into a garment. The smoother inside of the gut becomes the outside of the garment.

Neoprene.

These spraydecks are snug, tight, thick to keep in the warmth, and very tight fitting on the cockpit. They can usually withstand rolling, bracing and high wind and waves. They sometimes get uncomfortably warm during hot weather, but will keep the paddler very warm during colder conditions. On modern neoprene spraydecks, the rand is usually elastic cord attached directly to the rim of the spraydeck.

Nylon.

Nylon spraydecks are easy to attach, easy to remove, offer adequate seal to keep water out, comfortable, sometimes breathable, sometimes waterproof and are used during warmer conditions. They will either have neoprene or nylon for the torso. Nylon spraydecks are less commonly used during rough conditions as they are not as tightly fitted so are more likely to accidentally become free. Permeable cloth is polyurethane-coated or teflon-coated to waterproof it.

Other materials.

Some spraydecks are made from both nylon and neoprene. Whitewater spraydecks often have additional features to ensure the best seal and greatest robustness. Latex may be coated on the underside of the deck to grip the cockpit better and/or a protective material (e.g. Kevlar) added to the surface of the deck to provide abrasion resistance.

A spraydeck (sprayskirt in N. America, akuilisaq or tuiitsoq in Greenland) is a flexible waterproof cover for a boat (in particular for a kayak or a canoe) with holes for the passengers' waists. Spraydecks are used to prevent water from entering the boat while allowing passengers to paddle or row.

Špricdeka (též šprajda nebo špricka) je flexibilní kryt pro loď, zejména kajak nebo kánoi. Je používána v divoké vodě, nepříznivém počasí nebo sportech a zajišťuje ochranu proti pronikání vody do lodě a zároveň umožňuje jednomu nebo více kajakáři či kanoistovi pádlování a ovládání lodě.


History.

The club traces its history to a factory team that was created in 1926 under the name of FC Metalist Kamianske. Later the name was changed to FC Dzerzhynka Kamianske (1934). The team participated in competitions irregularly. It entered Soviet competitions in 1935 as a city's team (Kamianske, 1935–1936) participating in Ukrainian Championship. In 1936, the city of Kamianske was renamed as Dniprodzerzhynsk. In 1936 and in 1938 it entered the Soviet Cup competitions and in 1938 was a runner up of the Ukrainian Championship as Stal Dniprodzerzhynsk yielding only to Dzerzhynets Voroshylovhrad (today FC Zorya Luhansk). There is no record of any competitions in the region during World War II.  In 1945, Dniprodzerzhynsk city players participated in the Ukrainian Spartakiad as members of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast team. In 1949, Metalurh Dniprodzerzhynsk was again a runner-up at the republican competitions, losing a championship playoff to the Kievan Officers' Club (modern FC CSKA Kyiv). Between 1954 and 1975, the Dniprodzerzhynsk metallurgical team did not participate in any national or republican competitions focusing only on regional and city's championships. The club was completely overshadowed by another team from Kamianske (at that time Dniprodzerzhynsk), SC Prometei Dniprodzerzhynsk, that after World War II and until the 1970s was the main city's team.  In 1976, under the name of Metalurh Dniprodzerzhynsk, the team was revived including not only factory players, but also football players of SC Prometei Dniprodzerzhynsk (sports club of the Dnieper Chemical Plant) and Burevisnyk Dniprodzerzhynsk (city's education department sports society). In 1978, the new team won the Ukrainian championship for amateur clubs and was promoted to the Soviet Second League. The club's best achievement was 12th place in the 1982–83 season, and it was soon relegated in 1985.  In 1994, the club became almost defunct. In 1998, the team was reorganized again under the name FC Stal Dniprodzerzhynsk. The team became one of the strongest in Dnipropetrovsk Oblast and in 2001, it was promoted to the Ukrainian amateur championship. In the same year, Stal won the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast Cup and was promoted to the Druha Liha B. In the 2003–04 season, Stal became the champions of the division and were promoted to the Persha Liha.  Stal finished in 20th place (bottom) in the 2007–08 season and were relegated to Ukrainian Second League.  After a six-season absence, the club was promoted to Ukrainian First League in 2014. In 2015, the club was set to merge with FC Metalurh Donetsk. However, on 11 July 2015 Metalurh declared bankruptcy, citing the economic difficulties caused by the War in Donbass. FC Stal Dniprodzerzhynsk did take Metalurh's place in the Ukrainian Premier League.  In May 2016, the city of Dniprodzerzhynsk was renamed back into Kamianske and team name was changed to FC Stal Kamianske.  After being regulated to the Ukrainian First League in the 2017–18 Ukrainian Premier League season the club re-registered to Bucha (Kiev Oblast) and changed its name to "PFC Feniks Bucha". Before the start of the new season, the club withdrew from 2018–19 Ukrainian First League due to financial difficulties.

Colors and badge.

Club's colors are silver, blue and white.

FC Stal Kamianske () was a professional Ukrainian football club located in Kamianske, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast, Ukraine. After being relegated to the Ukrainian First League after the 2017–18 Ukrainian Premier League season the club re-registered to Bucha and changed its name to PFC Feniks Bucha in June 2018. The club didn't play any game under the new name and was dissolved on 9 July 2018.

Futbolnyj klub Stal Kamjanske (ukrajinsky: Футбольний клуб «Сталь» Кам'янське) je ukrajinský fotbalový klub sídlící ve městě Kamjanske. Klub byl založen v roce 1926 pod názvem Metalist Kamenskoje. V roce 1994 klub zaniká, obnoven je až o čtyři roky později. V létě roku 2015 byl do klubu sloučen krachující doněcký Metalurh. Doněcký celek vyhnala válka na východní Ukrajině až do dalekého Kyjeva, kde byl klubu dočasně poskytnut azylový stadion kyjevského Obolonu. Po takto odehrané sezóně klub zbankrotoval a následně byly zbytky klubu i s prvoligovou licencí sloučeny do Dniprodzeržynsku (dnešního Kamjanske).


Style and Motif.

Leonhard Frank's novels and plays are known for their sensationalism. Frank's prose was compact and austere. This choice of style was used effectively to highlight his favorite theme—the damage inflicted by bourgeois society on the individual spirit.

Works.

Frank had become a writer after working as a commercial artist. After he fled to Switzerland in 1914, he blossomed as a writer. It was in Switzerland that he wrote and published his first work "The Robber Band". The book told the story of a group of rebellious young boys who harbor ambitions of dismantling their exploitative society and replacing it with an ideal one. But, as it often happens, the belligerent youth turn into docile adults, the good citizens of an unquestioning society. The story, like so many of his writings, presents the humorous facet of the middle class in a realistic manner. He published other books during his exile in Switzerland like "The Cause of the Crime" (1915), a scathing criticism of repressive educational systems, and "Man Is Good" (1917), a revolutionary denunciation of war.  Frank was a staunch believer in socialism. He regarded the overthrow of capitalism as paramount to the establishment of socialism. This desire was reflected in his novels "A Middle-Class Man" (1924) and in "The Singers" (1927). It was also during this period of semi-autobiographical writings that Frank produced what is regarded as his best work, the novel "Carl and Anna" (1926). The novel was a realistic masterpiece in which a soldier seduces his comrade's wife.  Success came with a price for Frank. His revolutionary writings did not go down well with the Nazis, who banned his books in 1933 and burned them. He did not get published in Germany again until in 1952, when his autobiographical novel Heart on the Left came out.

Leonhard Frank (4 September 1882 in Würzburg – 18 August 1961 in Munich) was a German expressionist writer. He studied painting and graphic art in Munich, and gained acclaim with his first novel "The Robber Band" (1914, tr. 1928). When a Berlin journalist celebrated in a famous café about news of the loss of the ship RMS Lusitania, torpedoed by a German submarine, Frank was upset – and slapped the man in his face. That is why he went into exile in Switzerland (1915–18), where he wrote a series of pacifist short-stories published under the title "Man is Good". He returned to Germany, but after the Nazis gained power in 1933 Frank had to emigrate a second time. He lived in Switzerland again, moved to London, then Paris and finally fled under adventurous conditions to the United States in 1940, returning to Munich in 1950. His best-known novels were "In the Last Coach" (1925, tr. 1935) and "Carl and Anna", which he dramatized in 1929. In 1947 MGM made a movie titled "Desire Me" out of this story.

Leonhard Frank (4. září 1882, Würzburg – 18. srpna 1961, Mnichov) byl německý spisovatel a scenárista. Jako autor byl populární mezi čtenáři především v období Výmarské republiky.


History.

The Maidu, Miwok, Nisenan, and Wintun peoples inhabited the American River near present-day Sacramento for at least 5,000 years before Spaniards and Americans settled the region, although human habitation in Northern California is believed to date back as much as 12,000 years. They utilized the vast amount of resources of the American River for shelter, clothes, baskets, and other goods before Europeans arrived in the late 18th century. The Nisenan called the river, meaning 'roundhouse river'.  Spanish explorer Gabriel Moraga named the river (River of Sorrows) when he passed through the area in the early 1800s, perhaps due to hostile relations with local native peoples. Another member of the expedition recorded the name as (River of the Lakes) which may or may not have been an error, as in those times the area of the Central Valley surrounding the American River was home to vast marshes, which would have given the river the appearance of a series of lakes.  During the 1820s, Jedediah Smith led an expedition to the American River with the goal of finding a safe route across the Sierra Nevada. After a failed attempt to cross the mountains via the South Fork of the American River, Smith's group managed to cross via Ebbetts Pass on the headwaters of the Stanislaus River, becoming the first non-Native Americans to do so. In Smith's honor the Spanish settlers and Native Americans named the river (American River). During this time, Alta California was part of New Spain; however in 1822, Mexico gained its independence from Spain and took control of California.  In the 1830s, fur trappers of the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) visited the area to trap beaver and otter. During one of these expeditions, smallpox or malaria were accidentally introduced to the local Native Americans, who had no natural immunity to Old World diseases. Some accounts suggest as much as 70 percent of the indigenous population was wiped out. The surviving natives became hostile to European settlers and traders for quite some time, and prevented the HBC from establishing a permanent outpost here.  In 1839, Swiss immigrant John Sutter established the New Helvetia settlement on the American River, near the present-day location of central Sacramento. In 1848, following the Mexican–American War, California was ceded to the United States in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Just weeks later, James W. Marshall, an employee of Sutter, discovered gold on the South Fork, starting the California Gold Rush.  Although miners looking for gold worked all three forks of the American River, the South Fork held the richest deposits. However, as the easily accessible placer gold was played out, large companies used hydraulic mining to access gold buried deeper in the soil. Unfortunately, this large and extensive mining practice washed away entire mountainsides and heavily polluted all the waterways, including the American River.  During the Great Flood of 1862 the American River flooded massively, putting much of Sacramento under water for three months. Newly elected Governor Leland Stanford had to travel to his inauguration by rowboat; shortly after, the state government moved temporarily to San Francisco. A significant contributor to the flood damage was the debris washed down by hydraulic mining, which had choked the river channel and reduced its capacity to drain floodwaters. In response, the city of Sacramento undertook a massive project to raise its streets and buildings as much as. Many of original sidewalks and the first floors of buildings remain as subterranean spaces underneath today's streets.  The lower American River has been one of seven California rivers to achieve the designation "Recreational River" under both the California Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (1972) and the National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (1980). This status provides state and national recognition to protect the river's outstanding scenic, fish and wildlife, historic, cultural, and recreational values.

Geography.

The American River is fed by its North, Middle, and South forks, which are located in El Dorado County, Placer County, and Sacramento County. The river's three forks originate in the Tahoe and Eldorado National Forests. The North and Middle Forks join near Auburn, and continue downstream as the North Fork, although the Middle Fork carries a higher volume of water. The North and South Forks join in Folsom Lake. All three forks are known for their verdant canyons, forested ridges, massive rock formations, trails, backcountry winter adventuring among snowy peaks, fishing and white water rafting. There are various fish species that live within the American River such as Chinook Salmon and Steelhead Trout.  The American River headwaters lie along about along the Sierra Crest from Mount Lincoln in the north () where it adjoins the watersheds of the South Yuba and Truckee Rivers, to Winnemucca Lake in the Mokelumne Wilderness, where it meets the watersheds of the Mokelumne and Carson Rivers. Lands east of the American River watershed divide drain into Lake Tahoe, which flows into the Truckee River. During most years, a significant snowpack builds up in the Sierra Nevada which provides water during the hot, dry summers. In warmer winters much of the precipitation may fall as rain instead, causing flooding, but resulting in lower summer flows due to the lack of snow. Due to California's highly variable weather patterns, runoff volumes in the American River can rise and fall drastically from one year to the next.  Below Folsom Dam, the river passes through an urbanized area but is buffered by a riparian park, the American River Parkway. Containing fishing and family-oriented rafting, and paved bicycling and multi-use trails, it runs from Folsom Lake to the river's confluence with the Sacramento River. The American River Parkway incorporates historic Leidesdorff Ranch, a cattle and wheat agribusiness owned by the "African Founding Father of California." Jedediah Smith Memorial Trail, a meandering, uninterrupted cycle path, hugs the river bank from Old Sacramento to Folsom Lake. The trail was named for Smith and his men, who camped and trapped along its banks in 1828.

North Fork.

The North Fork is the longest tributary of the American River, at. It begins at an elevation of about near Lake Tahoe in Placer County at Mountain Meadow Lake, just northeast of Granite Chief and immediately due west of Squaw Valley Ski Resort. It flows westward through remote wilderness areas.  The North Fork and its tributaries provides one of the most biologically diverse habitats in North America. The North Fork features scenic multi-use trails along forested ridgetops and riparian corridors. It flows freely as a designated National Wild and Scenic Rivers System river until reaching the North Fork Dam, which was built to contain mining debris. This dam creates the small Lake Clementine just north of the Foresthill Bridge and upstream of the confluence with the Middle Fork American River at Auburn. Below the confluence, the North Fork continues several miles until reaching Folsom Lake. Both the North Fork and Middle Fork feature archaeological and historic sites of ancient Native American culture and 1850s Gold Rush habitation.

Middle Fork.

The Middle Fork is long. It originates a mere from the source of the North Fork on the south face of Granite Chief, between the summit and Emigrant Pass. It is characterized by somewhat broader steep canyons interspersed with reservoirs, waterfalls, and quiet riparian areas. The Middle Fork is used extensively for both motorized and non-motorized recreation, including fishing, white water adventuring, bicycling (mountain and road), horseback riding, trail running and hiking. It contains areas used for hydroelectric generation, mining, and agricultural timber cultivation and harvesting. The Middle Fork features part of the Auburn State Recreation Area. The Western States Trail hosts multiple annual endurance events, including the Tevis Cup equestrian trail ride, and the world-famous Western States 100- Mile Trail Run, both beginning at Squaw Valley and leading to Auburn via remote wilderness trails.

South Fork.

The South Fork is long. It originates at Echo Summit near Echo Lake south of Lake Tahoe in El Dorado County, just south of where U.S. Route 50 makes a sharp curve northward to descend into Tahoe Valley. The South Fork has multi-use recreational areas, including the Rubicon Trail for motorized adventuring and whitewater rafting venues. The South Fork also features the historic town of Coloma, where the California Gold Rush began in 1848. Trout fishing and recreational gold panning are popular activities on the South Fork.  The Silver Fork American River is a tributary of the South Fork American River, that has its origin at Silver Fork Lake

Flora and fauna.

The American River watershed crosses multiple climate zones due to the large range in elevations. The climate of the lower American River valley is Mediterranean and temperate grassland. Sacramento County in particular, where the main stem American River is located, is known for its cool winters and hot summers, with low average precipitation. The North, Middle and South Forks originate in alpine zones along the Sierra Crest and flow through subalpine, montane and temperate coniferous forests. In the foothills, oak woodland and grassland are dominant.  The region is prone to seasonal drought conditions, as about 90 percent of precipitation falls as rain and snow between the months of November and April. Much of the Central Valley was historically wetlands and has extremely fertile soil; today, the vast majority of wetlands have been converted to agriculture or urban areas. Most of the remaining wetland, riparian and aquatic ecosystems are restricted to the narrow corridor along the American River.  There is an abundance of flora and fauna found at the American River that creates an immensely bio diverse ecosystem. Native plants along the American River Parkway are adapted to a Mediterranean climate, are drought tolerant, and help support a balanced, healthy ecosystem. Non-native, and sometimes invasive, species have been introduced to the American River ecosystem. These exotic species have no natural predators and combat with native species for sun, space, and nutrients, causing substantial problems for the native plant life and the entire bionetwork. The American River Parkway Foundation, in collaboration with Sacramento County Parks, manages the invasive plants on the American River.  Fourteen environmental watershed groups are shown to be active in the Upper American River Watershed by the Adopt A Watershed Program of the U.S. EPA. The Upper American River Foundation is a prominent one.  There are over 40 species of native and non-native fish in the American River, including: Wildlife in the American River basin includes: Invasive plants on the American River include:  Native plants include:

River modifications.

Historically, the American River, like many other rivers in California, were modified by the dams of beavers, until European trappers removed many of the beavers from their native habitat for their fur. Since the California Gold Rush was centered in an area that included the American River basin, it was one of the earlier California rivers to be populated, beginning at Leidesdorff Ranch, owned by William Leidesdorff. Water was used to drive grist mills. Gold miners dredged the riverbed and constructed diversion dams for hydraulic mining. Mining activity caused sediment and mercury waste to accumulate in the rivers. The Natoma Company completed its Folsom Powerhouse in 1895 and began delivering power 22 miles (35 km) away to the city of Sacramento to power a streetcar system.  Major flooding of the Sacramento area led to calls for a large dam on the American River by the late 19th century. During the 20th century, the American River was extensively developed for flood control, hydroelectricity production and irrigation. Folsom Dam is the primary flood-control facility for Sacramento. The numerous hydroelectric dams upstream on the Middle and South Forks are not constrained by flood control requirements; rather, the needs of electricity and water supply govern their operation.

Central Valley Project.

Folsom Dam was built in 1955 as a principal part of the Central Valley Project by the Army Corps of Engineers, and is operated by the Bureau of Reclamation. The concrete and earth embankment structure is more than long and creates Folsom Lake, impounding 1.1 million acre-feet (1.4 km) of water when full. The dam is a multipurpose facility that acts as a reservoir for flood control, irrigation, domestic and industrial use, as well as hydropower generation, recreation, and fish and wildlife habitat. Nimbus Dam is downstream from Folsom Dam and helps to stabilize peaking power releases from Folsom Dam, and divert water into the Folsom South Canal for irrigation.

Upper American River Project.

Eight hydroelectric plants on the South Fork are operated by Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) as the Upper American River Project. These plants are fed by a series of reservoirs including Loon Lake, Ice House Reservoir and Union Valley Reservoir. With the exception of Folsom Lake, Union Valley is the largest in the American River watershed, storing of water. The Upper American River Project produces 1.8 billion kilowatt hours in an average year, enough for about 20 percent of Sacramento's electricity needs. The SMUD plants are run on a peaking basis, although recreational boating and environmental flow requirements constrain their operation slightly.  A number of run-of-the-river hydroelectric plants are located further downstream on the South Fork. While they are not operated by SMUD, they depend on the releases from SMUD reservoirs to generate electricity. The El Dorado Irrigation District owns the Akin Powerhouse, and PG&E owns the Chili Bar Powerhouse. The Rock Creek Powerhouse is owned by Sithe Energies.

Middle Fork Project.

The Placer County Water Agency operates five hydroelectric power plants on remote sections of the Middle Fork as the Middle Fork Project, whose primary reservoirs are situated at French Meadows Reservoir and Hell Hole Reservoir. The Middle Fork Project generates 1.03 billion kilowatt hours each year and also provides of domestic water supply.

Conservation and restoration projects.

The American River Conservancy works to conserve the wildlife and their aquatic and terrestrial habitats and resources around the American River and Consumnes watersheds. They have successfully protected almost 25,000 acres since their inception in 1989. The land they protect helps the American River water quality by conserving and restoring wet meadows, wetlands, and riparian areas. They conserve the diversity of habitats and biodiversity by supporting protected native or endemic species that are listed as endangered or threatened. The American River Conservancy protects the American River watershed to preserve the cultural and historic values of the river systems and the landscapes surround them. They are also invested in keeping the American River for recreational activities as well as its remarkable natural scenic views.  The American River Parkway is a 23-mile stretch along the American River and includes about 5,000 acres of embankment between the Nimbus Fish Hatchery and where the American River and the Sacramento River converge. The Sacramento City Regional Parks owns most of the land that is operated by the American River Parkway. This area serves the citizens of Sacramento and visitors from away with access to the river and parks, picnic areas, biking and jogging paths, trails for hiking, and habitat for fish and wildlife.  Chinook Salmon are a threatened anadromous fish species that have historically used the American River as a location for an important part of their life cycle while in freshwater. The American River, however, has lost some of its natural flow and riverbed because of water projects and diversions. The American River Salmonid Spawning and Rearing Habitat Restoration project, which started in 2008, entails the placement of gravel to provide adequate habitat conducive to the salmonid’s needs for spawning and rearing to reach a maturity level fit for the ocean. From 2008 to 2012, the placement totaled 85,880 tons of gravel. The gravel will increase the number of fish redds, spawning nests, along the American River, which will decrease egg retention, and increase birth and survivorship rate. The project also included the introduction of small islands, loose woody debris, and larger boulders to advance the rearing habitat for the anadromous fish and increase biodiversity of the American River.

Recreation.

The American River is utilized for a variety of recreational uses. Locals and travelers alike use the river’s scenic landscape for bird watching, hiking, biking, fishing, river rafting, kayaking, and more. Although the American River allows small motor boats for part of the year, it remains free from speed boats or boats that use fuel, which makes it a clean, biodiverse river that people can safely swim in and do other recreational activities in.  The American River is specifically known for its whitewater rafting. The South Fork has Class III rapids, the Middle Fork has Class IV rapids, and the North Fork has Class IV spring run-off rapids. All three rivers also feature Class II sections. The areas with rapids still feature beautiful scenic views and wildlife, which is what makes it the most popular whitewater rafting location in California  The California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment has issued safe eating advice based on levels of mercury and polychlorinated biphenyl for fish caught from the section of the river that flows through Sacramento County.

The American River () is a ~30-mile-long river in California that runs from the Sierra Nevada mountain range to its confluence with the Sacramento River in the Sacramento Valley. Via the Sacramento River, it is part of the San Francisco Bay watershed. This river is fed by the melting snowpack of the Sierra Nevada and its many headwaters and tributaries, including the North Fork American River, the Middle Fork American River, and the South Fork American River.

American ( "American River", "Río de los Americanos" v době vlády mexičanů před rokem 1846), je kalifornská řeka pramenící na hřebenech pohoří Sierra Nevada, která ústí v kalifornském hlavním městě Sacramento do řeky Sacramento. Samotné Sacramento se vlévá v San Franciscu do Tichého oceánu. Celý tok řeky American se nachází v Kalifornii.


Design and development.

The B-20 was an attempt to combine the best features of both the flying boat and the floatplane. While on the water, the B-20 was essentially a floatplane, using a large float under the fuselage for buoyancy, and two smaller floats near the wingtips for stability. In flight, the main float retracted upwards towards the fuselage, fitting into a "notch" to become streamlined as a part of the fuselage. The wing floats folded outwards, somewhat like those on the American Consolidated PBY flying boat design, to become the wingtips. This configuration gave the correct wing incidence for takeoff and for flight and in the latter a much reduced drag compared to the deep hulls of flying boats.  Blackburn, along with Supermarine, Shorts and Saunders-Roe tendered designs against Air Ministry Specification R1/36. The Supermarine was chosen initially but Supermarine could not start work soon enough (due to their work on the Spitfire) and what would enter service as the Saunders Roe Lerwick became the chosen aircraft. However, the Ministry was interested enough to authorise and contract for the construction of a prototype of the B-20, serial number "V8914", to test the concept.

Testing.

The prototype, built at Dumbarton, flew for the first time on 26 March 1940. On 7 April, during a test run, the aircraft experienced extreme vibration due to aileron flutter and the crew bailed out. Three were lost, the other two were picked up by, a converted merchantman. Development ceased when the first prototype crashed, as Blackburn's resources were dedicated to the war effort. The Ministry felt the concept had been proven and the crash was not due to the pontoon design.  The aircraft's wreck still exists, but remains undisturbed as it is designated a War grave. In 1998, one of the engines was raised as it had been caught in a fishing boat's nets and dragged away from the wreck, into shallower water. It is currently an exhibit in the Dumfries and Galloway Aviation Museum.

B.40.

The B-40 was an improved variant of the B-20 with Bristol Centaurus engines to meet a requirement for a small general purpose flying boat and specification R.13/40 was raised for it. Two prototypes were ordered in September 1941 but the situation was reconsidered in December. Its range was insufficient improvement over the Sunderland III, performance on one engine was unacceptable, and land-based patrol aircraft were capable of covering longer ranges. Further, there was little value as an experimental design because the principle had been proven in the B.20 and for an aircraft the size of the B.40 there would not be a significant improvement in drag. With no operational requirement for the B.40, it was therefore cancelled.

The Blackburn B-20 was an experimental aircraft, first flying in 1940, that attempted to drastically increase the performance of flying boat designs. Blackburn Aircraft undertook an independent design study based on a patent filed by their chief designer, John Douglas Rennie for a retractable pontoon float that formed the planing hull.

Blackburn B-20 byl britský dvoumotorový hornoplošný celokovový létající člun s pětičlennou osádkou, určený k plnění role námořního hlídkového a protiponorkového letounu.


Size and previous hunter attempts.

In 1923, Corbett first discovered the tiger in a steep ravine within a secure retreat. Government rules prohibited night-time shooting, which inadvertently helped the highly sought after tiger to survive.  Corbett took Commissioner Wyndham (who he said "knows more about tigers than any other man in India") and two experienced "shikaris", to view the pug marks of the tiger. After the four examined and measured the pugmarks, Wyndham believed the tiger to be ten feet long between pegs. One shikari said he was 10'5" over curves, while the other said he was 10'6" or more. All four said they had never seen larger pugmarks.  Before Corbett, many attempts had been made to bag the animal, with no one having ever shot him. Two famous hunters, Fred Anderson and Huish Edye, came close, though small mistakes were the cause of their failures. Anderson described the tiger as "big as a Shetland pony," while Edye said it was as big as a donkey. A herder and former poacher, who was attacked by the tiger, said to Corbett that the Bachelor was a "shaitan", the Hindi word for 'devil', of a tiger, the size of a camel.  Seven years after the commissioner measured the pugmarks, Corbett and his sister measured the tiger's body twice, albeit without independent witnesses present to certify the measurements, which was 10'7" over curves.

First encounter with the tiger.

In the winter of 1930, Corbett made his first hunt for the tiger, bringing his dog Robin with him. He followed the words of an old dak runner who said he saw the largest pugmarks he'd ever seen lead east to a well-wooded valley. The next morning, Robin picked up the scent of a tiger while Jim noticed large, fresh pugmarks. Fifty yards later, Robin located the tiger within a patch of clerodendron forty yards wide. Picking up Robin and entering the plants slowly, Corbett noticed the patch directly ahead swaying. After waiting for the tiger to leave the bush, Corbett went forward with his rifle drawn, but the tiger was nowhere in sight. Robin then signalled that the tiger had gone to the left, into a deep and narrow ravine. Not armed for dealing with a tiger in close quarters, and it being breakfast time, Corbett and Robin returned home.  After breakfast, Corbett returned alone, this time armed with a.450 rifle. He heard shouting and found a man up a tree, swinging an axe and yelling. The man told Corbett that he arrived in time to save him and his buffaloes from a tiger, the size of a camel, who had threatened the herder for hours. After retreating safely to his village, the man pleaded with Corbett to put his photography hobby aside for once and kill the tiger, which he said was big enough to eat a buffalo a day, and would wipe out his livestock in twenty-five. Corbett promised to do his best.  Returning to the plains in which he led the herder's buffaloes through, he heard the call of the bachelor searching for a mate. Corbett imitated a tiger call in reply, then laid down on his elbows in the open, waiting for the tiger to come. After Corbett gave another tiger call, the bachelor called back from a hundred yards away. Eighty seconds later, the tiger's head appeared above bushes four feet high, within ten yards to Corbett's right, and looking directly at him. Corbett slowly turned his rifle, and shot the tiger an inch under his right eye. Instead of dropping dead, as Jim expected, the big cat jumped straight into the air, well above the bushes, then out of panic attacked the tree beside him, tearing it to bits while roaring. Knowing that the tiger knew where he was, Corbett feared to reload his rifle, lest the sound attract the bachelor's attention. He lay on the ground motionless for half an hour until the branches of the tree and nearby bushes stopped waving, and the roaring became less frequent. After all the sounds of thrashing had stopped, Corbett waited for thirty more minutes before slowly crawling thirty yards backwards and hiding in a nearby tree for shelter. After several more minutes, when he was sure that the tiger was gone, Corbett left for home.

Tracking the tiger.

The next morning Corbett returned to the location, along with one of his men, an expert tree climber. After reaching the open grounds, the man climbed a tree, noticing many flattened bushes around, but no signs of the tiger itself. Corbett then instructed the man back in the tree to watch over him as he scoured the ground. Near the tree Corbett found blood profusely sprinkled everywhere, and two large pools of blood and a piece of bone two square inches, which was concluded to be the part of the tiger's skull. As a wounded tiger would growl or charge after hearing a gunshot again, Corbett fired a hundred rounds at bushes near a blood-stained tree, but to no avail. Not finding the tiger within the area, Corbett went home.

Final encounter with the tiger.

The following morning the herder approached Corbett. He learned that the tiger was shot through the head and, upon his buffaloes finding dried spots of blood, concluded that the tiger must be dead. He offered Jim to use his buffaloes to find the tiger's body using their keen sense of smell, which Corbett agreed upon. Reaching the location where he shot the tiger, Corbett found a hollow filled with dead leaves, flattened with patches of blood around it. Corbett concluded the bachelor must have been lying in the same spot yesterday while he was expending a hundred cartridges. Being uncomfortable with the thought of possibly being between a wounded tiger and a herd of buffaloes, Corbett told the herder that the next day he will search for the tiger alone.  After four days of roaming the jungle, Corbett found pugmarks of a big male tiger. Following the pugmarks led Corbett to a "semul" tree, which was founded by tigers. After zig-zagging through nearby bushes for an hour or more, Corbett found a tiger, head and body hidden behind a tree with only a leg sticking out. Due to there being another tiger in the area, and not wanting to risk having to deal with two wounded tigers, Corbett choose not to shoot the tiger at that moment. The tiger then moved away. Upon inspecting the spot the tiger had been standing, Corbett found drops of blood, realizing that it was the bachelor all along.  While attempting to follow the tiger, Corbett heard a sambhar cry, then he heard a dry twig snap in the same spot as the cry, which was in a crowded bush area. Crawling on the ground, Corbett saw something red through the bushes. Crawling two yards to the right Corbett looked up to find the tiger in front of him, staring directly at him. Two bullet shots later the tiger fell to his side without a sound, ending the hunt for the province's most sought after trophy of the decade. He did not need to examine this tiger's pugmarks to know it was the Bachelor of Powalgarh, for his proportions were magnificent. The bullet wound from four days ago was hidden by a wrinkle of skin on the front of his head, while the back of the head had a large hole, surprisingly clean and healthy.  Knowing people heard his rifle, Corbett hurried home to relieve the anxiety of the villagers and to gather a carrying party. With his sister, Robin, and twenty men, Corbett returned to the spot where the tiger lay. Corbett measured the tiger twice, one on the spot and another at home, seven years after Wyndham and his men measured the tiger. Corbett and his sister found the tiger to be 10' 7" (322.58 cm), over curves.

Sources.

Information about the male Bengal tiger comes from a documentary-style story written by hunter, conservationist, and author Jim Corbett in his book "Man-Eaters of Kumaon", published by the Oxford University Press in India in 1944.

The Bachelor of Powalgarh, also known as the Tiger of Powalgarh, was an unusually large Bengal tiger, and is said to be 10 feet 7 inches (3.23 meters) long when measured between pegs. From 1920 to 1930, this male tiger was the most sought-after big-game trophy in the United Provinces. When the tiger was shot in the winter of 1930 by Jim Corbett, he detailed the story in his book "Man-Eaters of Kumaon", published by Oxford University press in 1944.

Starý mládenec z Poválgarhu (angl. „Bachelor of Powalgarh“) byl proslulý samec tygra indického. Jednalo se o dominantní šelmu na území Kumaónu (severní Indie) ve 20. letech 20. století. Nešlo o lidožrouta, nicméně místní obyvatelé se ho velmi báli, neboť ohrožoval jejich dobytek. Několik lovců ho zkoušelo skolit jako trofejní kus. Lovec tygrů Jim Corbett zvíře poprvé vystopoval v roce 1923. Podle otisků stop poznal, že jde o mimořádně velkého jedince. Další lovci, kteří se ho pokoušeli dostat, a místní domorodci ho přirovnávali velikostí k oslovi, shetlandskému ponymu nebo velbloudovi. V roce 1930 se s ním Corbett setkal podruhé. Nejprve šelmu poranil střelou do hlavy a po 4 dnech stopování „starého mládence“ zastřelil. Následně ho změřil a došel k číslu 10 stop a 7 palců (322,6 cm), což z tohoto samce dělá jednoho z nejdelších kusů tygra indického vůbec. Zvážen bohužel nebyl.


Founding.

The HSP, along with other modern Croatian parties (such as Croatian Pure Party of Rights), claim legacy to the Party of Rights which was founded in 1861 and existed until 1929.

During the Croatian War of Independence (1991–1995).

A group of people restored Croatian Party of Rights on 25 February 1990. Dobroslav Paraga, the first president of the party acknowledged the historical bounds with the older Party of Rights. Soon, the party faced splits. Krešimir Pavelić, a former secretary of the party, became president of the new Croatian Democratic Party of Rights. Some other "rights" parties that claimed origin from old Party of Rights appeared. Croatian Party of Rights did not participate in the Croatian parliamentary election in 1990, which helped Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) to win more votes.  HSP's political appeal and strength were at peak during the 1991-92 when Croatian Defence Forces, a military wing of the HSP, took heavy burden of defence of Croatia. Paraga was the champion of the Croatian will for freedom and independence. Paraga harshly and openly criticized Franjo Tudjman for his cooperation with Serbia and the conflict with Bosniaks in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The HSP used the writings of Ante Starčević and the writings of Ustaša ideologues such as Mile Budak to argue that Tudjman was not radical enough in his defence of the Croatian state.  The ruling HDZ cooperated with the HSP until the fall of Vukovar, after which the leaders of the HSP and HOS were imprisoned for "terrorist activities" and "obstruction of democratically elected government". Paraga and the Croatian Party of Rights appeared in front of a military tribunal on allegations of insubordination. They were later released. Paraga's main political and electoral platform was the creation of a Greater Croatia and the total defeat of the Serbian aggressor. In the Croatian parliamentary election held in 1992, HDZ lost 7% of votes in favor of the Party of Rights.  One of the party's first post-communist leaders, Ante Paradžik was a political dissident during the former Yugoslavia when he was a student leader of the Croatian Spring, but he was killed during the war by assassination. Paraga found himself in a power struggle with his deputy, Anto Đapić. Paraga and Đapić fought a legal battle for the right to use the party name, a dispute that Paraga eventually lost. Paraga later formed the Croatian Party of Rights 1861 (HSP 1861) but by this time he was already politically marginalized.  On 17 September 1993, the leaders of the three "rights" parties held a meeting in Kutina and began preparations for a new union on a broad common "rights" program. The initiative for the meeting came from the new leaders of the HSP, Anto Đapić and Boris Kandare, who invited leaders of the Croatian Pure Party of Rights and the Croatian National Democratic League but the meeting was unsuccessful, and those parties are still acting separately. During the parliamentary election in 1995, HSP lost popularity due to bad situation in the party in favor of HDZ.

Post Croatian War of Independence.

The long-time president of modern HSP was Anto Đapić. His political reputation was severely tarnished after the media found out that he cheated to obtain his first post-graduate degree in law at the University of Split, in collusion with Boris Kandare, a senior member of his party and professor at the Law Faculty. He was also publicly accused of faking injuries to obtain the status of a war veteran. Despite these revelations, Đapić's career as head of the HSP was unaffected. Even after the party was left by many and it had terrible results (losing seven out of eight seats from 2003) on the Croatian elections in 2007, he remained as head of the party (he temporarily resigned, but in less than few weeks he has withdrawn his resignation).  At the 2003 Croatian parliamentary election, the party – in an alliance with Međimurje Party (Međimurska stranka), Zagorje Democratic Party (Zagorska demokratska stranka) and non-partisan Slaven Letica – won 6.4% of the popular vote and 8 out of 151 seats, all for the HSP and Slaven Letica.  In August 2005, the Croatian Democratic Republican Party (), a right-wing political party established on 21 October 2000, by merger of three smaller right-wing parties, merged into the Croatian Party of Rights.  The first president of HDRS was Joško Kovač. In September 2007, prominent members Miroslav Rožić and Tonči Tadić left the party. In November at the 2007 Croatian parliamentary election, the party suffered a setback, as it won 3.5% of the popular vote and a single seat in Sabor. After the 2009 Croatian local elections, which weren't particularly successful for the party either, turmoil in the party leadership escalated when a faction led by former representatives Ruža Tomašić and Pero Kovačević formed a splinter "Croatian Party of Rights dr. Ante Starčević".  At the party convention held on 7 November 2009, Đapić officially stepped down, allowing a new leader to be elected by party members. Daniel Srb defeated two other candidates to become the new president of the party. Croatian Party of Rights announced that during the Croatian parliamentary election in 2011 holders of their list in VII Electoral District (primary Lika and Gorski Kotar) would be exclusively women.  The party, for the first time, didn't win any parliamentary seats in the 2011 Croatian parliamentary election, which led to a crisis in Party of Rights; leaders of the Dalmatian branch of the party called for resignation of honorary president Anto Đapić. The president of the HSP in Split, Hrvoje Tomašević, asked for Đapić's resignation from politics and election in the party. He was supported by the president of the HSP in Dubrovnik, Denis Šešelj. This appeal resulted in Đapić's resignation from party politics.  On 28 January 2013, the Presidency of the Croatian Party of Rights expelled its former honorary president Đapić from the party. Srb, the party's president, said that Đapić expelled as he broke his promise that he wouldn't be active in politics. Đapić said that he was shocked by the decision.

Election history.

Legislative.

The following is a summary of the party's results in legislative elections for the Croatian Parliament. The "Total votes" and "Percentage" columns include sums of votes won by pre-election coalitions HSP had been part of and the "Total seats" column includes sums of seats won by HSP in election constituencies plus representatives of ethnic minorities affiliated with HSP.

Presidential.

The following is a list of presidential candidates endorsed by HSP in elections for President of Croatia.

The Croatian Party of Rights ( or HSP) is an extra-parliamentary Croatian nationalist political party in Croatia. The "right(s)" in the party's name refer to the legal and moral reasons that justify the independence and autonomy of Croatia. While the HSP has retained its old name, today it is a right-wing party with an ethnocentric platform.

Hrvatska stranka prava je chorvatská parlamentní pravicová strana. Jejím předsedou je Daniel Srb, který byl znovu zvolen ve vnitrostranických volbách dne 28. února 2016.


History.

The East Indie is the oldest breed of bantam duck. It is thought to have originated in the United States, but its precise origin is not known. It has at various times been known by other names, some of them – such as "Brazilian", "Buenos Airean", "Labrador" – suggesting a geographical origin. There is, however, no documented connection to the East Indies, to South America, or to Labrador. It is thought that the breed developed from its original form in the United Kingdom in the second half of the nineteenth century, and was then further refined in the United States in the latter part of the twentieth century. A hypothesis that the black color of the plumage derives from the native American species "Anas rubripes" appears to be unsubstantiated.  Black East Indians were imported to the United Kingdom in or before 1831, supposedly from Buenos Aires, and were housed in the Zoological Gardens of the Zoological Society of London; they were at first called "Buenos Aireans". Others were at Knowsley Hall, home of the Earls of Derby, in about 1850. In 1853 the Black East Indian was described in the "Poultry Book" of William Wingfield and George William Johnson, with an illustration by Harrison Weir. It was included in the original "Standard of Excellence in Exhibition Poultry" of William Bernhard Tegetmeier in 1865, and – as the Black Indie – in the first "Standard of Perfection" of the American Poultry Association in 1874.

Characteristics.

The East Indie is a bantam breed, usually weighing under. It has very dark, lustrous greenish-black plumage and a black bill. Ducks may sometimes develop white feathers as they age; drakes that do so should not be used for breeding. It flies well unless the wings are clipped. It is generally shyer and quieter than the Call Duck.

Use.

The East Indie is largely kept by fanciers for exhibition or ornament. It may be helpful in pest control in gardens.

The East Indie or Black East Indian is an ornamental breed of domestic duck. It is a bantam breed, and is thought to have originated in the United States.

Kachna smaragdová, "Anas platyrhynchos f. domestica" je plemeno kachny domácí, vyznačující se černě zabarveným peřím s velmi výrazným smaragdovým leskem. Dalším typickým rysem tohoto plemene kachny je také kulatý ocas.


Quasistatic Timoshenko beam.

In static Timoshenko beam theory without axial effects, the displacements of the beam are assumed to be given by where formula_2 are the coordinates of a point in the beam, formula_3 are the components of the displacement vector in the three coordinate directions, formula_4 is the angle of rotation of the normal to the mid-surface of the beam, and formula_5 is the displacement of the mid-surface in the formula_6-direction.  The governing equations are the following coupled system of ordinary differential equations:  The Timoshenko beam theory for the static case is equivalent to the Euler-Bernoulli theory when the last term above is neglected, an approximation that is valid when where  Combining the two equations gives, for a homogeneous beam of constant cross-section,  The bending moment formula_18 and the shear force formula_19 in the beam are related to the displacement formula_5 and the rotation formula_4. These relations, for a linear elastic Timoshenko beam, are:

Boundary conditions.

The two equations that describe the deformation of a Timoshenko beam have to be augmented with boundary conditions if they are to be solved. Four boundary conditions are needed for the problem to be well-posed. Typical boundary conditions are:

Example: Cantilever beam.

For a cantilever beam, one boundary is clamped while the other is free. Let us use a right handed coordinate system where the formula_31 direction is positive towards right and the formula_6 direction is positive upward. Following normal convention, we assume that positive forces act in the positive directions of the formula_31 and formula_6 axes and positive moments act in the clockwise direction. We also assume that the sign convention of the stress resultants (formula_18 and formula_19) is such that positive bending moments compress the material at the bottom of the beam (lower formula_6 coordinates) and positive shear forces rotate the beam in a counterclockwise direction.  Let us assume that the clamped end is at formula_38 and the free end is at formula_39. If a point load formula_40 is applied to the free end in the positive formula_6 direction, a free body diagram of the beam gives us and Therefore, from the expressions for the bending moment and shear force, we have Integration of the first equation, and application of the boundary condition formula_45 at formula_46, leads to The second equation can then be written as Integration and application of the boundary condition formula_49 at formula_46 gives The axial stress is given by

Dynamic Timoshenko beam.

In Timoshenko beam theory without axial effects, the displacements of the beam are assumed to be given by where formula_2 are the coordinates of a point in the beam, formula_3 are the components of the displacement vector in the three coordinate directions, formula_4 is the angle of rotation of the normal to the mid-surface of the beam, and formula_5 is the displacement of the mid-surface in the formula_6-direction.  Starting from the above assumption, the Timoshenko beam theory, allowing for vibrations, may be described with the coupled linear partial differential equations:  where the dependent variables are formula_61, the translational displacement of the beam, and formula_62, the angular displacement. Note that unlike the Euler-Bernoulli theory, the angular deflection is another variable and not approximated by the slope of the deflection. Also,  These parameters are not necessarily constants.  For a linear elastic, isotropic, homogeneous beam of constant cross-section these two equations can be combined to give The Timoshenko equation predicts a critical frequency formula_74 For normal modes the Timoshenko equation can be solved. Being a fourth order equation, there are four independent solutions, two oscillatory and two evanescent for frequencies below formula_75. For frequencies larger than formula_75 all solutions are oscillatory and, as consequence, a second spectrum appears.

Axial effects.

If the displacements of the beam are given by where formula_78 is an additional displacement in the formula_31-direction, then the governing equations of a Timoshenko beam take the form where formula_81 and formula_82 is an externally applied axial force. Any external axial force is balanced by the stress resultant where formula_84 is the axial stress and the thickness of the beam has been assumed to be formula_85.  The combined beam equation with axial force effects included is

Damping.

If, in addition to axial forces, we assume a damping force that is proportional to the velocity with the form the coupled governing equations for a Timoshenko beam take the form  and the combined equation becomes  A caveat to this Ansatz damping force (resembling viscosity) is that, whereas viscosity leads to a frequency-dependent and amplitude-independent damping rate of beam oscillations, the empirically measured damping rates are frequency-insensitive, but depend on the amplitude of beam deflection.

Shear coefficient.

Determining the shear coefficient is not straightforward (nor are the determined values widely accepted, i.e. there's more than one answer); generally it must satisfy:  The shear coefficient depends on Poisson's ratio. The attempts to provide precise expressions were made by many scientists, including Stephen Timoshenko, Raymond D. Mindlin, G. R. Cowper, N. G. Stephen, J. R. Hutchinson etc. (see also the derivation of the Timoshenko beam theory as a refined beam theory based on the variational-asymptotic method in the book by Khanh C. Le leading to different shear coefficients in the static and dynamic cases). In engineering practice, the expressions by Stephen Timoshenko are sufficient in most cases. In 1975 Kaneko published an excellent review of studies of the shear coefficient. More recently new experimental data show that the shear coefficient is underestimated.  According to Cowper (1966) for solid rectangular cross-sections,  and for solid circular cross-sections,  where formula_94 is Poisson's ratio.

The Timoshenko-Ehrenfest beam theory or simply, the Timoshenko beam theory, was developed by Stephen Timoshenko and Paul Ehrenfest early in the 20th century. The model takes into account shear deformation and rotational bending effects, making it suitable for describing the behaviour of thick beams, sandwich composite beams, or beams subject to high-frequency excitation when the wavelength approaches the thickness of the beam. The resulting equation is of 4th order but, unlike Euler–Bernoulli beam theory, there is also a second-order partial derivative present. Physically, taking into account the added mechanisms of deformation effectively lowers the stiffness of the beam, while the result is a larger deflection under a static load and lower predicted eigenfrequencies for a given set of boundary conditions. The latter effect is more noticeable for higher frequencies as the wavelength becomes shorter (in principle comparable to the height of the beam or shorter), and thus the distance between opposing shear forces decreases.

Tymošenkova teorie ohybu nosníku (přepisem z ruštiny Timošenkova teorie, též "Bresseho-Tymošenkova teorie") je teorie umožňující přibližně popsat ohyb nosníku. Teorie vychází ze dvou předpokladů o deformaci nosníku: