History.

Settlers began arriving in modern-day Palm Beach by 1872. Hiram F. Hammon made the first homestead claim in 1873 along Lake Worth. At the time, the lake area had a population of less than 12 people. By 1877, the Tustenegee Post Office was established in modern-day Palm Beach, becoming the lake area's first post office. Along the coast of Palm Beach, the "Providencia" wrecked in 1878 with a cargo of 20,000 coconuts, which were quickly planted. In 1880, Elisha Newton "Cap" Dimick converted his private residence to a hotel known as the Cocoanut Grove House. At the time of its opening, the Cocoanut Grove House was the only hotel along Florida's east coast between Titusville and Key West. The hotel would be destroyed by a fire in October 1893. The Star Route, also known as the Barefoot mailman route, began serving the area in 1885. Carriers would deliver mail by foot or boat from Palm Beach and other nearby communities to as far south as Miami, a round trip distance of. The first schoolhouse in southeast Florida (also known as the Little Red Schoolhouse) opened in Palm Beach in 1886.  Henry Flagler, a Standard Oil tycoon, made his first visit to Palm Beach in 1893 and described the area as a "veritable paradise." That same year, Flagler hired George W. Potter to plot 48-blocks for West Palm Beach – a city to house workers at his hotels – and construction began on the Royal Poinciana Hotel. The Royal Poinciana Hotel opened for business on February 11, 1894. Flagler, also owner of the Florida East Coast Railway, extended the railroad southward to West Palm Beach by the following month. In 1896, Flagler opened a second hotel originally known as Wayside Inn, before being renamed Palm Beach Inn, and later becoming The Breakers. Fires would later burn down the hotel in 1903 and 1925, but it would be rebuilt twice. The "Palm Beach Daily News" began publication in 1897 originally under the name "Daily Lake Worth News".  The first pedestrian bridge across the Intracoastal Waterway opened near the modern-day Flagler Bridge in 1901, replacing the original railroad spur. Flagler's house lots were bought by the beneficiaries of the Gilded Age, and in 1902 Flagler himself built a Beaux-Arts mansion, Whitehall, designed by the New York-based firm Carrère and Hastings and helped establish the Palm Beach "winter season". Telephone service was established in Palm Beach in 1908, with 18 customers initially. Prior to the 1910s, many African Americans in the area lived in a segregated section of Palm Beach called the "Styx", with an estimated population of 2,000 at its peak. However, between 1910 and 1912, African Americans were evicted from the Styx. Most of the displaced residents relocated to the northern West Palm Beach neighborhoods of Freshwater, Northwest, and Pleasant City.  In January 1911, it became known that West Palm Beach intended to annex the island of Palm Beach in the upcoming Florida Legislative session. Residents objected and hired an attorney from Miami to officially become incorporated. Dimick, Louis Semple Clarke, and 31 other male property owners congregated at Clarke's house and signed a charter to officially incorporate the town of Palm Beach on April 17, 1911. Dimick became the first mayor, John McKenna became town clerk, and Joseph Borman became town marshal, while J. B. Donnelly, William Fremd, John Doe, Enoch Root, and J.J. Ryman served as the first council members. Also in 1911, Dimick built the Royal Park Bridge, with its first incarnation being a wooden structure. Passage from West Palm Beach to Palm Beach on the bridge originally required a toll – 25 cents per vehicle and 5 cents per pedestrian.  Between 1919 and 1924, American resort architect Addison Mizner designed 67 structures in Palm Beach. Some of Mizner's clients included Anthony Joseph Drexel Biddle Jr., Paul Moore Sr., Gurnee Munn, John Shaffer Phipps, Edward Shearson, Eva Stotesbury. Rodman Wanamaker, and Barclay Harding Warburton II. His designed works included the Costa Bella, El Mirasol, Everglades Club (in collaboration with Paris Singer), El Solano, La Bellucia, La Querida, Via Mizner, Villa Flora, and William Gray Warden House. Via Mizner was the first shopping complex along Worth Avenue, which was then a mostly residential street. In February 1924, the town council allotted $100,000 toward construction of a new municipal building. Harvey and Clarke architectural firm designed the building, while Newlon and Stephens constructed the structure after bidding $160,200 for the contract. The Palm Beach Town Hall opened on December 18, 1925, and is still used for town council meetings. Prior to its completion, the council meetings were held in one story wooden building on Royal Poinciana Way. Also in 1925, citywide construction revenue reached $14 million, attributed to Florida land boom. The 1928 Okeechobee hurricane made landfall in the town of Palm Beach with sustained winds of 145 mph (235 km/h). High winds and storm surge caused damage to 610 businesses, 60 homes, and 10 hotels, as well as to the Public Service Corporation and Ocean Boulevard. Damage in 1928 USD totaled $10 million in Palm Beach.  The population of Palm Beach grew from 1,707 in 1930 to 3,747 in 1940, a 119.5 percent increase. The Royal Poinciana Hotel, damaged heavily in the 1928 hurricane, also suffered greatly during the Great Depression, and was demolished in 1935. Around 4,000 people purchased the salvageable remains of the hotel. "The Palm Beach-Post Times" estimated that some 500 homes could be built from the scraps of the hotel. Residents of Palm Beach established the Society of the Four Arts on January 14, 1936, with Hugh Dillman becoming the first president. The 1930s decade also saw the construction of the Flagler Memorial Bridge, the northernmost bridge linking Palm Beach and West Palm Beach, completed on July 1, 1938. Palm Beach mayor James M. Owens acted as master of ceremonies for the bridge's opening, while then-U.S. senator Charles O. Andrews and former U.S. senator Scott Loftin gave speeches during the event.  Early in World War II, the United States Army established a Ranger camp at the northern tip of the island, which could accommodate 200 men. The Palm Beach Civilian Defense Council ordered blackouts in Palm Beach beginning on April 11, 1942. Throughout the war, German U-boats sank twenty-four ships offshore Florida, with eight capsized offshore Palm Beach County between February and May 1942. The Army converted The Breakers into the Ream General Army Hospital, while the Navy converted the Palm Beach Biltmore Hotel into a U.S. Naval Special Hospital. On September 15, 1950, the Southern Boulevard Bridge opened, the third and southernmost bridge linking Palm Beach and West Palm Beach. Residents of Palm Beach elected Claude Dimick Reese (son of former mayor T.T. Reese and grandson of Dimick) as mayor in 1953. He became the only native-born mayor of Palm Beach in its history. In the 1950s, the town's population grew approximately 55.8%, from 3,866 in 1950 to 6,055 in 1960.  John F. Kennedy was elected President of the United States in 1960 and selected La Querida as his Winter White House, which his father bought in 1933. In December 1960, police in Palm Beach averted a retired postal worker's attempt to assassinate then president-elect Kennedy. The president would also spend the last weekend of his life in Palm Beach, several days before his assassination in November 1963. Yvelyne "Deedy" Marix became the first woman elected to the town council in February 1970 and later became the first woman elected mayor of Palm Beach in 1983. Between 1971 and 1977, Earl E.T. Smith served as mayor of Palm Beach. He was previously an Ambassador of the United States to Cuba. Preservationist Barbara Hoffstot published a book titled "Landmark Architecture in Palm Beach" in 1974. She personally photographed and summarized many older buildings in the town. The book also called for more awareness of and improvements to a system for protecting historic landmarks. The town council responded in 1979 by approving an ordinance establishing the Landmarks Preservation Commission, which identifies and works to protect historic structures.  General Foods and Post Cereals heiress Marjorie Merriweather Post bequeathed Mar-a-Lago to the United States upon her death in 1973, hoping it would be used as a Winter White House. The residence would be returned to the Post family in 1981, before being purchased by then-businessman Donald Trump in 1985 for approximately $10 million. He would convert the estate into a club by 1995 and has used Mar-a-Lago as a Winter White House since the beginning of his presidency in 2017. A nor'easter in November 1984 caused the MV Mercedes I to crash into the seawall of Mollie Wilmot's estate. Wilmot's staff served the 10 sailors sandwiches and freshly brewed coffee in her gazebo and offered martinis to journalists reporting on the incident.  On October 31, 1991, the Perfect Storm produced waves in height in Palm Beach. About of seawall at Worth Avenue was destroyed, while some parts of the town experienced coastal flooding, especially along Ocean Boulevard. By that afternoon, police allowed only residents to enter the town. The trial of William Kennedy Smith, a member of the Kennedy family, drew international media attention in 1991. Smith had been accused of committing rape at La Querida, but a trial at the Palm Beach County Court resulted in his acquittal on December 11, 1991. Another notable mayor, Paul Ilyinsky, son of Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia and heiress Audrey Emery, was elected to the office in February 1993. The town's population peaked at 10,468 people in the 2000 census. In March 2005, the Palm Beach Police Department – under the guidance of Police Chief Michael Reiter – began the first inquiry into the crimes committed by infamous sex trafficker Jeffrey Epstein, leading to his arrest and indictment in July 2006. Despite an FBI investigation discovering at least 40 victims, the State Attorney of Palm Beach County would only charge Epstein with soliciting a prostitute and soliciting a minor for prostitution in June 2008. He plead guilty on both counts and received a controversial plea deal.  The town had a population of 8,348 people in 2010, a decrease of 20.3 percent from the previous census. Palm Beach celebrated its centennial on April 17, 2011. Approximately 1,200 people attended a parade, with the parade route beginning at the Flagler Museum (Whitehall). Between February and December 2015, the Town Square, which includes the Addison Mizner Memorial Fountain and the town hall, underwent a $5.7 million restoration. The fountain's restoration would be named "project of the year" by the American Public Works Association's Florida chapter.

Geography.

Palm Beach is one of the easternmost towns in Florida, though the state's easternmost point is located in Palm Beach Shores, just north of Lake Worth Inlet. The town is located on an long barrier island between the Intracoastal Waterway (locally known as the Lake Worth Lagoon) on the west and the Atlantic Ocean on the east. At no point is the island wider than three-quarters of a mile (1.2 km), and in places it is only 500 feet (150 m) wide. The northern boundary of Palm Beach is the Lake Worth Inlet, though it adjoined with Singer Island until the permanent dredging of the inlet in 1918. To the south, a section of Lake Worth Beach occupies the island in the vicinity of State Road 802, though an exclave of Palm Beach extends farther southward until the northern limits of South Palm Beach. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the town has a total area of approximately, with land accounting for approximately and water covering the remaining. The average elevation of the town is ; the highest point is above sea level on the golf course at the Palm Beach Country Club.  Geologically, the island is a sand-covered ridge of coquina rock. In the pre-settlement period, the island was environmentally characterized with a pronounced coastal ridge bordering the Atlantic Ocean. The Intracoastal Waterway coast was primarily low-lying and swampy; marshly sloughs generally lay between the two features, though a oolitic limestone ridge stood along some parts of the island's westward side. Since 1883, the environment has been significantly altered by developing land, the filling of the sloughs, and a receding coastline due to erosion. However, the Atlantic ridge is still the dominating topographical feature of the island and acts as a seaward barrier. The former slough areas are flood prone.  The town and entire barrier island are located within Evacuation Zone B and evacuations are often ordered if a hurricane is forecast to impact the area, mostly recently in anticipation of Hurricane Dorian in 2019. Palm Beach town officials may deploy law enforcement officers to strategically place roadblocks to limit access to the island during unsafe conditions.  As of 2016, land use of the town is 60% residential, 13% rights-of-way, 10% private group uses, 3% recreational, 3% commercial, 2% public uses, 1% hotels (not including The Breakers), and less than 1% conservation, while The Breakers is a planned unit development accounting for 6% of land use. The remaining 2% of land was vacant. Palm Beach does not have any land dedicated to agricultural or industrial purposes. The town is essentially built-out and cannot extend its boundaries.  Conservation is mainly confined to Bingham Island, Fishermen's Island, and Hunter's Island. Functioning as bird sanctuaries and rookeries, the islands are leased by the National Audubon Society, though State Trustees of the Internal Improvement Fund and the Blossom Estate holds the titles to the islands. A part of Blossom Estate Subdivision just south of Southern Boulevard is also designated a conservation area.

Demographics.

Palm Beach ranks as the 16th largest municipality in Palm Beach County in terms of population, with 8,802 permanent residents according to 2018 estimates by the United States Census Bureau. The town's peaked at 10,468 people in the 2000 census but fell by 20.3% to 8,348 people in 2010. However, during the "winter season", defined as November through April, the population of Palm Beach swells to approximately 25,000. The town's affluence and its recreational facilities, shops, restaurants, social scene, and "community-oriented sensibility" were cited when it was selected in June 2003 as America's "Best Place to Live" by "Robb Report" magazine.  Between 2014 and 2018, the median household income in Palm Beach was $133,026, more than twice the county mean of $59,943 and the state average of $53,267. Per capita income over the same time period in Palm Beach was $178,568, far higher than the county average of $37,998 and the state average of $30,197. Palm Beach ranked as the 27th-wealthiest place in the United States in 2016 according to "Bloomberg News". In the following year, "Forbes" reported that the town had 30-plus billionaires. Palm Beach also has a considerably smaller percentage of minority populations in comparison to the county and state averages. Estimates in 2018 by the American Community Survey indicated that 92.9% of the town's population was non-Hispanic white, versus 54.1% for Palm Beach County and 53.5% for Florida.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 census, there were 8,348 people, 4,799 households, and 2,453 families residing in the town. The population density was. There were 9,091 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 97.4% White, 0.6% African American, less than 0.1% Native American, 1.0% Asian, less than 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.5% from other races, and 0.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.9% of the population.  Over half the population of the town

2000 census.

As of the 2000 census, there were 10,468 people, 5,789 households, and 3,022 families residing in the town. The population density was. There were 9,948 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 96% White, 2.6% African American, less than 0.1% Native American, 0.5% Asian, less than 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.2% from other races, and 0.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.6% of the population. Over half the population of the town (52.7%) were 65 years of age or older, with a median age of 67 years. About 9.4% were under the age of 18, 1.5% were from 18 to 24, 11.5% were from 25 to 44, and 25.0% from 45 to 64. For every 100 females, there were 79.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 77.0 males. Approximately 7.7% of the households in 2000 had children under the age of 18 living with

Economy.

In 2018, the town of Palm Beach had an estimated labor force of 2,788 people. Palm Beach has an unemployment rate of just 2.3%, although 66% of the town's population is not in the labor force. The most common professions among the town's labor force are finance, insurance, real estate, rental, and leasing (24.1%); professional, scientific, management, administrative, and waste management services (23.6%); retail (12.2%); and educational services, health care, and social assistance (10.5%). However, as of 2017, only 4.1% of jobs in Palm Beach were held by residents of the town, with the most common other home destinations being West Palm Beach (15.4%), Palm Beach

Arts and events.

The Society of the Four Arts is a non-profit charity organization established in 1936. Located on the north side of Royal Palm Way near the Royal Park Bridge, the Four Arts Plaza contains an art gallery, a concert hall auditorium, two libraries, a botanical garden, and a sculpture garden. The two libraries serve as public libraries for the town of Palm Beach, one being a children's library and the other functioning as a general public library. Officially named the Gioconda and Joseph King Library, the town's general public library has a collection of more than 70,000 items, including books, audiobooks, DVDs, and periodicals. The Dixon Education Building features art studio and classrooms, as well as an apartment for an artist visiting the Society of the Four Arts.  Royal Poinciana Playhouse, located near Cocoanut Row and Royal Poinciana Way, formerly hosted ballets, Broadway plays, opera, and

Attractions.

Whitehall reopened as the Flagler Museum on February 6, 1960, after Henry Flagler's granddaughter, Jean Flagler Matthews, purchased the property in 1959 to prevent its demolition. Listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972 and the National Historic Landmark list in 2000, the museum replicates the original appearance of the house and has exhibits about Flagler himself, Flagler's personal railcar (built in 1886), the Florida East Coast Railway, life in the Gilded Age, and the early history of Palm Beach. Almost 100,000 people visit the museum annually. Adjacent to the Flagler Museum and behind the Royal Poinciana Chapel is a giant, 190-year old kapok tree, which also attracts visitors.  The Preservation Foundation of Palm Beach established Pan's Garden in 1994 along Hibiscus Avenue between Chilean Avenue and Peruvian Avenue. The garden contains a statue of Pan (originally designed in 1890 by Frederick William MacMonnies), the Ancient Greek God who protects and guards flocks. Another significant feature is the Casa Apava wall, a 1920s tile wall from the remnants of the Casa Apava estate. Encompassing approximately, the garden also features many endangered species of native vegetation.  Bethesda-by-the-Sea, originally a mostly wooden structure built from lumber from the beach in April 1889, is the oldest church in Palm Beach. The church opened at its current location by Christmas 1926. Bethesda-by-the-Sea has hosted the weddings of a few notable individuals, including Donald and Melania Trump in 2005 and Michael Jordan and Yvette Prieto in 2013.

Other points of interest.

The Palm Beach Chamber of Commerce

Parks and recreation.

The Recreation Department of Palm Beach oversees several public recreation facilities, including the Morton and Barbara Mandel Recreation Center, Palm Beach Docks, Par 3 Golf Course, and many tennis centers. The only public marina in the town, the Palm Beach Docks opened in the 1940s and is located along the Intracoastal Waterway between the Royal Palm Bridge and Worth Avenue. Palm Beach Docks has three main docks and eighty-eight boat slips, along with many accommodations for boaters.  There are three public beaches in the town, the Palm Beach Municipal Beach, Phipps Ocean Park, and R. G. Kreusler Park. The former, also known as Midtown Beach, has metered parking spots along South Ocean Boulevard from Royal Palm Way southward to Hammon Avenue. Phipps Ocean Park includes the Little Red Schoolhouse, the first school building in southeast Florida (built in 1886), restored and moved from its original location near where the Flagler Memorial Bridge stands today. The town also has many private beaches, while R. G. Kreusler Park (owned and operated by Palm Beach County) lies directly north of the Lake Worth Municipal Beach. In addition to Pan's Garden, the

Government.

Palm Beach operates under a council–manager form of government. The town's legislative body, the town council, is composed of five members, who serve two-year terms and seek office in staggered, at-large, non-partisan elections. Once a month, the town council meets at the Palm Beach Town Hall, though special meetings may be conducted as needed. The mayor, also elected to two year terms, acts as ombudsman and an intergovernmental figure. Gail L. Coniglio, a former two-term member of the town council, has served as mayor since 2011. Additionally, a town manager has the authority to appoint and supervise the senior management team, including the deputy town manager and department directors. The officeholder of

Education.

The School District of Palm Beach County operates one school in the town, Palm Beach Public Elementary School, located on Cocoanut Row between Seaview Avenue and Royal Palm Beach and directly east of the Society of the Four Arts. Opened in 1929, Palm Beach Public Elementary School has a school grade of A and an attendance of 362. Palm Beach Day Academy is a private school in the area. It was formed in 2006 from a merger between Palm Beach Day School and the Academy of the Palm Beaches. The

Media.

The town is served by the "Palm Beach Daily News", with a daily circulation of approximately 4,500. The "Palm Beach Daily News" began publishing in 1897 under the name "Daily Lake Worth News". Between 1925 and 1974, the newspapers was published in a building that has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1985. Owned by Cox Enterprises since 1969, GateHouse Media purchased the newspaper and "The Palm Beach Post" in May 2018. The "Palm Beach Daily News" is also known as "The Shiny Sheet" due to its former heavy, slick newsprint stock.  Residents of the town are also served by "The Palm Beach

Historic preservation.

The Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC), established by an ordinance approved by the town council in 1979, studies and protects historic structures in Palm Beach. Currently, the LPC has a list of 328 properties, sites, and vistas it works to protect under the 1979 ordinance. Similarly, the Preservation Foundation of Palm Beach is "dedicated to preserving the architectural and cultural heritage and the unique scenic quality of the Town of Palm Beach", according to its mission statement. The town of Palm Beach also conducts historic sites surveys in collaboration with preservation organizations, historians, and local officials,

Infrastructure.

Transportation.

Three bridges traverse the Intracoastal Waterway, linking Palm Beach and West Palm Beach by roadway. The northernmost bridge, the Flagler Memorial Bridge, is located along State Road A1A, which is locally known as Royal Poinciana Way in Palm Beach and Quadrille Boulevard in West Palm Beach. First opening in 1938, the bridge underwent a 5-year reconstruction and renovation between 2012 and 2017 at a cost of $106 million. State Road 704, also known as Royal Palm Way in Palm Beach and Lakeview Avenue and Okeechobee Boulevard in West Palm Beach is the location of the middle bridge. Named the Royal Park Bridge, it first opened in 1911 and was most recently replaced in 2005. The Southern Boulevard Bridge at the conjunction of U.S. Route 98 and State Road 80 (locally known as Southern Boulevard) is the southernmost bridge. First completed in 1950, the bridge is currently undergoing a $93 million replacement project, scheduled for completion in the summer of 2021.  State Road A1A also runs

Police.

The town has its own police department, established on October 17, 1922. Prior to then, town marshal Joseph Borman served in the capacity of chief law enforcer as outlined in the 1911 charter. The department employed 61 officers in 2018. With a population of 8,295 people in 2018 according to the Florida Bureau of Economic and

Firefighting.

In its early days, the town of Palm Beach depended heavily on the city of West Palm Beach for firefighting efforts. The Flagler Alerts, a volunteer firefighting group which later became the West Palm Beach Fire Department, responded to

Utilities.

Florida Power & Light (FPL) provides electricity to the town of Palm Beach, along with much of the state's east coast. As of December 31, 2019, FPL serves 5 million customers statewide, which is approximately 10 million people. Much of the electricity supplied by FPL is sourced from natural gas, followed by nuclear energy. The nearest FPL power plant is located in Riviera Beach, while the closest nuclear power station is the St. Lucie Nuclear Power Plant, situated on Hutchinson Island. Palm Beach officials have considered undergrounding at least since commissioning a 2006 study on the burial of electrical lines. In the subsequent years, undergrounding projects were initially performed by neighborhood on a "as requested" basis. However, following a 2014 town council meeting with FPL

Notable people.

The town of Palm Beach is also known for its many famous part-time and full-time residents. Prior to the arrival of Henry Flagler in the 1890s, a few wealthy or otherwise notable people already resided in Palm Beach, including businessman and Autocar Company founder Louis Semple Clarke and scientist Thomas Adams, a pioneer of the chewing gum industry. Earl E. T. Smith and Paul Ilyinsky, both of whom formerly held the office of Mayor of Palm Beach, were notable for other reasons. Smith previously served as an Ambassador of the United States to Cuba, while Ilyinsky was the son of Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia and heiress Audrey Emery.  Two United States Presidents have been part-time residents, John F. Kennedy and Donald Trump, with both designating their respective Palm Beach properties as a Winter White House. Kennedy's Winter White House, La Querida, was built by Addison Mizner in 1923 and previously owned by department store magnate Rodman Wanamaker of Philadelphia before Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. purchased the property in 1933. Trump has owned Mar-a-Lago since 1985, purchasing the property from the family of the late Marjorie Merriweather Post, heiress of Post cereal. In October 2019, Trump and first lady Melania Trump filed to switch their primary domicile from New York City to Mar-a-Lago, officially establishing residency in Palm Beach. Additionally, former Canadian prime minister Brian Mulroney has been a resident of Palm Beach at least since 2003.

Palm Beach is an incorporated town in Palm Beach County, Florida, United States. Located on an island in east-central Palm Beach County, the town is separated from several nearby cities including West Palm Beach and Lake Worth Beach by the Intracoastal Waterway to its west, though Palm Beach borders a small section of the latter and South Palm Beach at its southern boundaries. As of 2010 census, Palm Beach had a year-round population of 8,348 and an estimated population of 8,802 in 2018, with an increase to approximately 25,000 people between November and April.

Palm Beach je nejvýchodněji položené město amerického státu Florida. Vodní dopravní cesta Intracoastal Waterway jej odděluje od sousedících větších měst West Palm Beach a Lake Worth. Městečko má přes osm tisíc obyvatel, v sezóně, která zde probíhá od listopadu do května, jejich počet narůstá asi na trojnásobek.


Biography.

Early life.

Named by her parents after Salvador Dalí and Paul Eluard's muse, Gala Dali, Gala left Italy at 17 to attend art school in Boston, Massachusetts. In 1993 she moved to New York where she graduated from the Tisch School of the Arts and became a photographer capturing the New York underground scene of artists and club-goers in the city.

1996–2001: early music career.

In exchange of a photo for a European DJ, Gala recorded her first demo. "Freed from Desire" was written by Gala in New York and then mailed overseas on a cassette tape. It was recorded in London and was released by Italian independent label Do It Yourself Records.  In 1996, Gala was voted "Best Female Singer of the Year" in Italy by the magazine "Musica e Dischi". In July 1997 she was awarded the "Italian Dance Award" as the best pop-dance artist of the year. Gala achieved a Diamond recording award in France, a Platinum record in Benelux and a Gold record in the United Kingdom. The same year she was nominated for the "Best Dance Act" at the Mobo Awards in the UK alongside The Prodigy, Chemical Brothers and Orbital. In July 1997 she won "Best Foreign Artist of the Year" at the Midem in Cannes, France.  Between 1995 and 1998 Gala performed on the UK's BBC "Top of the Pops", France's Taratata, Les Années Tubes, M6’s Hit Machine, MTV Germany, as well as performing in venues such as Bercy Stadium in Paris and Las Ventas in Madrid.  Her album "Come into My Life" was released on 17 November 1997, with 4 singles charting in the Top 20 across Europe, selling over 6 million records worldwide by 1998.  In 1998, while performing "Let a Boy Cry" on "Taratata", she met Prince's manager Steve Fargnoli who began representing her. The same year she signed with Universal Records in Italy. After Steve Fargnoli's unexpected death in 2001, Gala broke her contract with Universal Records and returned to New York.

2005–2010.

Settling in Brooklyn, Gala set out to redefine her sound, her life and her career, re-emerging as an independent artist.  In 2005, "Faraway" was released in France and Greece by EMI where it reached No. 1 on the iTunes chart and No. 6 in the national charts. "Faraway" was co-produced by Cash Money Records musician/producer Kevin Rudolf. It was featured in a Bod Man perfume TV advertisement, aired on MTV, HBO and was covered by Tamta in Greece.  In 2005 Gala appeared on Pink TV and on M6's Fan De. Sagi Rai made a cover from Gala's Freed From Desire for his album "Emotional Songs"  In 2006, she performed in the Mega PANN party at the Central Studios in Utrecht.  In 2008 Gala formed the label Matriarchy Records, based in Brooklyn, New York. "Tough Love" is Matriarchy Records' debut album released digitally worldwide on 6 September 2009.  "Tough Love" (album) included collaborations with a host of well known producers, including drummer Deantoni Parks, Marcus Bell and Kevin Rudolf who in 2008 achieved a No. 5 Billboard (US) hit with his song featuring Lil Wayne, "Let It Rock". Gala also collaborated with Tamir Muskat, founder of Balkan Beat Box on her song "I Am The World, The World Is Me". More recently Muskat is responsible for the Jason Derulo hit Talk Dirty, which samples the same "Balkan Beat Box" production style.  Gala independently produced four music videos for the "Tough Love album". The video for the song "I Am The World, The World Is Me" was shot in collaboration with the Italian/Argentinean painter and writer Sebastiano Mauri, incorporating his video installation "The Songs I Love To".  In 2009 she performed two nights at the Ethias Arena. In 2010 Gala performed at the Highline Ballroom in New York, at the Palais des Sports and at the Antique Theater in Arles. The same year she was invited to perform as the headliner at 24h velo de Louvain-la-Neuve, second largest beer event in Europe organized by the students of the Belgian University of Louvain-la-Neuve.  In 2010 "Tough Love" was featured in popular American television series The Millionaire Matchmaker (USA). The same year "Freed From Desire" was used for a Nissan television commercial in France and Spain.

2011–2012.

In 2011, Gala performed the new single "Lose Yourself in Me" at the show "Dance in the Summer" in Beirut, next to Taio Cruz, T-Pain, Dev and Dash Berlin. The event was organized by MixFM Radio and "Lose Yourself in Me" reached No. 2 in the top 10 airplay charts before its release, later ranking at No. 1 in Lebanon RFX Radio for 3 consecutive weeks.  The worldwide release of the "Lose Yourself in Me" single occurred in May 2012 through Gala's independent label Matriarchy Records. The song has been played, among other stations, on Fun Radio and Radio FG in France. It has been on high rotation on Impact FM and Radio Antipode, and entered the "new releases" on Belgium's Fun Radio.  The "Lose Yourself in Me" music video was produced independently by Matriarchy Records in collaboration with The Masses. It was directed by Alistair Legrand brother of Victoria Legrand from the band Beach House. The video featured full LED suits and krump dancers from Los Angeles and was choreographed by Gala. After its release, the video was featured on the home page of Dailymotion, Yahoo France, The Huffington Post, The Mediateseur, and Vogue.

2013.

In 2013 Gala shot a video for the song "Taste Of Me" choreographed by Benoit Swan, Artistic Director of New York's avant guard dance company Cedar Lake, and directed by New York-based French director Alexandre Moors (Kanye West’s "Runaway", Blue Caprice). Gala's video features the "Alvin Ailey American Dance Theatre" trained "Abdur-Rahim Jackson". The "Taste Of Me" video appears as a one single lateral dolly shot that follows five dancers including Gala interacting in an organic dance that constantly moves forward.  Inspired by her favorite director Alfred Hitchcock, Gala wanted to shoot a video that felt like a single take. Another reference was Eadweard Muybridge and his pioneering work in photographic studies of motion and in motion-picture projection. Different choreographers among Gala's favorites (Parsons, Bob Fosse, Mark Morris) are also subtly referenced in the choreography.  The "Taste Of Me" video was featured as an exclusive with Digital Spy, the most popular news and entertainment website in the UK. In Europe the video was revealed exclusively by Fun Radio Belgique, sister station to Fun Radio France, the largest group of FM radio stations claiming approximately 3.8 million listeners every day. The deluxe version of the EP includes the original production by Marcus Bell and remixes by Bimbo Jones, Hoxton Whores, Starkillers and Almighty Records. In Belgium the "Taste Of Me" video was featured in major newspaper Dernier Heure (online) and Gala appeared on RTL morning and evening news to speak about her new single.  In 2013 Gala's various new songs such as "Lose Yourself in Me", "Taste of Me" and "Love Impossible" were featured on MTV networks hit television shows Best Ink,, and Road Rules Extreme Challenge and "Keeping Up with the Kardashians".  "Freed From Desire" was sampled by German band Frida Gold. The song entitled "Liebe ist meine Rebellion" went to No. 4 in the German singles chart. "Freed From Desire" was also covered by Nouvelle Star "Dana", live on French television and by Greek-Swedish pop star Elena Paparizou at the MAD Video Music Awards 2013.

2014.

Gala headlined at the 2014 Winter Olympics at "Medals Plaza" in Sochi. The performance was broadcast live on Europa Plus TV, the largest musical channel in Russia. She performed a one-hour set and debuted her new single, "The Beautiful". Despite the controversy surrounding the Olympics, Gala opened her performance with her 90s hit, "Let A Boy Cry", in support of her gay following. On 20 November InHouse Records label in New York released Gala's EP "The Beautiful", a collaboration with legendary House DJ/ producer Todd Terry, and a Deluxe EP followed, released on Gala's label Matriarchy Records, which includes remixes by Todd Terry, Hoxton Whores, Lodge 21, Ryan and Smitty, Midnight Magic and Lauren Flax.

2015.

Gala made a cameo appearance at Youssou N'Dour's concert for Dakar Ne Dort Pas in Dakar, Senegal on New Years Day. The event was televised by Tele Future Media. Through her indie label Matriarchy Records she released the album "Singles V1", a collection of her 2012–2015 singles alongside three some previously unreleased songs. The album contains remixes by Todd Terry amongst others.

2016.

In 2016 Gala recorded an acoustic version of "Freed from Desire" at Les Studios Saint Germain in Paris, for the movie "Un homme à la hauteur" directed by Laurent Tirard with Jean Dujardin (Academy Award Winner for Best Actor 2012 in "The Artist") released in May 2016.  In May 2016, a Wigan Athletic supporter uploaded on YouTube an adaptation of "Freed from Desire" titled 'Will Grigg's on Fire', in recognition of the recent goal-scoring feats of Will Grigg, a Wigan player. Since it was uploaded, the song has become a viral football chant.  Fans from Northern Ireland, Ireland, Wales and France made their own version of the song for their players. The song has become the unofficial song of Euro 2016.

2017–present.

Throughout 2017 and 2018 Gala headlined the 'Love the 90s' tour in Spain, with shows for over 20.000 people at the Palau De Les Arts Reina Sofia in Valencia, the Bizkaia Arena in Bilbao Palau Saint Jordi in Barcelona, the Wiziink Center in Madrid, Parque Hermanos Castro in Gijon La Alcazaba in Badajoz and Can Fusteret in Mallorca. In that same year Gala also headlined the Gay pride party at Teatro Barcelo, as part of the WorldPride festivities in Madrid in July, and the Highway Festival in Fribourg, Switzerland in December 2017  On 30 June 2018 Gala headlined the Gay Pride concert held in the main square Plaza De España in Barcelona.  Gala wrote and composed two original songs alongside Brooklyn-based singer-songwriter Jesse Ruben and Kyle Patrick, " Happiest Day of My Life" mixed by Miles Walker and "Nameless Love" with co-production and mixing by Andros Rodrigues, for the movie Favola (Fairytale). The movie, a surrealist comedy about gender identity and liberation from social constraints in 1950s America, was written and directed by Sebastiano Mauri and featured Filippo Timi and Lucia Mascino. The costumes are the result of the collaboration with Fabio Zambernardi, the director of design of Miu Miu and Prada. Premiering at the 2018 Torino Film Festival, Favola was screened at the prestigious 45th annual Flaiano Film Festival in Pescara in June, where it won the Flaiano Award for best "Opera Prima" The movie soundtrack was released in June 2018. Gala's indie label, Matriarchy Records is releasing the original songs "Happiest Day of My Life" and " Nameless Love" as individual singles on 15 September.

Other work.

Gala has also worked as a songwriter for classical musicians like Salvatore Licitra and Marcelo Álvarez on the album "Duetto" and Mario Frangoulis. She remains an avid photographer, with many of her photos appearing on her official website.

Gala (born Gala Rizzatto, 6 September 1975) is an Italian pop singer and songwriter based in Brooklyn, New York. Her debut album "Come into My Life" included the multiplatinum singles "Freed from Desire", "Let a Boy Cry" and "Come into My Life" which reached the Top 3 in music charts across Europe, South America, Russia and the Middle East. Gala has sold over six million records worldwide.

Gala, celým jménem Gala Rizzatto, (* 6. září 1975) je italská zpěvačka. Narodila se v Miláně a ve svých sedmnácti letech odešla studovat do Bostonu v americkém státě Massachusetts. V roce 1993 se usadila v New Yorku a věnovala se fotografování. Své první album nazvané "Come into My Life" vydala v roce 1997. V roce 2005 vydala singl „Faraway“ a další album "Tough Love" následovalo až v roce 2009, dvanáct let po vydání debutu. Později vydala několik dalších singlů.


Geology and geography.

Regional setting.

Volcanic activity as well as general tectonism in the Central Andes is caused by the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South American plate at a horizontal pace of or forming the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) between latitude 16 and 28° south. Starting with activity in the Coastal Cordillera during the Jurassic (La Negra formation), this has caused spatially complex patterns of volcanic activity as well as the formation of the Altiplano-Puna highland with dimensions of. Maximum deformation occurred during the late Miocene, with the formation of tectonic highs and lows. Small andesitic-basaltic volcanic centres of Quaternary age are associated with faulting. Seismic activity is still ongoing at the edge of the Puna, indicating thrusting. The crust beneath the CVZ is thick.  A steepening of the subduction zone during the Late Miocene has been linked to an increase in volcanic activity and its westward migration, but it is unlikely that the pattern of activity in the southern Puna next to the Toro fault zone can be explained through this alone. A large low velocity and low seismic attenuation anomaly is found between 20 and 24° latitude south. Some geologic evidence, including geochemistry and geographic indicators, imply that lithospheric detachment did occur beneath the southern Puna.  Several major fault zones run across the Puna in the area, the most important being the Toro lineament to the south of Tuzgle. On this lineament, which has been subject to left-lateral displacement, are aligned several Pleistocene volcanoes, including Cordon Puntas Negras, Rincon, Tul Tul-Del Medio-Pocitos, Quevar, and Tastil (from north to south) (as well as the Negra Muerta volcanic complex). A segment named the Chorrillos fault is located directly south of Tuzgle. The segment of the Toro fault closest to Tuzgle has been active recently. Based on displacements along two monogenetic volcanoes, slip rates of have been estimated. The shoshonitic San Geronimo and Negro de Chorillos scoria cones and lava flows, as well as Antuco hot springs and travertine deposits (), are also linked to the Toro fault zone and thermal waters flowing along it. Volcanic activity in the area occurred during two separate phases, the first one between 17.15 mya and 5.3 mya that generated a large number of volcanic centres, with a much more limited phase of activity since 1.5 mya associated with the Diaguita phase of Andean deformation.

Local setting.

Tuzgle is a dormant stratovolcano in the Susques Department of Jujuy Province in Argentina. It is a prominent back-arc volcanic centre in the Andes located about east of the main volcanic arc. Cerro Tuzgle lies within a geological depression in the Puna bordered by normal faults. The depression dates back to the Ordovician and slopes northward from altitude on the southern side to altitude on the northern side. A low gravity field anomaly is also found in the area. The basement consists of fractured rocks of Precambrian-Ordovician age, known as the Puncoviscana Formation and Faja Eruptiva, respectively, overlain with an impermeable Cretaceous unit named the Pirgua Formation. Volcanism in the area has existed since the Miocene, involving lava domes, ignimbrite eruptions (the 0.6mya Tuzgle ignimbrite) and monogenetic volcanism. Volcanoes located south of Tuzgle are Aguas Calientes, Negro de Chorrillos and San Jeronimo. This region belongs to the back-arc region of the Andes, and the formation of melts is dependent on the melting of a heated mantle, whereas melt generation under the arc proper is dependent on the interaction between fluids and mantle rocks, leading to a reduction in their melting point. There is tomographic evidence that lithospheric delamination is currently underway beneath Tuzgle.  The highest unit of the Cerro Tuzgle volcano is the "Platform" unit, which covers a surface area of and is capped off by a well-preserved summit crater. It consists of well-preserved blocky lava flows with maximum thicknesses of. These are the youngest stages of Tuzgle volcanism and are well preserved. Radiating away from the central summit of the volcano, another lava flow unit forms the so-called Azufre synthem; these lava flows reach maximum thicknesses of and are gray to brownish-red with some evidence of hydrothermal alteration. On the northwestern and southern flanks, lava emission from one emission area down steep slopes form the San Antonio synthem (unconformity bounded unit), with lava flows up to thick. These San Antonio stage lavas have been cut by a long fault scarp trending NNE-SSW that may have been formed by a mass failure of the Tuzgle edifice, which was then rebuilt by the Azufre stage lavas. On the northern flank is found a volcaniclastic fan with a surface area of, a volume of and thicknesses of, presumably, considering its geochemical composition, formed by a mass failure of the San Antonio stage edifice. The scarp was probably formed by the same event but was not accompanied by explosive activity or a pyroclastic flow. This flank collapse may have been triggered by magma injection. A structure on the southern side of the volcano may also be a collapse scar, but no deposit is identifiable. A weakness zone running east-west cuts across the Tuzgle edifice, and some volcanic features are aligned along this weakness. A wide feeder dyke has been modelled and is associated with this weakness zone. The youngest- and best-exposed lava flow of Cerro Tuzgle originated in a group of three depressions bordered by scoria ridges. These depressions, presumably eruption fissures, are arranged in "en echelon" order. This youngest lava flow has a structure between block lava and aa lava. In non-volcanic terms patterned ground is found resulting from pre-glacial processes.  Tuzgle is underpinned by a plateau formed by mostly unwelded ignimbrites, while the so-called "Pre-platform", "Platform", "Post-platform" and "Young Flow" units make up the central volcano. The moderately crystal-rich ignimbrite has a volume of and is thick, and was presumably emitted from a caldera now buried by the Cerro Tuzgle edifice. Circular lava domes ( thick at a maximum) are found in the southeastern, eastern and northern sector of the volcano and may have formed along ring dykes associated with the caldera. A high electrical conductivity zone beneath Tuzgle may constitute a magma chamber embedded within porous material containing saline fluids with the bottom at a depth of at least and the top at a depth of. Crustal silicic magmas gave rise to ignimbrites from depths of. The magma chamber appears to be placed next to a crustal decollement at. Thermobarometric data also indicate a magma origin depth of. Beneath Tuzgle, a high seismic attenuation plume rises from an earthquake cluster at depth up to the volcano and is probably linked to asthenospheric upwelling.  In the ground beneath Tuzgle, seismic tomography has found a thick layer of low velocity, probably linked to a lower density of the rock, at a depth of. Magnetotelluric analysis has found several deep () conductive layers and one shallow one, possibly formed by the aquifers in the area. Another high conductivity body southeast of Tuzgle is associated with the Toro lineament and the Queva volcano and may also be hydrothermal in origin.

Composition and origin.

The Tuzgle volcano proper is constructed from an older rhyodacite-mafic series and a more recent series constructed from andesites alone. These and neighbouring shoshonitic centres are formed from magmas with crustal contamination. Isotope analysis of magmatic rocks have shown La/Nb ratios of 1.31.6 and Ba/Ta ratios of 160260, lower than in the main volcanic front. The overall chemical composition is potassium-rich calc-alkaline. Thermobarometry indicates that the older magmas crystallized at pressures of while younger ones crystallized at and temperatures of about. These magma compositions indicate that the magmas are the result of complex mixing processes and also involve the transitional nature of the mantle beneath Tuzgle, where the more northern steep slab encounters the shallower southern subducting slab. Crystal fractionation and melting of upper crustal rocks further complicate the pattern. The lava domes which were erupted from the ground after the Tuzgle ignimbrite have volumes of, while the Platform and subsequent units have volumes of. The lava domes and San Antonio lava flows have porphyritic surfaces. San Antonio lavas contain large plagioclase xenocrystals and xenoliths. The ignimbrite contains Ordovician lithic fragments and 1020% pumice. Its eruption was presumably linked to high mantle melt rates; the resulting mafic magmas induced the generation of large amounts of silicic melts. Lower mantle melt rates would form mafic melts that incorporate silicic melts before erupting.

Activity.

The oldest activity is an ignimbrite erupted 0.65 ± 0.18 mya, called the Tuzgle ignimbrite. On the rim of the caldera left by this eruption is a lava dome complex named the Old Complex Unit. 0.3 ± 0.1 mya ago effusive activity commenced with the Pre-platform and Platform units that were then followed by a tectonic event that dissected these units. Afterwards, the Post-platform and Young Flow Units were erupted. The youngest unit is latitic and was dated 0.1 ± (0.1-0.3) mya ago. This unit may be Holocene or PleistoceneHolocene in age. It is possible that the continuing activity of the Chorrillos fault zone is compressing the magma chamber and feeder dyke of Tuzgle, thus impeding eruptive activity. The well-preserved summit crater and youthful-looking lava flows have been assigned Holocene ages.

Geothermal area and sulfur.

The area around Cerro Tuzgle has a high geothermal gradient of, and geothermal studies indicate temperatures of over at depth. Hot springs (with temperatures around ) are also found in the area. The Miocene ignimbritic Trinchera formation may be a geothermal reservoir and the later MiocenePliocene sedimentary Pastos Chicos Formation a seal above it. This geothermal reservoir is deep beneath the earth and thick. A deeper reservoir is also presumed to exist at a depth of. Selected hot springs include TuzgleAgua Caliente (, ), Las Minas () Pompeya (), Mina Betty () and Tocomar (). The water enters the geothermal system in ridges above altitude which are not covered by impermeable layers. Two maars have been found in the Tocomar area. Further, the Antuco travertine and hot springs may be associated with heat flow from the Tuzgle volcanic system.  The Tuzgle area has been identified as a possible site for geothermal energy production in Argentina with an energy potential of <. These were explored in the 1980s and 1990s, yielding evidence of temperatures. In 2015 a company named Geotermina Andina had six concessions in the area for geothermal drilling. The location of a main power line between Chile and Argentina close to Tuzgle may assist in power generation, and some hot springs could be exploited for tourism.  Sulfur deposits generated from hydrothermal alteration are found on Cerro Tuzgle. They are mostly associated with the Azufre synthem and were previously mined on the southern, eastern and western flanks of the volcano. The mines are now abandoned. Arsenic is also found in the groundwater and presumably comes from Tuzgle.

Climate and vegetation.

The climate of the Puna is arid, with most precipitation originating in the Amazon basin. During the Last Glacial Maximum, a humid period occurred (possibly directed by orbital changes and monsoon activity), whereas preceding glacial periods were associated with dry phases in travertine deposits at Antuco. Temperatures are usually less than in the Puna with extremes of. Winds usually blow from the west in the dry winter season, with wetter easterly winds arriving during summer. Precipitation in San Antonio de los Cobres () southeast of Tuzgle amounts to.  Vegetation is largely missing from the Puna plateau in the area of Tuzgle, which has facilitated the mapping of lava flows from Cerro Tuzgle. A steppe-like vegetation dominated by herbs grows on the slopes of Tuzgle, containing taxa like "Festuca", "Poa" and "Stipa" as elsewhere on the Puna.

Cerro Tuzgle is a dormant stratovolcano in the Susques Department of Jujuy Province in Argentina. Tuzgle is a prominent volcano of the back-arc of the Andes and lies about east of the main volcanic arc. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, it is high above sea level and was constructed during different stages over a caldera and lava domes. Some major lava flows emanate from the summit crater, and one confirmed and one possible flank collapse unit as well as an ignimbrite sheet are associated with this volcano.

Cerro Tuzgle je nejvýchodněji položený vulkán centrální části And (120 km východně od hlavního vulkanického oblouku). Nachází se na hranicích argentinských provincií Jujuy a Salta. Stratovulkán zahájil svou existenci v pleistocénu erupcemi ryodacitových ignimbritů, po kterých byl vyzvednout lávový dómu na okraj kaldery. Pozdější aktivita vedla k výlevům andezitových láv a několika kolapsům vulkanické stavby. Nejmladší projevy sopečné činnosti se dají najít na jihovýchodních a jihozápadních svazích. V současnosti sopka nejeví žádné známky aktivity.


Biography.

He was born in Amaliada (Peloponnese, Greece) in 1915. He came from a relatively prosperous family and went on to study Law in Athens, but before being able to graduate he was arrested and jailed in the Akronauplia prison (Nauplion) by the Ioannis Metaxas regime in the 1930s and transferred to the Germans after the Axis occupation of Greece (1941). He escaped in 1943 and joined the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS) in Peloponnese in the side of Aris Velouchiotis. After becoming Political Commissioner of the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE) during the Greek Civil War he was one of the last to leave the country (1949) after its defeat.  In June 1950 Beloyannis returned to Greece in order to re-establish the Athens organization of the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) that had been declared illegal. He was arrested on 20 December 1950 and was taken before a court-martial on charges of violating Compulsory Law 509/1947, which criminalized KKE. He was accused of treason, allegedly having transmitted information to the Soviet Union. The Beloyannis trial started in Athens on 19 October 1951. In total, 94 people were accused. One of the three members of the court-martial was Georgios Papadopoulos who later (1967) became the leader of the military dictatorship of 1967-1974. Beloyannis denied all accusations and stressed the patriotic nature of his actions during the anti-Nazi resistance (1941—1944), the British intervention (1944–1946) and the Greek Civil War (1946–1949). He became globally known as the "Man with the Carnation" and as such he was depicted in a famous Pablo Picasso sketch. Beloyannis made an impassioned defense of the achievements of the resistance and exposed the fact that in the postwar years people who had fought the Nazis were persecuted for their left-wing views, while Nazi collaborators were rewarded with posts in the Greek government due to the Cold War atmosphere.  Despite national and international appeals for clemency, in 15–16 November the court-martial sentenced Beloyannis and eleven of his comrades to death. On 1 March 1952, Beloyannis and seven others were sentenced to death. Within a week the Greek government received from all over the world hundreds of thousands telegrams against the death sentence, while an international campaign -- with the participation of personalities like Picasso, Charlie Chaplin, Jean Paul Sartre, Paul Éluard, Nazim Hikmet and others -- asked for the cancellation of the military tribune's verdict. Four prisoners were taken from Kallithea early Sunday morning, 30 March 1952, and executed in the Goudi camp. The sentences of the other co-defendants of Beloyannis were commuted to life imprisonment, and by the mid-1960s all were released from prison.  Beloyannis became one of the great heroes of the Greek resistance, and a symbolic victim of the authoritarian postwar establishment. His name was given to the village of Beloiannisz built in Hungary to house the Greek political refugees who lived in exile from the end of the civil war (1949) until they were allowed to return to Greece by the first Andreas Papandreou government in the early 1980s.

Writings.

In his last letter, written from death-row, Beloyannis mentions two books that he appears to have written on the economic development of Greece and the country's history of literature. The manuscripts of the former were published in 2010 under the title "Foreign Capital in Greece" (Το Ξένο Κεφάλαιο στην Ελλάδα, "To Kseno Kefaleo stin Ellada"). Through the detailed analysis of Greece's external borrowing, its history is presented as one of subjection to foreign powers and financial institutions who ended up controlling most of its economy and resources to the dismay of the working class.

Nikos Beloyannis (; 1915 – 30 March 1952) was a Greek resistance leader and leading cadre of the Greek Communist Party.

Nikos Belojannis () (22. prosince 1915 – 30. března 1952) byl řecký komunistický politik. Narodil se ve městě Amaliada na poloostrově Peloponés. Později odešel studovat právo do Athén. Před dokončením byl zatčen a uvězněn a v roce 1941 upadl do německého zajetí, odkud uprchl v roce 1943.


Biography.

Born in Tourcoing (Nord), Roussel's earliest interest was not in music but mathematics. He spent time in the French Navy, and in 1889 and 1890, he served on the crew of the frigate "Iphigénie" and spent several years in southern Vietnam. These travels affected him artistically, as many of his musical works would reflect his interest in far-off, exotic places.  After resigning from the Navy in 1894, he began to study harmony in Roubaix, first with Julien Koszul (grandfather of composer Henri Dutilleux), who encouraged him to pursue his formation in Paris with Eugène Gigout, then continued his studies until 1908 at the Schola Cantorum de Paris where one of his teachers was Vincent d'Indy. While studying, he also taught. His students included Erik Satie and Edgard Varèse.  During World War I, he served as an ambulance driver on the Western Front. Following the war, he bought a summer house in Normandy and devoted most of his time there to composition.  Starting in 1923, another of Roussel's students was Bohuslav Martinů, who dedicated his Serenade for Chamber Orchestra (1930) to Roussel.  His sixtieth birthday was marked by a series of three concerts of his works in Paris that also included the performance of a collection of piano pieces, "Homage to Albert Roussel", written by several composers, including Ibert, Poulenc, and Honegger.  Roussel died in the village (commune) of Royan (Charente-Maritime), in western France, in 1937, and was buried in the churchyard of Saint Valery in Varengeville-sur-Mer (Normandy).

Compositions.

By temperament Roussel was predominantly a classicist. While his early work was strongly influenced by impressionism in music, he eventually arrived at a personal style which was more formal in design, with a strong rhythmic drive, and with a more distinct affinity for functional tonality than is found in the work of his more famous contemporaries Debussy, Ravel, Satie, and Stravinsky.  Roussel's training at the Schola Cantorum, with its emphasis on rigorous academic models such as Palestrina and Bach, left its mark on his mature style, which is characterized by contrapuntal textures. On the whole Roussel's orchestration is rather heavy compared to the subtle and nuanced style of other French composers like Debussy or, indeed, Gabriel Fauré. He preserved something of the romantic aesthetic in his orchestral works, and this sets him apart from Stravinsky and Les Six. However, Roussel's music can hardly be called heavy when compared with the sound of the German romantic orchestral tradition represented by Anton Bruckner and Gustav Mahler.  He was also interested in jazz. This interest led to his writing a piano-vocal composition entitled "Jazz dans la nuit", which was similar in its inspiration to other jazz-inspired works such as the second movement of Ravel's "Violin Sonata", or Milhaud's "La création du monde".  Roussel's most important works were the ballets "Le festin de l'araignée", "Bacchus et Ariane", and "Aeneas" and the four symphonies, of which the "Third" in G minor, and the "Fourth" in A major, are highly regarded and epitomize his mature neoclassical style. His other works include numerous ballets, orchestral suites, a piano concerto, a concertino for cello and orchestra, a psalm setting for chorus and orchestra, incidental music for the theatre, and much chamber music, solo piano music, and songs.

Critical reception.

In 1929, one French critic, Henry Prunières, described Roussel's search for his own voice:  Arturo Toscanini included the suite from the ballet "Le festin de l'araignée" in one of his broadcast concerts with the NBC Symphony Orchestra. Rene Leibowitz recorded that suite in 1952 with the Paris Philharmonic, and Georges Prêtre recorded it with the "Orchestre National de France" for EMI in 1984.  One brief assessment of his career says:  One 21st-century critic, in the course of discussing the Third Symphony, wrote:

The Albert Roussel Collection.

The association "Les Amis belges d'Albert Roussel" (Albert Roussel's Belgian friends) was founded in 1979 by André Peeters. In 1986 the association donated a collection of Roussel-linked documents to the Music Division of the Royal Library of Belgium, thus creating the most important collection of archival sources on the composer outside of France. The collection contains many unique documents including a dozen musical manuscripts, autographs, around 250 letters (100 of them unpublished), a travel diary, recordings (including most of the early recordings of his compositions), iconography, a large collection of press clippings, programs and other documents linked to Roussel's works and life.

Albert Charles Paul Marie Roussel (; 5 April 1869 – 23 August 1937) was a French composer. He spent seven years as a midshipman, turned to music as an adult, and became one of the most prominent French composers of the interwar period. His early works were strongly influenced by the impressionism of Debussy and Ravel, while he later turned toward neoclassicism.

Albert Charles Paul Marie Roussel (5. dubna 1869 Tourcoing, Francie – 23. srpna 1937 Royan, Charente-Maritime) byl francouzský hudební skladatel.


Biography.

Muhammad Abduh was born in 1849 to a Turkish father and Egyptian mother in the Nile Delta. He also had Kurdish roots. His family was of the Egyptian elite. His father was part of the Umad, or the local ruling elite. His mother was part of the Ashraf. He was educated in Tanta at a private school. When he turned thirteen, he was sent to the Aḥmadī mosque, which was one of the largest educational institutions in Egypt. A while later Abduh ran away from school and got married. He enrolled at al-Azhar University in 1866. Abduh studied logic, philosophy and Sufism at the Al-Azhar University in Cairo. He was a student of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, a philosopher and Muslim religious reformer who advocated Pan-Islamism to resist European colonialism. Under al-Afghani's influence, Abduh combined journalism, politics, and his own fascination in Islamic mystical spirituality. Al-Afghani taught Abduh about the problems of Egypt and the Islamic world and about the technological achievements of the West.  In 1877, Abduh was granted the degree of 'Alim ("teacher") and he started to teach logic, theology and ethics at al-Azhar. In 1878, he was appointed professor of history at Cairo's teachers' training college Dar al-Ulum, later incorporated into Cairo University. He was also appointed to teach Arabic at the Khedivial School of Languages.  Abduh was appointed editor-in-chief of "al-Waqāʾiʿ al-Miṣriyya", the official state newspaper. He was dedicated to reforming all aspects of Egyptian society and believed that education was the best way to achieve this goal. He was in favor of a good religious education, which would strengthen a child’s morals, and a scientific education, which would nurture a child’s ability to reason. In his articles he criticized corruption, superstition, and the luxurious lives of the rich.  In 1879, due to his political activity, Jamal al-Din al-Afghani was exiled and Abduh was exiled to his home village. The following year he was granted control of the national gazette and used this as a means to spread his anti-colonial ideas, and the need for social and religious reforms. He was exiled from Egypt by the British in 1882 for six years, for supporting the Egyptian nationalist revolt led by Ahmed Orabi in 1879. He had stated that every society should be allowed to choose a suitable form of government based on its history and its present circumstances. Abduh spent several years in Ottoman Lebanon, where he helped establish an Islamic educational system. In 1884 he moved to Paris, France where he joined al-Afghani in publishing "The Firmest Bond" (al-Urwah al-Wuthqa), an Islamic revolutionary journal that promoted anti-British views. Abduh also visited Britain and discussed the state of Egypt and Sudan with high-ranking officials. In 1885, after brief stays in England and Tunisia, he returned to Beirut, as a teacher, and was surrounded by scholars from different religious backgrounds. During his stay there he dedicated his efforts toward furthering respect and friendship between Islam, Christianity and Judaism.  When he returned to Egypt in 1888, Abduh began his legal career. He was appointed judge in the Courts of First Instance of the Native Tribunals and in 1891, he became a consultative member of the Court of Appeal. In 1899, he was appointed Grand Mufti of Egypt, the highest Islamic title, and he held this position until he died. As a judge, he was involved in many decisions, some of which were considered liberal such as the ability to utilize meat butchered by non-Muslims and the acceptance of loan interest. His liberal views endeared him to the British, in particular Lord Cromer; however they also caused a rift between him and the khedive Abbas Hilmi and the nationalist leader Mustafa Kamil. While he was in Egypt, Abduh founded a religious society, became president of a society for the revival of Arab sciences and worked towards reforming al-Azhar University by putting forth proposals to improve examinations, the curriculum and the working conditions for both professors and students. He travelled a great deal and met with European scholars in Cambridge and Oxford. He studied French law and read a great many European and Arab works in the libraries of Vienna and Berlin. The conclusions he drew from his travels were that Muslims suffer from ignorance about their own religion and the despotism of unjust rulers.  Muhammad Abduh died in Alexandria on 11 July 1905. People from all around the world sent their condolences.

Thought.

Muhammad Abduh argued that Muslims could not simply rely on the interpretations of texts provided by medieval clerics; they needed to use reason to keep up with changing times. He said that in Islam, man was not created to be led by a bridle, but that man was given intelligence so that he could be guided by knowledge. According to Abduh, a teacher’s role was to direct men towards study. He believed that Islam encouraged men to detach from the world of their ancestors and that Islam reproved the slavish imitation of tradition. He said that the two greatest possessions relating to religion that man was graced with were independence of will and independence of thought and opinion. It was with the help of these tools that he could attain happiness. He believed that the growth of western civilization in Europe was based on these two principles. He thought that Europeans were roused to act after a large number of them were able to exercise their choice and to seek out facts with their minds. His Muslim opponents refer to him as an infidel; however, his followers called him a sage, a reviver of religion and a reforming leader. He is conventionally graced with the epithets “al-Ustādh al-Imām” and “al-Shaykh al-Muftī”. In his works, he portrays God as educating humanity from its childhood through its youth and then on to adulthood. According to him, Islam is the only religion whose dogmas can be proven by reasoning. Abduh does not advocate returning to the early stages of Islam. He was against polygamy if it resulted in injustice between wives. He believed in a form of Islam that would liberate men from enslavement and abolish the religious scholar’s monopoly on exegesis and abolish racial discrimination.  Abduh regularly called for better friendship between religious communities. He made great efforts to preach harmony between Sunnis and Shias. Broadly speaking, he preached brotherhood between all schools of thought in Islam. However, he criticized what he perceived as errors such as superstitions coming from popular Sufism. As Christianity was the second biggest religion in Egypt, he devoted special efforts towards friendship between Muslims and Christians. He had many Christian friends and many a time he stood up to defend Copts. During the Urabi revolt, some Muslim mobs had misguidedly attacked a number of Copts resulting from their anger against European colonialism. Abduh also had meetings in Baghdad with the son of Baha'ism's founder and then spiritual leader, Abdu'l Baha, who he had a generally positive view of - although it was asserted by his students that he was unaware of the extra-Quranic religious scripture or status of Baha'ullah as a prophet in the faith and viewed it as a reformation of Shi'ism.  Abduh's collected works have been compiled and published in five volumes by Muhammad Imarah.

Freemason.

At the age of 28 Abduh joined a Masonic lodge, the Kawkab Al-Sharq (Planet of the East). Its members included Prince Tawfiq, the Khedive's son and heir, leading personalities such as Muhammad Sharif Pasha, who had been a minister, Sulayman Abaza Pasha and Saad Zaghlul.  A. M. Broadbent declared that "Sheikh Abdu was no dangerous fanatic or religious enthusiast, for he belonged to the broadest school of Moslem thought, held a political creed akin to pure republicanism, and was a zealous Master of a Masonic Lodge."  In line with Masonic principles, Abduh sought to encourage unity with all religious traditions. He stated that,  "I hope to see the two great religions, Islam and Christianity hand-in-hand, embracing each other. Then the Torah and the Bible and the Qur'an will become books supporting one another being read everywhere, and respected by every nation." He added that he was “looking forward to seeing Muslims read the Torah and the Bible."  'Abduh was asked why he and (his teacher) Afghani had become Masons. He replied that it was for a "political and social purpose".

Abduh and the Bahá'í Faith.

Like his teacher, Abduh was associated with the Bahá'í Faith, which had made deliberate efforts to spread the faith to Egypt, establishing themselves in Alexandria and Cairo beginning in the late 1860s. Rashid Rida asserts that during his visits to Beirut, `Abdu'l-Bahá would attend Abduh's study sessions. The two men met at a time when they had similar goals of religious reform and were in opposition to the Ottoman "ulama". Regarding the meetings of `Abdu'l-Bahá and Muhammad 'Abduh, Shoghi Effendi asserts that "His several interviews with the well-known Shaykh Muhammad ‘Abdu served to enhance immensely the growing prestige of the community and spread abroad the fame of its most distinguished member." Remarking on `Abdu'l-Bahá’s excellence in religious science and diplomacy, Abduh said of him that, "[he] is more than that. Indeed, he is a great man; he is the man who deserves to have the epithet applied to him."

Works.

Other works by Muhammad `Abduh

Muḥammad 'Abduh (1849 – 11 July 1905) (also spelled Mohammed Abduh, ) was an Egyptian writer, religious scholar, Islamic jurist, and liberal reformer. He is regarded as one of the key founding figures of Islamic Modernism, sometimes called Neo-Mu’tazilism after the medieval Islamic school of theology based on rationalism, Muʿtazila. He also wrote, among other things, "Treatise on the Oneness of God", and a commentary on the Qur'an. He briefly published, alongside Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī, the Pan-Islamist anti-colonial journal "Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa".

Muhammad Abdo (1849 – 11. července 1905, Káhira) byl egyptský islámský teolog, reformátor a publicista. Zakladatel egyptského islámského modernismu. Po neúspěšném pokusu Ahmeda ‘Urabiho zbavit se britské nadvlády v roce 1882 odešel do exilu v Paříži, kde vydával časopis "Al-Urwa al-wuská", který podporoval snahy o samostatnost arabských národů.


Parent Company.

Mr Green & Co AB was the original name of the parent company, where the online casino Mr Green (Mr Green Ltd) is the largest company. The parent company, Mr Green & Co AB, was the based in Stockholm, Sweden up January 2019.  Mr Green & Co AB advanced to the Mid Cap segment in December 2017 after Nasdaq Stockholm’s yearly review of the market value of the companies on its main market. This means that Mr Green was segmented as a Mid Cap company as of 2 January 2018.  Mr Green & Co AB changed name to MRG in May 2018.  In January 2019, MRG was acquired by one of the world’s largest betting and gaming companies William Hill PLC in a cash offer of £242m.

Management.

Patrick Jonker was appointed CEO of Mr Green Ltd and Managing Director of William Hill International in March 2019.

Brands and licenses.

Mr Green Limited is a company registered in accordance with Maltese Law with registration number C43260, Registered office: Mr Green Limited, Tagliaferro Business Centre, Level 6, 7 & 8, High Street, Sliema SLM 1549, Malta; for UK customers, Mr Green Ltd is licensed and regulated by the UK Gambling Commission, License Number: 000-039264-R-319432-008.  Mr Green holds a license in Italy following the 2015 acquisition of Italian operator Mybet Italia, and approval by the country’s gaming regulator AAMS, to facilitate its entry into the regulated Italian online gaming market.  Mr Green was awarded a UK Operator Licence in July 2015, which shows the company's aim to increase the proportion of revenues from locally regulated markets  Mr Green was awarded a casino license in Denmark as part of the company’s strategy of expansion to locally regulated markets after the acquisition of the Danish Online Casino Dansk Underholdning including the brands Bingosjov, Bingoslottet and Balletbingo in 2017.  In February 2018, Mr Green finalised the acquisition of Evoke Gaming Ltd including the gaming sites Redbet, Vinnarum Casino, Bertil and MamaMiaBingo with the intention to expand Redbet in Mr Green's existing and future markets.  Following the acquisition of MRG by William Hill PLC in January 2019, the MRG brands are part of the William Hill offer alongside their sports-betting & casino brand William Hill and casino brand Euregrand.

Product offering.

Mr Green offer approximately 1000 casino slot games, of which 750 are available on mobile as well, from suppliers like NYX, IGT, NetEnt, Red Tiger, Quickspin, Microgaming, SG Interactive, Yggdrasil, Play ‘n Go, Edict, Push Gaming and Blueprint.  Mr Green’s LIVE Casino offer an immersive casino experience with real dealers including LIVE Blackjack, LIVE Roulette, LIVE Baccarat and LIVE Casino Hold’em.  In April 2016, Mr Green launched their Sportsbook powered by the Swedish based platform provider Kambi with the intention to offer Mr Greens players a personalised sports betting experience. In September 2017 Mr Green launched Sportsbook Version 2.0, an updated version of the product that featured a BettorLogic partnership providing unique football in-play features and CRM and marketing assistance.  In October 2017, Mr Green expanded its product range to include custom bingo and keno products to widen the player offering and continue to build brand awareness and attraction in the UK, both platforms powered by iGame provider CozyGames.  Following a partnership with Swedish developer NetEnt, Mr Green launched a 3D live casino through their mobile platform in February 2018. Known as 'Live Beyond Live', the virtual environment based experience is designed to immerse players in a social and interactive environment.

Sponsorship.

In November 2017, Mr Green announced a sponsorship deal with Scottish football club, Celtic. As a result of this sponsorship, Mr Green sportsbook became Celtic's official casino partner. This followed previously signed deals with English club Wigan Athletic and Irish side Bohemian.  In November 2017, Mr Green was the head sponsor of the Professional Darts Corporation Players Championship Finals which took place at the end of the month.

Green Gaming.

Mr Green invests generously in its Green Gaming Programme. When a new customer signs up, he or she is asked to set limits for the risks he or she is willing to take in his or her play.  In September 2017, Green Gaming announced a new predictive gaming tool designed to revolutionize the online gambling sector. The Green Gaming Predictive tool, developed in partnership with Sustainable Interaction and Sebastian Gassner analyses the playing behaviour of a customer and combines it with the customer's own perception of their risk behaviours which gives players the ability to gain insight into their own risk behaviour.  Mr Green have committed to adjusting communications based on the individual customer's risk behaviour. Players who exhibit increased risk behaviour will be asked to set different limits for their playing or to step back from playing for a period. Mr Green will also refrain from communicating sales messages to customers with increased risk behaviours.

Regulatory Sanctions.

In the financial year of 2019, Mr Green was slapped with a fine of £3m by the UK Gambling Commission for failing to protect problematic gambling and money laundering.

Mr Green Ltd. is an online gambling company that offers online casino, Sportsbook, Live Casino, Bingo, and Keno. Mr Green Ltd is regulated by the MGA, Malta Gaming Authority in Malta. Mr Green is also licensed and holds gaming licenses in UK, Italy, as well as a casino license in Denmark and a Sportsbook license in Ireland. The head office of Mr Green is in Sliema, Malta.

Mr Green Ltd. je společnost s online hazardními hrami nabízející online kasino. Mr Green Ltd je společnost licencována a regulována MGA, Maltese Gaming Authority na Maltě. Sídlo společnosti je ve Sliemě na Maltě.


Life.

Early years.

Lemkin was born Rafał Lemkin on 24 June 1900 in Bezwodne, a village in the Volkovyssky Uyezd of the Grodno Governorate of the Russian Empire (present-day Belarus). He grew up in a Polish Jewish family on a large farm near Wolkowysk and was one of three children born to Joseph Lemkin and Bella "née" Pomeranz. His father was a farmer and his mother an intellectual, a painter, linguist, and philosophy student with a large collection of books on literature and history. Lemkin and his two brothers (Elias and Samuel) were homeschooled by their mother. As a youth, Lemkin was fascinated by the subject of atrocities and would often question his mother about such events as the Sack of Carthage, Mongol invasions and conquests and the persecution of Huguenots. Lemkin apparently came across the concept of mass atrocities while, at the age of 12, reading "Quo Vadis" by Henryk Sienkiewicz, in particular the passage where Nero threw Christians to the lions. During World War I, the Lemkin family farm was located in an area of fighting between Russian and German troops. The family buried their books and valuables before taking shelter in a nearby forest. During the fighting, artillery fire destroyed their home and German troops seized their crops, horses and livestock. Lemkin's brother Samuel eventually died of pneumonia and malnutrition while the family remained in the forest.  After graduating from a local trade school in Białystok he began the study of linguistics at the Jan Kazimierz University of Lwów (now Lviv, Ukraine). He was a polyglot, fluent in nine languages and reading fourteen. His first published book was a 1926 translation of the Hayim Nahman Bialik novella Noach i Marynka from Hebrew into Polish. It was in Bialystok that Lemkin became interested in the concept of crime, later developing the concept of genocide, based on the Armenian experience at the hands of the Ottoman Turks, then later the experience of Assyrians massacred in Iraq during the 1933 Simele massacre. Lemkin then moved on to Heidelberg University in Germany to study philosophy, returned to Lwów to study law in 1926, becoming a prosecutor in Warsaw at graduation.  His subsequent career as assistant prosecutor in the District Court of Brzeżany (since 1945 Berezhany, Ukraine) and Warsaw, followed by a private legal practice in Warsaw, did not divert Lemkin from elaborating rudiments of international law dealing with group exterminations.

Career in interwar Poland.

From 1929 to 1934, Lemkin was the Public Prosecutor for the district court of Warsaw. In 1930 he was promoted to Deputy Prosecutor in a local court in Brzeżany. While Public Prosecutor, Lemkin was also secretary of the Committee on Codification of the Laws of the Republic of Poland, which codified the penal codes of Poland, and taught law at Tachkemoni College in Warsaw. Lemkin, working with Duke University law professor Malcolm McDermott, translated "The Polish Penal Code of 1932" from Polish to English.  In 1933 Lemkin made a presentation to the Legal Council of the League of Nations conference on international criminal law in Madrid, for which he prepared an essay on the "Crime of Barbarity" as a crime against international law. The concept of the crime, which later evolved into the idea of genocide, was based on the Armenian Genocide and prompted by the experience of Assyrians massacred in Iraq during the 1933 Simele massacre. In 1934 Lemkin, under pressure from the Polish Foreign Minister for comments made at the Madrid conference, resigned his position and became a private solicitor in Warsaw. While in Warsaw, Lemkin attended numerous lectures organized by the Free Polish University, including the classes of Emil Stanisław Rappaport and Wacław Makowski.  In 1937, Lemkin was appointed a member of the Polish mission to the 4th Congress on Criminal Law in Paris, where he also introduced the possibility of defending peace through criminal law. Among the most important of his works of that period are a compendium of Polish criminal fiscal law, (1938) and a French-language work,, regarding international trade law (1939).

During WWII.

He left Warsaw on 6 September 1939 and made his way towards Wolkowysk, north east of Lwow, caught between the Germans in the west, and the Soviets, who now approached from the east, Poland's independence extinguished by the pact between Stalin and Hitler. He barely evaded capture by the Germans and traveled through Lithuania to reach Sweden by the early spring of 1940 where he lectured at the University of Stockholm. Curious about the manner of imposition of Nazi rule he started to gather Nazi decrees and ordinances, believing official documents often reflected underlying objectives without stating them explicitly. He spent much time in the central library of Stockholm, gathering, translating and analysing the documents he collected, looking for patterns of German behaviour. Lemkin's work led him to see the wholesale destruction of the nations over which Germans took control as an overall aim. Some documents Lemkin analysed had been signed by Hitler, implementing ideas of "Mein Kampf" on "Lebensraum", new living space to be inhabited by Germans. With the help of his pre-war associate McDermott, Lemkin received permission to enter the United States, arriving in 1941.  Although he managed to save his life, he lost 49 relatives in the Holocaust; The only European members of Lemkin's family who survived the Holocaust were his brother, Elias, and his wife and two sons, who had been sent to a Soviet forced labor camp. Lemkin did however successfully help his brother and family to emigrate to Montreal, Quebec, Canada in 1948.  After arriving in the United States, at the invitation of McDermott, Lemkin joined the law faculty at Duke University in North Carolina in 1941. During the Summer of 1942 Lemkin lectured at the School of Military Government at the University of Virginia. He also wrote "Military Government in Europe", which was a preliminary version of his more fully developed publication "Axis Rule in Occupied Europe". In 1943 Lemkin was appointed consultant to the US Board of Economic Warfare and Foreign Economic Administration and later became a special adviser on foreign affairs to the War Department, largely due to his expertise in international law.  In November 1944, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace published Lemkin's most important work, entitled "Axis Rule in Occupied Europe", in the United States. This book included an extensive legal analysis of German rule in countries occupied by Nazi Germany during the course of World War II, along with the definition of the term "genocide". Lemkin's idea of genocide as an offence against international law was widely accepted by the international community and was one of the legal bases of the Nuremberg Trials. In 1945 to 1946, Lemkin became an advisor to Supreme Court of the United States Justice and Nuremberg Trial chief counsel Robert H. Jackson. The book became one of the foundational texts in Holocaust studies, and the study of totalitarianism, mass violence, and genocide studies.

Postwar.

After the war, Lemkin chose to remain in the United States. Starting in 1948, he gave lectures on criminal law at Yale University. In 1955, he became a Professor of Law at Rutgers School of Law in Newark. Lemkin also continued his campaign for international laws defining and forbidding genocide, which he had championed ever since the Madrid conference of 1933. He proposed a similar ban on crimes against humanity during the Paris Peace Conference of 1945, but his proposal was turned down.  Lemkin presented a draft resolution for a Genocide Convention treaty to a number of countries, in an effort to persuade them to sponsor the resolution. With the support of the United States, the resolution was placed before the General Assembly for consideration. The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide was formally presented and adopted on 9 December 1948. In 1951, Lemkin only partially achieved his goal when the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide came into force, after the 20th nation had ratified the treaty.  Lemkin's broader concerns over genocide, as set out in his "Axis Rule", also embraced what may be considered as non-physical, namely, psychological acts of genocide. The book also detailed the various techniques which had been employed to achieve genocide.  Between 1953 and 1957, Lemkin worked directly with representatives of several governments, such as Egypt, to outlaw genocide under the domestic penal codes of these countries. Lemkin also worked with a team of lawyers from Arab delegations at the United Nations to build a case to prosecute French officials for genocide in Algeria.

Death.

Lemkin died of a heart attack at the public relations office of Milton H. Blow in New York City in 1959, at the age of 59. Lemkin's funeral was well-attended at Riverside Church in New York City. He was buried in Mount Hebron Cemetery, Flushing, Queens, New York.

Opinions.

Influence of the Armenian Genocide.

Over one million Armenians died in the Armenian Genocide, which took place between the years of 1915 and 1917. Lemkin's interest in prosecuting the perpetrators was sparked when he first learned about the genocide during his studies at University of Lwów (from which he graduated in 1926). In his autobiography, Lemkin wrote that he had been influenced by the 15 March 1921 assassination of Talaat Pasha:  Then one day I read in the newspapers that all Turkish war criminals were to be released... The Turkish criminals released from Malta dispersed all over the world. The most frightful among them was Talaat Pasha, the minister of the interior of Turkey, who was identified with the destruction of the Armenian people... One day he was stopped in the street by a young Armenian with the name Tehlirian. After identifying Talaat Pasha, Tehlirian shot him saying, 'This is for my mother.'  This event became a topic of discussion for Lemkin during his studies on the topic of sovereignty at Lwów: "Sovereignty... 'cannot be conceived as the right to kill millions of people." The murder of Talaat Pasha and trial of Tehlirian prompted Lemkin's future path. Lemkin wrote: "At that moment, my worries about the murder of the innocent became more meaningful to me. I didn't know all the answers but I felt that a law against this type of racial or religious murder must be adopted by the world."

Views on the Ukrainian Great Famine (Holodomor).

In 1953, in a speech given in New York City, Lemkin described the Holodomor as one part of "perhaps the classic example of Soviet genocide, its longest and broadest experiment in Russification—the destruction of the Ukrainian nation", going on to point out that "the Ukrainian is not and never has been a Russian. His culture, his temperament, his language, his religion, are all different... to eliminate (Ukrainian) nationalism... the Ukrainian peasantry was sacrificed...a famine was necessary for the Soviet and so they got one to order... if the Soviet program succeeds completely, if the intelligentsia, the priest, and the peasant can be eliminated [then] Ukraine will be as dead as if every Ukrainian were killed, for it will have lost that part of it which has kept and developed its culture, its beliefs, its common ideas, which have guided it and given it a soul, which, in short, made it a nation... This is not simply a case of mass murder. It is a case of genocide, of the destruction, not of individuals only, but of a culture and a nation."  On 20 September 1953, as part of a protest in New York, "The Ukrainian Weekly" reported a speech by Lemkin:

Recognition.

For his work on international law and the prevention of war crimes, Lemkin received a number of awards, including the Cuban Grand Cross of the Order of Carlos Manuel de Cespedes in 1950, the Stephen Wise Award of the American Jewish Congress in 1951, and the Cross of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1955. On the 50th anniversary of the Convention entering into force, Lemkin was also honored by the UN Secretary-General as "an inspiring example of moral engagement." He was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize ten times.  In 1989 he was awarded, posthumously, the Four Freedoms Award for the Freedom of Worship.  Lemkin is the subject of the plays "Lemkin's House" by Catherine Filloux (2005), and "If The Whole Body Dies: Raphael Lemkin and the Treaty Against Genocide" by Robert Skloot (2006). He was also profiled in the 2014 American documentary film, "Watchers of the Sky".  Every year, The Rabbinic Call for Human Rights ("T’ruah") gives the Raphael Lemkin Human Rights Award to a layperson who draws on his or her Jewish values to be a human rights leader.  On 20 November 2015, Lemkin's article "Soviet genocide in Ukraine" was added to the Russian index of "extremist publications", whose distribution in Russia is forbidden.  On 15 September 2018 the Ukrainian Canadian Civil Liberties Foundation (www.ucclf.ca) and its supporters in the US unveiled the world's first Ukrainian/English/Hebrew/Yiddish plaque honouring Lemkin for his recognition of the genocidal Great Famine of 1932–1933 in Soviet Ukraine, the Holodomor, at the Ukrainian Institute of America, in New York City, marking the 75th anniversary of Lemkin's address, "Soviet Genocide in the Ukraine".

Raphael Lemkin (; 24 June 1900 – 28 August 1959) was a lawyer of Polish-Jewish descent who is best known for coining the word "genocide" and initiating the Genocide Convention. Lemkin coined the word "genocide" in 1943 or 1944 from "genos" (Greek for family, tribe, or race) and "-cide" (Latin for killing).

Raphael Lemkin (polsky: Rafał Lemkin) (24. června 1900 v Bezvodém (nyní Hrodenská oblast) – 28. srpna 1959 v New Yorku) byl polský právník židovského původu, autor termínu „genocida“ a návrhu Úmluvy o zabránění a trestání zločinu genocidia, která byla podepsána 9. prosince 1948.