History.

Development.

The Puma (formerly also named "Igel" (hedgehog) and "Panther") started as a follow-up project to the German 1996 "NGP" project ("Neue Gepanzerte Plattformen", "New Armored Platforms"). Its aim was to collect ideas for a common base vehicle that could be used for a variety of tasks including that of the APC, IFV, air defense and replacing and assisting the MBT in the frontline combat role. The NGP project was ended in 2001.  The lessons learned were incorporated into the new tactical concept named "neuer Schützenpanzer" ("new IFV") in 1998. Planning for the Puma as the successor of the Marder began in 2002. That same year, the German Army ("Heer") placed an order for the delivery of five pre-production vehicles and their logistics and training services at the end of 2004. On 8 November 2007, a budget of €3 billion to acquire 405 Pumas (excluding the five Pumas that had already been delivered to the German Army for trials) was agreed upon.  Other nations pursue similar developments emphasizing commonality, modularity and rapid deployability based on a comparable doctrine which was also a subject of discussion within NATO. Examples of these are the American GCV Infantry Fighting Vehicle, the British FRES and the German-Dutch Boxer MRAV.  On 6 December 2010, the first two serial vehicles were handed over to the German Bundesamt für Wehrtechnik und Beschaffung.  The Puma successfully completed cold tests in Norway in 2012. In August 2013, two Pumas were airlifted to the United Arab Emirates for hot weather tests. Trials included suitability for hot weather operations, firing and driving maneuvers in desert conditions, as well as firepower and mobility evaluations. During the trials, the temperature profiles inside the vehicle were measured, then compared to the ambient temperature.  On 13 April 2015, the Federal Office of Bundeswehr Equipment, Information Technology and In-Service Support (BAAINBw) granted authorization of use of the Puma IFV. This began a program to "train the trainers" on the first seven vehicles and additional ones until the end of the year, when a training center will be set up to put Panzer Grenadiers of mechanized infantry companies through a three-month course to familiarize them with their Pumas. The Puma officially entered service with the German military on 24 June 2015.

Future.

Given the advanced age of the current Marder IFVs, and because the world market does not offer any vehicle comparable with the specifications to which the Puma is built, the acquisition of the new vehicles was unanimously voted for by the budget committee of the Bundestag.  The delivery of 350 Pumas, replacing the more than 40-year-old Marders, is expected to be completed by 2020. Full operational readiness will be achieved by 2024. The German Army will use €500 million to modernize 40 Pumas by 2023 with more effective weaponry as well as communications technology capable of rapidly providing a situation image and GPS coordinates to fighter jets.  There are provisions for hard- or soft-kill systems to defeat hostile ATGMs or RPGs, or for future active/reactive armor. There are also mounts and interfaces for the inclusion of ATGMs on the right side of the turret.  Its large weight reserves and the compact cabin make it very attractive for modification. Most vital integrals are situated in the front, floor, and side walls, which may remain unchanged during such a cabin-oriented modification.

Design.

The Puma, while externally not very different from existing IFVs, incorporates a number of advances and state-of-the-art technologies. The most obvious of these is the incorporated ability to flexibly mount different armour (see below for details). Another feature is the compact, one-piece crew cabin that enables direct crew interaction ("face-to-face"; like replacing the driver or gunner in case of a medical emergency) and minimizes the protected volume. The cabin is air conditioned, NBC-proof with internal nuclear and chemical sensors and has a fire suppressing system using non-toxic agents. The engine compartment has its own fire extinguishing system. The only compromise of the otherwise nearly cuboid cabin is the driver station, located in a protrusion in front of the gunner, in front of the turret.  One measure to achieve the one-piece cabin is the use of an unmanned, double-asymmetrical turret (see photo): while slightly off-center turrets are common in IFVs, the Puma's turret is on the left-hand side of the vehicle, while the main cannon is mounted on the right side of the turret and thus on the middle axis of the hull when the turret is in the forward position.  The outer hull (minus the turret) is very smooth and low to minimize shot traps and the general visual signature. The whole combat-ready vehicle in its base configuration will be air transportable in the Airbus A400M tactical airlifter. Its 3+6 persons crew capability is comparable to other vehicles of comparable weight, like the US American M2 Bradley IFV, the same as in the Marder, but smaller than the 3+8 of the CV9030 and CV9035.

Armament.

The primary armament is a Rheinmetall 30 mm MK 30-2/ABM ("Air Burst Munitions") autocannon, which has a rate of fire of 200 rounds per minute and an effective range of 3,000 m. The smaller 30×173mm cartridge offers major weight saving advantages for example in comparison to the Bofors 40 mm gun mounted on the CV9040 because of a much lower ammunition size and weight. The belt feed system also gives a large number of rounds ready to fire, while the 40mm offers only 24 shots per magazine. This is not a problem in a CV9040, but would force the Puma off the battlefield to reload the unmanned turret.  There are currently two ammunition types directly available via the autocannon's dual ammunition feed. One is a sub-calibre, fin-stabilised APFSDS-T (T for tracer), with high penetration capabilities, mainly for use against medium armoured vehicles. The second is a full-calibre, multi-purpose, Kinetic Energy-Timed Fuse (KETF) munition, designed with the air burst capability (depending on the fuse setting) for ejecting a cone of sub-munitions. The ammunition type can be chosen on a shot to shot basis, as the weapon fires from an open bolt, meaning no cartridge is inserted until the trigger is depressed. The ammunition capacity is 400 rounds; 200 ready to fire and 200 in storage. Keeping the weight within the 35-ton limit also led to a smaller calibre for the secondary armament, a coaxially mounted 5.56 mm HK MG4 machine gun firing at 850 rounds per minute and with an effective range of 1,000 m. The ammunition capacity is 2,000 rounds; 1,000 ready to fire and 1,000 in storage. While this is a smaller weapon than the western standard secondary armament (7.62 mm caliber MG), it offers the advantage that the crew can use the ammunition in their individual firearms. In situations where the lower range and penetration of the 5.56 mm rounds is an issue, the high ammunition load of the main gun enables the vehicle crew to use one or two main gun rounds instead. The gun housing can also host the 7.62 mm MG3. In next years, the MG4 will be replaced by MG5  To combat main battle tanks, helicopters and infrastructure targets, such as bunkers, the German Puma vehicles will be equipped with a turret-mounted EuroSpike Spike LR missile launcher, which carries two missiles. The Spike LR missile has an effective range up to 4,000 m and can be launched in either the "Fire and Forget" or "Fire and Observe" mode.  In addition to the usual smoke-grenade launchers with 8 shots, there is a 6-shot 76 mm launcher at the back of the vehicle for close-in defence. The main back door can be opened halfway and enables two of the passengers to scout and shoot from moderate protection.

Protection.

The Puma was designed to accommodate additional armor, initially planning to offer three protection classes which are wholly or partly interchangeable. Protection class A is the basic vehicle, at 31.5 metric tons combat-ready weight air transportable in the A400M. Protection class C consists of two large side panels that cover almost the whole flanks of the vehicle and act as skirts to the tracks, a near-complete turret cover and armor plates for most of the vehicle's roof. The side panels are a mix of composite and spaced armor. It adds about 9 metric tons to the gross weight. Originally, there was also a protection class B designed for transport by rail. However, it became obvious that class C lies within the weight and dimension limits for train/ship transportation, thus class B was scrapped.  The Puma is protected by AMAP composite armour, the "AMAP-B" module is used for protection against kinetic energy threats, while "AMAP-SC" offers protection against shaped charges.  A group of four A400M aircraft could fly three class A Pumas into a theatre, with the fourth airplane transporting the class C armor kits and simple lifting equipment. The Pumas could be built-up to armor class C within a short time.  The basic armour can resist direct hits from 14.5 mm Russian rounds, the most powerful HMG cartridge in common use today (and up to twice as powerful as the western de facto standard.50 BMG cartridge). The frontal armour offers protection against medium caliber projectiles and shaped charge projectiles. In protection class C, the flanks of the Puma are up-armored to about the same level of protection as is the front, while the roof armor is able to withstand artillery or mortar bomblets.  The Pumas of the German Army will be equipped with a soft-kill system called Multifunktionales Selbstschutz-System ("multifunction self protection system"), MUSS, which is capable of defeating ATGMs.  The whole vehicle is protected against heavy blast mines (up to 10 kg) and projectile charges from below, while still retaining 450 mm ground clearance. Almost all equipment within the cabin, including the seats, has no direct contact to the floor, which adds to crew and technical safety. All cabin roof hatches are of the side-slide type, which make them easier to open manually, even when they are obstructed by debris. The exhaust is mixed with fresh air and vented at the rear left side. Together with a special IR-suppressing paint, this aims at reducing the thermal signature of the IFV.  Another crew safety measure is that the main fuel tanks are placed outside of the vehicle hull itself, mounted heavily armored within the running gear carriers. While this may pose a higher penetration risk to the tanks, it is unlikely that both tanks will be penetrated at the same time, enabling the vehicle to retreat to a safer position in case of a breach. There is also a collector tank within the vehicle, which acts as a reserve tank in case of a double tank breach.  A large number of change requests and bureaucratic requirements drove up costs, including, for example, the legal requirement that, according to the German Workplace Ordinance, the transport of pregnant female soldiers must also still be possible.

Sensors and situational awareness.

The Puma offers improvements in situational awareness. The fully stabilized 360° periscope (PERI) with six different zoom stages offers a direct glass optic link to either the commander or the gunner. Since this is an optical line, it had to be placed in the turret center, one of the reasons why the main cannon is mounted off-center on the turret. Via an additional CCD camera the picture from this line can also be fed into the on-board computer network and displayed on all electronic displays within the vehicle. Besides that, the periscope offers an optronic thermal vision mode and a wide-angle camera with three zoom stages to assist the driver, as well as a laser range finder. The whole array is hunter-killer capable; the commander also has 5 vision blocks.  The gunner optics, which can be completely protected with a slide hatch, are mounted coaxially to the main gun. The gunner has a thermal vision camera and laser range finder (identical to those on the PERI) and an optronic day sight, rounded off with a vision- and a glass block. The driver has three of them, as well as an image intensifier and one display for optronic image feeds. Even the passenger cabin has a hatch and three vision blocks on the rear right side of the vehicle, one of them in a rotary mount. The rear cabin also has two electronic displays.  All in all, the Puma has an additional five external cameras at its rear in swing-mounts for protection while not in use. Apart from the glass optic periscope view directly accessible only by the commander and gunner (but indirectly via the CCD camera), all optronic picture feeds can be displayed on every electronic display within the vehicle. The provisions for the rear cabin enable the passengers to be more active than previously in assisting the vehicle crew either directly through the vision blocks and hatches, or by observing one or more optronic feeds. The whole crew has access to the onboard intercom.

Mobility.

Traditionally, IFVs are expected to interact with main battle tanks (MBTs) on the battlefield. In reality, many IFVs are not mobile enough to keep up with the pace of an MBT. The Puma aims to close this gap with several key technologies. Firstly, its compact, lightweight MTU Diesel engine is unusually strong at 800 kW nominal output, which may make it the most powerful engine in use on an IFV today. Even at the 43 t maximum weight in protection class C, it has a higher kW/t ratio than the Leopard 2 MBT it is supposed to supplement.  The vehicle prototypes have a five-road wheel decoupled running gear and use a hydropneumatic suspension to improve cross-country performance while reducing crew and material stress by limiting vibrations and noise. The road wheels are asymmetrical, mounted closer to each other at the front. This is to counter the front-heavy balance, inevitable because of the heavy frontal armor as well as the engine and drive train which are also situated at the front. The 500mm-wide steel tracks made by Diehl are of new construction and lighter than previous designs.  The serial production vehicles will have a symmetrical arranged six road wheel running gear as shown on released pictures by the manufacturer.

Operators.

Potential and future operators.

Offered by the German Army to supplement the Leopard 2 and the possibility of manufacturing it under license by FAMAE. The Croatian Army is looking at replacing 128 M80A IFV in its inventory, CV-90 and Puma are front contenders. Croatian Army requires 108 Vehicles, 88 Infantry combat vehicles, 4 Driver training vehicles, 8 Armoured Ambulance vehicles and 8 command vehicles. Budget for 108 Vehicles hasn't yet been set, however €400 million is projected cost of the vehicles. Croatian version will also come with 30mm cannon and twin anti tank launchers. Likely purchase of said vehicles is expected after 2021. Hungarian Defence Forces is looking to buy 200 new infantry fighting vehicles between 2020 and 2026. All of them will replace aging BTR-80 APC's.  The United States Army sought a new family of vehicles to replace the aging fleet of M113 APCs and M2 Bradleys with the BCT Ground Combat Vehicle Program. With modification, the Puma satisfied the technical requirements of the BCT Ground Combat Vehicle Program and was offered by SAIC and Boeing. The SAIC-Boeing team was not awarded a technology development contract for their Puma-based vehicle in August 2011, and then filed a protest. The protest was denied in December 2011 based on concerns over the vehicle's force protection features, primarily the proposed active protection system and underbody armor, and 20 significant weaknesses which had potential solutions offered that were judged as inadequate. On 2 April 2013, the Congressional Budget Office released a report that advised purchasing current infantry fighting vehicles instead of developing a new vehicle for the GCV program. Buying the Puma would save $14.8 billion, and was called the most capable vehicle. The Army responded by saying no existing vehicle could match requirements to replace the Bradley.

Failed bids.

The Australian Army is looking for a 'Mounted Close Combat Capability' within its LAND400 Phase 3 procurement program. The Puma IFV is one of the potential contenders. In November 2018, Project System & Management GmbH (PSM), the joint venture between Krauss-Maffei Wegmann and Rheinmetall announced the Puma would not compete in the Land 400 Phase 3 project. The Department of National Defence was considering the purchase of vehicles meant to accompany the Leopard 2 into combat. The CV90, the Puma and the Véhicule blindé de combat d'infanterie were the most likely candidates for the role. A contract of 108, with an option for up to 30 more was looked at. The project has since been cancelled. Czech Army is looking to buy 210 new infantry fighting vehicles for €2 Bln. between 2019 and 2024. All of them will replace aging BMP-2 in IFV and supporting variants. There will probably be an option to 100 more vehicles. On June 2017 five types of IFV (two versions of CV90, Lynx, ASCOD and Puma) were evaluated during a nine days testing. Based on unofficial information from the Czech general staff, Puma might be selected based on its "technological superiority". In December 2018, Puma was shortlisted together with the ASCOD, CV90 and Lynx In October 2019 it was announced that the Puma was being withdrawn from the competition. The manufacturer said that the Czech Army requirements would require an expensive redesign to the existing Puma which it was unwilling to undertake.

The Puma is a German infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) ( or short "SPz") designed to replace the aging Marder IFVs currently in service with the German Army. Production of the first batch of 350 vehicles began in 2010 and is scheduled for completion by the third quarter of 2020. A second batch of 210 Pumas has received funding. Mass production began on 6 July 2009. The companies responsible for this project are Krauss-Maffei Wegmann and Rheinmetall Landsysteme, who created a joint venture in the form of Projekt System Management GmbH (PSM). The Puma is one of the world's best-protected IFVs, while still having a high power-to-weight ratio. SAIC offered a derivative of the Puma as its contender in the now cancelled American GCV Infantry Fighting Vehicle program.

Puma je německé bojové vozidlo pěchoty, které bylo vyvinuto jako náhrada za zastarávající Mardery, které budou mezi lety 2010 až 2020 postupně vyřazovány. Masová výroba začala 6. července 2009. Řídící firma je PSM Projekt System Management, spojený podnik firem Krauss-Maffei Wegmann a Rheinmetall Landsysteme. Puma je jeden z nejlépe pancéřovaných BVP při vysokém poměru výkonu a hmotnosti.


Development and production.

The Char B1 had its origins in the concept of a "Char de Bataille" conceived by General Jean Baptiste Eugène Estienne in 1919, e.g. in his memorandum "Mémoire sur les missions des chars blindés en campagne". It had to be a "Battle Tank" that would be able to accomplish a breakthrough of the enemy line by destroying fortifications, gun emplacements and opposing tanks. In January 1921 a commission headed by General Edmond Buat initiated a project for such a vehicle. To limit costs, it had to be built like a self-propelled gun, with the main weapon in the hull. To minimise the vehicle size this gun should be able to move only up and down, with the horizontal aiming to be provided by turning the entire vehicle. The specifications included: a maximum weight of thirteen tonnes; a maximum armour thickness of 25 millimetres; a hull as low as possible to enable the gun to fire into the vision slits of bunkers; a small machine gun turret to fend off enemy infantry attacks, at the same time serving as an observation post for the commander and a crew of at most three men. Two versions should be built, one a close support tank armed with a 75 mm howitzer, the other an anti-tank vehicle with a 47 mm gun instead.  French industry was very interested in the project. In the past, this had led to much non-constructive rivalry. Estienne, who in the war had personally witnessed the dismal effects of such a situation, was determined to avoid a repetition. He used his position as Inspector-General of the Tanks to enforce the so-called "Estienne accord" on the industrialists, ordering them to "reach a mutual understanding, free from any spirit of industrial competition". To be allowed to join, they had to agree beforehand to relinquish any patents to the Army, which would be free to combine all projects into a single type. In exchange, to the industry very large orders of no less than a thousand vehicles were promised.  On these conditions four projects were started in 1921: two by a cooperation between Renault and Schneider: the SRA and the SRB, one by FAMH ("Forges et Aciéries de la Marine et d'Homécourt", better known as "Saint Chamond") and the last by FCM ("Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée"), the FCM 21. Renault and Schneider would each get to produce 250 units, FAMH and FCM each 125. A fifth producer, "Delaunay-Belleville", whose project (an improved FT 17) had been rejected beforehand, would be allowed to make 83 tanks; the remaining 167 would be allotted at the discretion of the French State.  On 13 May 1924, the four prototypes were presented at the "Atelier de Rueil", where they were compared, each having to drive over a twenty kilometre test course. Immediately it became evident that their technical development had been insufficient, most breaking down; the SRA even started to fall apart. Maintenance was difficult because the engines were inaccessible. All projects used a three-man crew but differed considerably in size, form and the solution chosen to laterally point the gun. The SRA was the heaviest vehicle at 19.5 tonnes. Its length was 5.95 metres, its height 2.26m and its width 2.49m. It had a 75 mm howitzer in the right side of the hull and a cast, 30 mm thick, turret with two machine-guns. It was steered by an epicyclical transmission combined with hydraulically reinforced brake disks, which failed to provide the desired precision during tests. Seen from the front it was very similar to the final model, but its side-on profile was more like that of the British Medium Mark D, including the "snake track"-system, with the drive wheel higher than the idler in front. The suspension used leaf springs. A Renault six-cylinder 180 hp engine (a bisected 12V aircraft engine) allowed for a maximum speed of 17.5 km/h; a four hundred litre fuel tank for a range of 140 kilometres. The SRB, also using leaf springs, was a somewhat larger vehicle, six metres long, 2.28 metres high and 2.5 metres wide. It was nevertheless lighter at 18.5 tonnes, a result of having a smaller 47 mm gun—it thus was the antitank version. Using the same engine, its speed was accordingly slightly higher at 18 km/h. More limited fuel reservoirs holding 370 litres decreased the range to 125 kilometres. It used an advanced hydraulic suspension system and the hydraulic Naeder-transmission from the "Chaize" company combined with a "Fieux" clutch and Schneider gear box. It used modified FT 17 tracks. The upper track run was much higher, creating enough room for a side door on the left. The FAHM prototype was 5.2 metres long, 2.4 m high and 2.43 m wide. It used a hydropneumatic suspension. Despite a weaker Panhard engine of 120 hp it still attained a speed of 18.2 km/h. Fuel reservoirs of just 230 litres limited its range to a mere seventy kilometres. The 75 mm howitzer was placed in the middle of the hull and steered by providing each snake track with its own hydraulic "Jeanny" transmission. On top there was a riveted machine-gun turret with 25 mm armour. The lightest prototype was the FCM 21 at 15.64 tonnes. It resembled a scaled-down Char 2C, the giant tank produced by the same company. It was very elongated with a length of 6.5 metres and width of 2.05 metres. A rather large riveted turret with a stroboscopic cupola, adopted from the Char 2C, brought its height to 252 centimetres. Like the superheavy tank it had no real spring system for the twelve small wheels per side. Separate clutches for each snake track enabled it to horizontally point the 75 mm howitzer in the middle of the hull. It used the same Panhard engine as the FAHM type and its speed was the lowest of all at 17.4 km/h. However, its five hundred litre reservoirs allowed for the best range at 175 kilometres.  In March 1925, Estienne decided to base the future production type on the SRB, as regarded the general form and mechanical parts. However, it would be fitted with the 75 mm gun, a Holt-track to be developed by FCM, which company had completed a special research programme aimed at optimising weight distribution, and the FAMH-suspension (later this would again be discarded). Estienne also had some special requirements: a track tension wheel should be fitted, adjustable from the inside, and a small gangway from the fighting room should improve the accessibility of the engine compartment. Furthermore, the front armour should be increased to 40 millimetres. In November 1925 Renault was given the order to build a wooden mock-up, that was finished early 1926. On 27 January 1926, it was decided to build three prototypes of what was provisionally called a "Tracteur 30", a final design by engineer Alleaume of the Schneider company, cooperating with the STCC ("Section Technique des Chars de Combat"). The first was to be delivered by Renault, the other two by FCM and FAHM respectively.  The same year, the "Direction de l'Infanterie" in the Plan 1926 redefined the concept of a "Char de Bataille". There would be a greater emphasis on infantry support, implying that the antitank-capacity was secondary and no armour increase was necessary. The weight was to be limited to 22 tonnes and the speed might be as low as 15 km/h. However, a radio set would have to be fitted to better direct and coordinate its actions; therefore a fourth crew-member was needed.  On 18 March 1927, the contracts for the three prototypes were signed. The hull of first Renault vehicle, made of softer boiler plate instead of armour steel to simplify changes, was finished in January 1929, apart from the armament. It was delivered in March. The separately produced cast turret was delivered on 23 April. The howitzer could only be fitted in April 1930. This prototype was allotted the series number No. 101. No. 102, the production of which FAMH had shifted to Renault, was delivered soon after; in September 1930 FCM delivered No. 103, constructed by the "Atelier de Mépanti" at Marseille. One of the vehicles was fitted with an alternative 75 mm Schneider gun instead of the 75 mm St Chamond M 21 from FAMH. Testing on the first prototype had already begun before the other two were delivered, or even its main armament was fitted. It had with 24,750 kilogrammes a weight higher than specified but could nevertheless reach a top speed of 24 km/h. From 6 May until August 1930 the "Commission d'Experiences des Matériels de Chars" carried out a further test programme on what was now officially called the Char B—the "B" not referring to "Bataille" but to a general classification code. The commission was largely satisfied with the vehicle, though many smaller problems were detected that had to be improved. The FCM prototype featured several alternative technologies: a "Winterthur" transmission, a "Citroën" clutch and a "Sulzer" diesel engine, later replaced by a "Clerget" diesel. All of these systems would prove to be more unreliable than the original concept and were ultimately rejected.  The three vehicles were not only used for technological, but also tactical experimentation. Together with the Char D1 pre-series, they represented the only modern tanks in France and the Army was naturally very interested in what lessons could be learned from them about future warfare, outlining the concept of a "Char de Manoeuvre". Neither "Char de Bataille" nor "Char de Manoeuvre" are official type designations; they refer to the tactical concepts only. In October 1931 a small unit was formed, the "Détachement d' Experimentation" in which the prototypes were united from December, using the "Camp de Châlons" as a base to see how they could be used in winter conditions. Afterwards, they drove on their own power to the "Atelier de Rueil" for repairs. In September they participated in the Champagne summer manoeuvres as a "Détachement Mécanique de Combat"; from 4 May 1933 No. 102 en 103 together formed a "Détachement d'Engins Blindés" to perform tactical experiments in the army bases of Coëtquidan and Mourmelon as part of a motorised light division, followed by comparable experiments in April 1934 at Sissonne. Technical aspects were not forgotten during these tests and it was established they could attain an average road speed of 19 km/h, cross a trench 2.4 metres wide, and wade through a 105 centimetres deep stream.  The prototypes were again extensively altered to meet changes in specifications. On 6 April 1934, the first order was made for seven tanks of a Char B1. The "B1" refers to the fact that there were other simultaneous projects to develop improved types: the Char B2, B3 and B B.  The Char B1 was manufactured by several firms: Renault (182), AMX (47), FCM (72), FAMH (70) and Schneider (32). Although it was the main producer, Renault had not exclusively designed the tank. Therefore, the official name was not "Renault B1" as often erroneously given. It was a very expensive tank to build: the per unit cost was about 1.5 million French francs. In France at the time two schools of thought collided: the first wanted to build very strong heavy tanks, the other a lot of cheap light tanks. Both sides managed to influence procurement policy to the end that not enough tanks were built of either category, to the exasperation of men like Colonel Charles de Gaulle, who wanted to build more of the medium Char D2, with a third of the cost of the Char B1 bis, but armed with the same 47 mm gun.

Tactical function.

The outer appearance of the Char B1 reflected the fact that development started in the twenties: like the very first tank, the British Mark I tank of World War I, it still had large tracks going around the entire hull and large armour plates protecting the suspension—and like all tanks of that decade it had no welded or cast hull armour. The similarity resulted partly from the fact that the Char B1 was a specialised offensive weapon, a break-through tank optimised for punching a hole into strong defensive entrenchments, so it was designed with good trench-crossing capabilities. The French Army thought that dislodging the enemy from a key front sector would decide a campaign, and it prided itself on being the only army in the world having a sufficient number of adequately protected heavy tanks. The exploitation phase of a battle was seen as secondary and best carried out by controlled and methodical movement to ensure superiority in numbers, so for the heavy tanks also mobility was of secondary concern. Although the Char B1 had a reasonably good speed for the time of its conception, no serious efforts were made to improve it when much faster tanks appeared.  More important than the tank's limitations in tactical mobility, however, were its limitations in strategic mobility. The low practical range implied the need to refuel very often, limiting its operational capabilities. This again implied that the armoured divisions of the Infantry, the "Divisions Cuirassées", were not very effective as a mobile reserve and thus lacked strategic flexibility. They were not created to fulfill such a role in the first place, which was reflected in the small size of the artillery and infantry components of the divisions.

The one-man turret.

Another explanation of the similarity to the British Mark I lies in the Char B1's original specification to create a self-propelled gun able to destroy enemy infantry and artillery. The main weapon of the tank was its 75 mm howitzer, and the entire design of the vehicle was directed to making this gun as effective as possible. When in the early 1930s it became obvious that the Char B1 also had to defeat counterattacking enemy armour, it was too late for a complete redesign. The solution was to add the standard cast APX-1 turret which also equipped the Char D2. Like most French tanks of the period (the exception being the AMC 34 and AMC 35) the Char B thus had a small one-man turret. Today this is typically seen as one of their greatest flaws. The commander, alone in the turret, not only had to command the tank, but also to aim and load the gun. If he was a unit leader, he had to command his other tanks as well. This is in contrast with the contemporary German, British and to a lesser extent Soviet policy to use two or three-man turret crews, in which these duties were divided amongst several men. The other nations felt that the commander would otherwise be over-tasked and unable to perform any of his roles as well as the commanders of tanks with two or three-man turret crews.  Whether this left the Char B1 less-formidable in actual combat than a review of its impressive statistics suggests, is difficult to ascertain. In 1940, the vast majority of Char B1 combat losses were inflicted by German artillery and anti-tank guns. In direct meetings with German tanks the Char B1 usually had the better of it, sometimes spectacularly so as when on 16 May a single tank, "Eure" (commanded by Captain Pierre Billotte), frontally attacked and destroyed thirteen German tanks lying in ambush in Stonne, all of them Panzer IIIs and Panzer IVs, in the course of a few minutes. The tank safely returned despite being hit 140 times. Similarly, in his book "Panzer Leader", Heinz Guderian related an incident which took place during a tank battle south of Juniville: "While the tank battle was in progress I attempted, in vain, to destroy a Char B with a captured 47 mm. anti-tank gun; all the shells I fired at it simply bounced harmlessly off its thick armour. Our 37 mm. and 20 mm. guns were equally ineffective against this adversary. As a result, we inevitably suffered sadly heavy casualties."  The French favoured small turrets despite their shortcomings, as they allowed for much smaller and thus cheaper vehicles. Although the French expenditure on tanks was relatively larger than the German, France simply lacked the production capacity to build a sufficient number of heavier tanks. The Char B1 was expensive enough as it was, eating up half of the infantry tank budget.

Variants.

Char B1.

The original Char B1 had frontal and side armour up to 40 mm thick. The vehicle had a fully traversing APX1 turret with a 47 mm L/27.6 SA 34 gun. This had a poor anti-tank capability: the thirty Armour Piercing High Explosive (APHE) rounds among the fifty the tank carried had a maximum penetration of about 25 mm. In addition, it was armed with a 75 mm ABS 1929 SA 35 gun mounted in the right-hand side of the hull front and two 7.5 mm Châtellerault M 1931 machine guns: one in the hull and the other in the turret. The 75 mm L/17.1 gun, able to fire both a High Explosive and the APHE "Obus de rupture Modèle 1910M" round, had a limited traverse of only one degree to the left or the right. It was laid onto target by the driver (provided with the gun sight) through the Naeder hydraulic precision transmission. The traverse had been made possible only in order to align the gun barrel precisely with the sight beforehand. The 75 mm gun had its own loader—the remaining two crew members were the radio operator and the commander, who had to load, aim and fire the 47 mm gun while commanding the vehicle (and in the case of platoon leaders, command other vehicles as well). The fighting compartment had the radio set on the left and an exit hatch in the right side. All vehicles had the ER53 radio telegraphy set, which used Morse code only. A hatch in the rear bulkhead gave access to a corridor (under which nineteen 75 mm rounds out of a total of eighty were stowed) in the engine room to the right of the engine, which was officially rated at, but had an actual output of. Each tank had its own team of three mechanics; in battle some of these might join the regular crew.  The suspension was very complex with sixteen road wheels per side. There were three large central bogies, sprung by a vertical coil spring. Each central bogie carried two smaller ones. The three vertical springs moved through holes in a horizontal beam, to both extreme ends of which road wheels were attached by means of leaf springs: three at the front and one at the back. The high track run gave the tank an old fashioned look, reflecting its long development time. It had a maximum speed of 28 km/h and a weight of 28 tonnes. The range was about two hundred kilometres. A total of 34 vehicles were built from December 1935 until July 1937. They had series numbers 102 to 135. Chassis number 101 was kept apart to build the Char B1 ter prototype.

Char B1 bis.

The Char B1 bis was an upgraded variant with thicker armour at 60 mm maximum (55 mm at the sides) and an APX4 turret with a longer-barrelled (L/32) 47 mm SA 35 gun, to give the tank a real anti-tank capacity. It was the main production type: from 8 April 1937 until June 1940 369 units were delivered out of a total order for 1144, with series numbers 201 to 569. Before the war manufacture was slow: only 129 had been delivered on 1 September 1939. The monthly delivery was still not more than fifteen in December; it peaked in March 1940 with 45.  The Char B1 bis had a top speed of provided by a petrol engine. The first batch of 35 Char B1 bis used the original engine but from 1938 to May 1940 they were slowly re-equipped. Its weight was about 31.5 tonnes. The operational range was about which was similar to other tanks of the period. At the three fuel tanks (total capacity of ) would be exhausted in six hours. To improve matters, at first, trailers with an 800-litre auxiliary fuel tank were towed but this practice was soon abandoned. Instead Char B1 units included a large number of fuel trucks and TRC Lorraine 37 L armoured tracked refuelling vehicles specially designed to quickly refuel them. The last tanks to be produced in June had an extra internal fuel tank. To cool the more powerful engine the Char B1 bis had the air intake on the left side enlarged. It is often claimed this formed a weak spot in the armour, based on a single incident on 16 May near Stonne where two German 37 mm PAK guns claimed to have knocked out three Char B1s by firing at the intakes at close range. The air intake was a thick assembly of horizontal slits alternately angled upwards and downwards between 28 mm thick armour plates, and as such intended to be no more vulnerable than the normal 55 mm side plates.  Over the production run the type was slowly improved. Tanks number 306 to 340 carried 62 47-mm rounds (and the old complement of 4,800 machine gun rounds); later tanks 72 and 5,250. However the B1 bis had fewer 75 mm rounds compared to the earlier B1 : 74 instead of eighty, normally only seven of which were APHE ammunition. Early in 1940 another change was made when the ER53 radio was replaced by the ER51 which allowed spoken wireless communication. The company and battalion command tanks also had an ER55 for communication with higher command. The crews of the "1re DCR" kept their old sets however, preferring them because the human voice was drowned by engine noise.

Char B1 ter.

Development of the Char B1 ter was started at the same time as production funds were given for the "bis" with the intention of providing a tank armoured to 75mm. A design with sloped and welded 70 mm armour, weighing 36.6 tonnes and powered by a engine was meant to replace the B1 bis to accelerate mass production, a change first intended for the summer of 1940 and later postponed to March 1941. In the course of the redesign, space was provided for a fifth crew member, a "mechanic". Cost was reduced by omitting the complex Neader transmission and giving the hull gun a traverse of five degrees to each side instead. The first prototype was shown in 1937. Only three prototypes could be partly finished before the defeat of France. In May 1940 it was agreed to deliver nine Char B1s each month to Britain in exchange for a monthly British production of the "H 39". The three prototypes were lost after having been evacuated on 17 June 1940, their ship the "Mécanicien Principal Carvin" being bombed by the Germans in the Gironde on 21 June. However, some believe that another prototype was obtained by Italy.

Operational history.

French service.

The Char B1 served with the armoured divisions of the infantry, the "Divisions Cuirassées" (DCr). These were highly specialised offensive units, to break through fortified positions. The mobile phase of a battle was to be carried out by the "Divisions Légères Mécaniques" (mechanised light divisions) of the cavalry, equipped with the SOMUA S35. The First and Second DCR had 69 Char B1's each; the Third 68. The 37th "Bataillon de Chars de Combat", serving with 1DCR, was at first equipped with the original B1; these vehicles were refitted with the longer SA 35 gun in the spring of 1940 and the turret renamed to APX1A. The battalion was re-equipped with the Char B1 bis and in May reinforced by five of the original tanks. After the German invasion several ad hoc units were formed: the 4e DCR with 52 Char B1s and five autonomous companies (347e, 348e, 349e, 352e and 353e "Compagnie Autonome de Chars") with in total 56 tanks: 12 B1s and 44 B1 bis; 28BCC was reconstituted with 34 tanks. The regular divisions destroyed quite a few German tanks but lacked enough organic infantry and artillery to function as an effective mobile reserve.

German use.

A number of Char B1s (161) were captured by the Germans during the Fall of France. These were later pressed into service as second line and training vehicles under the name of "Panzerkampfwagen B-2 740 (f)," and were often used as turretless "Munitionspanzer" supply vehicles. Sixty became platforms for flamethrowers as "Flammwagen auf Panzerkampfwagen B-2 (f)". Sixteen were converted into 105 mm self-propelled artillery, armed with the 10.5 cm leFH 18 light howitzer. Ordinary tank versions were also frequently modified. For example, additional armour was placed above the main gun, and a winch mechanism was added behind the turret. One unit, "Panzer-Abteilung 213", was equipped with the Char B1 bis and deployed on the Channel Islands from 1941 to 1945. One of their tanks is displayed by the Bovington Tank Museum, though repainted in French colours. In German service, the tank saw action in the Balkans Campaign and the Eastern Front, initially during Operation Barbarossa, the flamethrower version from 1942 onwards. Some Char B turrets were removed and installed on German bunkers defending Normandy beaches at the time of D-Day (6 June 1944).  Panzer-Kompanie 224, a training unit, was outfitted with several flamethrower-equipped B2s. They were stationed in Arnhem during Operation Market Garden, losing six tanks to anti-tank weaponry when they were sent to attack the Oosterbeek perimeter on 20–21 September 1944.

German designations.

In German service the tanks received the following designations.

German units.

The principal German units that used the Char B1 bis:

Italian use.

Italy independently from Germany captured eight Chars B1 bis when in October 1940 an Italian worker disclosed to the Italian Armistice Commission that they had been hidden in a cave near Les Baux-de-Provence in July 1940. These vehicles, six of which lacked the turret, were tested, but probably not used operationally by Italy.  The Italian armour historian Nicola Pignato in contrast stated in 1989 that some twenty B1 bis, in various stages of preparation and construction, along with a single 36-ton B1 ter prototype were directly recovered from the FCM factory, of which an unknown number were to be destined for Italy. Six vehicles in Italian service were known as "Semovente B1-bis," and lacked turrets, but were used in trials until 1943, after which they were used as target practice, and ammunition carriers.

Post-war French use.

After the Allies had invaded France in 1944, some B1s were recaptured. Several were used on an individual and incidental basis by resistance forces, such as those fighting the German garrison of Paris in August 1944. On 7 October 1944, the Provisional Government of the French Republic formed the 13th Dragoon Regiment of the Free French Forces. The majority of the regiment fielded SOMUA S35 cavalry tanks, but Captain Edmond Voillaume's 2nd Company was equipped with 19 B1 bis tanks, which included a mixture of standard and German modified B-2s. They were stationed in Orléans until 2 April 1945, when they were mobilized for the Allied siege of La Rochelle.  The tanks were effective in the attack on Royan on 15 April 1945, using their 75 mm guns for fire support, while targeting pillboxes with their 47 mm guns. After that, 2nd Company accompanied troops on an assault on Pontaillac on 17 April, followed by an attack on the German stronghold at La Rochelle between 29 April and 8 May. Voillaume was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his actions. After the war, the 13th Dragoon Regiment was stationed in the French occupation zone of Allied-occupied Germany as part of the French 3rd Armoured Division. It was eventually disbanded in the German town of Wittlich in April 1946.

Surviving vehicles.

Today eleven vehicles survive, one Char B1 and ten Char B1 bis.  The last surviving Char B1 can be seen at the "Association pour la Sauvegarde du Patrimoine Historique et Militaire" (ASPHM), near Strasbourg, in France. It was previously at the Fort de Seclin. It is in a bad condition, with parts like the main gun missing. It was salvaged from a firing range, and will be restored by the owner.  Ten Char B1 bis can be seen in various places in Great Britain and in France:

The Char B1 was a French heavy tank manufactured before World War II. The Char B1 was a specialised break-through vehicle, originally conceived as a self-propelled gun with a 75 mm howitzer in the hull; later a 47 mm gun in a turret was added, to allow it to function also as a "Char de Bataille", a "battle tank" fighting enemy armour, equipping the armoured divisions of the Infantry Arm. Starting in the early twenties, its development and production were repeatedly delayed, resulting in a vehicle that was both technologically complex and expensive, and already obsolescent when real mass-production of a derived version, the Char B1 "bis", started in the late thirties. Although a second up-armoured version, the Char B1 "ter", was developed, only two prototypes were built.

Char B1 byl francouzský těžký tank vzniklý v období před druhou světovou válkou. V roce 1921 byly ve Francii zadány požadavky na nový typ silně pancéřovaného pěchotního tanku. Tento těžký stroj měl být určený k průlomovým akcím, přičemž měl mít vysokou odolnost. Roku 1926 byl dokončeny první návrhy tří francouzských firem, z nichž byl vybrán Renault. Tato společnost dokončila svůj prototyp až roku 1929, ale sériová výroba byla zahájena až v roce 1934. Tank B-1 měl robustní konstrukci, jednotlivé pancéřové pláty byly spojeny nýty a konstrukce byla celkově výhodně vytvarována. V pravé přední části korby byla umístěna střílna, ve které byl instalován kanón ABS ráže 75 mm a kulomet Chatellerault ráže 7,5 mm. Tento kanón, kterým nešlo otáčet do stran, měl být používán pro ničení nepřátelského dělostřelectva a palebných postavení, pro boj s nepřátelskými tanky měl sloužit protitankový kanón ve věži. Tank poháněl zážehový motor Renault o výkonu 250 hp. Podvozek sestával na každé straně z napínacího kola vpředu, šestnácti pojezdových kol a hnacího kola vzadu, z boků byl chráněn silnými pancéřovými pláty. V pravém krycím plátu podvozku se nacházely vstupní dveře pro posádku. Tank B-1 měl litou věž APX-1, ve které byl instalován kanón SA-34 ráže 47 mm spolu s koaxiálním kulometem Chatellerault ráže 7,5 mm. Celková produkce činila 35 kusů tanků B-1.


History.

Lelystad is built on the seabed of the former Zuiderzee. About 6500 years ago this wetland was above high tide level and inhabited; the Netherlands have steadily subsided since. Near Lelystad at Swifterbant, the oldest human skeletons in Western Europe were discovered. Due to rising water levels and storms, the peatlands were washed away, and the Lacus Flevo (in Roman times) grew to be the Almere (Middle Ages) and became the Zuiderzee. The Zuiderzee (Southern Sea) was the main transport route from Amsterdam to the North Sea and the Hanseatic League cities. Due to the many shipwrecks in Flevoland, Lelystad now houses the National Centre for Maritime History, with a museum and the shipyard that has built the Batavia replica. After the Second World War the Zuiderzee Works continued, constructing the polder of Eastern Flevoland. In 1950 work commenced on several construction islands in the middle of the IJsselmeer. "Lelystad-Haven" was the largest island, and its wooden barracks housed a community of dyke-builders. In 1955 they reached the mainland, which made it possible to drive to Lelystad by car. One of the three pumping stations, which drained the polder in June 1957, was the diesel-powered "Wortman" in Lelystad-Haven. Until 1967 the only inhabitants of Lelystad were technical engineers and laborers and superintendents, living on the former construction island.

Landscape.

Lelystad is the largest municipality in the Netherlands in area, but a large part of that area is water: Markermeer and IJsselmeer. Another major area is the internationally famous nature park of Oostvaardersplassen, which arose naturally when the polder of "South Flevoland" was drained. Lelystad is also surrounded by a square of woodlands and parks and flat farmland. The importance of the landscape and sky is emphasized by several pieces of land art: engineers' work and works such as the "Observatorium" by Robert Morris (see below).  The artificial islands of Marker Wadden lie immediately to the northwest of Lelystad. Construction started in 2016, and the first islands have already become important wildlife sites, with many species of birds coming to the islands during the breeding season.

Tourism.

Lelystad has several tourist attractions, including:  Lelystad hosts many one-day events like the Lelystad Airshow, the Water Festival, the National Old Timer Day, Lelystad Speedway, Architecture day and several sports events. On the Midland Circuit many motor, kart and stock car racing events and several autoclub meetings are held. On the coast there are several marinas.

Transport.

Lelystad can be reached by air, water, and land.

Shield and flag.

The honeycomb grid in the arms of Lelystad represents the dykes, built with six-edged concrete or basalt blocks. The colour gold indicates the high costs of the project of making the polder. The centre shield is the arms of engineer Cornelis Lely. The sealions reflect the history of the land.  In the flag, the fleur-de-lis (lily) again takes a central point, referring to the name Lely. The yellow background reflects the precious land, and the blue lines the dykes and waterways. The flag of the province is similarly adorned with the fleur-de-lis to commemorate Lely.

Twin city.

Lelystad maintains international relations with the Surinamese twin city of Lelydorp.

Lelystad () is a municipality and a city in the centre of the Netherlands, and it is the capital of the province of Flevoland. The city, built on reclaimed land, was founded in 1967 and was named after Cornelis Lely, who engineered the Afsluitdijk, making the reclamation possible. Lelystad is approximately below sea level.

Lelystad je hlavní město provincie Flevoland v Nizozemsku. Město bylo vybudováno na odvodněné ploše poldru Oostelijk Flevoland v roce 1967 a pojmenováno po nizozemském inženýrovi C. Lelym, který se zabýval odvodňováním mořského pobřeží a byl hlavní postavou projektu Zuiderzeewerken. Lelystad leží přibližně 3 metry pod úrovní mořské hladiny. K 31. srpnu 2017 zde žilo 77 260 obyvatel.


Discovery and naming.

The type specimen of "Daspletosaurus torosus" (CMN 8506) is a partial skeleton including the skull, the shoulder, a forelimb, the pelvis, a femur and all of the vertebrae from the neck, torso and hip, as well as the first eleven tail vertebrae. It was discovered in 1921 near Steveville, Alberta, by Charles Mortram Sternberg, who thought it was a new species of "Gorgosaurus". It was not until 1970 that the specimen was fully described by Dale Russell, who made it the type of a new genus, "Daspletosaurus", from the Greek δασπλής (', stem and connective vowel resulting in '-) ("frightful") and σαυρος () ("lizard"). The type species is "Daspletosaurus torosus", the specific name "torosus" being Latin for'muscular' or 'brawny'. Aside from the type, there is only one other well-known specimen, RTMP 2001.36.1, a relatively complete skeleton discovered in 2001. Both specimens were recovered from the Oldman Formation in the Judith River Group of Alberta. The Oldman Formation was deposited during the middle Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous, from about 77 to 76 Ma (million years ago).  Dale Russell also suggested that a specimen of an immature "Albertosaurus" (CMN 11315) from the younger Horseshoe Canyon Formation in Alberta actually belonged to a third specimen of "Daspletosaurus" as "D." cf. "torosus", extending the temporal range of the genus by approximately 3.5 million years into the Maastrichtian. He based this referral on features of its limb and pelvic girdle, as well as the curvature of the hand claws, which he interpreted as traits matching "Daspletosaurus". This reassignment was not universally accepted, and thorough re-examination of the specimen favoured its initial referral to "Albertosaurus sarcophagus", despite lacking many of the diagnostic skeletal traits used to identify mature tyrannosaurids. An additional maxilla and various teeth from an "Edmontosaurus"-dominated bonebed in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation was also mistakenly referred to "Daspletosaurus", but all the tyrannosaurid material has all since been confirmed to belong to "Albertosaurus".

Assigned species.

Two or three additional species have been assigned to the genus "Daspletosaurus" over the years, although as of 2007 none of these species has received a proper description or scientific name. In the meantime, all are designated as "Daspletosaurus" spp; this does not imply that they all are the same species.  Along with the holotype, Russell designated a specimen collected by Barnum Brown in 1913 as the paratype of "D. torosus". This specimen (AMNH 5438) consists of parts of the hindleg, the pelvis and some of its associated vertebrae. It was discovered in the Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta. The Dinosaur Park Formation was formerly known as the Upper Oldman Formation and dates back to the middle Campanian, between 76.5 and 74.8 million years ago. "Daspletosaurus" fossils are known specifically from the middle to upper section of the formation, between 75.6 and 75.0 million years ago. In 1914, Brown collected a nearly complete skeleton and skull; forty years later his American Museum of Natural History sold this specimen to the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. It was mounted for display in Chicago and labeled as "Albertosaurus libratus" for many years, but after several skull features were later found to be modeled in plaster, including most of the teeth, the specimen (FMNH PR308) was reassigned to "Daspletosaurus torosus" by Thomas Carr in 1999. A total of eight specimens have been collected from the Dinosaur Park Formation over the years since, most of them within the boundaries of Dinosaur Provincial Park. Phil Currie believes that the Dinosaur Park specimens represent a new species of "Daspletosaurus", distinguished by certain features of the skull. Pictures of this new species have been published, but it still awaits a name and full description in print.  A new tyrannosaurid specimen (OMNH 10131), including skull fragments, ribs and parts of the hindlimb, was reported from New Mexico in 1990 and assigned to the now-defunct genus "Aublysodon". Many later authors have reassigned this specimen, along with a few others from New Mexico, to yet another unnamed species of "Daspletosaurus". However, research published in 2010 showed that this species, from the Hunter Wash Member of the Kirtland Formation, is actually a more primitive tyrannosauroid, and was classified in the genus "Bistahieversor". There is currently disagreement over the age of the Kirtland Formation, with some workers claiming a late Campanian age, while others suggest a younger age in the early Maastrichtian stage.  In 1992, Jack Horner and colleagues published an extremely preliminary report of a tyrannosaurid from the upper parts of the Campanian Two Medicine Formation in Montana, which was interpreted as a transitional species between "Daspletosaurus" and the later "Tyrannosaurus". Currie (2003) stated that the tyrannosaurid from the Two Medicine Formation mentioned by Horner "et al." (1992) may be an unnamed third species of "Daspletosaurus". Another partial skeleton was reported from the Upper Two Medicine in 2001, preserving the remains of a juvenile hadrosaur in its abdominal cavity. This specimen was assigned to "Daspletosaurus" but not to any particular species. The remains of at least three more "Daspletosaurus" have also been described in a Two Medicine bonebed by Currie "et al." (2005); the authors stated that this fossil material likely represents then-unnamed species mentioned by Horner "et al." (1992), but cautioned that further study and description of "Daspletosaurus" would be necessary before the species can be determined with certainty. In 2017, the Two Medicine Formation taxon was named as the new species "D. horneri".  Isolated tyrannosaurid teeth in the upper portions of the Judith River Formation are likely from "Gorgosaurus" as well as some species of "Daspletosaurus", probably "D. torosus". However, in the lower portion Judith River formation, around 78 million years ago, there is some evidence for a new undescribed tyrannosaurid taxon. A specimen in the collections of Triebold Paleontology excavated between 2002 and 2004, known as "Sir William", shows some characteristics of "Daspletosaurus" suggesting a new earlier species to the genus. However the specimen shows many characteristics typical of early tyrannosaurines such as "Teratophoneus" and even some of the later "Tyrannosaurus", which may suggest an entirely new genus.

Description.

While very large by the standard of modern predators, "Daspletosaurus" was not the largest tyrannosaurid. Adults could reach a length of 8–9 meters (26–30 ft) from snout to tail. Mass estimates have centered on, but have ranged between.  "Daspletosaurus" had a massive skull that could reach more than in length. The bones were heavily constructed and some, including the nasal bones on top of the snout, were fused for strength. Large fenestrae (openings) in the skull reduced its weight. An adult "Daspletosaurus" was armed with about six dozen teeth that were very long but oval in cross section rather than blade-like. Unlike its other teeth, those in the premaxilla at the end of the upper jaw had a "D"-shaped cross section, an example of heterodonty always seen in tyrannosaurids. Unique skull features included the rough outer surface of the maxilla (upper jaw bone) and the pronounced crests around the eyes on the lacrimal, postorbital, and jugal bones. The orbit (eye socket) was a tall oval, somewhere in between the circular shape seen in "Gorgosaurus" and the 'keyhole' shape of "Tyrannosaurus". Split carinae (edges) have been found on "Daspletosaurus" teeth.  "Daspletosaurus" shared the same body form as other tyrannosaurids, with a short, S-shaped neck supporting the massive skull. It walked on its two thick hindlimbs, which ended in four-toed feet, although the first digit (the hallux) did not contact the ground. In contrast, the forelimbs were extremely small and bore only two digits, although "Daspletosaurus" had the longest forelimbs in proportion to body size of any tyrannosaurid. A long, heavy tail served as a counterweight to the head and torso, with the center of gravity over the hips.  A study of "D. horneri" skulls suggests that unlike many depictions of tyrannosaurids, this genus and likely other tyrannosaurids did not possess lips. Comparisons of the skull of this species with modern crocodiles show the same rugose (roughly wrinkled) bone structure that indicates the presence of large flat scales as opposed to lips. As the rough texture descends almost to the tooth line, it is theorized that "Daspletosaurus"' teeth were not covered by lips, as there would have been no room for such soft tissue.

Classification and systematics.

"Daspletosaurus" belongs in the subfamily Tyrannosaurinae within the family Tyrannosauridae, along with "Tarbosaurus", "Tyrannosaurus" and "Alioramus". Animals in this subfamily are more closely related to "Tyrannosaurus" than to "Albertosaurus" and are known – with the exception of "Alioramus" – for their robust build with proportionally larger skulls and longer femora than in the other subfamily, the Albertosaurinae. It further belongs to the tribe Daspletosaurini, consisting of it and the taxon "Thanatotheristes".  "Daspletosaurus" is usually considered to be closely related to "Tyrannosaurus rex", or even a direct ancestor through anagenesis. Gregory Paul reassigned "D. torosus" to the genus "Tyrannosaurus", creating the new combination "Tyrannosaurus torosus", but this has not been generally accepted. Many researchers believe "Tarbosaurus" and "Tyrannosaurus" to be sister taxa or even to be the same genus, with "Daspletosaurus" a more basal relative. On the other hand, Phil Currie and colleagues find "Daspletosaurus" to be more closely related to "Tarbosaurus" and other Asian tyrannosaurids like "Alioramus" than to the North American "Tyrannosaurus". The systematics (evolutionary relationships) of "Daspletosaurus" may become clearer once all the species have been described.  Below is the cladogram of Tyrannosauridae based on the phylogenetic analysis conducted by Loewen "et al." in 2013.

Paleobiology.

Senses.

There are indications of "D. horneri" possessing integumentary sensory organs, possibly used in touch, modulation of precise jaw movements, temperature reading, and prey detection. The large flat scales may have further protected the snout during prey capture and intra-specific combat.

Coexistence with "Gorgosaurus".

In the late Campanian of North America, "Daspletosaurus" was a contemporary of the albertosaurine tyrannosaurid "Gorgosaurus". This is one of the few examples of two tyrannosaur genera coexisting. In modern predator guilds, similar-sized predators are separated into different ecological niches by anatomical, behavioral or geographical differences that limit competition. Several studies have attempted to explain niche differentiation in "Daspletosaurus" and "Gorgosaurus".  Dale Russell hypothesized that the more lightly built and more common "Gorgosaurus" may have preyed on the abundant hadrosaurs of the time, while the more robust and less common "Daspletosaurus" may have specialized on the less prevalent but better-defended ceratopsids, which may have been more difficult to hunt. However, a specimen of "Daspletosaurus" (OTM 200) from the Two Medicine Formation preserves the digested remains of a juvenile hadrosaur in its gut region. The higher and broader muzzles of tyrannosaurines like "Daspletosaurus" are mechanically stronger than the lower snouts of albertosaurines like "Gorgosaurus", although tooth strengths are similar between the two groups. This may indicate a difference in feeding mechanics or diet.  Other authors have suggested that competition was limited by geographical separation. Unlike some other groups of dinosaurs, there appears to be no correlation with distance from the sea. Neither "Daspletosaurus" nor "Gorgosaurus" was more common at higher or lower elevations than the other. However, while there is some overlap, "Gorgosaurus" appears to be more common at northern latitudes, with species of "Daspletosaurus" more abundant to the south. The same pattern is seen in other groups of dinosaurs. Chasmosaurine ceratopsians and hadrosaurine hadrosaurs (a group now generally referred to as saurolophines) are also more common in the Two Medicine Formation and in southwestern North America during the Campanian. Thomas Holtz has suggested that this pattern indicates shared ecological preferences between tyrannosaurines, chasmosaurines and hadrosaurines. Holtz notes that, at the end of the later Maastrichtian stage, tyrannosaurines like "Tyrannosaurus rex", hadrosaurines and chasmosaurines like "Triceratops" were widespread throughout western North America, while albertosaurines and centrosaurines became extinct, and lambeosaurines were very rare.

Social behavior.

A young specimen of the Dinosaur Park "Daspletosaurus" species (TMP 94.143.1) shows bite marks on the face that were inflicted by another tyrannosaur. The bite marks are healed over, indicating that the animal survived the bite. A full-grown Dinosaur Park "Daspletosaurus" (TMP 85.62.1) also exhibits tyrannosaur bite marks, showing that attacks to the face were not limited to younger animals. While it is possible that the bites were attributable to other species, intraspecific aggression, including facial biting, is very common among predators. Facial bites are seen in other tyrannosaurs like "Gorgosaurus" and "Tyrannosaurus", as well as in other theropod genera like "Sinraptor" and "Saurornitholestes". Darren Tanke and Phil Currie hypothesize that the bites are due to intraspecific competition for territory or resources, or for dominance within a social group.  Evidence that "Daspletosaurus" lived in social groups comes from a bonebed found in the Two Medicine Formation of Montana. The bonebed includes the remains of three "Daspletosaurus", including a large adult, a small juvenile, and another individual of intermediate size. At least five hadrosaurs are preserved at the same location. Geologic evidence indicates that the remains were not brought together by river currents but that all of the animals were buried simultaneously at the same location. The hadrosaur remains are scattered and bear numerous marks from tyrannosaur teeth, indicating that the "Daspletosaurus" were feeding on the hadrosaurs at the time of death. The cause of death is unknown. Currie speculates that the daspletosaurs formed a pack, although this cannot be stated with certainty. Other scientists are skeptical of the evidence for social groups in "Daspletosaurus" and other large theropods; Brian Roach and Daniel Brinkman have suggested that "Daspletosaurus" social interaction would have more closely resembled the modern Komodo dragon, where non-cooperative individuals mob carcasses, frequently attacking and even cannibalizing each other in the process. Evidence of cannibalism in "Daspletosaurus" was published in 2015.

Life history.

Paleontologist Gregory Erickson and colleagues have studied the growth and life history of tyrannosaurids. Analysis of bone histology can determine the age of a specimen when it died. Growth rates can be examined when the ages of various individuals are plotted against their size on a graph. Erickson has shown that after a long time as juveniles, tyrannosaurs underwent tremendous growth spurts for about four years midway through their lives. After the rapid growth phase ended with sexual maturity, growth slowed down considerably in adult animals. Erickson only examined "Daspletosaurus" from the Dinosaur Park Formation, but these specimens show the same pattern. Compared to albertosaurines, "Daspletosaurus" showed a faster growth rate during the rapid growth period due to its higher adult weight. The maximum growth rate in "Daspletosaurus" was 180 kilograms (400 lb) per year, based on a mass estimate of 1800 kilograms (2 tons) in adults. Other authors have suggested higher adult weights for "Daspletosaurus"; this would change the magnitude of the growth rate but not the overall pattern.  By tabulating the number of specimens of each age group, Erickson and his colleagues were able to draw conclusions about life history in a population of "Albertosaurus". Their analysis showed that while juveniles were rare in the fossil record, subadults in the rapid growth phase and adults were far more common. While this could be due to preservation or collection biases, Erickson hypothesized that the difference was due to low mortality among juveniles over a certain size, which is also seen in some modern large mammals like elephants. This low mortality may have resulted from a lack of predation, since tyrannosaurs surpassed all contemporaneous predators in size by the age of two. Paleontologists have not found enough "Daspletosaurus" remains for a similar analysis, but Erickson notes that the same general trend seems to apply.  A 2009 study found evidence of "Trichomonas gallinae"-like infection in the jaws of various specimens of "Daspletosaurus".

Paleoecology.

All known "Daspletosaurus" fossils have been found in formations dating to the middle to late Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous Period, between 77 and 74 million years ago. Since the middle of the Cretaceous, North America had been divided in half by the Western Interior Seaway, with much of Montana and Alberta below the surface. However, the uplift of the Rocky Mountains in the Laramide Orogeny to the west, which began during the time of "Daspletosaurus", forced the seaway to retreat eastwards and southwards. Rivers flowed down from the mountains and drained into the seaway, carrying sediment along with them that formed the Two Medicine Formation, the Judith River Group, and other sedimentary formations in the region. About 73 million years ago, the seaway began to advance westwards and northwards again, and the entire region was covered by the Bearpaw Sea, represented throughout the western United States and Canada by the massive Bearpaw Shale.  "Daspletosaurus" lived in a vast floodplain along the western shore of the interior seaway. Large rivers watered the land, occasionally flooding and blanketing the region with new sediment. When water was plentiful, the region could support a great deal of plant and animal life, but periodic droughts also struck the region, resulting in mass mortality as preserved in the many bonebed deposits found in Two Medicine and Judith River sediments, including the "Daspletosaurus" bonebed. Similar conditions exist today in East Africa. Volcanic eruptions from the west periodically blanketed the region with ash, also resulting in large-scale mortality, while simultaneously enriching the soil for future plant growth. It is these ash beds that allow precise radiometric dating as well. Fluctuating sea levels also resulted in a variety of other environments at different times and places within the Judith River Group, including offshore and nearshore marine habitats, coastal wetlands, deltas and lagoons, in addition to the inland floodplains. The Two Medicine Formation was deposited at higher elevations farther inland than the other two formations.  The excellent vertebrate fossil record of Two Medicine and Judith River rocks resulted from a combination of abundant animal life, periodic natural disasters, and the deposition of large amounts of sediment. Many types of freshwater and estuarine fish are represented, including sharks, rays, sturgeons, gars and others. The Judith River Group preserves the remains of many aquatic amphibians and reptiles, including frogs, salamanders, turtles, "Champsosaurus" and crocodilians. Terrestrial lizards, including whiptails, skinks, monitors and alligator lizards have also been discovered. Azhdarchid pterosaurs, and birds like "Apatornis" and "Avisaurus" flew overhead, while several varieties of mammals coexisted with "Daspletosaurus" and other types of dinosaurs in the various formations that make up the Judith River wedge. In the Oldman Formation (the geological equivalent of the Judith River formation), "Daspletosaurus torosus" could have preyed upon the hadrosaur species "Brachylophosaurus canadensis", the ceratopsians "Coronosaurus brinkmani" and "Albertaceratops nesmoi", pachycephalosaurs, ornithomimids, therizinosaurs and possibly ankylosaurs. Other predators included troodontids, oviraptorosaurs, the dromaeosaurid "Saurornitholestes" and possibly an albertosaurine tyrannosaur (genus currently unknown). The younger Dinosaur Park and Two Medicine Formations had faunas similar to the Oldman, with the Dinosaur Park in particular preserving an unrivaled array of dinosaurs. The albertosaurine "Gorgosaurus" lived alongside unnamed species of "Daspletosaurus" in the Dinosaur Park and Upper Two Medicine environments. Young tyrannosaurs may have filled the niches in between adult tyrannosaurs and smaller theropods, which were separated by two orders of magnitude in mass. A "Saurornitholestes" dentary has been discovered in the Dinosaur Park Formation that bore tooth marks left by the bite of a young tyrannosaur, possibly "Daspletosaurus".

Daspletosaurus ( ; meaning "frightful lizard") is a genus of tyrannosaurid dinosaur that lived in western North America between about 77 and 74 million years ago, during the Late Cretaceous Period. The genus "Daspletosaurus" contains two species. Fossils of the earlier type species, "D. torosus", have been found in Alberta, while fossils of the later second species, "D. horneri", have been found only in Montana. A possible third species, also from Alberta, awaits formal identification. "Daspletosaurus" is closely related to the much larger and more recent tyrannosaurid "Tyrannosaurus rex". Like most tyrannosaurids, "Daspletosaurus" was a multi-tonne bipedal predator equipped with dozens of large, sharp teeth. "Daspletosaurus" had the small forelimbs typical of tyrannosaurids, although they were proportionately longer than in other genera.

Daspletosaurus torosus („Strašlivý ještěr“) byl rod velkého dravého dinosaura (teropoda), který žil v období svrchní křídy na území západu Severní Ameriky.


Early life.

Snoop Dogg was born Calvin Cordozar Broadus Jr. in Long Beach, California, to Vernall Varnado and Beverly Broadus ("née" Tate). Vernall, who was a Vietnam veteran, singer, and mail carrier, left the family only three months after Calvin’s birth, and thus Calvin was named after his stepfather, Calvin Cordozar Broadus Sr. His father remained largely absent from his life. As a boy, his parents nicknamed him "Snoopy" due to his love and likeness of the cartoon character from "Peanuts". He was the second of his mother's three sons. His mother and stepfather divorced in 1975. When Calvin was very young, he began singing and playing piano at the Golgotha Trinity Baptist Church. In sixth grade, he began rapping. As a child, Calvin sold candy, delivered newspapers, and bagged groceries to help his family make ends meet. He was described as having been a dedicated student and enthusiastic churchgoer. Calvin said in 1993 that despite his mother’s best efforts to keep him singing in the

Musical career.

1992–1998: Death Row, "Doggystyle", and "Tha Doggfather".

When he began recording, Calvin Broadus took the stage name Snoop Doggy Dogg. Dr. Dre began working with him, first on the theme song of the 1992 film "Deep Cover" and then on Dr. Dre's debut solo album "The Chronic" along with the other members of his former starting group, Tha Dogg Pound. This intense exposure played a considerable part in making Snoop Dogg's debut album, "Doggystyle", the critical and commercial success that it was. Fueling the ascendance of West Coast G-funk hip hop, the singles "Who Am I (What's My Name)?" and "Gin and Juice" reached the top ten most-played songs in the United States, and the album stayed on

1998–2006: Signing with No Limit and continued success.

Snoop signed with Master P's No Limit Records (distributed by Priority/EMI Records) in March 1998 and debuted on the label with "Da Game Is to Be Sold, Not to Be Told" later that year. He said at the time that "Snoop Dogg is universal so he can fit into any camp-especially a camp that knows how to handmake shit[;] [a]nd, No Limit hand makes material. They make material fittin' to the artist and they know what type of shit Snoop Dogg is supposed

2007–2012: "Ego Trippin<nowiki>'

In July 2007, Snoop Dogg made history by becoming the first artist to release a track as a ringtone before its release as a single, "It's the D.O.G." On July 7, 2007, Snoop Dogg performed at the Live Earth concert, Hamburg. Snoop Dogg has ventured into singing for Bollywood with his first ever rap for an Indian movie, "Singh Is Kinng"; the song title is also "Singh is Kinng". He appears in the movie as himself. The album featuring the song was released on June 8, 2008 on Junglee Music Records. He released his ninth studio album, "Ego Trippin'" (selling 400,000 copies in the U.S.), along with the first single, "Sexual Eruption". The single peaked at No. 7 on the Billboard 100, featuring Snoop using autotune. The album featured production from QDT (Quik-Dogg-Teddy).  Snoop was appointed an executive position at Priority Records. His tenth studio album, "Malice n Wonderland", was released on December 8, 2009. The first single from the album, "Gangsta Luv", featuring The-Dream, peaked at No.35 on the Billboard Hot 100. The album debuted at No.23 on the Billboard 200, selling 61,000

2012–2013: "Reincarnated" and "7 Days of Funk".

On February 4, 2012, Snoop Dogg announced a documentary, "Reincarnated", alongside his new upcoming studio album entitled "Reincarnated". The film was released March 21, 2013 with the album slated for release April 23, 2013. On July 20, 2012, Snoop Dogg released a new reggae single, "La La La" under the pseudonym Snoop Lion. Three other songs were also announced to be on the album: "No Guns Allowed", "Ashtrays and Heartbreaks", and "Harder Times".  On July 31, 2012, Snoop introduced a new stage name, Snoop Lion. He told reporters that he was rechristened Snoop Lion by a Rastafarian priest in Jamaica. In response to Frank Ocean coming out, Snoop said hip hop was ready to accept a gay rapper. Snoop recorded an original song for the 2012 fighting game "Tekken Tag Tournament 2", titled "Knocc 'Em Down"; and makes a special appearance as a non-playable

2014–2017: "Bush", "Coolaid," and "Neva Left".

In August 2014, a clip surfaced online featuring a sneak preview of a song Snoop had recorded for Pharrell. Snoop's Pharrell Williams-produced album "Bush" was released on May 12, 2015, with the first single "Peaches N Cream" having been released on March 10, 2015.  On June 13, 2016, Snoop Dogg announced

2018: "Bible of Love".

He released a gospel album titled "Bible of Love" on March 16, 2018. Snoop was featured on Gorillaz' latest album "The Now Now" on a track called: "Hollywood" with Jamie Principle. In November 2018, Snoop Dogg announced plans for his Puff Puff Pass tour, which features Bone Thugs-n-Harmony,

2019: "I Wanna Thank Me" and collaborations.

On July 3, 2019, Snoop Dogg released the title track from his upcoming 17th studio album, "I Wanna Thank Me". The album was released on August 16, 2019.  Snoop Dogg collaborated with Vietnamese singer Son Tung M-TP in "Hãy trao cho anh" ("Give it to Me"), which was officially released on July 1, 2019.

Other ventures.

Snoop Dogg has appeared in numerous films and television episodes throughout his career. His starring roles in film includes "The Wash" (with Dr. Dre) and the horror film "Bones". He also co-starred with rapper Wiz Khalifa in the 2012 movie "Mac and Devin Go to High School" which a sequel has been announced. He has had various supporting and cameo roles in film, including "Half Baked", "Training Day", "Starsky & Hutch", and "Brüno".  He has starred in three television programs: sketch-comedy show "Doggy Fizzle Televizzle", variety show "Dogg After Dark", and reality show "Snoop Dogg's Father Hood" (also starring Snoop's wife and children). He has starred in episodes of "King of the Hill", "Las Vegas", and "Monk", one episode of "Robot Chicken", as well as three episodes of "One Life to Live". He has participated in three Comedy Central Roasts, for Flavor Flav, Donald Trump, and Justin Bieber. Cameo television appearances include episodes of "The L Word", "Weeds", "Entourage", "I Get That a Lot", "Monk", and "The Price Is Right". He has also appeared in an episode of the YouTube video series, "Epic Rap Battles of History" as Moses.  In 2000, Snoop (as "Michael J. Corleone") directed "Snoop Dogg's Doggystyle", a pornographic film produced by Hustler. The film, combining hip hop with x-rated material, was a huge success and won "Top Selling Release of the Year" at the 2002 AVN Awards. Snoop then directed "" in 2002 (using the nickname "Snoop Scorsese").  Snoop founded his own production company, Snoopadelic Films, in 2005. Their debut film was "Boss'n Up", a film inspired by Snoop Dogg's

Style and rap skills.

Kool Moe Dee ranks Snoop at No. 33 in his book "There's a God on the Mic", and says he has "an ultra-smooth, laidback delivery" and "flavor-filled melodic rhyming".  Peter Shapiro describes Snoop's delivery as a "molasses drawl" and AllMusic notes his "drawled, laconic rhyming" style. Kool Moe Dee refers to Snoop's use of vocabulary, saying he "keeps it real simple...he simplifies it and he's effective in his simplicity".  Snoop is known to freestyle some of his lyrics on the spot – in the book "How to Rap", Lady of Rage says, "When I worked with him earlier in his career, that's how created his stuff... he would freestyle, he wasn't a writer then, he was a freestyler," and The D.O.C. states, "Snoop's [rap] was a one take willy, but his shit was all freestyle. He hadn't written nothing down. He just came in and started busting. The song was "Tha Shiznit"—that was all freestyle. He started busting and when we got to the break, Dre

Personal life.

Snoop married his high school sweetheart, Shante Taylor, on June 12, 1997. On May 21, 2004, he filed for divorce from Taylor, citing irreconcilable differences. The couple renewed their wedding vows on January 12, 2008. They have three children together: sons Cordé (born August 21, 1994) and Cordell (born February 21, 1997), who quit football to pursue a career as a film maker, and daughter Cori (born June 22, 1999). Snoop also has a son from a relationship with Laurie Holmond, Julian Corrie Broadus (born 1998). He is a first cousin of R&B singers Brandy and Ray J, and WWE professional wrestler Sasha Banks.In 2015 Snoop became a grandfather, as his eldest son, Cordé Broadus, had a son with his girlfriend, Jessica Kyzer. Cordé had another son, Kai, who died on September 25, 2019, ten days after birth.  Since the start of his career, Snoop has been an avowed cannabis smoker, making it one of the trademarks of his image. In 2002, he announced he was giving up cannabis for good; that did not last long (a situation famously referenced in the 2004 Adam Sandler movie 50 First Dates) and in 2013, he claimed to be smoking approximately 80 cannabis blunts a day. He has been certified for medical cannabis in California to treat migraines since at least 2007.  Snoop claimed in a 2006 interview with "Rolling Stone" magazine that unlike other hip hop artists who had superficially adopted the pimp persona, he was an actual professional pimp in 2003 and 2004, saying, "That shit was my natural calling and once I got involved with it, it became fun. It was like shootin' layups for me. I was makin' 'em every time." He went on to say that on the advice of some of the pimps he knew, he eventually gave up pimping to spend more time with his family.

Sports.

Snoop is an avid sports fan, including hometown teams Los Angeles Dodgers, Los Angeles Lakers, and USC Trojans, as well as the Pittsburgh Steelers. He has stated that he began following the Steelers in the 1970s while watching the team with his grandfather. He is also a fan of the Las Vegas Raiders, Los Angeles Rams, and Dallas Cowboys, often wearing a No. 5 jersey, and has been seen at Raiders training camps. He has shown affection for the New England Patriots, having been seen performing at Gillette Stadium. He is an avid ice hockey fan, sporting jerseys from the NHL's Pittsburgh Penguins and the AHL's Springfield Indians in his 1994 music video "Gin and Juice". On his reality show

Religion.

In 2009, it was reported that Snoop was a member of the Nation of Islam. On March 1, he made an appearance at the Nation of Islam's annual Saviours' Day holiday, where he praised minister Louis Farrakhan. Snoop said he was a member of the Nation, but declined to give the date on which he joined. He also donated $1,000 to the organization.  Claiming to be "born again" in 2012, Snoop converted to the Rastafari movement, switched the focus of his music to reggae and changed his name

Charity.

Dogg partners with city officials and annually gives away turkeys

Politics.

In 2012, Snoop Dogg endorsed Representative Ron Paul in the Republican presidential primary, but later said he would vote for Barack Obama in the general election, and on Instagram gave ten reasons to vote for Obama (including "He a black nigga", "He's BFFs with Jay-Z", and "Michelle got a fat ass"), and ten reasons not to vote for Mitt Romney (including "He a white nigga", "That muthafucka's name is Mitt", and "He a ho").  In a 2013 interview with "The Huffington Post", Snoop Dogg advocated for same-sex marriage, saying, "people can do what they want."  In his keynote address at the 2015 South by Southwest music festival, he blamed Los Angeles's explosion of gang violence in the 1980s on the economic policies of Ronald Reagan, and insinuated that his administration shipped guns and drugs into the area.  He endorsed

Animal rights.

Snoop Dogg regularly appears in real fur garments, especially large coats, for which he attracts criticism from animal welfare charities and younger audiences. In a vodcast in 2012, the rapper asked "Why doesn't PETA throw paint on a pimp's fur coat.". In 2014, Snoop Dogg claimed to have become

Business ventures and investments.

Broadus has been an active entrepreneur and investor. In 2009, he was appointed creative chairman of Priority Records.  In May 2013, Broadus and his brand manager Nick Adler released an app, Snoopify, that lets users plaster stickers of Snoop's face, joints or a walrus hat on photos. Adler built the app in May after discovering stickers in Japan. As of 2015, the app was generating $30,000 in weekly sales.  In October 2014, Reddit raised $50 million in a funding round led by Sam Altman and including investors Marc Andreessen, Peter Thiel, Ron Conway, Snoop Dogg and Jared Leto.  In April 2015, Broadus became a minority investor in his first investment venture Eaze, a California-based weed delivery startup that

World records.

Largest paradise cocktail.

At the BottleRock Napa Valley music festival on May 26, 2018, Snoop Dogg, Warren G, Kendall Coleman, Kim Kaechele and Michael Voltaggio set the Guinness World Record for the largest paradise cocktail. Measuring, the "Gin and Juice" drink was mixed from 180 bottles of gin, 156 bottles of apricot brandy and 28 jugs of orange juice.

Reported volume and content.

"Time" reported its total volume as "...more than 132 gallons, according to Guinness...", following with an embedded tweet by Liam Mayclem via GWR (the Guinness World Records' official Twitter account), showing a reply from GWR to its own tweet stating "[t]he cocktail contained 180 bottles of Hendricks gin, 154 bottles of apricot brandy and 38 3.78 litre jugs of orange juice..."  "Mixmag", "NME" and "USA Today" published the same content quantities as GWR's tweet. with "Mixmag" reporting that "[a]ccording to Guinness the cocktail measured at 132 gallons." "NME" states that the total volume was "...more than 132 gallons" and "USA Today"'s European website states that "[a] Guinness World Records official was on hand to certify the record of the 550 liter cocktail."  "Billboard" published that "...the concoction required 180 handles of Hendricks gin, resulting in a gigantic beverage...".

Legal incidents.

Shortly after graduating from high school, Broadus was arrested for possession of cocaine and for the following three years was frequently in and out of prison. In 1990, he was convicted of felony possession of drugs and possession for sale.  While recording "Doggystyle" in August 1993, Snoop Dogg was arrested in connection with the death of a member of a rival gang who was shot and killed by Snoop's bodyguard; both men were charged with murder as Dogg was driving the vehicle from which the gun was fired. Johnnie Cochran defended both men. Both men were acquitted, but Snoop Dogg remained entangled in the legal battles around the case for three years.  In July 1993, Snoop was stopped for a traffic violation and a firearm was found by police during a search of his car. In February 1997, he pleaded guilty to possession of a handgun and was ordered to record three public service announcements, pay a $1,000 fine, and serve three years' probation.  In September 2006, Snoop Dogg was detained at John Wayne Airport in Orange County, California by airport security, after airport screeners found a collapsible police baton in Snoop's carry-on bag. Donald Etra, Snoop's lawyer, told deputies the baton was a prop for a musical sketch. Snoop was sentenced to three years' probation and 160 hours of community service for the incident starting in September 2007. Snoop Dogg was arrested again in October 2006 at Bob Hope Airport in Burbank after being stopped for a traffic infraction; he was arrested for possession of a firearm and for suspicion of transporting an unspecified amount of marijuana, according to a police statement. The following month, after taping an appearance on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno", he was arrested again for possession of marijuana, cocaine and a firearm. Two members of Snoop's entourage, according to the Burbank police statement, were admitted members of the Rollin 20's Crips gang, and were arrested on separate charges. In April 2007, he was sentenced to a three-year suspended sentence, five years' probation, and was required to perform 800 hours of community service after pleading no contest to two felony charges of drug and gun possession by a convicted felon. He was also prohibited from hiring anyone with a criminal record or gang affiliation as a security guard or a driver.

Awards and nominations.

Snoop Dogg was also a judge for the 7th annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists' careers.

Calvin Cordozar Broadus Jr. (born October 20, 1971), better known by his stage name Snoop Dogg, formerly Snoop Doggy Dogg and Snoop Lion is an American rapper, singer, songwriter, producer, media personality, entrepreneur, and actor. His music career began in 1992 when he was discovered by Dr. Dre and featured on Dre's solo debut, "Deep Cover", and then on Dre's solo debut album, "The Chronic". He has since sold over 23 million albums in the United States and 35 million albums worldwide.

Cordozar Calvin Broadus (* 20. října 1971 Long Beach, Kalifornie, USA), spíše známý jako Snoop Doggy Dogg nebo Snoop Lion je americký rapper a reggae zpěvák 12× nominovaný na cenu Grammy, producent a herec. Proslul slangovým přidáváním koncovky -izzle.


Background.

While General Napoleon Bonaparte campaigned in Egypt, the Second Coalition launched an invasion of French-occupied Italy. General of Division (MG) Barthélemy Schérer fought inconclusive actions the Austrians at Pastrengo, Verona, and Legnago on 26 March 1799. Feldmarschal-Leutnant (FML) Pál Kray and his Austrians then defeated Schérer at the Battle of Magnano on April 4. This defeat forced the French army into a long retreat. Attempts by Schérer to hold the lines of the Mincio and Oglio rivers failed when an Austrian force led by FML Josef Vukassovich turned his northern flank. Schérer, completely out of his depth, handed over army command to the more capable MG Moreau. Austria's Russian allies, led by Suvorov, soon began appearing at the front.  When Field Marshal Suvorov joined the allied army, he took over the top command from Kray, though the latter had just been promoted to Feldzeugmeister. The arrival of General of Cavalry Michael von Melas displaced Kray the top Austrian field command. Therefore, Kray was assigned to capture the fortress of Mantua, while Melas and Suvorov pursued the French. The Siege of Mantua lasted from April until the garrison surrendered on 28 July.

Battle.

Moreau deployed the divisions of MGs Paul Grenier, Claude Victor, Jean Sérurier, and Pierre de Laboissière to defend the line of the Adda River. The Austrians still made up the bulk of the allied army, since only three formations of Cossacks were present. The Austrian division commanders were FML Peter Ott, FML Johann Zoph, General-Major Franz de Lusignan (acting commander for FML Michael Fröhlich), and FML Konrad Valentin von Kaim. Even before the battle, a Russian force under Petr Bagration outflanked the French position by seizing a bridge over the Adda at Lecco on 26 April. This put Sérurier's division in an awkward position. On 27 April, General of Cavalry Michael von Melas with the divisions of Fröhlich and Kaim stormed the French positions at Cassano, while Ott and Zoph attacked 6 km farther north at Vaprio d'Adda. Suvorov's assault forced Moreau to retreat.

Results.

The French suffered 2,500 killed and wounded, plus 5,000 soldiers, 27 cannon, and 3 colors captured. The Austro-Russians lost 2,000 killed and wounded. Moreau retreated, leaving a 2,400-man garrison in Milan's citadel. On 28 April, Vukassovich trapped Serurier's division at Verderio and the French lost another 300 killed and wounded, plus 2,700 captured. Grenier's division withdrew to Novara while Victor and Laboissière pulled back to Valenza. Another authority gives allied losses as 6,000 and French prisoners as 7,000, without listing French killed and wounded. Kaim pressed on to capture Turin on 20 June. Milan's citadel capitulated on 24 May. The next major action was the Battle of Trebbia (1799) on 17–20 June.  However, the bottom line of this battle was that the 1792-1804 1st Republic of France created 1797-1802 Cisalpine Republic was now back in the hands of the 1526-1804 Habsburg Monarchy.

The Battle of Cassano d'Adda was fought on 27 April 1799 near Cassano d'Adda, about ENE of Milan. It resulted in a victory for the Austrians and Russians under Alexander Suvorov over Jean Moreau's French army. The action took place during the War of the Second Coalition during the larger conflict known as the French Revolutionary Wars.

Bitva na řece Addě proběhla na řece Adda ve dnech 26. až 28. dubna 1799. Na jedné straně stála druhá koalice (Anglie, Rakousko,Rusko aj.) a na druhé Francie. Bitva byla součástí italského pochodu Suvorova. Střetly se v ní spojené ruská a rakouská armáda pod vedením polního maršála Suvorova (43 000) s francouzskou armádou pod vedením nejprve generála Schérera a poté generála Moreaua (28 000).