Concepts and terminology.

A plug is the movable connector attached to an electrically operated device, and the socket is fixed on equipment or a building structure and connected to an energised electrical circuit. The plug is a "male" connector with protruding pins that match the openings and "female" contacts in a socket. Some plugs have female contacts that are used only for an earth ground connection. Some plugs have built-in fuses for safety.  To reduce the risk of electric shock, plug and socket systems have safety features in addition to the recessed contacts of the energised socket. These may include plugs with insulated sleeves, recessed sockets, or automatic

Application issues.

Designs of plugs and sockets have gradually developed to reduce the risk of electric shock and fire. Plugs are shaped to prevent finger contact with live parts, and sockets may be recessed. Some types can also include fuses and switches.

Shutters.

Shutters on the socket prevents foreign objects from contacting live contacts. The first shuttered socket was introduced

Earthing (grounding).

A third contact for a connection to earth is intended to protect against insulation failure of the connected device. Some early unearthed plug and socket types were revised to include an earthing pin or phased out in favour of earthed

Polarisation.

Where a "neutral" conductor exists in supply wiring, polarisation of the plug can improve safety by preserving the distinction in the equipment. For example, appliances may ensure that switches interrupt the line side

Universal sockets.

"Universal" or "multi-standard" sockets are intended to accommodate plugs of various types. In some jurisdictions, they violate safety standards for sockets.  Safety advocates, the United States Army, and a manufacturer of sockets point out a number of safety issues with universal socket and adapters, including voltage mismatch, exposure of live pins, lack of proper earth ground connection, or lack of protection from overload or short circuit. Universal sockets may not meet technical standards for durability, plug retention force, temperature rise of components, or other performance requirements, as

Voltage rating of plugs and power cords.

Plugs and power cords have a rated voltage and current assigned to them by the manufacturer. Using a plug or power cord that is inappropriate for the load may be a safety hazard. For example, high-current

Appliance connections and extensions.

So that manufacturers need not build many similar appliances differing only in the type of plug fitted, a common strategy is to provide an IEC 60320 inlet on the appliance and a detachable power cord (mains flex lead) and appropriate

Special purpose plugs and sockets.

Special purpose sockets may be found in residential, industrial, commercial or institutional buildings. Examples of systems using special purpose sockets

Shaver supply units.

National wiring regulations sometimes prohibit the use of sockets adjacent to water taps, etc. A special socket, with an isolation transformer, may allow electric razors to be used near a sink. Because the isolation transformer is of low rating, such outlets are not suitable to operate higher-powered appliances such as blow dryers.  An IEC standard 61558-2-5, adopted by CENELEC and as a national standard in some countries, describes one type of shaver supply unit. Shaver

Types in present use.

The plugs and sockets used in a given area are regulated by local governments.  The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) maintains a guide with letter designations for generally compatible types of plugs, which expands on earlier guides published by the United States Department of Commerce. This is a "de facto" naming standard and guide to travellers. Some letter types correspond to several current ratings or different technical standards, so the letter does not uniquely identify a plug and socket within the type family, nor guarantee compatibility. Physical compatibility of the plug and socket does not ensure correct voltage, frequency, or current capacity. Not all plug and socket families have letters in the IEC guide, but those that have are noted in this article, as are some additional letters commonly used by retail vendors.  In Europe, CENELEC publishes a list of approved plug and socket technical standards used in the member countries.

Argentina IRAM 2073 and 2071 (Type I).

The plug and socket system used in Class 1 applications in Argentina is defined by IRAM standards. These two standards are; IRAM 2073 "Two pole plugs with earthing contact for domestic and similar purposes, rated 10 A and 20 A, 250 V AC" and IRAM 2071 "Two pole socket – outlets with earthing contact for 10 A and 20 A, 250 V AC., for fixed installations." The plug and socket system is similar in appearance to the Australian and Chinese plugs. It has an earthing pin and two flat current-carrying pins forming an inverted V-shape (120°). The flat pins for the 10 A version measure

Australian/New Zealand standard AS/NZS 3112 (Type I), used in Australasia.

This Australian/New Zealand standard is used in Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Tonga, Solomon Islands, and Papua New Guinea. It defines a plug with an earthing pin, and two flat current-carrying pins which form an inverted V-shape. The flat pins measure and are set at 30° to the vertical at a nominal pitch of. Australian and New Zealand wall sockets almost always have switches on them for extra safety, as in the UK. An unearthed version of this plug with two angled power pins but no earthing pin is used with double-insulated appliances, but the sockets always include an earth contact.  There are

Brazilian standard NBR 14136 (Type N).

Brazil, which had been using mostly Europlugs, and NEMA 1-15 and NEMA 5-15 standards, adopted a (non-compliant) variant of IEC 60906-1 as the national standard in 1998 under specification NBR 14136 (revised in 2002). These are used for both 220-volt and 127-volt regions of the country, despite the IEC 60906-2 recommendation that NEMA 5-15 be used for 120 V connections. There are two types of sockets and plugs in NBR 14136: one for 10 A, with a 4.0 mm pin diameter, and another for 20 A, with a 4.8 mm pin diameter. This differs

British and compatible standards.

BS 546 and related types (Type D and M).

BS 546, "Two-pole and earthing-pin plugs, socket-outlets and socket-outlet adaptors for AC (50-60 Hz) circuits up to 250V" describes four sizes of plug rated at 2 A, 5 A (Type D), 15 A (Type M) and 30 A. The plugs have three round pins arranged in a

BS 1363 (Type G).

BS 1363 "13 A plugs, socket-outlets, adaptors and connection units" is the main plug and socket type used in the United Kingdom. According to the IEC it is also used in over 50 countries worldwide. Some of these countries have national standards

BS 4573 (UK shaver).

The United Kingdom, Ireland, and Malta, use the BS 4573 two-pin plug and socket for electric shavers and toothbrushes. The plug has insulated sleeves on the pins. Although similar to the Europlug Type C, the diameter and spacing of the pins are slightly different and hence it will not fit into a Schuko socket. There are, however, two-pin sockets and adaptors which will accept both BS 4573 and Europlugs.

CEE 7 standard.

The "International Commission on the Rules for the Approval of Electrical Equipment" (IECEE) was a standards body which published "Specification for plugs and socket-outlets for domestic and similar purposes" as CEE Publication 7 in 1951. It was last updated by Modification 4 in March 1983. CEE 7 consists of general specifications and standard sheets for specific connectors.  Standard plugs and sockets based on two round pins with centres spaced at 19 mm are in use in Europe, most of which are listed in IEC/TR 60083 "Plugs and socket-outlets for domestic and similar general use standardized in member countries of IEC". EU countries each have their own regulations and national standards; for example, some require child-resistant shutters, while others do not. CE marking is neither applicable nor permitted on plugs and sockets.

CEE 7/1 unearthed socket and CEE 7/2 unearthed plug.

CEE 7/1 unearthed sockets accept CEE 7/2 round plugs with pins. Because they have no earth connections they have been or are being phased out in most countries. Some countries still permit their use in dry

CEE 7/3 socket and CEE 7/4 plug (German "Schuko"; Type F).

The CEE 7/3 socket and CEE 7/4 plug are commonly called "Schuko", an abbreviation for "Schutzkontakt", "Protective contact" to earth. The socket has a circular recess with two round holes and two earthing clips that engage before live pin contact is made. The pins are. The Schuko system is unpolarised, allowing line and neutral to be reversed. The

CEE 7/5 socket and CEE 7/6 plug (French; Type E).

French standard NF C 61-314 defines the CEE 7/5 socket and CEE 7/6 plug, (and also includes CEE 7/7, 7/16 and 7/17 plugs). The socket has a circular recess with two round holes. The round earth pin projecting from the socket connects before the energized contacts touch. The earth pin is centred between the apertures, offset by.

CEE 7/7 plug (compatible with E and F).

The CEE 7/7 plug fits in either French or German sockets. The CEE 7/7 plug has earthing contacts to connect to either the CEE 7/3 socket or the CEE 7/5 socket. It is polarised when

CEE 7/16 plugs.

The CEE 7/16 unearthed plug is used for unearthed appliances. It has two round 4 by 19 mm (0.157 by 0.748 in) pins, rated at 2.5 A. There are two variants.

CEE 7/17 unearthed plug.

This is a round plug compatible with CEE 7/1, CEE 7/3, and CEE 7/5 sockets. It has two round pins measuring. It may be rated at either 10 A or 16 A, and may be used for unearthed Class II appliances (and in South Korea for all domestic non-earthed appliances). It is also defined as the Class II plug in Italian standard CEI 23-50. It can be inserted into Israeli SI 32 with some difficulty. The Soviet GOST 7396 standard includes both the CEE 7/17 and the CEE 7/16 variant II plug.

China GB 2099.1‐2008 and GB 1002‐2008 (Type A & I).

The standard for Chinese plugs and sockets (excluding Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan) is set out in GB 2099.1‐2008 and GB 1002‐2008. As part of China's commitment for entry into the WTO, the new CPCS (Compulsory Product Certification System) has been introduced, and compliant Chinese plugs have been awarded the CCC Mark by this system. The plug is three wire, earthed, rated at 10 A, 250 V and used for Class 1 applications; a slightly larger 16 A version also exists. The nominal pin dimensions of the 10 A version are: 1.5 mm thick by 6.4 mm wide,

Danish Section 107-2-D1 earthed (Type K).

This Danish standard plug is described in the Danish Plug Equipment Section 107-2-D1 Standard sheet (SRAF1962/DB 16/87 DN10A-R). The Danish standard provides for sockets to have child-resistant shutters.  The Danish socket will also accept the CEE 7/16 Europlug or CEE 7/17 Schuko-French hybrid plug. CEE 7/4 (Schuko), CEE 7/7 (Schuko-French hybrid), and earthed CEE 7/6 French plugs will also fit into the socket but will not provide an earth connection and may be attached to appliances requiring more than the 13 A maximum rating of the socket.  A variation (standard DK 2-5a) of the Danish plug is for use only on surge protected computer sockets. It fits into the corresponding computer socket and the normal socket, but normal plugs deliberately don't fit into the special computer socket. The plug is often used in

IEC 60906-1 (Type N).

In 1986, the International Electrotechnical Commission published IEC 60906-1, a specification for a plug and socket that look similar, but are not identical, to the Swiss plug and socket. This standard was intended to one day become common for all of Europe and other regions with 230 V mains, but the effort to adopt it as a European Union standard was put on hold in the mid-1990s.  The plug and socket are rated 16 A 250 V AC and are intended for use only on

Israel SI32 (Type H).

The plug defined in SI 32 (IS16A-R) is used only in Israel and in the territories of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. There are two versions: an older one with flat pins, and a newer one with round pins.  The pre-1989 system has three flat pins in a Y-shape, with line and neutral apart. The plug is rated at 16 A. In 1989 the standard was revised, with three round pins in the same locations

Italy (Type L).

Italian plugs and sockets are defined by the standard CEI 23-50 which superseded CEI 23-16. This includes models rated at 10 A and 16 A that differ in contact diameter and spacing (see below for details). Both are symmetrical, allowing the line and neutral contacts to be inserted in either direction. This plug is also commonly used in Chile and Uruguay.  The two standards were initially adopted because up to the second half of the 20th century in many regions of Italy electricity was supplied by means of two separate consumer connections – one for powering illumination and one for other purposes – and these generally operated at different voltages, typically 127 V single phase and 220 V single phase (from 3-phase 380 V) or two phase (from 220 V 3-phase). The electricity on the two supplies was separately metered, was sold at different tariffs, was taxed differently and was supplied through separate and different sockets. Even though the two electric lines (and respective tariffs) were gradually unified beginning

North American and IEC 60906-2.

Most of North America and Central America, and some of South America, use connectors standardized by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association. The devices are named using the format NEMA n-mmX, where "n" is an identifier for the configuration of pins and blades, "mm" is the maximum current rating, and "X" is either P for plug or R for receptacle. For example, NEMA 5-15R is a configuration type 5 receptacle supporting 15 A. Corresponding "P" and "R" versions are designed to be mated. Within the series, the arrangement and size of pins will differ, to prevent accidental mating of devices with a higher current draw than the receptacle can support.

NEMA 1-15 ungrounded (Type A).

NEMA-1 plugs have two parallel blades and are rated 15 A at 125 volts. They provide no ground connection but will fit a grounding NEMA 5-15 receptacle. Early versions were not polarised, but most plugs are polarised today via a wider neutral blade. (Unpolarised AC adaptors are a common exception.)  Harvey Hubbell patented

NEMA 5-15 grounded (Type B).

The NEMA 5-15 plug has two flat parallel blades like NEMA 1-15, and a ground (earth) pin. It is rated 15 A at 125 volts. The ground pin is longer than the line and neutral blades, so the device is grounded before the power is connected. Both current-carrying blades on

NEMA 5-20.

The NEMA 5-20 AP variant has blades perpendicular to each other. The

Other NEMA types.

30- and 50- Amp rated sockets are often

JIS C 8303, Class II unearthed.

The Japanese plug and socket appear physically identical to NEMA 1-15. The Japanese system incorporates stricter dimensional requirements for the plug housing, different marking requirements, and mandatory testing and approval by METI or JIS.  Older Japanese sockets and multi-plug adaptors are unpolarised – the slots in the sockets are the same size – and will

JIS C 8303, Class I earthed.

Japan also uses a grounded plug similar to the North American NEMA 5-15. However, it is less common than its NEMA 1-15 equivalent. Since 2005, new Japanese homes are required to have class I grounded sockets for connecting domestic appliances. This rule does not apply for sockets not intended to be used for domestic appliances, but it is strongly advised to have class I sockets throughout the home.

Soviet standard GOST 7396 C 1 unearthed.

This Soviet plug, still sometimes used in the region, has pin dimensions and spacing equal to the Europlug, but lacks the insulation sleeves. Unlike the Europlug, it is rated 6 A. It has a round body like the European CEE 7/2 or flat body with a round base like CEE 7/17. The round base has no notches. The pins are parallel and do not converge. The body is made of fire-resistant thermoset plastic. The corresponding 6 A socket accepts the Europlug, but not others as the 4.5 mm holes are too small to accept the 4.8 mm pins of CEE 7/4, CEE 7/6 or CEE 7/7 plugs.  There were also moulded rubber plugs available for devices up to 16 A similar to CEE 7/17, but with a round base without any notches. They could be altered to fit a CEE 7/5

10 A plugs and sockets (Type J).

SEV 1011 defines a "Type 1x" series of 10 A plugs and sockets.  The type 11 plug is unearthed, with two 4 mm diameter round pins spaced 19 mm apart. The type 12 plug adds a central 4 mm diameter round earth pin, offset by 5 mm.  The type 12 socket has no recess, while the type 13 socket is recessed. Both sockets will accept type 11 and type 12 plugs, and also the

16 A plugs and sockets.

SEV 1011 also defines a "Type 2x" series of 16 A plugs and sockets. These are the same as their 10 A "Type 1x" counterparts, but replace the round pins with 4 mm × 5 mm rectangular pins. The sockets will accept "Type 1x" plugs.  The unearthed type 21 plug has two rectangular pins, with centres 19 mm apart. The type 23 plug

Adaptors etc..

A 2012 appendix to SEV 1011:2009, "SN SEV 1011:2009/A1:2012 Plugs and socket-outlets for household and similar purposes – A1: Multiway and intermediate adaptors, cord sets, cord extension sets, travel adaptors and fixed adaptors" defines the requirements applicable to multiway and intermediate adaptors, cord sets, cord extension sets, and travel and fixed adaptors, it covers the electrical safety and user requirements, including the prohibition of stacking (the connection of one adaptor to another). Non-conforming products must be withdrawn from the Swiss market before the end of 2018.

Thai 3 pin plug TIS 166-2549.

Thai Industrial Standard (TIS) 166-2547 and its subsequent update TIS 166-2549 replaced prior standards which were based on NEMA 1-15 and 5-15, as Thailand uses 220 V electricity. The plug has two round power pins 4.8 mm in diameter and 19 mm in length, insulated for 10 mm and spaced 19 mm apart, with an earthing pin of the same diameter and 21.4 mm in length, located 11.89 mm from the line connecting the

Adaptors.

Travel adapters.

Adapters between standards are not included in the standards, and as a result they have no formal quality criteria defined. Physical compatibility does not ensure that the appliance and socket match in frequency or voltage.

Multisocket adaptors.

Multisocket adaptors allow the connection of two or more plugs to a single socket. They are manufactured in various configurations, depending on the country and the region in which they are used, with various ratings. In Europe for example, they are called double or triple adaptors, and transform one socket into a multiple socket. This allows connecting more than one electrical consumer item to one single socket and is mainly used for low power devices (TV

Unusual types.

Lampholder plug.

A lampholder plug fits into a light socket in place of a light bulb to connect appliances to lighting circuits. Where a lower rate was

Soviet adaptor plugs.

Some appliances sold in the Soviet Union had a flat unearthed plug with an additional pass-through socket on the top, allowing a stacked arrangement of plugs. This design was very useful, because the usual Soviet apartment of the 1960s had very few sockets, but somewhat unsafe; the brass cylinders of the secondary socket were

UK Walsall Gauge plug.

Unlike the standard BS 1363 plugs found in the UK, the earth pin is on a horizontal axis and the live and neutral pins on a vertical axis. This style of plug/socket was used by university laboratories (from batteries) and the BBC, and is still in use on parts of the London Underground for 110 V AC voltage supply. In the 1960s

Italian BTicino brand Magic security connector.

The Italian manufacturer BTicino in the 1960s introduced an alternative to the Europlug or CEI 23-16 connectors then in use. The socket is rectangular, with lateral key pins and indentations to maintain polarisation, and to prevent insertion of a plug with different current ratings. Three single-phase general purpose connectors were rated 10 A, 16 A and 20 A; and a three-phase industrial connector rated 10 A; all of them have different key-pin positioning so plugs and sockets cannot be mismatched. The socket is closed by a safety lid (bearing the word ‘'Magic'’ on it) which can be opened only with an even pressure on its surface, thus preventing the insertion of objects (except the plug itself) inside the socket. The contacts are positioned on both sides of the plug; the plug is energised only when it is inserted fully into the socket.  The system is not compatible with Italian CEI plugs,

Single phase electric stove plugs and sockets.

The plugs and sockets used to power electric stoves from a single-phase line have to be rated for greater current values than those used with three-phase supply because all the power has to be transferred through two contacts, not three. If not hardwired to the supply, electric stoves may be connected to the mains with an appropriate high power connector. Some countries do not have wiring regulations for single-phase electric stoves. In Russia an electric stove can often be seen connected with a 25 to 32 A connector.  In Norway and parts of Sweden a 25 A grounded connector, rectangular shaped with rounded corners, is used for single phase stoves. The connector has three rectangular pins in a row, with the grounding pin longer than other two. The corresponding socket is recessed to prevent shocks. The Norwegian standard is NEK 502:2005 – standard sheet X (socket) and sheet XI (plug). They are also known as the two pole and earth variants of CEE 7/10 (socket) and CEE 7/11 (plug).

AC power plugs and sockets connect electric equipment to the alternating current (AC) power supply in buildings and at other sites. Electrical plugs and sockets differ from one another in voltage and current rating, shape, size, and connector type. Different standard systems of plugs and sockets are used around the world.

Zásuvka je elektrotechnická součástka, která slouží pro připojení elektrických spotřebičů k elektrorozvodné síti. Zásuvka tvoří nejčastěji nepohyblivou část zásuvkového propojení, připevněnou ke stěně budovy, rozváděči nebo stroji. Může být ale i pohyblivou součástí prodlužovačky nebo volné rozbočky (rozdvojky apod.). Do ní se zastrkuje vidlice (proto také zástrčka). Vidlice je součástí pohyblivého přívodu (kabelu) k jinému elektrickému zařízení, nebo je přímo částí tohoto zařízení (zásuvkový adaptér). Obdobné spojení datových, telekomunikačních, obecně slaboproudých rozvodů, případně kombinace silových a slaboproudých rozvodů se jmenuje konektorové spojení.


Operational history.

During World War II, "Neptune" operated with a crew drawn predominantly from the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy. The ship also carried a large contingent of seconded South African personnel.  In December 1939, several months after war was declared, "Neptune" was patrolling in the South Atlantic in pursuit of German surface raider pocket battleship (heavy cruiser). "Neptune", with other patrolling Royal Navy heavy units, was sent to Uruguay in the aftermath of the Battle of the River Plate. However, she was still in transit when the Germans scuttled "Graf Spee" off Montevideo on 17 December.  "Neptune" was the first British ship to spot the Italian Fleet in the battle of Calabria, on 9 July 1940, marking also the first time since the Napoleonic Wars that the Mediterranean Fleet received the signal "enemy battle fleet in sight". During the subsequent engagement, she was hit by the Italian light cruiser. The 6-inch shell splinters damaged her floatplane beyond repair, its wreckage being thrown into the sea. Minutes later her main guns struck the heavy cruiser "Bolzano" three times, inflicting some damage on her torpedo room, below the waterline and the "B" turret. During 1941, she led Force K, a raiding squadron of cruisers. Their task was to intercept and destroy German and Italian convoys en route to Libya. The convoys were supplying Rommel's Afrika Korps in North Africa with troops and equipment.

Sinking.

Force K was sent out on 18 December 1941, to intercept a convoy bound for Tripoli, right after the brief fleet engagement at sunset known as First Battle of Sirte.  On the night of 19–20 December, "Neptune", leading the line, struck two mines, part of an Italian minefield laid by an Italian cruiser force in June 1941. The first struck the anti-mine screen, causing no damage. The second struck the bow hull. The other cruisers present, and, also struck mines.  While reversing out of the minefield, "Neptune" struck a third mine, which took off her propellers and left her dead in the water. "Aurora" was unable to render assistance as she was already down to and needed to turn back to Malta. "Penelope" was also unable to assist.  The destroyers and were sent into the minefield to attempt a tow. The former struck a mine and began drifting. "Neptune" then signalled for "Lively" to keep clear. ("Kandahar" was later evacuated and scuttled with a torpedo by the destroyer, to prevent her capture.)  "Neptune" hit a fourth mine and quickly capsized, killing 737 crew members. The other 30 initially survived the sinking but they too died. As a result, only one was still alive when their carley float was picked up five days later by the Italian torpedo boat "Achille Papa". The sole survivor, Norman Walton, spent 15 months in an Italian prisoner of war camp. In 1991 Walton travelled to the small city of Nelson, New Zealand, to unveil a memorial to "Neptune". Of the 736 that perished, 150 were New Zealand sailors, including four from Nelson. A memorial service to "Neptune" and her crew is held each year in Nelson.

HMS "Neptune" was a light cruiser which served with the Royal Navy during World War II. "Neptune" was the fourth ship of its class and was the ninth Royal Navy vessel to carry the name. Built by Portsmouth Dockyard, the vessel was laid down on 24 September 1931, launched on 31 January 1933, and commissioned into the Royal Navy on 12 February 1934 with the pennant number "20".

HMS Neptune byl lehký křižník Royal Navy třídy Leander. V červenci 1940 se zúčastnil bitvy u Punta Stilo. V roce 1941 se stal součástí "svazu K", který měl za úkol napadat italské konvoje mezi Itálií a severní Afrikou. "Neptune" se potopil 19. prosince 1942 během nájezdu "svazu K" proti konvoji, který mířil do Tripolisu. "Neptune" vplul do minového pole a postupně najel na čtyři miny. Potopení lodi přežilo pouhých 30 mužů, až na jediného muže však zemřeli do té doby, než jejich člun za pět dnů nalezla italská torpédovka "Generale Achille Papa".


Etymology.

The name Poti is apparently linked to Phasis, but the etymology is a matter of a scholarly dispute. "Phasis" () is first recorded in Hesiod's "Theogony" (c. 700 BC) as a name of the river, not a town. Since Erich Diehl, 1938, first suggested a non-Hellenic origin of the name and asserted that Phasis might have been a derivative of a local hydronym, several explanations have been proposed, linking the name to the Proto-Georgian-Zan "*Poti", Svan "*Pasid", and even to a Semitic word, meaning "a gold river".

History.

Ancient and medieval history.

The recorded history of Poti and its environments spans over 26 centuries. In Classical antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the area was occupied by the Greek polis of Phasis which was established by the colonists from Miletus led by one Themistagoras at the very end of the 7th, and probably at the beginning of the 6th century BC. The famed Greek semi-mythological voyage of Jason and the Argonauts in search of the Golden Fleece would have entered Georgia at this port and traveled up the river to what is today Kutaisi.  After many years of uncertainty and academic debate, the site of this settlement now seems to be established, thanks to underwater archaeology under tough conditions. Apparently the lake which the well-informed Ancient Greek author Strabo reported as bounding one side of Phasis has now engulfed it, or part of it. Yet, a series of questions regarding the town’s exact location and identification of its ruins remains open due largely to the centuries-long geomorphological processes of the area as the lower reaches of the Rioni are prone to changes of course across the wetland. Phasis appears to have been an important center of trade and culture in Colchis throughout the Classical period. The section along the river Phasis was a vital component of the presumed trade route from India to the Black Sea, attested by Strabo and Pliny.  Between the 6th and 2nd centuries BC, the town played an active role in these contacts. During the Third Mithridatic War, Phasis came under Roman control. It was where the Roman commander-in-chief Pompey, having crossed into Colchis from Iberia, met the legate Servilius, the admiral of his Euxine fleet in 65 BC. After the introduction of Christianity, Phasis was a seat of a Greek diocese, one of whose bishops, Cyrus, became a Patriarch of Alexandria between 630 and 641 AD. During the Lazic War between the Eastern Roman and Sassanid Iranian empires (542-562) Phasis was attacked, unsuccessfully, by Iranian soldiers.  In the 8th century, the name Poti entered Georgian written sources. It remained a place of maritime trade within the Kingdom of Georgia and was known to medieval European travelers as Fasso. In the 14th century, the Genoese established a trading factory, which proved to be short-lived.

Modern history.

In 1578, Poti was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. The Turks, who knew the town as Faş, heavily fortified it and made it into one of their Caucasian outposts which was also home to a great slave market. A combined army of the western Georgian princes recovered Poti in 1640, but the town fell under the Ottoman sway again in 1723. Another futile attempt to dispossess the Ottomans of Poti was made by Russo-Georgian forces in 1770 and 1771. Once Russia took control of most of principal Georgian lands in the 1800s, it again attempted to evict the Turkish garrison from Poti and succeeded in doing so with the help of Georgian auxiliaries under the command of Nino, Princess of Mingrelia in 1809, but was coerced to return the fortress to the Ottomans in the Treaty of Bucharest (1812). The next Russo-Turkish War resulted in the capture of Poti by Russia in 1828. (See Russian conquest of the Caucasus#Black Sea Coast.) The town was subordinated to the Governorate of Kutais and granted the status of a port town in 1858. The seaport was reconstructed between 1863 and 1905. In 1872, the town became the terminus of the Caucasian railway, whence the line led direct to Tiflis (Tbilisi).  Poti particularly grew in size and importance during the mayorship of Niko Nikoladze between 1894 and 1912. Considered to be the founding father of modern Poti, Nikoladze presided over a series of modernizing and construction projects, including a theatre, a large cathedral, two gymnasia, a power station, an oil refinery, etc. By 1900, Poti had become one of the major ports on the Black Sea, exporting most of Georgia’s manganese and coal. During the First Russian Revolution, Poti became a scene of workers' strikes and barricade fighting in December 1905. At the beginning of World War I, on November 7, 1914, the Ottoman SMS "Breslau" appeared off the port of Poti and subjected the railway yards there to a bombardment that lasted three-quarters of an hour, without any direct results.  During a brief period of independence in 1918–1921 Poti was Georgia’s principal window to Europe, also serving as the portal of entry for successive German and British expeditionary forces. On May 28, 1918, a German-Georgian preliminary treaty of alliance was signed at Poti. On March 14, 1921, Poti was occupied by the invading Red Armies of Soviet Russia which installed a Soviet government in Georgia. During the Soviet era, Poti retained its principal function of a seaport and the town was further industrialized and militarized.  During the 2008 war with Russia Russian aircraft attacked the port. Although a ceasefire was declared on August 12, the Russian troops continued to occupy the environs of the city until being withdrawn later that month.

Geography and climate.

Poti is situated west of Georgia’s capital, Tbilisi, in a marshy delta created by the major river of western Georgia, the Rioni, at its entrance into the Black Sea. The city lies at an altitude of above sea level. A portion of Poti's environs recovered from the marshes now accommodate citrus plantation. The city is surrounded by the Kolkheti National Park. It is flanked by the small river Kaparchina to the south-east and Lake Paliastomi to the south-west. Some to the south is the village Maltaqva, a local beach resort. The city's climate is humid subtropical with cool winters and warm summers. The average annual temperature is, in January, and in July. Average annual precipitation is.

Economy.

Service and food industry represent the most important sectors of the economy. The Poti Sea Port (7.7 million tons per annum) is operational. The railway to Tbilisi makes this a more useful port than the natural harbor at Batumi.  In April 2008, Georgia sold a 51% stake of the Poti port to the Investment Authority of the UAE’s Ras Al Khaimah (RAK) emirate to develop a free industrial zone (FIZ) in a 49-year management concession, and to manage a new port terminal. The creation of a new FEZ was officially inaugurated by the President of Georgia Mikheil Saakashvili on April 15, 2008.  As of November 2009 there are plans for a Kerch–Poti ferry route.

Fiber optic network.

A long haul submarine communications cable - Bulgaria–Georgia communications cable - stretching from Varna, Bulgaria across the Black Sea to Poti Georgia was laid during the month of July 2008 on board the American cable ship CS "Tyco Decisive", just a couple of weeks prior to the South Ossetia War. This cable system will be Georgia's first privately owned fiber optic system for the citizens of Georgia. Instead of paying high prices for internet/TV/phone usage through Turkey, Georgians will now be able to pay much less for their own private high speed fiber optic cable internet cable system usage.

Military.

The Poti naval base was organized by the Soviet government in July 1941, a month after the German invasion during World War II. Commanded by Major-General Mikhail Kumanin, the base operated as a part of the Black Sea Fleet and included two submarine divisions, a torpedo boat division, coastal guard boat division, two minesweepers, four coastal and six missile batteries, etc. After the German capture of Sevastopol and Novorossiysk in 1942, several destroyers were transferred to be based at Poti which, together with another Georgian port city, Batumi, functioned as a secondary harbor in the Black Sea Campaigns (1941–44). By the early 1990s, the Poti base had accommodated several smaller units of the Soviet Black Sea Fleet, but became essentially defunct after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In December 1992, Russia withdrew all its vessels and ammunition from the Poti naval base, but an ethnic Georgian commander of one landing ship refused to obey Moscow’s order and displayed a Georgian flag. At almost the same time, the Georgian government created a Joint Naval Brigade, consisting of several boats, a battalion of marines, an artillery division, and a communication detachment. Since then, the Brigade has been enlarged and reequipped with the help of the NATO-member states.  On October 9, 1993, a war-torn Georgia had to legalize the Russian military presence in the country, and lease, among other military facilities, the Poti base to the Russian navy. However, Georgia continued, though fruitlessly, to claim the vessels formerly stationed at Poti as a part of a tripartite Russo-Ukrainian-Georgian dispute over the Soviet Black Sea Fleet shares. By September 1998, the Russian military personnel had been withdrawn from Poti to the Russian base at Batumi under a Russo-Georgian agreement signed earlier that year.  Currently, Poti is a military facility assignment to several of Georgia’s units. These are the headquarters and main base of the Georgian navy, a primary naval logistic support base, a station of a naval squadron, and barracks for a separate light infantry battalion of the Georgian Armed Forces.

Poti ( ; Mingrelian: ფუთი; Laz: <unk>აში/Faşi or ფაში/Paşi) is a port city in Georgia, located on the eastern Black Sea coast in the region of Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti in the west of the country. Built near the site of the ancient Greek colony of Phasis and deriving its name from the same, the city has become a major port city and industrial center since the early 20th century. It is also home to a main naval base and the headquarters of the Georgian Navy. Adjacent to the Poti port area is the RAKIA-owned Free Industrial Zone. Inaugurated in April 2008, it has registered a number of businesses, including those from Iranian businesspeople trying to evade sanctions against Iran.

Poti () je gruzínské přístavní město nacházející se na břehu Černého moře v deltě řeky Rioni v regionu Samegrelo-Honí Svanetie. Město bylo zbudováno poblíž rozvalin starověkého řeckého města Fasis. Dnešní Poti se navzdory dobré poloze stalo významným městem a průmyslovým centrem až v průběhu 20. století. Je sídlem gruzínského námořnictva a kotví zde námořní válečné lodě. V roce 2002 v něm žilo 47169 obyvatel.


"Skáldskaparmál".

According to "Skáldskaparmál", the gods Odin, Loki and Hœnir set out one day on a journey, traveling through mountains and wilderness until they were in need of food. In a valley they saw a herd of oxen, and they took one of the oxen and set it in an earth oven, but after a while they found that it would not cook. As they were trying to determine the reason for this, they heard someone talking in the oak tree above them, saying that he himself was the one responsible for the oven not cooking. They looked up and saw that it was Þjazi in the form of a great eagle, and he told them that if they would let him eat from the ox, then he would make the oven cook. To this they agreed, so he came down from the tree and began devouring a large portion of the meal. He ate so much of it that Loki became angry, grabbed his long staff and attempted to strike him, but the weapon stuck fast to Þjazi's body and he took flight, carrying Loki up with him. As they flew across the land Loki shouted and begged to be let down as his legs banged against trees and stones, but Þjazi would only do so on the condition that Loki must lure Iðunn out of Asgard with her apples of youth, which he solemnly promised to do.  Later, at the agreed time, Loki lured Iðunn out of Asgard into a forest, telling her he had found some apples that she might think worth having, and that she should bring her own apples with her to compare them. Þjazi then appeared in his eagle shape, grabbed Iðunn and flew away with her to his realm of Þrymheimr, located in Jötunheimr.  The gods, deprived of Iðunn's apples, began growing old and grey. When they learned that Iðunn was last seen going out of Asgard with Loki, they threatened him with torture and death until he agreed to rescue her. Loki borrowed a magical coat from Freyja that would allow him to take the shape of a falcon, then flew to Jotunheim until he reached the hall of Þjazi. Finding Iðunn alone while Þjazi was out to sea on a boat, Loki transformed her into a nut and carried her back, flying as fast as he could. When Þjazi returned home and discovered she was gone he assumed his eagle form and flew after Loki. When the gods saw Loki flying toward them with Þjazi right behind they lit a fire which burned Þjazi's feathers, causing him to fall to the ground where he was set upon and killed.  Þjazi's daughter Skadi then put on her war gear and went to Asgard to seek vengeance, but the gods offered her atonement and compensation until she was placated. She was also given the hand of Njord in marriage, and as a further reparation Odin took Þjazi's eyes and placed them in the night sky as stars.  Also according to "Skáldskaparmál", Þjazi and his brothers Gangr and Idi had a father named Olvaldi. Olvaldi was very rich in gold, and when he died his three sons divided their inheritance between them by each in turn taking a mouthful. For this reason the expressions "speech of Þjazi, Gangr or Idi" and "Idi's shining talk" are kennings for gold, and twice in the same book a kenning is given for Þjazi as "lady wolf", a reference to his abduction of Iðunn. Another is "snowshoe deity's fosterer", or the father of the goddess who goes about on skis.

"Grímnismál".

In "Grímnismál", during Odin's visions of the various dwelling places of gods and giants he mentions that of Þjazi in stanza 11:

"Hárbarðsljóð".

According to "Hárbarðsljóð", it was not Odin but Thor who claimed to have made Þjazi's eyes into stars in stanza 19:  Thor said:

"Lokasenna".

In "Lokasenna", it was neither Odin nor Thor but Loki himself who during his verbal sparring with Skadi lays claim to the death of her father in stanza 50:  Loki said:

"Hyndluljóð".

According to the interpolated group of stanzas known as the "Short Völuspá" in "Hyndluljóð", Þjazi is further described as "the giant who loved to shoot".

In Norse mythology, Þjazi (; ; anglicized as Thiazi, Thjazi, Tjasse or Thiassi) was a giant. He was a son of the giant Ölvaldi, brother of giants Iði and Gangr, and the father of Skaði. His most notable misdeed was the kidnapping of the goddess Iðunn, which is related in both the "Prose Edda" and the skaldic poem "Haustlöng".

Tjazi je obr v severské mytologii, který se v ní objevuje převážně v podobě orla. Podle Snorriho je Tjazi synem bohatého obra Ölvaldiho, jeho bratry jsou Gang a Ildi a jeho dcerou je Skadi.


History.

Citroën acquisition.

In December 1974 Peugeot S.A. acquired a 38.2% share of Citroën. On 9 April 1976 they increased their stake of the then bankrupt company to 89.95%, thus creating the "PSA Group" (where PSA is short for Peugeot Société Anonyme), becoming PSA Peugeot Citroën. Since Citroën had two successful new designs in the market at this time (the GS and CX) and Peugeot was typically prudent in its own finances, the PSA venture was a financial success from 1976 to 1979.

Chrysler Europe acquisition.

In late 1978, PSA purchased the failing Chrysler Europe (which had been Rootes and Simca) from the troubled US parent firm for a nominal US$1.00, plus assumption of outstanding debt, leading to losses for the consortium from 1980 to 1985. Further investment was required because PSA decided to create a new brand for the entity for the disparate French and British models, based on the Talbot sports car last seen in the 1950s. From then on, the whole Chrysler/Simca range was sold under the Talbot badge until production of Talbot-branded passenger cars was shelved in 1987 and on commercial vehicles in 1992.  All of this investment caused serious financial problems for the entire PSA group; PSA lost money from 1980 to 1985. There were some bright spots, however: mainly thanks to the success of the Peugeot 205 and in spite of Talbot sales withering away, PSA surpassed Renault in sales in the domestic French market for the first time in 1983. In 1987, the company dropped the Talbot brand for passenger cars when it ceased production of the Simca-developed Horizon; the Samba and Alpine/Solara had been discontinued a year earlier. What was to have been the Talbot Arizona became the Peugeot 309, with the former Rootes plant in Ryton and Simca plant in Poissy being turned over for Peugeot assembly from October 1985. Producing Peugeots in Ryton was significant, as it signaled the first time that PSA would build cars in the UK (car assembly at Ryton stopped in 2006 and the plant was closed). The Talbot name survived for a little longer on commercial vehicles until 1992 before being shelved completely. From 1987 to 1995, the Ryton plant also produced the Peugeot 405 saloon.

Crisis (2012–2014).

On 29 February 2012, PSA announced the creation of a major alliance with General Motors (GM), as part of which GM became PSA's second-largest shareholder, after the Peugeot family, with a holding of 7%. The alliance was intended to enable $2 billion per year of cost savings through platform sharing, common purchasing and other economies of scale.  In July 2012, a union official said that PSA Peugeot Citroën would cut as much as 10 percent (8,000-10,000) of its French workforce of 100,356 employees on permanent and temporary contract. The jobs cut was more than previously announced.  On 24 October, PSA said it was close to an agreement with creditor banks on €11.5 billion ($14.9 billion) of refinancing and had won state guarantees on €7 billion in further borrowing by its Banque PSA Finance.  On 12 December 2013, General Motors announced it was selling its 7% stake in PSA Peugeot Citroën to Padmapriya Automobile Investment Group.  In 2014, Dongfeng Motor Group, the Chinese partner that builds PSA cars in China, and the French government each took a 13% stake in PSA, in a financial rescue operation, reducing the Peugeot family share from 25% to 14%.

Rapid expansion (2014–present).

Following Dongfeng and the French government each acquiring stakes in Groupe PSA, various cost-cutting measures at the company turned its fortune around and gradually reduced PSA's debt, until the company began to turn a profit beginning in 2015. A new CEO, Carlos Tavares, was engaged and began to implement various cost-cutting measures and expanded the model range of all three core brands, alongside the creation of a new brand, DS Automobiles.  In early 2016, PSA unveiled a roadmap detailing its plan to re-enter the North American car market for the first time since 1991. Although many only expected the DS to enter the North American market, PSA announced that all of its brands would be sold across the continent. The plan to re-enter the market has three-stages, be a partner in a transportation network company, then begin renting and sharing PSA's own vehicles to the public several years after, followed by a full launch, and establishing a dealer network in 2020.

Acquisition of 'Ambassador' Brand from Hindustan Motors.

On 10 February 2017, PSA announced a 50:50 joint venture with the C. K. Birla Group the owner of the Hindustan Motors to sell Peugeot, Citröen, and DS vehicles in India and purchase of the Ambassador brand from Hindustan Motors at the cost of INR 80 Crore. This marks the first time in over twenty years that PSA will be selling cars in India.

Acquisition of Opel and Vauxhall Motors.

On 14 February 2017 PSA announced that it was in talks to acquire Opel and Vauxhall Motors from General Motors. The talks were in an advanced stage, but were a surprise to the press and to much of Opel's leadership as they had plans to transform the company into an electric-car-only brand using the platform of the Opel Ampera-e for a wide range of models. GM agreed to continue to supply PSA with Ampera-e and other electric vehicle technology.  GM reported a loss of US$257 million from its European operations on 2016, sixteenth consecutive loss-making year for GM in Europe, bringing its amount of losses on the continent since 2000 to more than US$15 billion. Some expressed concerns about what this major acquisition might do to PSA's bottom line. However, due to this amount of debt, it is likely that GM may give the brands to PSA, or sell Opel and Vauxhall at a highly reduced price. Tavares expects synergies a decade after the takeover.  PSA CEO Carlos Tavares met with German Chancellor Angela Merkel and British Prime Minister Theresa May at separate meetings where he toured some of Opel and Vauxhall's operations in Germany and the UK, respectively. He assured the leaders that jobs would be safeguarded and that Vauxhall's Ellesmere Port plant was to be used by PSA at least until 2021.  Tavares announced that he wants Opel to keep its German brand identity and to embrace it, and that he would leverage Opel's pedigree of German engineering and Motorsport and use the company's heritage to reach markets and customers that may not consider a French car due to perceived reliability issues. He also announced that the Opel and Vauxhall brands would be elevated to new heights within Groupe PSA, including the sale of Opel and Vauxhall-branded vehicles outside Europe for the first time in many decades. He also acknowledged the possibility of the Opel and Vauxhall brands being instrumental in the launch of Groupe PSA in North America.  Opel and Vauxhall vehicles will also likely be sold in South America, Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Middle East. PSA plans to continue using some of Opel's existing platforms and models, many of which are shared with GM, at least for a few years until the entire model range is updated and will only feature PSA platforms. GM has discussed the possibility of handing over various patents, technologies, and platforms to PSA in exchange for PSA's taking responsibility for a portion of Opel employees' pensions, which it seems PSA has agreed to.

Bid for Proton.

On 17 February 2017, PSA announced its bid to acquire PROTON Holdings, which owns the Proton and Lotus brands, but lost out to Geely a few months later.

Merger with FCA.

In May 2019 Fiat Chrysler Automobiles (FCA) announced its intention to seek a merger with Groupe Renault. However, in early June merger talks were suspended, and never resumed. On October 31, 2019 Groupe PSA announced intent to merge with FCA. The merger would be on a 50-50 all stock basis. On 18 December 2019, FCA and PSA announced that they had agreed to the terms of a binding $50 billion merger, expected to be implemented in the next 12 months. The new group will be incorporated in the Netherlands and have John Elkann as Chairman of the Board and Carlos Tavares as CEO.

Operations.

The Peugeot, Citroën and DS Automobiles brands retain separate sales and marketing structures, but share common technology, development and assembling assets.  Jean-Martin Folz was PSA's CEO between 1996 and early 2007, when he was replaced by former Airbus head Christian Streiff. Streiff was sacked on 29 March 2009, a day after the company posted a full year loss for 2008. Streiff was replaced by Corus Group chief executive Philippe Varin. Carlos Tavares became CEO in 2014.

Developing markets.

PSA is actively committed to developing its market presence and sales in many fast growing developing countries and regions of the world. This led to huge investments and partnerships in South America, Iran (Iran Khodro) and China (Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroën Automobile). It announced plans to invest €650 million in a manufacturing plant in Sanand, India. With a capacity of 170,000 vehicles, the Sanand plant is expected to be operational by 2020. In Kazakhstan, assembly of the Peugeot passenger cars will start in June 2013 with a production capacity of 4,000 units per year at the beginning and more than 10,000 units in the near future. A PSA plant opens in 2018 in Tunisia and in 2019 in Kenitra in Morocco.

Peugeot Citroën Automobiles SA.

The manufacturer of Peugeot, Citroën and DS Automobiles-branded cars and vans, 100% owned by PSA Group and formed from the combination of Automobiles Citroën and Automobiles Peugeot. Automobiles Citroën, Automobiles Peugeot, and DS Automobiles remain in operation in relation to specific retail operations in various countries but not in the development or manufacture of vehicles.

PSA PowerTrain (Formerly Peugeot Citroën Moteurs).

PSA PowerTrain is a manufacturer of petrol and diesel engines for a range of companies including Ford, Jaguar, BMW, and Land Rover. It was founded by Peugeot in 1898 in Lille and later named Compagnie Lilloise de moteurs (CLM). In 1992 SCM-CLM as it was then known became Peugeot Citroën Moteurs.  The company has had a partnership with Ford Motor Company since 1998, supplying diesel engines to Ford and its subsidiaries, such as Jaguar, Volvo, and Land Rover.  PSA and BMW have an agreement to develop the 1.6 Prince engine. PSA also sell their engines, gearboxes and other parts to small independent manufacturers such as DeLaChapelle and PGO. This PSA Peugeot Citroën 1.6-litre turbo petrol engine has received the International Engine of the Year awards a total of eight times, from 2007 to 2014.

Process Conception Ingénierie.

Process Conception Ingénierie (PCI) is a French-based manufacturer of machine-tools for the automotive and aircraft industry.

Peugeot Motocycles.

Peugeot Motocycles is 51.05% owned by India's Mahindra Group and the rest by Peugeot and manufactures a range of mopeds and scooters. The subsidiary owned 50% of the Chinese Jinan Qingqi Peugeot Motocycles joint venture in 2006 which became wholly owned subsidiary of China South Industries Group in 2013.

Faurecia.

PSA owns 57.43% of automotive supplier Faurecia, a company created by a 1997 merger between Bertrand Faure and PSA-owned ECIA. It provides various components to Peugeot, Citroën, DS and significant interior and exterior parts to companies such as Audi, BMW and Mercedes-Benz.

Gefco.

Gefco is a large international logistics company, established by Peugeot in 1949 and named Les Groupages Express de Franche-Comté. In November 2012, PSA sold a 75% share to Russian Railways (RZD) for €800m, but retains Gefco as the main logistics provider.

Motaquip.

Motaquip is an all-makes aftermarket parts company and was established in the UK by PSA Peugeot Citroën in 1981. In December 2014 Motaquip was sold to an outside company to become independent of PSA as "Motaquip Limited". The head office is now based in Nuneaton, UK, with all parts distributed from a warehouse in Luton, UK.

Financial services.

PSA wholly owns Banque PSA Finance which provides financial services, and 98.67% of GIE PSA Tresorerie which was founded in 1990 as a treasury and cash management services division.

Former marques and subsidiaries.

A number of marques were inherited following the acquisition of Chrysler Europe in 1978, and some were merged to re-establish Talbot, a previously dormant marque.  Chrysler Europe marques included the British Sunbeam (1901–1976), Humber (1868-1976), Singer (1905–1970), Commer (1905–1979), Hillman (1907–1976), Karrier (1908–1977), the French Simca (1934–1977) and the Spanish Barreiros (1959–1978)  Cycles Peugeot produced bicycles from 1882 until 2005. In 1987 ProCycle of Canada acquired rights to distribute French-made Peugeots in North America and in 1990, Cycles Peugeot sold the North American rights to market bicycles under the Peugeot name to ProCycle. In 2001, ProCycle discontinued the Peugeot bicycle brand. In Europe, the licence to produce Peugeot-branded bicycles was sold to Cycleurope, a company making bicycles under different names, on condition that it would be reconsidered in 2004. That license was later withdrawn for Europe, though production of bicycles for export continued for another year.  Citer SA is a French-based car rental company established by Citroën in 1968 was sold to Enterprise Holdings in 2011.

Joint ventures and collaborations.

Sevel SpA.

Sevel ("Société Européenne de Véhicules Légers SA" and "Società Europea Veicoli Leggeri-Sevel S.p.A.") was established in 1978 and is equally owned by PSA Group (Peugeot Citroën DS) and Fiat. As a result of this, two factories have been built assembling three ranges of vehicles, Sevel Nord and Sevel Sud. Peugeot and Fiat's Argentinian operations were also joined under the name of Sevel Argentina S.A. ("Sociedad Europea de Vehículos para Latinoamérica"), although Fiat withdrew in 1995. Currently Sevel builds the Fiat Ducato, Peugeot Boxer, and Citroën Jumper.

Dongfeng Peugeot Citroën Automobile.

The joint venture with the Chinese company Dongfeng Motor Corporation (later Dongfeng Motor Group) was established in 1992 and produces the Citroën C-Triomphe, 207, 307 and 408 models at factories in Wuhan and Xiangyang.

Toyota Peugeot Citroën Automobile.

In 2002, the joint venture with Toyota Motor Corporation for the development and manufacturing of a series of city cars in a new factory in the Czech Republic was signed. The resulting company is called TPCA ("Toyota Peugeot Citroën Automobile"). It manufactures the Citroën C1, Peugeot 108 and Toyota Aygo.

Peugeot Citroën Mitsubishi Automotiv Rus.

The Kaluga factory was built by the Russian-based joint venture between PSA Peugeot Citroën (70%) and Mitsubishi Motors (30%) established in 2011. The site builds the Mitsubishi Outlander, Pajero Sport, and the Peugeot 308 and Citroën C4. From 2018, Peugeot Expert and Citroën Jumpy are built on site.

Changan PSA Automobile.

Changan PSA is a 50–50 joint venture with the Chinese Chang'an Automobile Group, based in Shenzhen with an initial annual production capacity of 200,000 vehicles & engines. It produces cars of the DS Automobiles brand.

IKAP (Iran Khodro Automobiles Peugeot).

The joint venture with Iran Khodro was established in 2016 and produces some Peugeot models and imports other models in CBU for Iran market. IKAP is a 50–50 joint venture with the Iran Khodro, based in Tehran.

Other interests.

In 2008, the company investigated the option to buy Mitsubishi Motors but a deal could not be concluded and was called off in 2010. One outcome of the talks resulted in the Mitsubishi Outlander and Mitsubishi i-MiEV to be sold as Peugeot and Citroën in Europe.

Locations.

Head office.

The head office of PSA Group is located in Rueil-Malmaison. The group has been renting the building since 2017, right after its construction. It is and was housing around 700 employees in 2017.

United Kingdom.

In the United Kingdom, Peugeot Motor Company PLC is a wholly owned United Kingdom subsidiary of PSA Peugeot Citroën that operates the Peugeot UK, Citroën UK, and DS Automobile brands. Peugeot UK's retail arm is Robins & Day which was part of Rootes Group before becoming a wholly owned subsidiary of Peugeot Motor Company PLC in 1970.

Other locations.

PSA has a number of manufacturing and development sites around the world. Vigo, in Galicia has PSA's biggest factory in the world. The PSA Mangualde Plant in Portugal produced its millionth vehicle in 2012.  PSA invested 4 billion establishing new plant in Chennai, India  The group announced on 29 November 2016 at the Tunisia's investment conference 2020 it will open a factory plant in the country in mid-2018. The factory will have a planned annual production of 1,200 units.  Groupe PSA (Paris:UG) has chosen to establish its new North American headquarters in Atlanta, Fulton County, Georgia. The headquarters will be operational by February 2018. A core team has already been set up to build the strategy and steer its execution. The decision to locate in Atlanta came after a yearlong, nationwide search to find the optimal balance of business environment, standard of living and workforce.

Vehicles.

Notable vehicles and innovations.

Hybrid Air.

PSA Group exhibited the "Hybrid Air" engine, an experimental petro-hydraulic hybrid, at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show. The engine is the result of a secret development project involving about 100 people. The basic technology is not new—it has been used in heavy vehicles such as garbage trucks or buses which frequently start and stop—but its application to passenger cars is. The vehicle uses nitrogen gas compressed by energy harvested from braking or deceleration to power a hydraulic drive which supplements power from its conventional gasoline engine. The hydraulic and electronic components were supplied by Robert Bosch GmbH. Production versions were scheduled for 2015 or 2016 to sell at about US$25,000 or £17,000. Mileage was estimated to be about 3.5 L/100 km or 80 miles per gallon for city driving if installed in a Citroën C3.

Awards.

Peugeot, Citroën, Chrysler Europe and DS vehicles have won many awards for their vehicles including: ten times the European Car of the Year award, 12 times the "Car of the year" "Auto Europa" award in Italy, 18 times the "car of the year" in Spain, and five times the "Irish Car of the Year" award.  European Car of the Year award winners:

Groupe PSA (; also known as the PSA Group in English; formerly known as PSA Peugeot Citroën from 1991 to 2016) is a French multinational manufacturer of automobiles and motorcycles sold under the Peugeot, Citroën, DS, Opel and Vauxhall brands. Peugeot is the largest PSA brand. PSA is listed on the Euronext Paris stock exchange and is a constituent of the CAC 40 index.

Akciová společnost vznikla v roce 1976, jako PSA Group (PSA je zkratka "Peugeot Société Anonyme"), poté co Peugeot S.A. převzala 89,95 % akcií bankrotující společnosti Citroën. Výkonným ředitelem je Carlos Tavares, předsedou správní rady je Thierry Peugeot.


Discovery.

It was discovered and collected in the tuffaceous siltstones and mudstones of the lower part of the Hanson Formation, in Mount Kirkpatrick. It was first named by Nathan Smith and Diego Pol in 2007 and the type species is "Glacialisaurus hammeri". The generic name, "Glacialisaurus", is derived from the Latin word "glacialis", meaning "icy" or "frozen", in reference to the Beardmore Glacier region in the Central Transantarctic Mountains, where the fossil remains were found. The specific name, "G. hammeri", honors Dr. William R. Hammer of Augustana College, who made major contributions to both paleontology and Antarctic research.

Phylogeny.

In their phylogenetic analysis of the relationships of "Glacialisaurus", Smith and Pol found that it is a massospondylid, a non-eusauropod sauropodomorph more advanced than other forms such as "Saturnalia" and "Plateosaurus". Features of its foot are similar to "Lufengosaurus" (from the Early Jurassic of China), and the phylogenetic study suggests that "Lufengosaurus" may have been a close relative of "Glacialisaurus", whereas other massospondylids such as "Coloradisaurus" and "Massospondylus" found to be more basal forms. Recent cladistic analyses by Yates (2007), Yates "et al." (2010, 2011) and Novas "et al." (2011) found the same results. The discovery of "Glacialisaurus" is important to the study of the early distribution of sauropod dinosaurs. The presence of this primitive sauropodomorph in the Hanson Formation (which has also yielded remains attributed to true sauropods) shows that both primitive and advanced members of this lineage existed side by side in the early Jurassic Period.

Glacialisaurus is a genus of massospondylid sauropodomorph dinosaur. It lived during the Early Jurassic period in what is now central Transantarctic Mountains of Antarctica. It is known from the holotype FMNH PR1823, a partial hind limb (foot) and from the referred material FMNH PR1822, a left femur.

Glacialisaurus („ledovcový ještěr“) byl rodem po čtyřech chodícího býložravého dinosaura ze skupiny sauropodomorfů, který byl objeven v sedimentech souvrství Hanson v Antarktidě. Patří tak k několika málo známým rodům antarktických dinosaurů. Žil v období spodní jury, asi před 185 miliony let. Typový druh "G. hammeri" byl popsán roku 2007 podle částečně dochovaných fosílií zadní končetiny a chodidla. Tento dinosaurus dosahoval délky kolem 6,2 metru a hmotnosti několika stovek kilogramů.


Etymology.

According to Kia Motors, the name "Kia" derives from the Sino-Korean characters ""ki"" (起, "to arise") and ""a"" (亞, which stands for East Asia); it is roughly translated as "Rising from the East."

History.

Kia was founded in December 1944 as Kyungsung Precision Industry, a manufacturer of steel tubing and bicycle parts, eventually producing Korea's first domestic bicycle, the Samchully, in 1951. In 1952, Kyungsung Precision Industry changed its name to Kia Industries, and later built Honda-licensed small motorcycles (starting in 1957) and Mazda-licensed trucks (1962) and cars (1974). The company opened its first integrated automotive assembly plant in 1973, the Sohari Plant. Kia built the small Brisa range of cars until 1981, when production came to an end after the new military dictator Chun Doo-hwan enforced industry consolidation. This forced Kia to give up passenger cars and focus entirely on light trucks. Prior to the forced 1981 shutdown, Kia rounded out its passenger car lineup with two other foreign models assembled under license: the Fiat 132 and the Peugeot 604. Starting in 1986 (when only 26 cars were manufactured, followed by over 95,000 the next year), Kia rejoined the automobile industry in partnership with Ford. Kia produced several Mazda-derived vehicles for both domestic sales in South Korea and for export into other countries. These models included the Kia Pride, based on the Mazda 121 and the Avella, which were sold in North America and Australasia as the Ford Festiva and Ford Aspire. In 1992, Kia Motors America was incorporated in the United States. The first Kia-branded vehicles in the United States were sold from four dealerships in Portland, Oregon, in 1992. Since then, Kia methodically expanded one region at a time. Dealers in 1994 sold the Sephia and a few years later the United States segment expanded their line with the Sportage. Over one hundred Kia dealerships existed across thirty states by 1995, selling a record 24,740 automobiles.  Kia declared bankruptcy in 1997, during the Asian financial crisis, and in 1998 reached an agreement with Hyundai Motor Company to diversify by exchanging ownership between the two companies. Hyundai Motor Company acquired 51% of the company, outbidding Ford Motor Company, which had owned an interest in Kia Motors since 1986. After subsequent divestments, Hyundai Motor Company owns about one third of Kia Motor Corporation. While Hyundai Motor Company remains Kia's largest stakeholder, Kia Motor Company also retains ownership in some 22 Hyundai Motor Company subsidiaries. Since 2005, Kia has focused on the European market and has identified design as its "core future growth engine"—leading to the hiring of Peter Schreyer in 2006 as chief design officer and his subsequent creation of a new corporate grille known as the 'Tiger Nose'. In October 2006, Kia Motors America broke ground for Kia Motors Manufacturing Georgia in West Point, Georgia, representing a US$1 billion investment for the company. Kia Motors Manufacturing Georgia opened in February 2010, after Kia recorded its 15th consecutive year of increased U.S. market share. In August 2014, the company received international attention when Pope Francis of the Catholic Church rode in one of their compact cars, the Kia Soul, during a five-day visit to South Korea. The Kia Soul drew bigger attention than two other vehicles used by the Pope, their Kia Carnival and Hyundai's Santa Fe, because it appeared in the high-profile welcoming ceremony of his arrival at the Seoul Airport on August 14. In 2016, Kia Motors model reliability was ranked first in the United States by J.D. Power and Associates, becoming the first non-luxury automaker since 1989 to top that list.

Affiliations and subsidiaries.

Hyundai Motor Company.

, the Hyundai Motor Company owns a 33.88% stake in Kia Motors. Likewise, as of December 31, 2015, Kia Motors is owner in 22 different Hyundai companies. Its ownership percentages range from 4.9% up to 45.37%.

Kia Motors America.

Kia Motors America, Inc. (KMA) was incorporated in California on October 21, 1992 and became the American sales, marketing, and distribution arm of Kia Motors Corporation. KMA is based in Irvine, California, and currently offers a complete line of vehicles through more than 755 dealers throughout the United States. The first two models that were introduced to the U.S. Market in 1993 were KIA Sephia and KIA Sportage 4x4. In the United States, sales began in late 1993 for the 1994 model year. The two models most recently introduced to the U.S. market have both been highly awarded during the short time since their launch: the 2018 Stinger performance sedan gained recognition with J.D. Power's inaugural "Engineering Award for Highest Rated All-New Vehicle" as well as Business Insider's "Car of the Year Award", then the 2020 Telluride made its mark several times over by winning major awards from review organizations like Kelley Blue Book, MotorTrend, Hispanic Motor Press (www.hispanicmotorpress.org)also awarded the Telluride as the best SUV for 2020, and most recently Edmunds.  As a brand, KMA has continued to improve over the years as well; in 2013, Kia Motors America recorded its 18th consecutive year of increased U.S. market share, and for the past five consecutive years (2015-2019) it has been recognized by J.D. Power as the highest ranked mass market brand in initial quality.  In November 2009, Kia started production at the first U.S. Kia Motors plant, Kia Motors Manufacturing Georgia, in West Point. Though the Kia Sorento crossover vehicle was the only model to be assembled there at first, the facility has since expanded its production lines to include the Kia Optima mid-size sedan in 2011 and the just-launched Kia Telluride crossover SUV in January 2019. As of September 2019, the location has successfully built over 3 million units of these three models altogether, and shortly after celebrated another milestone by reaching its 10th year of production in November 2019. Currently, the facility has a production capacity of 340,000 vehicles per year (largely dedicated to the Telluride and Sorento crossover SUVs) and is responsible for distributing them to hundreds of dealerships in the USA and Canada, as well as fulfilling shipments across North America and even overseas.

Kia Motors Europe.

Kia Motors Europe (KME) is the European sales and marketing division of Kia Motors Corporation (KMC). It has been selling cars in Europe since the first half of 1991.  In 2007, KME moved from its previous location at Hauptstrasse 185, Eschborn (near Frankfurt), to a new purpose-built facility adjacent to the Messe, in Frankfurt city centre.  When Kia launched in Europe during 1991, it initially sold only the Pride supermini—a rebadged version of the late 1980s Mazda 121. It initially proved popular with buyers. By the end of 1991, Kia had sold nearly 1,800 Prides in the United Kingdom. The first full year, 1992, saw that figure double, and, in 1993, it increased again to nearly 5,500 units. However, sales fell towards the end of the decade, and the end of production was finally announced in May 2000, with its successor – the Rio – not going on sale for another year.  From 1995 to 1999, Kia produced left- and right-hand drive versions of the first generation Sportage SUV at the Karmann factory in Osnabrück, Germany. These have been popular across Europe, but, since 2002, Kia has gained more sales in this market thanks to the launch of the larger Sorento. From 1999 until production of the model ceased in 2003, all Sportage production reverted to South Korea.  The European range also expanded in the spring of 1994 when Kia began importing the larger Mentor, a range of medium-sized hatchbacks and sedans which were marketed as inexpensive and well-equipped alternatives to the likes of the Ford Escort and the Vauxhall/Opel Astra.  A facelift in 1999 saw the Mentor name retained for the saloon (sedan), but the hatchback was renamed Shuma. These models remained on sale until 2004, when the newer Cerato was launched and gave Kia one of its first serious competitors against mainstream brands. The Clarus saloon and Sedona MPV were also launched onto the UK market during 1999, helping Kia begin its rise in popularity.  Despite Kia's range increasing from one car as late as 1993 to three cars by the end of 1995, British sales actually decreased in that period, from nearly 5,500 in 1993 to less than 4,000 the following year. In 1998, Kia's future in Britain was thrown into serious doubt when it sold less than 3,000 of its whole range – the worst in any full year on the British market. Kia did not enter Europe's large family car market until the launch of its Clarus four-door sedan in 1999—a year behind schedule due to the financial difficulties that Kia was facing before it was taken over by Hyundai. This car was similar in size to the Ford Mondeo and the Opel/Vauxhall Vectra, but, on its launch, was actually less expensive to buy than the smaller Focus and the Astra. It had a spacious interior, large boot, competitive asking price, and high equipment levels, but it had little more appeal to sway buyers away from established European brands like Ford, Vauxhall/Opel and Peugeot.  Its successor, the Magentis, launched in 2001, was still nowhere near as popular as Kia might have hoped it would be, although with a sub-£14,000 asking price it offered the cheapest V6-engined car in the UK, by which time it was rare enough for a six-cylinder car to be priced at less than £20,000.  Kia entered the MPV market in 1999 with the Sedona. On its launch, it was the lowest-priced, full-size people carrier on sale in the United Kingdom. With the range expanded by 1999, sales for that year reached almost 6,400 – more than double the previous year's total. That annual sales figure had almost been matched in 2000 by the end of May, reflecting Kia's growing popularity with British buyers. By 2009, Kia was firmly established as a popular brand in Britain, when sales broke the 50,000 barrier for the first time and the brand now had a share of more than 2% in the new car market. The Picanto was the most popular single model with nearly 17,000 sales.  In late 2006, Kia opened its first own plant in Europe at a cost of approximately EUR 1.7 billion in Žilina, Slovakia, in the village of Teplička nad Váhom, after construction between October 2004 and December 2005. It has since produced over 2.5 million units of the Kia Cee'd, Kia Sportage and Kia Venga, as well as seven types of engines. In 2016, 339,500 cars and 612,915 engines were manufactured. The area of the plant is 166 ha and Mobis Slovakia, the largest supplier, is situated right on the carmaker's premises. As of December 31, 2016, 3,625 employees worked in the facility, while their average age was 35. The relatively low number of employees working in three shifts is related to a high degree of automation as well as high integration with Mobis Slovakia. In 2016, Kia Motors Slovakia recorded revenue of EUR 5.56 billion. Although the European car market knows significant difficulties, Kia announced increased sales in 2013.

Kia Motors Mexico.

The company has built a $1 billion manufacturing plant in the northern Mexican state of Nuevo León, which produces 300,000 cars a year. Details of the factory, built in the city of Pesquería, were revealed in a joint press conference given by Kia Motors CEO Hyoung-Keun Lee and the President of Mexico Enrique Peña Nieto in Mexico City on August 28, 2014. The plant was expected to be completed in the first half of 2016. This factory is involved in controversies because it was built on unevenly purchased land and the construction agreement was made with advantage conditions and out of the local dispositions to Kia.

Kia Motors India.

The company has entered the Indian market in July 2019 with their 'Made for India' SUV- SP2 Concept now announced as the global mid-sized SUV Kia Seltos. The company has built a production facility on a Greenfield land in Anantpur district, Andhra Pradesh near Penukonda. The annual production capacity is 300,000 units. Kia Motors has appointed Kookhyun Shim as MD & CEO for its Indian arm. In his new role, Shim will be responsible for leading the carmaker's expansion in the Indian market. Shim will play a leading role in ensuring KMI's projected timeline and schedule of operations is achieved. He also oversaw the construction of Kia Motor's first manufacturing facility in India, to help strengthen the company's position in the fifth largest global automotive market. Kia has committed investments to the tune of $1.1 billion to develop operations in India including investing in a network of over 250 customer touch-points that include service, sales and spares establishments.

Kia Lucky Motors Pakistan.

Kia Lucky Motors (KLM) is a joint venture in Pakistan between Kia Motors and Lucky Cement. Kia Lucky Motors Pakistan began selling cars in 2018 when they launched their All New Grand Carnival in Pakistan. In quarter 4 2019, Kia Pakistan introduced two new locally manufactured products known as Kia Sportage and Kia Picanto.

Kia Defense.

Kia Motors has specialized in the production of military vehicles with variants and other transportation equipment and by supplying them as a sole maker of military vehicles designated by the South Korean Government since 1976, when Kia Heavy Industry Co. Ltd. (now known as Hyundai Wia) was established. Kia is currently designing a Kaiser Jeep M715-type vehicle named the KM450 for the South Korean Army on license from the U.S. Government. Kia is also the owner of the former ex-Asia Motors factory at Gwangju.

Models.

Current lineup  Discontinued lineup

Platform IDs.

List of Kia platform IDs

Design emphasis.

Beginning in 2006 Kia identified design as its "core future growth engine" – leading to the 2006 hiring of Peter Schreyer and to the 2005 hiring Tom Kearns as Chief Design Officer. Schreyer had previously worked at Audi (designing the Audi TT) and Volkswagen and had won the Design Award of the Federal Republic of Germany. Kearns had previously worked at Cadillac as Chief Design Officer and was responsible for influencing Cadillac's direction of hard angles and sharp lines within their design. Schreyer has since been central to a complete restyling of Kia's lineup, overseeing design activities at Kia's design centers in Frankfurt, Los Angeles, Tokyo, and the Namyang Design Center in South Korea. With the Kee concept vehicle, shown at the Frankfurt Motor Show in 2007, Kia introduced a new corporate grille to create a recognizable 'face' for the brand. Known as the "Tiger Nose", Schreyer indicated he wanted "a powerful visual signal, a seal, an identifier. The front of a car needs this recognition, this expression. A car needs a face and I think the new Kia face is strong and distinctive. Visibility is vital and that face should immediately allow you to identify a Kia even from a distance." Schreyer described how the Kia Tiger Nose came to be as he explained, "I was just working on the car and just thinking about different possibilities, and suddenly I found it." Commenting on the new signature grille in 2009: "From now on, we'll have it on all our cars". Kia has since featured the Tiger Nose on all of their vehicles, ranging from the compact Kia Soul, on to the edgy new design of the Kia Optima, and to the larger SUV, the Kia Telluride. Kia cars have won the International Car of the Year award every year since 2013.

Controversies.

In late 2012, Kia Motors was forced to admit error in inflating its United States Environmental Protection Agency mileage claims and had to reduce its fuel economy claims in the U.S. by about 3 percent across the board and to offer compensation to previous vehicle buyers.

Nuevo León plant.

Since 2014, Kia Motors has been involved in controversies in Mexico due to alleged irregularities in the construction of one of its manufacturing plants, located in the municipality of Pesquería, Nuevo León. The construction of the plant was done in an irregularly purchased land agreement between Kia Motors Mexico and the State of Nuevo León, then headed by Rodrigo Medina de la Cruz, was signed with unfairly advantageous conditions, such as bigger tax incentives than those allowed by Mexican law (tax exemptions for 20 years when the standard is 5), extended to the Mexican providers of Kia. A copy of the full agreement was published in Facebook by current Nuevo León governor, Jaime Rodríguez Calderón, as part of a prosecution case against Medina and he declared that the signed agreement with his predecessor would be cancelled. A new agreement was then reached with Rodriguez's administration on June 2016. Former governor Medina de la Cruz and 30 other officials of the former state administration were investigated by an anti-corruption prosecutor for alleged embezzlement, improper exercise of public functions and damage to Nuevo León State assets. Medina was then taken into custody on January 26, 2017, in relation to this case and others in which he is involved.

Sponsorship.

Kia Motors sponsors the following sports teams, events and athletes:

Kia Motors Corporation, commonly known as Kia Motors (,, ; stylized as KI<unk>) is a South Korean multinational automotive manufacturer headquartered in Seoul. It is South Korea's second-largest automobile manufacturer following the Hyundai Motor Company, with sales of over 3.3 million vehicles in 2015., the Kia Motor corporation is minority owned by Hyundai, which owns a 33.88% stake valued at just over US$6 billion. Kia in turn is a minority owner of more than twenty Hyundai subsidiaries ranging from 4.9% up to 45.37%, totaling more than US$8.3 billion.

Kia Motors Corporation je automobilová značka, která byla založena v roce 1944. Je členem skupiny Hyundai-Kia Automotive Group a její cíl je být jedním z největších výrobců automobilů na světě. Hyundai koupil společnost v roce 1998. Ve 14 výrobních a montážních závodech v 8 zemích světa v současnosti automobilka produkuje více než 3 000 000 vozidel ročně, která jsou prodávána prostřednictvím sítě oficiálních zastoupení ve 165 zemích světa. Kia má dnes přes 40 000 zaměstnanců.