Early life and education.

Sirica was born in Waterbury, Connecticut, to Ferdinando (Fred) Sirica, an immigrant from Italy, and Rose (Zinno) Sirica, whose parents were from Italy. He moved to Washington, D.C., in 1918, where he attended Emerson Preparatory School and eventually transferred to Columbia Preparatory School. He went directly from high school to law school, which was possible in the District of Columbia at the time, and, after two false starts, entered Georgetown Law and received a Bachelor of Laws in 1926. Between 1910 and 1918, the Sirica family lived in various cities across the United States where Fred worked as a barber and made several unsuccessful attempts at running small businesses. In 1922, Fred was running a two-lane bowling alley and poolhall, which was raided by the police for violation of the Prohibition-era Volstead Act when liquor was found in the restroom. Fred was arrested, but the charges were dropped. He soon sold the business and moved away.

Career.

Sirica fought as a boxer in Washington and Miami in the 1920s and 1930s. He was torn between a career as a fighter and the career in law that he followed after earning a law degree and passing the bar. Boxing champion Jack Dempsey became a close friend. Sirica was in private practice of law in Washington, D.C. from 1926 to 1930. He was an Assistant United States Attorney for the District of Columbia from 1930 to 1934, and subsequently returned to private practice from 1934 to 1957. He also served as general counsel to the House Select Committee to Investigate the Federal Communications Commission in 1944; his appointment was opposed by the two Republican members of the committee. However, Sirica resigned in protest over the committee's handling of the WMCA scandal that year, and re-entered private practice. In 1947, he joined the law firm of Hogan and Hartson in Washington, D.C. (now called Hogan Lovells).

Federal judicial service.

Sirica was nominated by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on February 25, 1957, to a seat on the United States District Court for the District of Columbia vacated by Judge Henry Albert Schweinhaut. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on March 26, 1957, and received his commission on March 28, 1957. He served as Chief Judge and a member of the Judicial Conference of the United States from 1971 to 1974. He assumed senior status on October 31, 1977. His service terminated on August 14, 1992, due to his death.

Judicial demeanor.

Experienced as a trial lawyer, Sirica was known for his "no-nonsense" demeanor on the bench. Author Joseph Goulden, in "The Benchwarmers," said that some lawyers thought Sirica made careless legal errors. He was nicknamed "Maximum John" for giving defendants the maximum sentence that guidelines allowed.

Book.

In 1979, Sirica published a book, co-authored with John Stacks, detailing his participation in the Watergate cases under the title "To Set the Record Straight".

Death.

Sirica suffered a severe heart attack while at a speaking engagement on February 5, 1976. In the final years of his life, Sirica suffered from a wide range of ailments, both minor and severe. In the last few weeks of his life, he came down with pneumonia. He fell and broke his collarbone a few days before his death, and was hospitalized at Georgetown University Medical Center in Washington, D.C.. He died in the hospital of cardiac arrest at 4:30 p.m. on August 14, 1992. He was interred at Gate of Heaven Cemetery in Silver Spring, Maryland. Sirica was survived by his wife, Lucile Camalier Sirica, and his three children, John Jr., Patricia, and Eileen.

John Joseph Sirica (March 19, 1904 – August 14, 1992) was a United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, where he became famous for his role in the trials stemming from the Watergate scandal. He rose to national prominence when he ordered President Richard Nixon to turn over his recordings of White House conversations. Sirica's involvement in the case began when he presided over the trial of the Watergate burglars. He did not believe the claim that they had acted alone, and through the use of strongly encouraged them to give information about higher-ups before final sentencing. One defendant, James W. McCord Jr., wrote a letter describing a broader scheme of involvement by people in the Nixon administration. For his role in uncovering the truth about Watergate, Sirica was named "Time" magazine's Man of the Year in January 1974.

John Joseph Sirica (19. března 1904 – 14. srpna 1992) byl předsedou soudu příslušného pro distrikt hlavního města USA (District of Columbia). Proslavil se svou rolí ve skandálu Watergate, když přikázal prezidentu Richardu Nixonovi, aby soudu předložil své zápisy z jednání v Bílém domě. Siricovo zapojení do případu začalo tím, že předsedal soudu nad lidmi, kteří se vloupali do komplexu Watergate. Neuvěřil jejich tvrzení, že jednali na vlastní pěst a většinu z nich přesvědčil, aby řekli, kdo vloupání zorganizoval. Za svou roli při objasnění případu byl Sirica časopisem "Time" jmenován Mužem roku 1973.


Early life.

Starr was born near Vernon, Texas, and was raised in Centerville, Texas. His father was a minister in the Churches of Christ who also worked as a barber. Starr attended Sam Houston High School in San Antonio and was a popular, straight‐A student. His classmates voted him most likely to succeed.  In 1970, Starr married Alice Mendell, who was raised Jewish but converted to Christianity.

Education.

Starr attended the Churches of Christ–affiliated Harding University in Searcy, Arkansas, where he was an honor student, a member of the Young Democrats and a vocal supporter of Vietnam protesters. He later transferred to George Washington University, in Washington, D.C., where he received a Bachelor of Arts degree in history, in 1968. While there, he became a member of Delta Phi Epsilon.  Starr was not drafted for military service during the Vietnam War, as he was classified 4‐F, because he has psoriasis. He worked in the Southwestern Advantage entrepreneurial program and later attended Brown University, where he earned a Master of Arts degree in 1969, and then Duke University School of Law, earning a J.D. in 1973.

Legal career.

After his graduation from Duke, Starr worked as a law clerk for U.S. circuit judge David W. Dyer of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit (1973–1974). Later, he clerked for Chief Justice Warren Burger of the Supreme Court of the United States (1975–77).  He joined the Washington, D.C., office of the Los Angeles–based law firm Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher in 1977. He was appointed counselor to U.S. attorney general William French Smith in 1981.

Federal judge and solicitor general.

On September 13, 1983, he was nominated by Ronald Reagan to a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit vacated by George MacKinnon. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on September 20, 1983, and received the commission on September 20, 1983. His service terminated on May 26, 1989, due to resignation.  Starr was the United States solicitor general, from 1989 to 1993, under George H. W. Bush.

Early 1990s.

When the Senate Ethics committee needed someone to review Republican senator Bob Packwood's diaries, the committee chose Starr. In 1990, Starr was the leading candidate for the U.S. Supreme Court nomination after William Brennan's retirement. He encountered strong resistance from the Department of Justice leadership, which feared that Starr might not be reliably conservative as a Supreme Court justice. George H. W. Bush nominated David Souter instead of Starr. Starr also considered running for the United States Senate, from Virginia in 1994, against incumbent Chuck Robb, but opted against opposing Oliver North for the Republican nomination.

Independent counsel.

Appointment.

In August 1994, pursuant to the newly reauthorized Ethics in Government Act (), Starr was appointed by a special three-judge division of the D.C. Circuit to continue the Whitewater investigation. He replaced Robert B. Fiske, a moderate Republican who had been appointed by attorney general Janet Reno.  Starr took the position part-time and remained active with his law firm, Kirkland & Ellis, as this was permitted by statute and was also the norm with previous independent counsel investigations. As time went on, however, Starr was increasingly criticized for alleged conflicts of interest stemming from his continuing association with Kirkland & Ellis. Kirkland, like several other major law firms, was representing clients in litigation with the government, including tobacco companies and auto manufacturers. The firm itself was being sued by the Resolution Trust Company, a government agency involved in the Whitewater matter. Additionally, Starr's own actions were challenged because Starr had, on one occasion, talked with lawyers for Paula Jones, who was suing Bill Clinton over an alleged sexual harassment. Starr had explained to them why he believed that sitting U.S. presidents are not immune to civil suit.

Investigation of the death of Vince Foster.

On October 10, 1997, Starr's report on the death of deputy White House counsel Vince Foster, drafted largely by Starr's deputy Brett Kavanaugh, was released to the public by the Special Division. The complete report is 137 pages long and includes an appendix added to the Report by the Special Division over Starr's objection. The report agrees with the findings of previous independent counsel Robert B. Fiske that Foster committed suicide at Fort Marcy Park, in Virginia, and that his suicide was caused primarily by undiagnosed and untreated depression. As CNN explained on February 28, 1997, "The [Starr] report refutes claims by conservative political organizations that Foster was the victim of a murder plot and coverup," but "despite those findings, right-wing political groups have continued to allege that there was more to the death and that the president and first lady tried to cover it up." CNN also noted that organizations pushing the murder theory included the "Pittsburgh Tribune-Review", owned by billionaire Richard Mellon Scaife, and Accuracy in Media, supported in part by Scaife's foundation. Scaife's reporter on the Whitewater matter, Christopher Ruddy, was a frequent critic of Starr's handling of the case.

Expansion of the investigation.

The law conferred broad investigative powers on Starr and the other independent counsels named to investigate the administration, including the right to subpoena nearly anyone who might have information relevant to the particular investigation. Starr would later receive authority to conduct additional investigations, including the firing of White House Travel Office personnel, potential political abuse of confidential FBI files, Madison Guaranty, Rose Law Firm, Paula Jones lawsuit and, most notoriously, possible perjury and obstruction of justice to cover up President Clinton's sexual relationship with Monica Lewinsky. The Lewinsky portion of the investigation included the secret taping of conversations between Lewinsky and coworker Linda Tripp, requests by Starr to tape Lewinsky's conversations with Clinton, and requests by Starr to compel Secret Service agents to testify about what they might have seen while guarding Clinton. With the investigation of Clinton's possible adultery, critics of Starr believed that he had crossed a line and was acting more as a political hit man than as a prosecutor.

Clinton–Lewinsky scandal, Paula Jones lawsuit.

In his deposition for the Paula Jones lawsuit, Clinton denied having "sexual relations" with Monica Lewinsky. On the basis of the evidence provided by Monica Lewinsky, a blue dress with Clinton's semen, Ken Starr concluded that this sworn testimony was false and perjurious.  During the deposition in the Jones case, Clinton was asked, "Have you ever had sexual relations with Monica Lewinsky, as that term is defined in Deposition Exhibit 1, as modified by the Court?" The definition included contact with the genitalia, anus, groin, breast, inner thigh, or buttocks of a person with an intent to arouse or gratify the sexual desire of that person, any contact of the genitals or anus of another person, or contact of one's genitals or anus and any part of another person's body either directly or through clothing. The judge ordered that Clinton be given an opportunity to review the agreed definition. Clinton flatly denied having sexual relations with Lewinsky. Later, at the Starr grand jury, Clinton stated that he believed the definition of "sexual relations" agreed upon for the Jones deposition excluded his receiving oral sex.  Starr's investigation eventually led to the impeachment of President Clinton, with whom Starr shared "Time'"s Man of the Year designation for 1998. Despite his impeachment, the president was acquitted in the subsequent trial before the United States Senate as all 45 Democrats and 10 Republicans voted to acquit.

Second thoughts on DOJ request.

In 2004, Starr expressed regret for ever having asked the Department of Justice to assign him to oversee the Lewinsky investigation personally, saying, "the most fundamental thing that could have been done differently" would have been for somebody else to have investigated the matter.

Criticism and political satire.

As with many controversial figures, Starr has been the subject of political satire. The book, "And the Horse He Rode In On", by pundit James Carville, attempts to portray Starr's time as special prosecutor in a comedic, negative light. At the end of his tenure at Baylor, many called Starr a hypocrite for playing a role in covering up the Baylor Football sex scandal, considering how harshly he stood against Clinton in regards to Clinton's scandal.

Post-independent counsel activities.

After five years as independent counsel, Starr resigned and returned to private practice as an appellate lawyer and a visiting professor at New York University, the Chapman University School of Law, and the George Mason University School of Law. Starr worked as a partner at Kirkland & Ellis, specializing in litigation. He was one of the lead attorneys in a class-action lawsuit filed by a coalition of liberal and conservative groups (including the American Civil Liberties Union and the National Rifle Association) against the regulations created by the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002, known informally as McCain-Feingold Act. In the case, Starr argued that the law was an unconstitutional abridgment of free speech.  On April 6, 2004, he was appointed dean of the Pepperdine University School of Law. He originally accepted a position at Pepperdine as the first dean of the newly created School of Public Policy in 1996; however, he withdrew from the appointment in 1998, several months after the Lewinsky controversy erupted. Critics charged that there was a conflict of interest due to substantial donations to Pepperdine from billionaire Richard Mellon Scaife, a Clinton critic who funded many media outlets attacking the president. (Scaife's money, however, supported the Foster-was-murdered theory, according to CNN, and Scaife defunded "The American Spectator" after it endorsed Starr's conclusion of suicide and mocked a Scaife-aided book.) In 2004, some five years after President Clinton's impeachment, Starr was again offered a Pepperdine position at the School of Law and this time accepted it.

Death penalty cases.

In 2005, Starr worked to overturn the death sentence of Robin Lovitt, who was on Virginia's death row for murdering a man during a robbery in 1998. Starr provided his services to Lovitt pro bono. On October 3, 2005, the Supreme Court denied certiorari. (Lovitt was granted clemency and had his sentence commuted to life in prison without parole, on November 29, 2005, by Governor Mark Warner of Virginia.)  On January 26, 2006, the defense team of convicted murderer Michael Morales (which included Starr) sent letters to California governor Arnold Schwarzenegger requesting clemency for Morales. Letters purporting to be from the jurors who determined Morales's death sentence were included in the package sent to Schwarzenegger. However, prosecutors alleged that the documents were forgeries, and accused investigator and anti-death penalty activist Kathleen Culhane of falsifying the documents. Lead defense attorney David Senior and his team soon withdrew the documents. Ultimately, clemency was denied, but the falsified documents were not used in the rationale. Eventually, Culhane was criminally charged with forging the documents and, under a plea agreement, was sentenced to five years in prison.

"Morse v. Frederick".

On May 4, 2006, Starr announced that he would represent the school board of Juneau, Alaska, in its appeal to the United States Supreme Court in a case brought by a former student, Joseph Frederick. A high school student at that time, Joseph Frederick unfurled a banner at a school-sponsored event saying "Bong Hits 4 Jesus" as the Olympic torch was passing through Juneau, before arriving in Salt Lake City, Utah, for the 2002 Winter Olympics. The board decided to suspend the student. The student then sued and won at the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, which stated that the board violated the student's first amendment right to free speech. On August 28, 2006, Starr filed a writ of certiorari for a hearing with the Supreme Court. On June 21, 2007, in an opinion authored by Chief Justice John G. Roberts, the court ruled in favor of Starr's client, finding that "a principal may, consistent with the First Amendment, restrict student speech at a school event, when that speech is reasonably viewed as promoting illegal drug use."

"Blackwater Security Consulting v. Nordan" (No. 06-857).

Starr continues to represent Blackwater in a case involving the deaths of four unarmed civilians killed by Blackwater contractors in Fallujah, Iraq, in March 2004.

California Proposition 8 post-election lawsuits.

On December 19, 2008, Proposition 8 supporters named Starr to represent them in post-election lawsuits to be heard by the Supreme Court of California. Opponents of the measure sought to overturn it as a violation of fundamental rights, while supporters sought to invalidate the 18,000 same-sex marriages performed in the state before Proposition 8 passed. Oral arguments took place on March 5, 2009, in San Francisco.  Starr argued that "Prop. 8 was a modest measure that left the rights of same-sex couples undisturbed under California's domestic-partner laws and other statutes banning discrimination based on sexual orientation," to the agreement of most of the judges. The main issue that arose during the oral argument included the meaning of the word "inalienable," and to which extent this word goes when used in Article I of the Californian Constitution. Christopher Krueger of the attorney general's office said that inalienable rights may not be stripped away by the initiative process. Starr countered that "rights are important, but they don't go to structure... rights are ultimately defined by the people."  The court ultimately held that the measure was valid and effective, but would not be applied retroactively to marriages performed prior to its enactment.

Defense of Jeffrey Epstein.

In 2007, Starr joined the legal team defending Palm Beach billionaire Jeffrey Epstein, who was criminally accused of the statutory rape of numerous underage high school students. Epstein would later plea bargain to plead guilty to several charges of soliciting and trafficking of underage girls, serve 13 months on work release in a private wing of the Palm Beach jail, and register as a sex offender. Starr said he was “in the room” when then-US attorney Alex Acosta made the deal that yielded the plea bargain for Epstein and later described Acosta as “a person of complete integrity,” adding that “everyone was satisfied” with the agreement. In early 2019 a federal judge ruled that because prosecutors failed to disclose the deal to Epstein's victims, they had violated the Crime Victims’ Rights Act (CVRA) which entitles victims to know about significant events in their cases. Acosta, who later served as Secretary of Labor, resigned that role in mid 2019 under pressure over the perceived lenience of the Epstein deal.

Support for Christopher Kloman.

In 2013, Starr was among many high-profile figures to express support for Christopher Kloman, a 74-year-old retired teacher at the Potomac School who pleaded guilty to molesting five female students over a period from 1966 to 1985. Starr signed a letter, written by his wife Alice, to the Fairfax County, Virginia, judge presiding over the case. The letter asked for leniency for Kloman, who is a friend of the Starr family and who "took the time to chat" with Starr's daughter, a student at the school until 1998. "Community service would be a far better punishment than having him languish in jail," they wrote. Kloman was convicted in October 2013 and sentenced to 43 years in prison.

Donald Trump impeachment trial.

On January 16, 2020, Starr was announced as a member of President Donald Trump's legal team for his Senate impeachment trial. He argued before the Senate on Trump's behalf on January 27, 2020. Slate journalist Jeremy Stahl pointed out that as he was urging the Senate not to remove Trump as president, Starr contradicted various arguments he used in 1998 to justify Clinton's impeachment. In defending Trump, Starr also claimed he was wrong to have called for impeachment against Clinton for abuse of executive privilege and efforts to obstruct Congress and also stated that the House Judiciary Committee was right in 1998 to have rejected one of the planks for impeachment he had advocated for. He also invoked a 1999 Hofstra Law Review article by Yale law professor Akhil Amar, who argued that the Clinton impeachment proved just how impeachment and removal causes "grave disruption" to a national election.

Baylor University.

Starr was the Duane and Kelly Roberts Dean and Professor of Law at Pepperdine University, when on February 15, 2010, Baylor University announced that it would introduce Starr as its newest president. Starr became Baylor's 14th president, replacing John Lilley who was ousted in mid‐2008. Starr was introduced as the new president on June 1, 2010.  His inauguration was held on September 17, 2010, where Stephen L. Carter was the keynote speaker. Within his first two weeks in office, Starr was "leading the charge" to keep the university in the Big 12 Conference for athletics. Starr was additionally named chancellor of Baylor in November 2013, a post that had been vacant since 2005. He became the first person to hold the positions of president and chancellor at Baylor at the same time.  In September 2015, Baylor's Board of Regents initiated an external review of the university's response to reports of sexual violence to be conducted by the Pepper Hamilton law firm. Baylor had been accused of failing to respond to reports of rape and sexual assault filed by at least six female students from 2009 to 2016. Former football player Tevin Elliot was convicted of rape. Elliot is currently serving a 20-year sentence after his conviction in January 2014. Another student, Sam Ukwuachu, was convicted but has since had that conviction overturned and was retried, only to see it reinstated by the Texas Court of Appeals in 2018. Pepper Hamilton reported their findings to the regents on May 13, and on May 26, the regents announced Starr's removal as university president, effective May 31.  The May 26, 2016, announcement of personnel changes by the Board of Regents said Starr was to have continued as Chancellor and also as a faculty member at Baylor Law School. Starr, however, announced his resignation as Chancellor on June 1, effective immediately. He told an interviewer that he took that action "as a matter of conscience." He said he "willingly accepted responsibility" and "The captain goes down with the ship." He resigned his position as the Louise L. Morrison Chair of Constitutional Law in Baylor Law School on August 19, 2016.

Kenneth Winston Starr (born July 21, 1946) is an American lawyer who served as a United States circuit judge and 39th solicitor general of the United States. He is best known for heading an investigation of members of the Clinton administration, known as the Whitewater controversy.

Kenneth Winston Starr (* 21. července 1946) je americký právník a vysokoškolský funkcionář. Sloužil také jako federální soudce. Proslavil se vyšetřováním afér spojených s vládou Billa Clintona; na základě jeho zprávy ("Starrova zpráva", anglicky "Starr report") byla otevřena možnost jednat o odvolání Clintona z funkce prezidenta (impeachment) a Clinton ztratil na pět let právnickou licenci. K roku 2015 Starr působí jako rektor Baylorovy univerzity v Texasu.


Personal life and education.

Grove was born as "Gróf András István" to a middle-class Jewish family in Budapest, Hungary, the son of Mária and György Gróf. At the age of four he contracted scarlet fever, which was nearly fatal and caused partial hearing loss.  When he was eight, the Nazis occupied Hungary and deported nearly 500,000 Jews to concentration camps, including Auschwitz. Its commandant, Rudolf Höss, said at his trial that he killed 400,000 Hungarian Jews in three months. To avoid being arrested, Grove and his mother took on false identities and were sheltered by friends. His father, however, was arrested and taken to an Eastern Labor Camp to do forced labor and was reunited with his family only after the war.  During the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, when he was 20, he left his home and family and escaped across the border into Austria. Penniless and barely able to speak English, in 1957 he eventually made his way to the United States. He later changed his name to the anglicized Andrew S. Grove. Grove summarized his first twenty years of life in Hungary in his memoirs: Soon after arriving in the United States, in New York's Catskill Resort, in 1957, he met his future wife, Eva Kastan, who was a fellow Hungarian refugee. They met while he held a job as a busboy and she was a waitress while studying at Hunter College. One year after they met, in June 1958 they married in New York, Queens, according to a Roman Catholic ceremony. They remained married until Grove died. They had two daughters, Karen Grove and Robie Spector, and eight grandchildren.  Even though he arrived in the United States with little money, Grove retained a "passion for learning."  He earned a bachelor's degree in chemical engineering from the City College of New York in 1960. (After his retirement, he donated $ 26 million to the school.) The New York Times also wrote about him that "a refugee became a senior in engineering." It was followed by a Ph.D. in chemical engineering from the University of California, Berkeley in 1963.

Career.

Helping start-up Intel.

After completing his Ph.D. in 1963, Grove worked at Fairchild Semiconductor as a researcher, and by 1967 had become its assistant director of development. His work there made him familiar with the early development of integrated circuits, which would lead to the "microcomputer revolution" in the 1970s. In 1967, he wrote a college textbook on the subject, "Physics and Technology of Semiconductor Devices." In 1968, Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore co-founded Intel, after they and Grove left Fairchild Semiconductor. Grove joined on the day of its incorporation, although it was not a founder according to the company. Fellow Hungarian émigré Leslie L. Vadász was Intel's fourth employee. Grove worked initially as the company's director of engineering, and helped get its early manufacturing operations started. In 1983, he wrote a book, "High Output Management," in which he described many of his methods and manufacturing concepts.  Initially, Intel primarily manufactured static memory chips for mainframe computers, but in the early/mid-1970s Intel introduced one of the earliest digital watches, an electronic calculator, and also the world's first general-purpose microprocessor, the 4-bit 4004. By 1974 Intel had developed the 8-bit 8008 and quickly thereafter, in 1975, the 8080 processor, which would become the core of the Altair, the world's first so-called PC (personal computer) which began the PC revolution. Soon came the 8086 16-bit microprocessor and a cost-reduced version, the 8088, which IBM chose for its IBM PC which brought personal computers to the masses. In 1985, Intel produced the world's first 32-bit 80386 microprocessor which began a long line of increasingly powerful microprocessors including the 80486, the Pentium, and a plethora of supporting integrated circuits and computers built with them. All under Grove's leadership.  Even though Intel had invented most of the types of memory in use at the time including EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory), by 1985, with less demand for their memory chips due to the challenges created by Japanese "dumping" of memory chips at below-cost prices, Grove was forced to make radical changes. As a result, he chose to discontinue producing DRAMs and focus instead on manufacturing microprocessors. Grove, along with Intel's sales manager to IBM, Earl Whetstone, played a key role in negotiating with IBM to use only Intel microprocessors in all their new personal computers.  The company's revenue increased from $2,672 in its first year to $20.8 billion in 1997. Grove was Intel's president in 1979, its CEO in 1987 and its chairman and CEO in 1997. He relinquished his CEO title in May 1998, having been diagnosed with prostate cancer a few years earlier, and remained chairman of the board until November 2004. Grove continued his work at Intel as a senior advisor and had been a lecturer at Stanford University. He reflected back upon Intel's growth through the years: Grove is credited with having transformed Intel from a manufacturer of memory chips into the world's dominant producer of microprocessors for PC, servers, and general-purpose computing. During his tenure as CEO, Grove oversaw a 4,500% increase in Intel's market capitalization from $4 billion to $197 billion, making it the world's 7th largest company, with 64,000 employees. Most of the company's profits were reinvested in research and development, along with building new facilities, in order to produce improved and faster microprocessors.

Management methods and style.

As director of operations, manufacturing became Grove's primary focus and his management style relied heavily on his management concepts. As the company expanded and he was appointed chairman, he became more involved in strategic decision-making, including establishing markets for new products, coordinating manufacturing processes and developing new partnerships with smaller companies.  Grove helped create the Intel Architecture Laboratory (IAL) in Oregon to ensure that software was developed in time to take advantage of their new microprocessors. Grove stated that "you are making decisions about what the information technology world will want five years into the future..." He created a culture within Intel that allowed innovation to flourish. As CEO, he wanted his managers to always encourage experimentation and prepare for changes, making a case for the value of paranoia in business. He became known for his guiding motto: "Only the paranoid survive," and wrote a management book with the same title.  According to Grove, "Business success contains the seeds of its own destruction," explaining that "Success breeds complacency. Complacency breeds failure. Only the paranoid survive." As a result, he urges senior executives to allow people to test new techniques, new products, new sales channels, and new customers, to be ready for unexpected shifts in business or technology. Grove biographer Jeremy Byman observes that Grove "was the one person at Intel who refused to let the company rest on its laurels." Grove explains his reasoning: Intel Senior Vice President Ron Whittier notes that Grove preferred to keep open channels of communication between employees, and encouraged people to speak their minds: "People here aren't afraid to speak up and debate with Andy." They termed this style "constructive confrontation." According to Grove's successor at Intel, Craig Barrett, "It's give and take, and anyone in the company can yell at him. He's not above it." Grove insisted that people be demanding on one another, which fostered an atmosphere of "ruthless intelligence." About that philosophy, writes business author Ken Goldstein, "you bought into it or got your walking papers."  Grove's office was an cubicle like the other employees, as he disliked separate "mahogany-paneled corner offices." He states, "I've been living in cubicles since 1978 — and it hasn't hurt a whole lot." Preferring this egalitarian atmosphere, this made his work area accessible to anyone who walked by. There were no reserved parking spaces, and Grove parked wherever there was a space. This atmosphere at work was partly a reflection of his personal life. Some who have known him, such as venture capitalist Arthur Rock, has stated that "he has no airs." Grove has lived modestly without expensive cars or an airplane.  Grove was noted for making sure that important details were never missed, with one of his favorite sayings being, "The devil is in the details." Intel Vice President Dennis Carter states that "Andy is very disciplined, precise, and detail oriented... But at the same time, he has an element of intuition and creativity that is fundamental to Intel's innovation." According to "Industry Week" magazine, Grove feared that the "brilliance that sparked the creation of Intel" during its early years, "might come to nothing if somebody didn't pay attention to details." Carter recalls that Grove would even correct his spelling errors:

"The Father of OKR" (Objectives and Key Results) Approach to Management.

One of the earliest investors in Google, John Doerr, called Andy Grove the "Father of OKRs" in Doerr's 2018 book, "Measure What Matters: How Google, Bono, and the Gates Foundation Rock the World with OKRs." An acronym for Objectives and Key Results, it became central to Google's culture as a "management methodology that helps to ensure that the company focuses efforts on the same important issues throughout the organization." The objective is the clearly defined goal, while the key results were the specific benchmarks to ensure achievement of that goal were "measurable and verifiable."  In 1975, Doerr wrote of attending a course within Intel taught by Andy Grove, where he was introduced to the theory of OKRs. Grove explained his simple but effective perspective on management: "The key result has to be measurable. But at the end you can look, and without any arguments: Did I do that or did I not do it? Yes? No? Simple. No judgments in it."  Larry Page, co-founder of Google, credited OKRs within the foreword to Doerr's book: "OKRs have helped lead us to 10x growth, many times over. They've helped make our crazily bold mission of 'organizing the world's information' perhaps even achievable. They've kept me and the rest of the company on time and on track when it mattered the most."

Preference for a "job-centric" American economy.

While Grove naturally supported helping technology startups, he also felt that America was wrong in thinking that those new companies would increase employment. "Startups are a wonderful thing," he wrote in a 2010 article for "Bloomberg", "but they cannot by themselves increase tech employment." Although many of those startups and entrepreneurs would achieve tremendous success and wealth, said Grove, he was more concerned with the overall negative effect on America: "What kind of a society are we going to have if it consists of highly paid people doing high-value-added work—and masses of unemployed?"  He felt that employment growth depended on those companies' ability or willingness to scale up within the U.S. According to Grove, Silicon Valley's "innovation machine" over the last few decades has not been adding many jobs, although American tech companies have instead been adding jobs in Asia "like mad." He noted that while our investments in startups have increased dramatically, those investments have in fact resulted in fewer jobs: "Simply put," he wrote, "the U.S. has become wildly inefficient at creating American tech jobs." He therefore worked to keep Intel's manufacturing in the U.S., with the company having 90,000 employees in 2010. He explained the causes and effects of many business's growth plans:  To remedy the problem, he strongly believed that "job creation" should become America's number 1 objective, much as it is in Asian nations. Among the methods he felt were worth considering was the imposition of a tax on imported products, with the funds received then made available to help American companies scale their operations here. However, he also accepted the fact that his ideas would be controversial: "If what I'm suggesting sounds protectionist, so be it." Or that those protectionist steps could lead to conflicts with our trade partners: "If the result is a trade war, treat it like other wars—fight to win." He added: Grove was also in the minority of high-tech leaders when he advocated taxing internet sales made to other states: "I don't think electronic commerce needs federal or state subsidies in terms of tax advantages," he told a Congressional committee in 2000. At the same hearing, he also expressed his opinion about internet privacy, stating that "personal data is a form of property and it's inevitable that governments will regulate property rights." He said that it would be better if the federal government established its own uniform privacy standards rather than have states create a patchwork of different laws.

Writing and teaching.

Grove was also a noted author and scientist. His first book on semiconductors, "Physics and Technology of Semiconductor Devices" (1967), has been used by leading universities. Another book he wrote on business operation methods, "High Output Management" (1983). He also wrote over 40 technical papers and held several patents on semiconductor devices.  Grove wrote "Only the Paranoid Survive", a business book, whose core message is that a company in pursuit of a stronger competitive advantage never rests.  He also taught graduate computer physics courses at the University of California, Berkeley and the Stanford Graduate School of Business.

Philanthropy.

In 2005, Grove made the largest donation that the City College of New York (CUNY) has ever received. His grant of $26 million transformed the CCNY School of Engineering into the Grove School of Engineering.  Grove was also instrumental, as a key fundraiser, in establishing the University of California, San Francisco's Mission Bay Campus, the largest ongoing biomedical construction project in the world. Chancellor Sam Hawgood said that Grove's "generous and tireless support of UCSF has transformed our university and helped accelerate our research into breakthrough treatments and better patient care."  Among the research facilities which he helped fund were the UCSF Prostate Cancer Center, the Helen Diller Family Cancer Research Building, and the Clinical and Translational Science Institute. He also promoted general surgery initiatives and supported various obstetrics and gynecology research programs.  Grove was a longtime member of the International Rescue Committee (IRC), along with being one of its overseers and a member of its board of directors. He was also the founding supporter of the IRC's Pathways to Citizenship program. In 2010, the IRC honored him as one of ten distinguished refugees. In an interview in "Esquire" magazine in 2000, Grove encouraged the United States to be "vigilant as a nation to have tolerance for difference, a tolerance for new people." He pointed out that immigration and immigrants are what made America what it is.

Andrew Stephen Grove (born András István Gróf; 2 September 193621 March 2016) was a Hungarian-born American businessman, engineer, author and a pioneer in the semiconductor industry. He escaped from Communist-controlled Hungary at the age of 20 and moved to the United States, where he finished his education. He was the third employee and eventual third CEO of Intel, helping transform the company into the world's largest manufacturer of semiconductors.

Andrew Stephen Grove, rodným jménem András István Gróf, (2. září 1936 Budapešť Maďarsko – 21. března 2016 Los Altos, Kalifornie) byl americký podnikatel, inženýr a spisovatel maďarského původu. Z komunisty ovládaného Maďarska utekl ve věku 20 let a po ukončení vzdělání se stal jedním z průkopníků polovodičové technologie. Jako ředitel firmy Intel dovedl svou společnost k pozici předního světové výrobce polovodičů. Roku 2000 u něho byla diagnostikována Parkinsonova nemoc a Grove věnoval peníze několika nadacím, které podporují výzkum léčby této choroby.


History.

To solve many of the problems the Colony of Aden faced, as well as continuing the process of self-determination that was accompanying the dismantling of the British Empire, it was proposed that the Colony of Aden should form a federation with the protectorates of East and West Aden. Under this scheme it was hoped that the conditions would be created to lessen Arab calls for complete independence, while still allowing British control of foreign affairs and the BP refinery at Little Aden to continue.  Federalism was first proposed by ministers from both the colony and protectorates: the suggested amalgamation would be beneficial, they argued, in terms of economics, race, religion and languages. However the step was illogical in terms of Arab Nationalism, for it was taken just prior to some impending elections, and was against the wishes of Aden Arabs, notably many of the trade unions.  An additional problem was the huge disparity in political development, as at the time Aden colony was some way down the road to self-government and in the opinion of some dissidents, political fusion with the autocratic and backward Sultanates was a step in the wrong direction.  In the federation, the former Aden Colony was to have 24 seats on the new council, while each of the eleven sultanates of the former Aden Protectorate was to have six. The federation as a whole would have financial and military aid from Britain.

Aden Emergency.

Many of the problems that Aden had suffered in its time as a colony did not improve as a federated state. In the new federation the Aden Trade Union Congress (ATUC) had a large influence in the new assembly and to prevent it seizing control of the federation in 1962 the former Colony of Aden had joined the Federation of South Arabia so that Aden's pro-British assembly members could counter the ATUC's influence.  However, the day after State of Aden joined the federation the Muhammad al-Badr of the Yemenese monarchy was overthrown and civil war ensued between forces backed by Gamal Abdel Nasser such as the National Liberation Front (NLF) and monarchist forces backed by the Saudi Arabia and the United Kingdom. Internal disturbances continued and intensified, leading on 10 December 1963 to the Aden Emergency, when a state of emergency was declared in the largely dysfunctional Aden State.  Other events of the conflict that kept spreading throughout the region include the Battle of the Crater which brought Lt-Col Colin Campbell Mitchell (AKA. "Mad Mitch") to prominence. On June 20, 1967 there was a mutiny in the South Arabian Federation Army, which also spread to the police. Order was restored by the British, mainly owing to the efforts of the 1st Battalion Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, under the command of Lt-Col Mitchell.  Nevertheless, deadly guerrilla attacks against British forces, particularly by the Egyptian-supported National Liberation Front (NLF), soon resumed in all their intensity. British presence finally ended with the final departure of British troops. The withdrawal was undertaken earlier than had been planned by British Prime Minister Harold Wilson and left the future state without an agreement on the succeeding governance. Finally the enemies of the State of Aden and the Federation, the NLF, managed to seize power.  On 30 November 1967 Aden State, together with the federation, became the People's Republic of South Yemen. In line with other formerly British Arab territories in the Middle East, the independent state did not join the British Commonwealth. The South Arabian dinar, however, continued at the one to one parity with sterling until 1972.

The State of Aden ( "Wilāyat ʿAdan") was a state constituted in Aden within the Federation of South Arabia. Following its establishment on 18 January 1963 Sir Charles Hepburn Johnston stepped down as the last Governor of Aden.

Aden (, ) byl jeden ze států Jihoarabské federace na jihu Arabského poloostrova, který existoval v letech 1963 až 1967. Jeho hlavním městem byl Aden. Navzdory nadějím vkládaným zástupci Adenské kolonie do vstupu do Jihoarabské federace, povstání právě v Adenu nakonec urychlilo odchod Britů bez toho, aby nově vzniklý Jižní Jemen vstoupil do společenství Commonwealth.


Introduction.

Relational algebra received little attention outside of pure mathematics until the publication of E.F. Codd's relational model of data in 1970. Codd proposed such an algebra as a basis for database query languages. (See section Implementations.)  Five primitive operators of Codd's algebra are the "selection", the "projection", the "Cartesian product" (also called the "cross product" or "cross join"), the "set union", and the "set difference".

Set operators.

The relational algebra uses set union, set difference, and Cartesian product from set theory, but adds additional constraints to these operators.  For set union and set difference, the two relations involved must be "union-compatible"—that is, the two relations must have the same set of attributes. Because set intersection is defined in terms of set union and set difference, the two relations involved in set intersection must also be union-compatible.  For the Cartesian product to be defined, the two relations involved must have disjoint headers—that is, they must not have a common attribute name.  In addition, the Cartesian product is defined differently from the one in set theory in the sense that tuples are considered to be "shallow" for the purposes of the operation. That is, the Cartesian product of a set of "n"-tuples with a set of "m"-tuples yields a set of "flattened" -tuples (whereas basic set theory would have prescribed a set of 2-tuples, each containing an "n"-tuple and an "m"-tuple). More formally, "R" × "S" is defined as follows:  formula_1  The cardinality of the Cartesian product is the product of the cardinalities of its factors, that is, |"R" × "S"| = |"R"| × |"S"|.

Projection ().

A projection is a unary operation written as formula_2 where formula_3 is a set of attribute names. The result of such projection is defined as the set that is obtained when all tuples in "R" are restricted to the set formula_4.  Note: when implemented in SQL standard the "default projection" returns a multiset instead of a set, and the projection to eliminate duplicate data is obtained by the addition of the codice_1 keyword.

Selection ("σ").

A generalized selection is a unary operation written as formula_5 where is a propositional formula that consists of atoms as allowed in the normal selection and the logical operators (and), (or) and (negation). This selection selects all those tuples in "R" for which holds.  To obtain a listing of all friends or business associates in an address book, the selection might be written as formula_6. The result would be a relation containing every attribute of every unique record where is true or where is true.

Rename ("ρ").

A rename is a unary operation written as formula_7 where the result is identical to "R" except that the "b" attribute in all tuples is renamed to an "a" attribute. This is simply used to rename the attribute of a relation or the relation itself.  To rename the 'isFriend' attribute to 'isBusinessContact' in a relation, formula_8 might be used.

Joins and join-like operators.

Natural join (⋈) is a binary operator that is written as ("R" ⋈ "S") where "R" and "S" are relations. The result of the natural join is the set of all combinations of tuples in "R" and "S" that are equal on their common attribute names. For an example consider the tables "Employee" and "Dept" and their natural join:  Note that neither the employee named Mary nor the Production department appear in the result.  This can also be used to define composition of relations. For example, the composition of "Employee" and "Dept" is their join as shown above, projected on all but the common attribute "DeptName". In category theory, the join is precisely the fiber product.  The natural join is arguably one of the most important operators since it is the relational counterpart of logical AND operator. Note that if the same variable appears in each of two predicates that are connected by AND, then that variable stands for the same thing and both appearances must always be substituted by the same value (this is a consequence of the idempotence of the logical AND). In particular, natural join allows the combination of relations that are associated by a foreign key. For example, in the above example a foreign key probably holds from "Employee"."DeptName" to "Dept"."DeptName" and then the natural join of "Employee" and "Dept" combines all employees with their departments. This works because the foreign key holds between attributes with the same name. If this is not the case such as in the foreign key from "Dept"."Manager" to "Employee"."Name" then we have to rename these columns before we take the natural join. Such a join is sometimes also referred to as an equijoin (see "θ"-join).  More formally the semantics of the natural join are defined as follows:  where "Fun(t)" is a predicate that is true for a relation "t" (in the mathematical sense) iff "t" is a function. It is usually required that "R" and "S" must have at least one common attribute, but if this constraint is omitted, and "R" and "S" have no common attributes, then the natural join becomes exactly the Cartesian product.  The natural join can be simulated with Codd's primitives as follows. Assume that "c"...,"c" are the attribute names common to "R" and "S", "r"...,"r" are the attribute names unique to "R" and "s"...,"s" are the attribute names unique to "S". Furthermore, assume that the attribute names "x"...,"x" are neither in "R" nor in "S". In a first step we can now rename the common attribute names in "S":  Then we take the Cartesian product and select the tuples that are to be joined:  Finally we take a projection to get rid of the renamed attributes:

"θ"-join and equijoin.

Consider tables "Car" and "Boat" which list models of cars and boats and their respective prices. Suppose a customer wants to buy a car and a boat, but she does not want to spend more money for the boat than for the car. The "θ"-join (⋈) on the predicate "CarPrice" ≥ "BoatPrice" produces the flattened pairs of rows which satisfy the predicate. When using a condition where the attributes are equal, for example Price, then the condition may be specified as "Price"="Price" or alternatively ("Price") itself.  If we want to combine tuples from two relations where the combination condition is not simply the equality of shared attributes then it is convenient to have a more general form of join operator, which is the "θ"-join (or theta-join). The "θ"-join is a binary operator that is written as formula_9 or formula_10 where "a" and "b" are attribute names, "θ" is a binary relational operator in the set {<, ≤, =, ≠, >, ≥}, "υ" is a value constant, and "R" and "S" are relations. The result of this operation consists of all combinations of tuples in "R" and "S" that satisfy "θ". The result of the "θ"-join is defined only if the headers of "S" and "R" are disjoint, that is, do not contain a common attribute.  The simulation of this operation in the fundamental operations is therefore as follows:  In case the operator "θ" is the equality operator (=) then this join is also called an equijoin.  Note, however, that a computer language that supports the natural join and selection operators does not need "θ"-join as well, as this can be achieved by selection from the result of a natural join (which degenerates to Cartesian product when there are no shared attributes).  In SQL implementations, joining on a predicate is usually called an "inner join", and the "on" keyword allows one to specify the predicate used to filter the rows. It is important to note: forming the flattened Cartesian product then filtering the rows is conceptually correct, but an implementation would use more sophisticated data structures to speed up the join query.  The left semijoin is a joining similar to the natural join and written as "R" <unk> "S" where "R" and "S" are relations. The result is the set of all tuples in "R" for which there is a tuple in "S" that is equal on their common attribute names. The difference from a natural join is that other columns of "S" do not appear. For example, consider the tables "Employee" and "Dept" and their semijoin:  More formally the semantics of the semijoin can be defined as follows:  where "Fun"("r") is as in the definition of natural join.  The semijoin can be simulated using the natural join as follows. If "a",..., "a" are the attribute names of "R", then Since we can simulate the natural join with the basic operators it follows that this also holds for the semijoin.  In Codd's 1970 paper, semijoin is called restriction.  The antijoin, written as "R" ▷ "S" where "R" and "S" are relations, is similar to the semijoin, but the result of an antijoin is only those tuples in "R" for which there is "no" tuple in "S" that is equal on their common attribute names.  For an example consider the tables "Employee" and "Dept" and their antijoin:  The antijoin is formally defined as follows:  or  where "Fun" ("t" ∪ "s") is as in the definition of natural join.  The antijoin can also be defined as the complement of the semijoin, as follows:  Given this, the antijoin is sometimes called the anti-semijoin, and the antijoin operator is sometimes written as semijoin symbol with a bar above it, instead of ▷. The division is a binary operation that is written as "R" ÷ "S". Division is not implemented directly in SQL. The result consists of the restrictions of tuples in "R" to the attribute names unique to "R", i.e., in the header of "R" but not in the header of "S", for which it holds that all their combinations with tuples in "S" are present in "R". For an example see the tables "Completed", "DBProject" and their division:  If "DBProject" contains all the tasks of the Database project, then the result of the division above contains exactly the students who have completed both of the tasks in the Database project.  More formally the semantics of the division is defined as follows:where {"a"...,"a"} is the set of attribute names unique to "R" and "t"["a"...,"a"] is the restriction of "t" to this set. It is usually required that the attribute names in the header of "S" are a subset of those of "R" because otherwise the result of the operation will always be empty.  The simulation of the division with the basic operations is as follows. We assume that "a"...,"a" are the attribute names unique to "R" and "b"...,"b" are the attribute names of "S". In the first step we project "R" on its unique attribute names and construct all combinations with tuples in "S":  In the prior example, T would represent a table such that every Student (because Student is the unique key / attribute of the Completed table) is combined with every given Task. So Eugene, for instance, would have two rows, Eugene → Database1 and Eugene → Database2 in T.  relation: In "U" we have the possible combinations that "could have" been in "R", but weren't.  then we have the restrictions of the tuples in "R" for which not all combinations with tuples in "S" were present in "R":  So what remains to be done is take the projection of "R" on its unique attribute names and subtract those in "V":

Common extensions.

In practice the classical relational algebra described above is extended with various operations such as outer joins, aggregate functions and even transitive closure.

Outer joins.

Whereas the result of a join (or inner join) consists of tuples formed by combining matching tuples in the two operands, an outer join contains those tuples and additionally some tuples formed by extending an unmatched tuple in one of the operands by "fill" values for each of the attributes of the other operand. Outer joins are not considered part of the classical relational algebra discussed so far.  The operators defined in this section assume the existence of a "null" value, "ω", which we do not define, to be used for the fill values; in practice this corresponds to the NULL in SQL. In order to make subsequent selection operations on the resulting table meaningful, a semantic meaning needs to be assigned to nulls; in Codd's approach the propositional logic used by the selection is extended to a three-valued logic, although we elide those details in this article.  Three outer join operators are defined: left outer join, right outer join, and full outer join. (The word "outer" is sometimes omitted.)  The left outer join is written as "R" <unk> "S" where "R" and "S" are relations. The result of the left outer join is the set of all combinations of tuples in "R" and "S" that are equal on their common attribute names, in addition (loosely speaking) to tuples in "R" that have no matching tuples in "S".  For an example consider the tables "Employee" and "Dept" and their left outer join:  In the resulting relation, tuples in "S" which have no common values in common attribute names with tuples in "R" take a "null" value, "ω".  Since there are no tuples in "Dept" with a "DeptName" of "Finance" or "Executive", "ω"s occur in the resulting relation where tuples in "Employee" have a "DeptName" of "Finance" or "Executive".  Let "r", "r",..., "r" be the attributes of the relation "R" and let {("ω",..., "ω")} be the singleton relation on the attributes that are "unique" to the relation "S" (those that are not attributes of "R"). Then the left outer join can be described in terms of the natural join (and hence using basic operators) as follows:  The right outer join behaves almost identically to the left outer join, but the roles of the tables are switched.  The right outer join of relations "R" and "S" is written as "R" <unk> "S". The result of the right outer join is the set of all combinations of tuples in "R" and "S" that are equal on their common attribute names, in addition to tuples in "S" that have no matching tuples in "R".  For example, consider the tables "Employee" and "Dept" and their right outer join:  In the resulting relation, tuples in "R" which have no common values in common attribute names with tuples in "S" take a "null" value, "ω".  Since there are no tuples in "Employee" with a "DeptName" of "Production", "ω"s occur in the Name and EmpId attributes of the resulting relation where tuples in "Dept" had "DeptName" of "Production".  Let "s", "s",..., "s" be the attributes of the relation "S" and let {("ω",..., "ω")} be the singleton relation on the attributes that are "unique" to the relation "R" (those that are not attributes of "S"). Then, as with the left outer join, the right outer join can be simulated using the natural join as follows:  <unk>The outer join or full outer join in effect combines the results of the left and right outer joins.  The full outer join is written as "R" <unk> "S" where "R" and "S" are relations. The result of the full outer join is the set of all combinations of tuples in "R" and "S" that are equal on their common attribute names, in addition to tuples in "S" that have no matching tuples in "R" and tuples in "R" that have no matching tuples in "S" in their common attribute names.  For an example consider the tables "Employee" and "Dept" and their full outer join:  In the resulting relation, tuples in "R" which have no common values in common attribute names with tuples in "S" take a "null" value, "ω". Tuples in "S" which have no common values in common attribute names with tuples in "R" also take a "null" value, "ω".  The full outer join can be simulated using the left and right outer joins (and hence the natural join and set union) as follows:

Operations for domain computations.

There is nothing in relational algebra introduced so far that would allow computations on the data domains (other than evaluation of propositional expressions involving equality). For example, it is not possible using only the algebra introduced so far to write an expression that would multiply the numbers from two columns, e.g. a unit price with a quantity to obtain a total price. Practical query languages have such facilities, e.g. the SQL SELECT allows arithmetic operations to define new columns in the result SELECT unit_price * quantity AS total_price FROM t, and a similar facility is provided more explicitly by Tutorial D's codice_2 keyword. In database theory, this is called extended projection.

Aggregation.

Furthermore, computing various functions on a column, like the summing up of its elements, is also not possible using the relational algebra introduced so far. There are five aggregate functions that are included with most relational database systems. These operations are Sum, Count, Average, Maximum and Minimum. In relational algebra the aggregation operation over a schema ("A", "A",... "A") is written as follows:  where each "A"', 1 ≤ "j" ≤ "k", is one of the original attributes "A", 1 ≤ "i" ≤ "n".  The attributes preceding the "g" are grouping attributes, which function like a "group by" clause in SQL. Then there are an arbitrary number of aggregation functions applied to individual attributes. The operation is applied to an arbitrary relation "r". The grouping attributes are optional, and if they are not supplied, the aggregation functions are applied across the entire relation to which the operation is applied.  Let's assume that we have a table named with three columns, namely and. We wish to find the maximum balance of each branch. This is accomplished by "G"(). To find the highest balance of all accounts regardless of branch, we could simply write "G"().

Transitive closure.

Although relational algebra seems powerful enough for most practical purposes, there are some simple and natural operators on relations that cannot be expressed by relational algebra. One of them is the transitive closure of a binary relation. Given a domain "D", let binary relation "R" be a subset of "D"×"D". The transitive closure "R" of "R" is the smallest subset of "D"×"D" that contains "R" and satisfies the following condition:  There is no relational algebra expression "E"("R") taking "R" as a variable argument that produces "R". This can be proved using the fact that, given a relational expression "E" for which it is claimed that "E"("R") = "R", where "R" is a variable, we can always find an instance r of "R" (and a corresponding domain d) such that "E"(r) ≠ r.  SQL however officially supports such fixpoint queries since 1999, and it had vendor-specific extensions in this direction well before that.

Use of algebraic properties for query optimization.

Queries can be represented as a tree, where  Our primary goal is to transform expression trees into equivalent expression trees, where the average size of the relations yielded by subexpressions in the tree is smaller than it was before the optimization. Our secondary goal is to try to form common subexpressions within a single query, or if there is more than one query being evaluated at the same time, in all of those queries. The rationale behind the second goal is that it is enough to compute common subexpressions once, and the results can be used in all queries that contain that subexpression.  Here we present a set of rules that can be used in such transformations.

Selection.

Rules about selection operators play the most important role in query optimization. Selection is an operator that very effectively decreases the number of rows in its operand, so if we manage to move the selections in an expression tree towards the leaves, the internal relations (yielded by subexpressions) will likely shrink.

Basic selection properties.

Selection is idempotent (multiple applications of the same selection have no additional effect beyond the first one), and commutative (the order selections are applied in has no effect on the eventual result).

Breaking up selections with complex conditions.

A selection whose condition is a conjunction of simpler conditions is equivalent to a sequence of selections with those same individual conditions, and selection whose condition is a disjunction is equivalent to a union of selections. These identities can be used to merge selections so that fewer selections need to be evaluated, or to split them so that the component selections may be moved or optimized separately.

Selection and cross product.

Cross product is the costliest operator to evaluate. If the input relations have "N" and "M" rows, the result will contain formula_19 rows. Therefore, it is very important to do our best to decrease the size of both operands before applying the cross product operator.  This can be effectively done if the cross product is followed by a selection operator, e.g. formula_20. Considering the definition of join, this is the most likely case. If the cross product is not followed by a selection operator, we can try to push down a selection from higher levels of the expression tree using the other selection rules.  In the above case we break up condition "A" into conditions "B", "C" and "D" using the split rules about complex selection conditions, so that formula_21 and "B" contains attributes only from "R", "C" contains attributes only from "P", and "D" contains the part of "A" that contains attributes from both "R" and "P". Note, that "B", "C" or "D" are possibly empty. Then the following holds:

Selection and set operators.

Selection is distributive over the set difference, intersection, and union operators. The following three rules are used to push selection below set operations in the expression tree. For the set difference and the intersection operators, it is possible to apply the selection operator to just one of the operands following the transformation. This can be beneficial where one of the operands is small, and the overhead of evaluating the selection operator outweighs the benefits of using a smaller relation as an operand.

Selection and projection.

Selection commutes with projection if and only if the fields referenced in the selection condition are a subset of the fields in the projection. Performing selection before projection may be useful if the operand is a cross product or join. In other cases, if the selection condition is relatively expensive to compute, moving selection outside the projection may reduce the number of tuples which must be tested (since projection may produce fewer tuples due to the elimination of duplicates resulting from omitted fields).

Projection.

Basic projection properties.

Projection is idempotent, so that a series of (valid) projections is equivalent to the outermost projection.

Projection and set operators.

Projection is distributive over set union.  Projection does not distribute over intersection and set difference. Counterexamples are given by:  and  where "b" is assumed to be distinct from.

Rename.

Basic rename properties.

Successive renames of a variable can be collapsed into a single rename. Rename operations which have no variables in common can be arbitrarily reordered with respect to one another, which can be exploited to make successive renames adjacent so that they can be collapsed.

Rename and set operators.

Rename is distributive over set difference, union, and intersection.

Product and union.

Cartesian product is distributive over union.

Implementations.

The first query language to be based on Codd's algebra was Alpha, developed by Dr. Codd himself. Subsequently, ISBL was created, and this pioneering work has been acclaimed by many authorities as having shown the way to make Codd's idea into a useful language. Business System 12 was a short-lived industry-strength relational DBMS that followed the ISBL example.  In 1998 Chris Date and Hugh Darwen proposed a language called Tutorial D intended for use in teaching relational database theory, and its query language also draws on ISBL's ideas. Rel is an implementation of Tutorial D.  Even the query language of SQL is loosely based on a relational algebra, though the operands in SQL (tables) are not exactly relations and several useful theorems about the relational algebra do not hold in the SQL counterpart (arguably to the detriment of optimisers and/or users). The SQL table model is a bag (multiset), rather than a set. For example, the expression formula_39 is a theorem for relational algebra on sets, but not for relational algebra on bags; for a treatment of relational algebra on bags see chapter 5 of the "Complete" textbook by Garcia-Molina, Ullman and Widom.

Further reading.

Practically any academic textbook on databases has a detailed treatment of the classic relational algebra.

Relational algebra, first created by Edgar F. Codd while at IBM, is a family of algebras with a well-founded semantics used for modelling the data stored in relational databases, and defining queries on it.

Relační algebra je v informatice formální systém pro manipulaci s relacemi, který se používá zejména na popis operací v relačních databázích. Operandy algebry jsou relace, operátory jsou množinové operátory (jelikož každá relace je současně i množinou) a speciální relační operátory, jako "selekce", "projekce" nebo "join" (v doslovném překladu "spojení").


History.

The tradition of the ball goes back to 1814 during the time when the crowned heads of Europe and the aristocracy searched for entertainment after the Napoleonic wars. The first ball in the opera house took place in 1877 as a "soirée". The following balls were "redoute", a French term for masquerade balls or costume parties, where the ladies wore their masks until midnight. From 1878 until 1899, such "redoute" balls took place around two to three times a year.  The first "redoute" after World War I took place in 1921, with proceeds going to the pension fund of the two state theaters. These events were called also called "Opernredoute".  The first ball to be named "Opera Ball" was held in 1935 under the honorary patronage of the Federal Chancellor, but was suspended during World War II. It was revived after the war; it has been held annually ever since, with the exception of 1991, when it was cancelled due to the Persian Gulf War. Since 2008, Desirée Treichl-Stürgkh has been the chairman (supervising organizer) of the Vienna Opera Ball. It is the highlight of the season, with the heads of state and government, the political and industrial elite, members of the high society, and their guests attending. The price for the entry tickets is the highest of all the Viennese balls.  Starting in 1987, the "Opernballdemo", a left-wing demonstration along the Ringstraße against the kind of capitalism represented by, as the protesters see it, many of the elite attending the ball, has regularly taken place on the same night. There have been occasional outbreaks of violence. This has almost disappeared since 2011, with protests focusing on the nationalist "Akademikerball" instead.

Organization.

Each year, almost overnight, the auditorium of the Vienna State Opera is turned into a large ballroom. On the eve of the event, the rows of seats are removed from the stalls, and a new floor, level with the stage, is built.  The dress code is evening dress: white tie and tails for men; strictly floor-length gowns for women. white opera gloves are still mandatory for female debutantes at the Vienna Opera Ball.  The ball does not start until around 10 pm when the Austrian president and his guests enter the imperial balcony. Their arrival is heralded by trumpets. The Austrian national anthem is played followed by the European anthem. There are performances of the state opera ballet company and classical arias sung by the opera stars. These are normally a small selection of Italian opera and famous Austrian pieces. The highlight of the opening ceremony is the introduction of 180 debutante couples. These are carefully selected young women and men who have successfully completed an application program and a strict classical dance choreography organised by the Elmayer dance school. The debutantes are led into the opera house to the sounds of Carl Michael Ziehrer's "Fächerpolonaise". Dances are then, for example, the Polonaise in A-Dur, Op. 40 by Frédéric Chopin and Johann Strauss' "Warschauer-Polka". The last dance of the debutantes is always the "Blue Danube" Viennese Waltz by Johann Strauss II, after which the floor is opened to all guests.  The ball runs until 6 am. The opera house offers all access to the guests, with various other rooms and lounges open with different types of music and dance. There is catering on all floors offered by Café Gerstner, as well as a hairdresser, an in-house tailor, and medical teams on standby. Casinos Austria is one of the sponsors and offers roulette.  Various dances moderated by the master of ceremony take place every two hours, such as the popular cotillion. Although not officially allowed, towards the end the tradition is for the guests to take apart the flower decoration on the balcony and shower the remaining dancers with it on the main floor, or take it home.  In a joint venture, ORF and BR broadcast live from the ball for several hours each year.

In media.

In 1995 Austrian writer Josef Haslinger published a novel entitled "Opernball" in which thousands of people are killed in a Neo-Nazi terrorist attack taking place during that society event. The novel was the basis of a 1998 made-for-TV movie by Urs Egger with the same title.  The ball was featured in the postcard for San Marino in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015. In it, San Marinese participants Michele Perniola and Anita Simoncini attend an evening at the ball.

Outside of Austria.

"Viennese balls" outside of Austria are held in Paris, New York, Moscow, Stockholm, Dubai, etc.

The Vienna Opera Ball (German: "Wiener Opernball") is an annual Austrian society event which takes place in the building of the Vienna State Opera in Vienna, Austria on the Thursday preceding Ash Wednesday (a religious holiday). Together with the New Year Concert, the ball is one of the highlights of the Viennese carnival season.

Ples ve vídeňské Opeře ("Wiener Opernball") je každoročním vyvrcholením vídeňské plesové sezóny. Koná se v budově Vídeňské státní opery na Ringstraße ve čtvrtek předcházející Popeleční středě. Z hlediště jsou vystěhována sedadla a na jejich místo je nainstalován taneční parket o ploše 850 m2. Plesu se zúčastní okolo sedmi tisíc návštěvníků, výdělek činí 3,4 milionu eur. Hlavní organizátorkou akce (tzv. "Ballmutter") je novinářka Desirée Treichl-Stürgkhová.


Club career.

Grosicki began his career at Pogoń Szczecin. In 2007, he joined Legia Warsaw, although after a few months, he requested a loan move due to personal problems. On 13 February 2008, it was announced that he would go on loan to Swiss side Sion until 31 December 2008. He played in eight matches and scored two goals during the second half of the 2007–08 Ekstraklasa. At the start of the following season, he was dropped to the under-21 team by the club's new manager. He left the club a few months later.

Jagiellonia Białystok.

In February 2009, Jagiellonia Białystok took Grosicki on loan until the end of the 2008–09 season, with the club also securing the right to buy him for 500,000 złoty. Grosicki signed a three-year contract with Jagiellonia which began in June 2009.

Sivasspor.

Grosicki's second stint abroad was with Süper Lig side Sivasspor, where he was transferred to in January 2011 for approximately €900,000 on a three-and-a-half-year contract.

Rennes.

On 24 January 2014, Grosicki transferred to French side Rennes in Ligue 1. He scored the first goal of their surprise 2–0 win over Lille on 27 March, which put Rennes into the semi-finals of the Coupe de France. In the semi-final on 15 April, he scored again in a 3–2 win over Angers. Grosicki played 52 minutes of the final before being substituted for Paul-Georges Ntep as Rennes went on to lose 2–0 to Guingamp. During his time with Rennes, Grosicki made 85 appearances and scored 13 goals.

Hull City.

On 31 January 2017, Grosicki signed a three-and-a-half year contract with Premier League club Hull City. He made his debut in Hull City's 2–0 victory over Liverpool on 4 February 2017. Grosicki won PFA Fans' Premier League Player of the Month for April. Grosicki scored his first goal for the club on 12 August 2017, when he netted the second goal in a 4–1 home win against Burton Albion.

West Bromwich Albion.

On 31 January 2020, Grosicki signed an 18-month contract with West Bromwich Albion for an undisclosed fee.

International career.

Grosicki appeared for the Poland under-21 side. On 2 February 2008, he made his senior debut for Poland in a friendly against Finland.  Grosicki was selected in the country's squad as it co-hosted UEFA Euro 2012. His sole appearance in the tournament came on 16 June in the second group match in Wrocław, replacing Eugen Polanski for the final 34 minutes of a 1–0 defeat to the Czech Republic.  On his 24th cap on 7 September 2014, Grosicki scored his first two goals for Poland in a 7–0 win away to Gibraltar at the start of UEFA Euro 2016 qualification.  Representing Poland at Euro 2016, he was a key player for his national team, providing two assists in the competition for Jakub Błaszczykowski's goal against Switzerland in the round of 16 and Robert Lewandowski's goal against Portugal in the quarter-finals.

Kamil Paweł Grosicki (; born 8 June 1988) is a Polish professional footballer who plays as a winger for West Bromwich Albion in the Championship.

Kamil Grosicki [kamil grošicki] (* 8. června 1988, Štětín, Polsko) je polský fotbalový záložník a reprezentant, od února 2017 hráč klubu Hull City AFC. Mimo Polsko působil na klubové úrovni ve Švýcarsku, Turecku, Francii a Anglii.