Characteristics.

The Stafford is a stocky, muscular and unusually strong small to medium-sized dog that stands at the shoulder. The dogs weigh and the bitches. It has a broad chest, strong shoulders, well-boned wide-set legs, a medium length tail that is carried low and a broad head with a short muzzle; its ears fold over at the tips and are not cropped. The Stafford's coat is short, stiff and close. Base colours can be red, fawn, white, black or blue, or any one of the aforementioned with white, any shade of brindle or any shade of brindle with white.

Temperament and health.

Even in the days of blood sport, the Stafford was always a family pet and companion dog, and is even more so today. They are considered loyal, courageous and affectionate, and are among the dog breeds recommended by the KC as suitable for families. They have a reputation for pugnaciousness, and when challenged by another dog it is characteristic of them to not back away. It is recommended that puppies receive early socialisation; certainly before 18 months. Staffords are healthy and robust dogs with a life expectancy of 12–14 years. Hereditary eye conditions, including L-2 Hydroxy Glutaric Aciduria (L-2HGA) and Hereditary Cataract (HC-HSF4Hereditary, are known to occur in the breed. The condition is caused by a mutant gene that can be identified through DNA screening to determine if the dog is clear, a carrier or affected. The KC, AKC, various other reputable organisations and breed clubs run DNA screening schemes and maintain the results in an effort to accurately identify and eliminate undesirable genetic diseases.

History.

Early protection.

The Cruelty to Animals Act 1835 made blood sports illegal, and effectively stopped bull and bear baiting in the UK. Bull and bear-baiting required large arenas which made it easier for authorities to police, whereas illegal dog fighting was much harder to terminate because fight sponsors kept their venues hidden and closely guarded in private basements and similar locations. As a result, dog fighting continued long after bull and bear-baiting had ceased. It was not until the passage of the Protection of Animals Act 1911 that organised dog fighting in Britain largely came to an end.

Early history.

In the early 1800s, “bull and terrier” crossbreeds had been developed to satisfy the need for vermin control and the taste for blood sports. In the mid–19th century, James Hinks wanted to develop a socially acceptable "gentleman's companion" with refinement, cleaner lines, and courage without the aggressive tendencies. Two different types of bull and terriers resulted, including Hink's cross of the bull and terrier with the English White Terrier to achieve a more refined appearance with better legs and a more appealing head. A later outcross included the Dalmatian and Collie which led to the development of an athletic white dog known as Hink's "white cavalier", the forerunner to the modern Bull Terrier. Devotees preferred the original bull and terrier type over Hink's Bull Terrier, and remained loyal to their preferred type, which became the modern Staffordshire Bull Terrier of the same ancestry as the Bull Terrier.

Theories of origin.

The Stafford was developed in what was then considered the "black country" of Staffordshire and northern parts of Birmingham. There are two theories about the development of the Stafford as recognised by the KC registry.  The first and more widely held theory is that the Stafford, like the Bull Terrier, descends from the long-extinct bull and terrier, which originated as a cross between the ferocious, thickly muscled Old English Bulldog and the agile, lithe and feisty Black and Tan Terrier. The aggressive Old English Bulldog, bred for bear and bull baiting, was often pitted against its own kind in organised dog fights, but it was determined that lighter, faster dogs were better suited for dogfighting than the heavier Bulldog. In an effort to produce a lighter, faster, more agile dog with the courage and tenacity of the Bulldog, breeders outcrossed with local terriers and ultimately achieved success.  The second less widely held theory is that the Old English Bulldog was not crossed with terriers; rather, the Stafford as a breed began with direct descendants derived from generations of selective breeding of early Bulldogs which produced a smaller dog with a more athletic build. Some believe the theory is evidentially supported by certain genetic characteristics and similarities in the appearances of modern Staffords when compared to the Old English Bulldogs depicted in some of the early 19th-century paintings.

DNA analysis.

In 2017, a genome-wide study revealed that all of the bull and terrier type dogs, including the Staffordshire Bull Terrier, map back to the terriers of Ireland and to origins which date to the period 1860–1870. The timing coincides with historical descriptions of dog fighting contests in Ireland, a lack of accurate stud book documentation, and subsequently, the undocumented crosses of dogs during the time when these breeds were first created. By 1874, in Britain the first Kennel Club Stud Book was published, which included Bull Terriers and Bulldogs.

Global recognition.

In addition to recognition by the KC in 1935, the Stafford was later recognised in the breed registries of various other kennel clubs, such as the AKC, which is the largest purebred breed registry in the world, the Australian National Kennel Council (ANKC), Canadian Kennel Club (CKC), Irish Kennel Club (IKC), New Zealand Kennel Club (NZKC), and the United Kennel Club (UKC) in the United States (US).

Kennel Club.

The Stafford's early origins as a fighting dog made it difficult to gain recognition as a breed for entry in the KC's breed registry. In 1930, the name "Staffordshire Bull Terrier" first appeared in advertisements for dogs of the type. Throughout 1932 and 1933 attempts were made by dog show judge and breeder Joseph Dunn to gain breed registry recognition from the KC.  In early 1935, the first show was held on the bowling green of the Conservative Club at Cradley Heath and in May that year, the KC approved the name "Staffordshire Bull Terrier" (the first name requested, "Original Bull Terrier", was rejected by the Kennel Club). In June 1935, the Staffordshire Bull Terrier Club was formed during a meeting at the Old Cross Guns pub in Cradley Heath. That same day, the breed standards were approved and further shows were held that year. Other pivotal breeders involved in acquiring breed recognition were Joe Mallen and actor Tom Walls. The first champions recognised in England were awarded in 1939 to the bitch Lady Eve and the dog Gentleman Jim.

American Kennel Club.

Staffordshires, as the English bull and terrier crosses have been historically referred, first arrived in North America in the mid to late 1800s. AKC would not recognize anything they deemed to be pit bull types into their breed registry as they neither endorsed nor wanted to be associated with dog fighting. It was not until 1936, long after blood sports were banned and legislation was enacted, that AKC recognised and accepted the Staffordshire Terrier into its purebred registry, and in 1972 changed the name to American Staffordshire Terrier (AmStaff). AKC recognition of the English bred Staffordshire Bull Terrier (Stafford) would come two years later.  In an effort to achieve AKC recognition of the Stafford, Steve Stone organised the US Staffordshire Bull Terrier Club, January 14, 1967. There were few Staffords in the country at that time, most being imports from Australia, Canada, New Zealand and other parts of the world. The first attempts to encourage club membership and gain AKC recognition began with the first rally held in the summer of 1967 which resulted in 14 memberships and 8 Staffords registered by the club. By year's end, the count had increased to 39 registered dogs. Dog imports continued, and the number of memberships and registered dogs increased exponentially but it would take nearly a decade of hosting sanctioned shows and demonstrating consistency in the breed standard by maintaining responsible breeding practices that the club would acquire official AKC recognition.  In 1974, the AKC officially recognised the Staffordshire Bull Terrier Club, giving it recognition as the official AKC Parent Club representing the Staffordshire Bull Terrier. On March, 5 1974, the Staffordshire Bull Terrier was the 120th breed recognised by the AKC. Confusion often arises over the Stafford and AmStaff being separate breeds, typically because of the similarities in nomenclature, appearances, ancestry, and variances between the standards of several different purebred registries.

Appeal.

Staffords appeal for owners is for the most part because of their stout agility and muscular bodies which makes them appear tough while at the same time they are loving, courageous and loyal family dogs that are people-friendly. A survey conducted by Eukanuba revealed that Staffords and West Highland White Terriers are the "most communicative and affectionate breeds" with the Stafford being the "‘waggiest’ (80%) and most partial to a belly rub (62%)". In 2019, ITV’s "Britain's favourite dogs" declared the Staffordshire Bull Terrier as the most popular dog breed in Britain. They rank among the most popular dog breeds in the UK, Australia, France and New Zealand.  Due in part to its popularity, Staffords have experienced some negative impacts from over-breeding. In 2013, the breed accounted for more than a third of the dogs passing through shelters such as Battersea Dogs & Cats Home. The breed has been associated with chav culture, which tends to attract the negativity associated with it.

Breed-specific legislation.

A number of federal and municipal governments have placed restrictions on the ownership of the pit bull class of dogs, which typically comprise a variety of different breeds, including the English Bull Terrier, American Pit Bull Terrier, American Staffordshire Terrier, and Staffordshire Bull Terrier. Some areas also regulate or restrict other breeds such as Dalmatian, German Shepherd, Chow Chow, American Bulldog, Rottweiler, Mastiff, Doberman Pinscher, and any mix or even a resemblance of those dogs. In the US, the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) is opposed to breed-specific legislation, referring to it as "breed-discriminatory laws". In the UK, Australia and New Zealand, Staffords are not restricted by any breed-specific legislation.  The AKC "supports state laws making any form of participation in organized dog fights a felony" and oppose the breeding and training of dogs for fighting. They also oppose the "training of dogs for uncontrolled aggressive behavior toward other dogs and people." However, the AKC considers Breed-specific legislation (BSL) "a slippery slope" stating that "any dog can be exploited and trained to be aggressive" and expressed concern because they believe "breed-specific bans ultimately punish responsible dog owners, while doing very little to actually punish irresponsible owners."  In 2018, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) lobbied the British Parliament to have the Staffordshire Bull Terrier added to the list of restricted dog breeds in the Dangerous Dogs Act 1991. PETA supported the legislation because they believed it would prevent more Staffords from being born into a world of cruel treatment and abuse. The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA), the KC, Dogs Trust, Blue Cross and the Battersea Dogs & Cats Home all objected to the proposed ban. Defra minister George Eustice gave his support saying, "Staffordshire bull terriers [sic] are a popular breed in this country and have shown themselves to be a good family pet." Parliament rejected the legislation.

Irish Staffordshire Bull Terrier.

In the UK, American Pit Bull Terriers are sometimes advertised as Irish Staffordshire Bull Terriers in an attempt to circumvent the Dangerous Dogs Act 1991. The appearance of the Irish Staffordshire, which is not recognised by any kennel club or breed registry, is attributed by the RSPCA to be contributing "to a rise in incidents of dog fighting". The editor of "Dogs Today" magazine described the breed as "complete fiction".

Gallery.

Images depicting standard colours and body shapes of Staffords.

The Staffordshire Bull Terrier is a British breed of short-haired terrier of medium size. It originated in the city of Birmingham and in the Black Country of Staffordshire from cross-breeding between the Bulldog and the English white terrier. It was bred as a fighting dog and, until blood sports were banned in 1835, was used for badger baiting, ratting, bull-baiting and dog fighting.

Stafordširský bulteriér (: "Staffordshire Bull Terrier", zkratka SBT) je středně velké, krátkosrsté psí plemeno původem z Anglie, jehož příbuznými jsou americký stafordširský teriér. Mezinárodní kynologickou federací (FCI) byl jako samostatné plemeno uznán v roce 1987, anglickým Kenel Clubem již v roce 1935. Chov v České republice se datuje od roku 1989, kdy byla dovezena první fena. Plemeno bylo vytvořeno horníky a dělníky z anglického Staffordshiru, a to spojením buldoka a anglického teriéra.


Name.

As is customary in most Spanish-speaking countries, he was given both his parents' last names, Somoza being his father's last name and DeBayle being his mother's last name. DeBayle is of French origin.

Early years.

Anastasio Somoza DeBayle, nicknamed "Tachito" (Spanish: "Little Tacho") by his father, was born in 1925 as the third child of Anastasio Somoza García and Salvadora DeBayle. At the age of seven, he was enrolled at the Instituto Pedagógico La Salle, run by the Christian Brothers. One of his classmates was Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Cardenal. He later became a journalist and publisher of "La Prensa" newspaper and one of the most prominent opponents of the Somoza dynasty.  From the age of ten, Tachito was educated in the United States. He and older brother Luis Somoza Debayle, both attended St. Leo College Prep (Florida) and La Salle Military Academy (Long Island). During this period their father became dictator of Nicaragua, and served as president from 1937 to 1947, and again from 1950 into 1956.  Somoza Debayle passed the examination for West Point, entered the United States Military Academy on July 3, 1943, and graduated on June 6, 1946.  After his return to Nicaragua, Somoza Debayle was appointed chief of staff of the National Guard (Nicaragua's national army), by his father. The president had also appointed numerous family members and close personal friends to other important posts in his government. As commander of the Guard, the young Somoza was head of the nation's armed forces, effectively the second-most powerful man in Nicaragua.  Two years after his return from West Point, Somoza Debayle had an affair and fathered a daughter, Patricia. She was later sent to a series of schools abroad.  On 10 December 1950, Somoza married Hope Portocarrero, an American citizen and his first cousin. Their wedding was held at the Cathedral in Managua and officiated by Archbishop Jose Antonio Lezcano. Over 4,000 guests attended the ceremony. The reception was given by Somoza's father, President Anastasio Somoza García, in the luxurious and modern Palacio de Comunicaciones.  The couple had five children:  Following their father's assassination on 21 September 1956, Somoza's elder brother, Luis, took over the presidency. Anastasio also had a large hand in the government during this time; he helped ensure that the presidency was held by politicians loyal to his family from 1963 to 1967.

Presidency.

On 1 May 1967, shortly before his brother died, Anastasio Somoza was sworn into office following his election to the presidency on 5 February. While Luis had ruled more gently than their father, Anastasio would not tolerate opposition of any sort. His regime soon resembled his father's in all significant respects.  With regard to educating the workforce, Somoza replied, “I don’t want an educated population; I want oxen.”  His term in office was due to end in May 1972, due to a law that prohibited immediate re-election. However, prior to that, Somoza worked out an agreement that allowed him to stand for re-election in 1974. He would be replaced as president by a three-man junta consisting of two Liberals and one Conservative while he retained control of the National Guard. Somoza and his triumvirate drew up a new constitution that was ratified by the triumvirate and the cabinet on April 3, 1971. He stepped down as president on May 1, 1972. However, as head of the National Guard, he remained the "de facto" ruler of the country.  Anastasio Somoza and his son were both part owners of Plasmaferesis. The company collected blood plasma from up to 1,000 of Nicaragua's poorest persons every day for sale in the United States and Europe. According to "El Diario Nuevo" and "La Prensa," “Every morning the homeless, drunks, and poor people went to sell half a liter of blood for 35 (Nicaraguan) cordobas.  On 23 December 1972, an earthquake struck the nation's capital, Managua, killing about 5,000 people and virtually destroying the city. The government declared martial law, making Somoza the country's ruler in name as well as in fact once again. He took over effective control as head of the National Emergency Committee. He reportedly embezzled a great amount of money from funds sent to Nicaragua from around the world to help rebuild Managua. Some parts of Managua have yet to be rebuilt or restored, including the National Cathedral.  Somoza also allegedly exported freshly imported emergency blood plasma abroad, at the time of the earthquake, when most medical supplies in Nicaragua were desperately in short supply.  Somoza was re-elected president in the 1974 election. By this time, the Catholic Church had begun to speak against his government (one of his fiercest critics was Ernesto Cardenal, a leftist Nicaraguan priest who preached liberation theology and was later appointed as the Sandinista government's Minister of Culture). By the late 1970s, human rights groups were condemning the record of the Somoza government. Support for the Sandinistas was growing inside and outside the country.  In July 1977, Somoza had a heart attack, and went to the US to recuperate.

Fall.

In 1975 Somoza Debayle launched a campaign to crush the Sandinistas; individuals suspected of supporting the Front were targeted. The Front, named after Augusto César Sandino (a Nicaraguan rebel leader in the 1920s), began its guerrilla war against the Somozas in 1963. It received funds from the Soviet Union and Cuba under Fidel Castro. Support for the Sandinistas ballooned after the earthquake, especially when U.S President Jimmy Carter withdrew American support for the regime for human rights reasons.  At this point, the opposition to the Somozas included not only Sandinistas, but other prominent figures such as publisher Pedro Chamorro (assassinated on January 10, 1978). Israel was the last nation to supply weapons to the Somoza regime. During the 1947–1949 Palestine war when Israel struggled to become independent, Somoza's father provided substantial financial support for the new nation. President Carter forced the Israeli government to call back a ship carrying weapons vital to the survival of the Somoza regime.  Because of Somoza's status, most of his family members were forced to flee into Honduras, Guatemala, and the United States. It is uncertain where the surviving Somozas live; they changed their names to protect their own lives.  On July 17, 1979, Somoza resigned the presidency and fled to Miami in a converted Curtiss C-46. He took with him the caskets of his father and brother and, it is claimed, much of Nicaragua's national treasure. The country was left with $1.6 billion in foreign debt, the highest in Central America. After Somoza had fled, the Sandinistas found less than $2 million in the national treasury.  Denied entry to the U.S. by President Carter, Somoza later took refuge in Paraguay, then under the dictatorship of Alfredo Stroessner. He bought a ranch and a gated house at Avenida de España no. 433 in Asunción, the capital. Somoza's regime lasted only another day, when his successor peacefully handed Managua to the Sandinistas.

Assassination.

Little more than a year later, Somoza was assassinated near Asunción on September 17, 1980. He was 54 years old. He was ambushed by a seven-person Sandinista commando team (four men and three women). The action was known as "Operation Reptile".  The Sandinista team were armed with two Soviet-made machine guns, two AK-47 assault rifles, two automatic pistols, and an RPG-7 rocket launcher, with four anti-tank grenades and two rockets. The leader was Argentinian Marxist revolutionary Enrique Gorriarán Merlo (code named "Ramon"), an ex-Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo member. One of the team members said: "We cannot tolerate the existence of millionaire playboys while thousands of Latin Americans are dying of hunger. We are perfectly willing to give up our lives for this cause." For more than six months the Sandinista team had researched and planned their assault. The team studied Somoza's movements via a team member who was staked out at a newspaper kiosk near the estate. They waited in ambush for Somoza in Avenida España. Somoza was often driven about the city in a sedan, which was believed to be unarmored. Team member Oswaldo, disguised as a paper boy, watched Somoza exit the estate and signaled when he was leaving at 10:10 A.M.  Once in position, Hugo Irurzún ("Capitán Santiago") readied the RPG-7. He tried to fire an anti-tank rocket at the car, but the RPG-7 misfired. Ramon shot the chauffeur while Irurzún quickly reloaded the RPG with a new rocket. The second rocket directly hit the sedan. Accounts said that the Mercedes' engine kept running after the rocket explosion. Previously the commando team had considered the possibility that Somoza's vehicle might be equipped with armor panels in front. Worried that it could deflect the rocket projectile, they chose to make a lateral attack on the vehicle. Somoza was killed instantly and burned, along with his new driver, César Gallardo, and Somoza's financial advisor, Colombian citizen Jou Baittiner. Later media reports in Paraguay said that Somoza's body was so unrecognizable that forensics had to identify him through his feet.  Of the seven assassins, six escaped. Irurzún was captured, identified because of his distinctive blonde beard, and was executed.  Somoza was buried in Miami, at Woodlawn Park Cemetery and Mausoleum. (His father, Somoza Garcia, was buried in Nicaragua.) A few months before Somoza's murder, his memoirs, "Nicaragua Betrayed", were published. He blamed the Carter administration for his downfall. His son, Anastasio Somoza Portocarrero, went into exile in Guatemala.  Brian Latell, a former US National Intelligence Officer for Latin America and Cuba, argues in his book, "After Fidel", that the plan to assassinate Somoza was devised in Havana, with direct input from Fidel Castro. According to him, the Sandinistas had won power in July 1979 with the assistance of massive, covert Cuban military aid. Fidel and his brother Raúl Castro purportedly developed a complex, multinational covert action to provide the Sandinistas with huge quantities of modern armaments. Latell claims Cuban intelligence and paramilitary advisors poured into Nicaragua along with the equipment. He says the evidence indicated that Somoza's assassination was similar to other such operations in which Cuban intelligence had been involved. He says that Somoza was a long-time nemesis of Castro after having provided critical support to the U.S. in preparing for the Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba in April 1961. Jorge Masetti, a former Argentine guerrilla working with Cuban intelligence services, describes the Somoza assassination and also asserts that Cuba had a direct role in planning it in his memoir, "In the Pirate's Den" (2002).  Somoza's funeral attracted numerous wealthy Nicaraguan and Cuban exiles in South Florida, who protested the left-wing governments of Nicaragua, led by the Sandinista National Liberation Front, and Cuba, led by the Communist Party of Cuba. But some commentators noted that the exiles in Miami were also relieved at Somoza's death. The newly founded Contra army, which consisted of many ex-members of Somoza's National Guard, would have had to give the impression of having no relation to the old Somoza regime, for purposes of public relations and world opinion.  In 1979, the Brazilian newspaper "Gazeta Mercantil" estimated that the Somoza family's fortune amounted to between $2 billion and $4 billion with its head, Anastasio Somoza Debayle, owning $1 billion.

In popular culture.

Somoza was the subject of the 1983 film "Last Plane Out", in which he was portrayed by actor Lloyd Battista. The film chronicles journalist Jack Cox's journey to Nicaragua, when Somoza was battling insurgents. The same year, he was depicted in "Under Fire", set during the 1979 Nicaraguan Revolution, this time portrayed by actor René Enriquez. In Warren Beatty's "Rules Don't Apply", Somoza is portrayed by Julio Oscar Mechoso. In Graham Greene's novel The Captain and the Enemy, the titular character's final act is a failed attempt at assassinating Somoza by crashing a plane into his bunker, though Somoza himself never appears in the book.

Publications.

Books

Anastasio "Tachito" Somoza Debayle (; 5 December 1925 – 17 September 1980) was a Nicaraguan dictator and officially the President of Nicaragua from 1 May 1967 to 1 May 1972 and from 1 December 1974 to 17 July 1979. As head of the National Guard, he was de facto ruler of the country from 1967 to 1979.

Anastasio Somoza Debayle (5. prosince 1925 León, Nikaragua — 17. září 1980 Asunción, Paraguay) byl prezidentem Nikaraguy v letech 1967–1972 a 1974–1979.


Early life.

Hirschfeld was born in Kolberg (now Kołobrzeg, Poland), in an Ashkenazi Jewish family, the son of a highly regarded physician and Senior Medical Officer Hermann Hirschfeld. In 1887–1888, he studied philosophy and philology in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland), then from 1888 to 1892 medicine in Strasbourg, Munich, Heidelberg, and Berlin. In 1892, he earned his doctoral degree.  After his studies, he traveled through the United States for eight months, visiting the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, and living from the proceeds of his writing for German journals. During his time in Chicago, Hirschfeld became involved with the homosexual subculture in that city. Struck by the essential similarities between the homosexual subcultures of Chicago and Berlin, Hirschfeld first developed his theory about the universality of homosexuality across the world, as he researched in books and newspaper articles about the existence of gay subcultures in Rio de Janeiro, Tangier, and Tokyo. Then he started a naturopathic practice in Magdeburg; in 1896, he moved his practice to Berlin-Charlottenburg.  Hirschfeld became interested in gay rights because many of his gay patients took their own lives. In the German language, the word for suicide

Sexual rights activism.

Scientific-Humanitarian Committee.

Magnus Hirschfeld found a balance between practicing medicine and writing about his findings. Between 1 May-15 October 1896, the "Grosse Berliner Gewerbeausstellung" ("Great Industrial Exhibition of Berlin) took place, which featured 9 "human zoos" where people from Germany's colonies in New Guinea and Africa were put on display for the visitors to gawk at. Such exhibitions of colonial peoples were common at industrial fairs, and later after Qingdao, the Mariana and Caroline islands became part of the German empire, Chinese, Chamorros and Micronesians all joined the Africans and New Guineans displayed in the "human zoos". Hirschfeld, who was keenly interested in sexuality in other cultures, visited the "Grosse Berliner Gewerbeastellung" and subsequently other exhibitions to inquire of the people in the "human zoos" via interpreters about the status of sexuality in their cultures. It was in 1896, after talking to the people displayed in the "human zoos" at the "Grosse Berliner Gewerbeastellung", that Hirschfeld began writing what became his 1914 book "Die Homosexualität des Mannes und des Weibes" ("The Homosexuality of Men & Women"), an attempt to comprehensively survey homosexuality around the globe, as part of an effort to prove that homosexuality occurred in every culture.  After several years as a general practitioner in Magdeburg, in 1896 he issued a pamphlet, "Sappho and Socrates", on homosexual love (under the pseudonym Th. Ramien). In 1897, Hirschfeld founded the Scientific Humanitarian Committee with the publisher Max Spohr, the lawyer Eduard Oberg, and the writer Franz Joseph von Bülow. The group aimed to undertake research to defend the rights of homosexuals and to repeal Paragraph 175, the section of the German penal code that, since 1871, had criminalized homosexuality. They argued that the law encouraged blackmail. The motto of the Committee, "Justice through science", reflected Hirschfeld's belief that a better scientific understanding of homosexuality would eliminate social hostility toward homosexuals.  Within the group, some of the members rejected Hirschfeld's (and Ulrichs's) view that male homosexuals are, by nature, effeminate. Benedict Friedlaender and some others left the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee and formed another group, the "Bund für männliche Kultur" or Union for Male Culture, which did not

Eulenburg affair.

Hirschfeld played a prominent role in the Harden–Eulenburg affair of 1906–09, which became the most widely publicized sex scandal in Imperial Germany. During the libel trial in 1907, when General Kuno von Moltke sued the journalist Maximilian Harden, after the latter had run an article accusing Moltke of having a homosexual relationship with the politically powerful Prince Philipp von Eulenburg, who was the Kaiser's best friend, Hirschfeld testified for Harden. In his role as an expert witness, Hirschfeld testified that Moltke was gay and, thus, what Harden had written was true. Hirschfeld — who wanted to make homosexuality legal in Germany — believed that proving Army officers like Moltke were gay would help his case for legalization. He also testified that he believed there was nothing wrong with Moltke.  Most notably, Hirschfeld testified that "homosexuality was part of the plan of nature and creation just like normal love." Hirschfeld's testimony caused

World War I.

In 1914, Hirschfeld was swept up by the national enthusiasm for the "Burgfrieden" ("Peace within a castle under siege") as the sense of national solidarity was known where almost all Germans rallied to the Fatherland. Initially pro-war, Hirschfeld started to turn against the war in 1915, moving towards a pacifist position. In his 1915 pamphlet, "Warum Hassen uns die Völker?" ("Why do other nations hate us?"), Hirschfeld answered his own question by arguing that it was the greatness of Germany that excited envy from other nations, especially Great Britain, and so had supposedly caused them to come together to destroy the "Reich". Hirschfeld accused Britain of starting the war in 1914 "out of envy at the development and size of the German Empire". "Warum Hassen uns die Völker?" was characterized by a chauvinist and ultra-nationalist tone, together with a rather crass Anglophobia that has often embarrassed Hirschfeld's

Interwar period.

In 1920, Hirschfeld was very badly beaten up by a group of "völkisch" activists who attacked him on the street; he was initially declared dead when the police arrived. In 1921, Hirschfeld organised the First Congress for Sexual Reform, which led to the formation of the World League for Sexual Reform. Congresses were held in Copenhagen (1928), London (1929), Vienna (1930), and Brno (1932).  Hirschfeld was both

"Anders als die Andern".

Hirschfeld co-wrote and acted in the 1919 film "Anders als die Andern" ("Different From the Others"), in which Conrad Veidt played one of the first homosexual characters ever written for cinema. The film had a specific gay rights law reform agenda; after Veidt's character is blackmailed by a male prostitute, he eventually comes out rather than continuing to make the blackmail payments. His career is destroyed and he is driven to suicide.  Hirschfeld played himself in "Anders als die Andern", where the title cards has him say: "The persecution of homosexuals belongs to the same sad chapter of history in which the persecutions of witches and heretics is inscribed...Only with the French Revolution did a complete change come about. Everywhere where the Code Napoleon was introduced, the laws against homosexuals were repealed, for they were considered a violation of the rights of the individual...In Germany, however, despite more than fifty years of scientific research, legal discrimination against homosexuals continues unabated...May justice soon prevail over injustice in this area, science conquer superstition, love

"Institut für Sexualwissenschaft".

Under the more liberal atmosphere of the newly founded Weimar Republic, Hirschfeld purchased a villa not far from the Reichstag building in Berlin for his new "Institut für Sexualwissenschaft" (Institute of Sexual Research), which opened on 6 July 1919. In Germany, the "Reich" government made laws, but the "Länder" governments enforced the laws, meaning it was up to the "Länder" governments to enforce Paragraph 175. Until the November Revolution of 1918, Prussia had a three-class voting system that effectively disfranchised most ordinary people, and allowed the "Junkers" to dominate Prussia. After the November Revolution, universal suffrage came to Prussia, which become a stronghold of the Social Democrats. The SPD believed in repealing Paragraph 175, and the Social Democratic Prussian government headed by Otto Braun ordered the Prussian police not to enforce Paragraph 175, making Prussia into a haven for homosexuals all over Germany.  The Institute housed Hirschfeld's immense archives and library on sexuality and provided educational services and medical consultations; the clinical staff included psychiatrists Felix Abraham and Arthur Kronfeld, gynecologist Ludwig Levy-Lenz, dermatologist and endocrinologist Bernhard Schapiro, and dermatologist Friedrich Wertheim. The Institute also housed the Museum of Sex, an educational resource for the public, which is reported to have been visited by school classes. Hirschfeld himself lived at the Institution on the second floor with his lover, Karl Giese, together with his sister Recha Tobias (9 June 1857- 28 September 1942). Giese and Hirschfeld were a well known couple in

World Tour.

In March 1930, the Social Democratic chancellor Hermann Müller was overthrown by the intrigues of General Kurt von Schleicher. "Presidential" governments, responsible only to the President Paul von Hindenburg, pushed German politics in a more right-wing, authoritarian direction. In 1929, the Müller government had come very close to repealing Paragraph 175, when the "Reichstag" justice committee voted to repeal Paragraph 175. However, the Müller government fell before it could submit the repeal motion to the floor of the "Reichstag". Under the rule of Chancellor Heinrich Brüning and his successor, Franz von Papen, the state became increasingly hostile towards gay rights campaigners like Hirschfeld, who began to spend more time abroad. Quite apart from the increased homophobia, Hirschfeld also became involved in a bitter debate within the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, as the repeal bill, championed by Müller also made homosexual prostitution illegal, which badly divided the committee. Hirschfeld had always argued that "what is natural cannot be immoral" and, since homosexuality was, in his view natural, it should be legal. Connecting the question of the legality of homosexuality to the legality of prostitution was a blurring of the issue, since these were different matters. Brüning, a conservative Catholic on the right-wing of the "Zentrum" party, who replaced Müller in March 1930, was openly hostile towards gay rights and the fall of Müller ended the possibility of repealing Paragraph 175.

America and a "straight turn".

In 1930, Hirschfeld predicted that there would be no future for people like himself in Germany, and he would have to move abroad. In November 1930, Hirschfeld arrived in New York, ostensibly on a speaking tour about sex, but in fact to see if it was possible for him to settle in the United States. Significantly, in his speeches on this American tour, Hirschfeld, when speaking in German, called for the legalization of homosexuality, but when speaking in English did not mention the subject of homosexuality, instead urging Americans to be more open-minded about heterosexual sex. The "New York Times" described Hirschfeld as having come to America to "study the marriage question", while the

Asia.

After his American tour, Hirschfeld went to Asia in February 1931. Hirschfeld had been invited to Japan by Keizō Dohi, a German-educated, Japanese doctor who spoke fluent German and who worked at Hirschfeld's institute for a time in the 1920s. In Japan, Hirchfeld again tailored his speeches to local tastes, saying nothing about gay rights, and merely argued that a greater frankness about sexual matters would prevent venereal diseases. Hirschfeld sought out an old friend, a S.Iwaya, a Japanese doctor who lived in Berlin in 1900–02 and who joined the Scientific-Humanitarian committee during his time there. Iwaya took Hirschfeld to the "Meiji-za" to introduce him to the

Africa and the Middle East.

In Egypt, where Hirschfeld and Tao traveled to next, arriving in November 1931, Hirschfeld wrote "to the Arabs...homoerotic love practice is something natural and that Mohammad could not change this attitude". In Cairo, Hirschfeld and Tao met the Egyptian feminist leader Huda Sha'arawi-who stopped wearing the Muslim veil in 1923 and popularized going unveiled which, for Hirschfeld, illustrated how gender roles could change. In a rebuke to Western notions of superiority, Hirschfeld wrote "the average ethical and intellectual levels of the Egyptians was equal to that of the European nations". Hirschfeld's visit to the Palestine Mandate (modern

Later life and exile.

On 20 July 1932, the Chancellor Franz von Papen carried out a coup that deposed the Braun government in Prussia, and appointed himself the "Reich" commissioner for the state. A conservative Catholic who had long been a vocal critic of homosexuality, Papen ordered the Prussian police to start enforcing Paragraph 175 and to crack down in general on "sexual immorality" in Prussia. The Institut für Sexualwissenschaft remained open, but under Papen's rule, the police began to harass people who were associated with it.  On 30 January 1933, President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as chancellor. Less than four months after the Nazis took power, Hirschfeld's Institute was sacked. On the morning of 6 May, a group of university students who belonged to the National Socialist Student League stormed the institution, shouting ""Brenne Hirschfeld"!" ("Burn Hirschfeld!") and began to beat up its staff and smash up the premises. In the afternoon, the SA came to the institute, carrying out a more systematic attack, removing all volumes from the library and storing them for a book-burning event which was to be held four days later. In the evening, the Berlin police arrived at the institution and announced that it was closed forever.  By the time of the book burning, Hirschfeld had long since left Germany for a speaking tour that took him around the world; he never returned to Germany. In March 1932, he stopped briefly in Athens, spent several weeks in Vienna and then settled in Zurich, Switzerland, in August 1932. While he was there, he worked on a book which recounted his experiences and observations while he was on his world tour and it was published in 1933 as "Die Weltreise eines Sexualforschers" (Brugg, Switzerland: Bözberg-Verlag, 1933). It was published in an English translation in the United States under the title "Men and Women: The World Journey of a Sexologist" (New York City: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1935) and in England it was published under the title "Women East and West: Impressions of a Sex Expert" (London: William Heinemann Medical Books, 1935).  Hirschfeld stayed near Germany, hoping that he would be able to return to Berlin if the country's political situation improved. With the Nazi regime's unequivocal rise to power which coincided with the completion of his work on his tour book, he decided to go into exile in France. On his 65th birthday, 14 May 1933, Hirschfeld arrived in Paris, where he lived in

Death.

On his 67th birthday, 14 May 1935, Hirschfeld died of a heart attack in his apartment at the Gloria Mansions I building at 63 Promenade des Anglais in Nice. His body was cremated, and the ashes interred in a simple tomb in the Caucade Cemetery in Nice. The upright headstone in gray granite is inset with a bronze bas-relief portrait of Hirschfeld in profile by German sculptor and decorative artist Arnold Zadikow (1884–1943), who like Hirschfeld was a native of the town of Kolberg. The slab covering the tomb

Legacy.

American Henry Gerber, attached to the Allied Army of Occupation following World War I, became impressed by Hirschfeld and absorbed many of the doctor's ideas. Upon his return to the United States, Gerber was inspired to form the short-lived Chicago-based Society for Human Rights in 1924, the first known gay rights organization in the nation. In turn, a partner of one of the former members of the Society communicated the existence of the society to Los Angeles resident Harry Hay in 1929; Hay would go on to help establish the Mattachine Society in 1950, the first national homosexual rights organization to operate for many years in the United States. In 1979, the National LGBT Federation established the Hirschfeld Centre, Ireland's second gay and lesbian community centre. Although badly damaged by a 1987 fire, the centre continued to house the "Gay Community News" magazine until 1997.  In 1982, a group of German researchers and activists founded the Magnus Hirschfeld Society (Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft e.V.) in West Berlin, in anticipation of the approaching 50th anniversary of the destruction of Hirschfeld's

Portrayals in popular culture.

Magnus Hirschfeld has been portrayed in a number of works of popular culture both during his lifetime and subsequently. Following is a sampling of genres and titles:

Caricature.

Hirschfeld was a frequent target of caricatures in the popular press during his lifetime. Historian James Steakley reproduces several examples in his

Works.

Hirschfeld's works are listed in the following bibliography, which is extensive but not comprehensive:  The following have been translated into English:

Magnus Hirschfeld (14 May 1868 – 14 May 1935) was a German physician and sexologist educated primarily in Germany; he based his practice in Berlin-Charlottenburg during the Weimar period. An outspoken advocate for sexual minorities, Hirschfeld founded the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee. Historian Dustin Goltz characterized this group as having carried out "the first advocacy for homosexual and transgender rights". "Hirschfeld's radical ideas changed the way Germans thought about sexuality." Hirschfeld was targeted by Nazis for being Jewish and gay, he was beaten up by "völkisch" activists in 1920, and in 1933 his "Institut für Sexualwissenschaft" was sacked and had its books burned by Nazis, forcing him into exile.

Magnus Hirschfeld (14. května 1868 Kolberg – 14. května 1935 Nice) byl německý lékař a sexuolog židovského původu, vzdělaný též v humanitních oborech, zakladatel sexuologického ústavu v Berlíně. Napsal pětidílnou monografii o sexuologii a bývá jmenován mezi zakladateli a průkopníky tohoto oboru, ve své době byl přezdívaný „Einstein sexu“. Známý je zejména svými výzkumy homosexuality a propagací tolerance k ní, z toho titulu se stal významnou osobností raného homosexuálního hnutí i sexuálního reformismu vůbec. Je původcem mnoha pojmů, například transvestismus (1910), efebofilie, androfilie atd. V češtině dosud nevyšlo žádné z jeho děl. Filosofickým zaměřením byl biologistický monista.


History and activity.

Beginnings.

The activities of Occidental and its users can be seen through the magazine Cosmoglotta, which began publication in 1922 in Tallinn, Estonia under the name Kosmoglott. The language announced that year was a product of years of personal experimentation by de Wahl under the name Auli (auxiliary language), which he used during the period from 1906 to 1921 and which later on gained the nickname proto-Occidental. During the development of the language de Wahl explained his approach in a letter to an acquaintance

Vienna period, World War II and language standardization.

Besides the new location in a city much closer to the centre of Europe, the Vienna period was also marked by financial stability for the first time due to the support from a number of backers, particularly Hans Hörbiger, also from Vienna, and G.A. Moore from London, from which "Cosmoglotta was able to live without difficulty and gained a circle of readers despite the economic crisis". This did not last long as Hörbiger and Moore died at "nearly the same time" in 1931, and Cosmoglotta was again forced to rely on revenue from subscriptions, publications and the like.  The growing Occidental movement began a more assertive campaign for the language in the early 1930s, leveraging its at-sight readability by contacting organizations such as embassies, printing houses and the League of Nations using letters in Occidental that were often understood and responded to (in the organization's own working language), usually including the phrasing below: "Scrit in lingue international "Occidental"" ("Written in the international language Occidental")"." A large number of numbered "documents" were produced at this time as well

IALA, Interlingua, and name change to Interlingue.

The International Auxiliary Language Association, founded in 1924 to study and determine the best planned language for international communication, was at first viewed with suspicion by the Occidental community. The co-founder of the IALA Alice Vanderbilt Morris was an Esperantist, as were many of its staff members, and many Occidentalists including Edgar de Wahl himself believed that it had been set up to eventually recommend Esperanto over other planned languages under a neutral and scientific pretext using its staff of professional linguists to bolster a final recommendation. Relations soon improved, however, as it became clear that the IALA intended to be as impartial as possible by familiarizing itself with all existing planned languages. Ric Berger detailed one visit he made in 1935 to Morris (whose husband was the US ambassador in Brussels) that vastly improved his opinion of the organization: My personal opinion was not so pessimistic, for, finding myself in Brussels in 1935, I sought out Mrs. Morris and soon obtained an audience with her where my charming host invited me to speak in Occidental. She asked her husband,

Stagnation and revival.

While the migration of so many users to Interlingua had severely weakened the Interlingue movement, the remaining users of the language kept the language alive for a time. Besides Cosmoglotta, now publishing once every second month from 1952 and then once per quarter from 1963, bulletins in Interlingue continued to appear such as Interlingue-Postillon (1958, Germany), Novas de Oriente (1958, Japan), Amicitie european (1959, Switzerland), Teorie e practica (Switzerland-Czechoslovakia, 1967), and Novas in Interlingue (Czechoslovakia, 1971). Interlingue activity reached a low during the 1980s and early 1990s, when Cosmoglotta publication ceased for a number of years. According to Esperantist Don Harlow, "in 1985 Occidental's last periodical, Cosmoglotta, ceased

Language philosophy.

One of the earliest users of the language Esperanto, Edgar de Wahl encountered it for the first time in 1888 and remained a fervent supporter of the language for a number of years where he collaborated with Zamenhof on the design of the language and translated one of the first works into Esperanto: "Princidino Mary", published in 1889 originally under the name Princino Mary. He remained an Esperantist until 1894 when the vote to reform Esperanto failed, a vote in which de Wahl was one of just two that voted neither for Esperanto unchanged, nor for the reform proposed by Zamenhof, but for a completely new reform. Occidental would not be announced for a full 28 years after de Wahl had abandoned Esperanto, a period in which he spent working with other language creators (such as Rosenberger's Idiom Neutral) and trying to develop a system that combined both naturality and regularity. De Wahl's method for doing so was twofold: through de Wahl's Rule to reduce the number of irregularities in verbal derivation to a minimum, and a large number of affixes to do the same with word roots in addition to giving the resulting forms a natural appearance. The large number of suffixes can be seen through a glimpse of just those used to form nouns referring to a type of person: "-er-" ("molinero" - miller), "-or-" ("redactor" - editor), "-ari-" ("millionario" - millionaire), "-on-" ("spion", spy), "-ard" ("mentard", liar), "-astr-" ("poetastro", lousy poet), "-es" ("franceso", Frenchman), "-essa" ("reyessa", queen). In de Wahl's opinion it was always preferable to opt for a productive suffix than to be forced to coin new words from completely new radicals later on.  De Wahl published in 1922 a modification of Otto Jespersen's principle that "the best language is that which is easiest for the greatest number of people", stating that the international language should be easiest for the majority of those who need it (lit. "who must apply it"), or in other words those that need it in international relations. Along with this came a need for an international language to recognize already international vocabulary regardless of the number of people using it, particularly in specialized areas where for example the term Oenethera biennis (a type of plant) should be implemented and not modified beyond recognition even if the entire world population of botanists, those most often knowing and using the word, did not exceed 10,000. This also implied that words belonging to particular cultures should be imported without modifications, which De Wahl believed brought new ideas of value to European culture that had become "sick" after the First World War. He cited the terms "karma", "ko-tau" (kowtow), "geisha", and "mahdí" in 1924 as examples of those that should not be put in a "vocalic corset" through obligatory endings (e.g. "karmo, koŭtoŭo," "gejŝo, madho" in Esperanto")" when imported into the international language: "Such words, still not large in number, have seen a large increase in the past century, and in the future will grow in exorbitant proportion when, through international communication, the ideas of stable Oriental cultures will inundate and influence the sick Europe, which is now losing its equilibrium. And the more mutilated the words are, the more mutilated will be the ideas that they represent." In an article on the future development of language, de Wahl wrote in 1927 that due to European dominance in the sciences and other areas Occidental required a form and derivation recognizable to Europeans, but that it should also be fitted with a grammatical structure capable of taking on more analytical, non-derived forms in the future (such as the equivalents of "bake man" for "baker" or "wise way" for "wisdom") if worldwide linguistic trends began to show a preference for them.  On the subject of schematic regularity versus naturalism in an international language, De Wahl believed that there was a fine balance to be maintained between the two, where too much of the former may be convenient for the early learner but abhorrent for a speaker, and vice versa in the latter case: "Exceptions are not made to make study more difficult for foreigners, but to make speaking shorter and more fluid...It is clear that in this language as the most impersonal, abstract and businesslike one of all, regularity will be greater and more expanded than in all other national and tribal languages and idioms. But it will never be able to attain a total schematism...Also here the real solution will be a harmonization of the two contrary principles. It requires the sensitive penetration of the real necessity in the instinct of the international superpopulation."  While primarily Romanic in vocabulary, de Wahl opted for a large Germanic substrate which he felt more expressive for technical and material vocabulary (self, ost for east, svimmar for to swim, moss, etc.), with Romanic and Greek vocabulary more appropriate in the derivation of international words (femina for woman to form feminin, can for dog to form canin, etc.) as well as mental, corporal and natural conceptions.  Using internationally recognized prefixes and suffixes did not imply wholesale importing of international words. Just before the beginning of the Second World War de Wahl called criticisms of Occidental as a chaotic unfounded, stating that English and French users in particular had a tendency to see Occidental as a mix of the two: "(Occidental's chaotic appearance) is not the fault of Occidental itself, but rather that of its users and especially the French and English, or those that think that the international language should be a mixture of those two languages...that is a fundamental error, especially if these forms present exceptions and irregularities in Occidental's system." Alphonse Matejka wrote in Cosmoglotta that de Wahl "always claimed a minimum of autonomy for his language and bitterly fought against all propositions that intended to augment the naturality of the language only by blindly imitating the Romance languages, or as de Wahl said crudely in one of his letters to me, "by aping French or English"".  Occidental's erring on the side of regularity led to vocabulary that was still recognizable but different from the international norm, such as ínpossibil in place of impossibil (ín + poss + ibil), scientic (scientific, from scient-ie + -ic), and descrition (description, from descri-r + -tion). This is one of the greatest differences between it and Interlingua, which has a vocabulary taken from so-called 'prototypes' (the most recent common ancestor to its source languages) while Interlingue/Occidental focused on active, on the fly derivation. After the standardization of Occidental in 1947 and the name change to Interlingue in 1949 there was a push towards greater and greater naturalistic forms inspired by the IALA's soon-to-be-published Interlingua, particularly by Ric Berger who advocated replacing the optional -i adjectival ending with -e. After advocating for the change in April 1949 he began implementing it the following month in his own writing and most of the content in Cosmoglotta, in addition to other changes such as "nostre" (our) and "vostre" (your) instead of "nor" and "vor." The following April he defended the changes, denying that they were a "concession to the IALA" but instead a simple "concession to the general tendency towards greater naturality found today in the interlinguistic movement", calling critics of the changes victims of "long-lasting habits" and an "optical illusion". Whether these experimental changes would have taken root is not known, as Berger left his position as editor of Cosmoglotta soon after and eventually joined Interlingua, while Cosmoglotta returned to publishing in the 1947 standard that continues to this day.

Alphabet and pronunciation.

Interlingue is written with 26 Latin letters: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. The letters of the alphabet are pronounced as "a, be, ce, de, e, ef, ge, ha, i, jot, ka, el, em, en, o, pe, qu, er, es, te, u, ve, duplic ve, ix, ypsilon", and "zet".

Pronunciation.

The vowels "a, e, i, o", and "u" have a continental pronunciation and are all sounded. The "y" (initial and medial) are pronounced as in "yes", "ey" (final) as in "they", and "eu" as éh-oo.  The

Stress.

Words are generally stressed on the vowel before the final consonant: intercalar, parol, forme. Pluralizing a noun does not change the stress: paroles, formes. The endings -bil, -ic, -im, -ul and -um do not change the stress (even when more than one is present in a single word), nor does the adverbial ending -men: rapidmen, duplic, bonissim, singul, possibil, maximum, statisticas. Two vowels together are diphthongized and do not count as two syllables for the purpose of stress: familie, potentie, unless the word is a single consonant or consonant cluster followed by two vowels: die, deo. Compound words are stressed based on the last word in the compound: hodie, substrae.

Grammar.

Like English, Interlingue has a definite article and an indefinite article. The definite article (the) is "li", and the indefinite (a, an) is "un". Plural of a noun is made by adding "-s" after a vowel, or "-es" after most consonants. To avoid pronunciation and stress changes, words ending in -c, -g, and -m only add an -s: un libre, du libres, un angul, tri angules, li tric, li trics, li plug, li plugs, li album, pluri albums, li tram, du trams.

Personal pronouns.

Interlingue has two forms for the personal pronouns: one for the subject form (nominative), and one for the object form (accusative or dative). In short, the personal pronouns in the subject form are:  The variants "illa" and "ella" both exist for third person singular feminine. The pronoun expressing politeness is "vu", which behaves like second person plural. The indefinite personal pronoun "one" is "on" in Occidental. If necessary, one can specify the gender of third person plural by using "illos" (masculine) or e"llas" (feminine).  In the object form the pronouns are: me, te, le, la, it,

Correlatives.

While correlatives were not designed to match a pre-determined scheme, the majority of them do match the prefixes and suffixes shown in the chart below. Alcun (some) and necun (no, none) are

Verbs.

Verbs in Interlingue have three endings: -ar, -er, and -ir, and are invariable. Conjugation is carried out with a combination of endings and auxiliary verbs. The verb esser (to be) is written es in the present due to its high frequency.  Simple Verb Tenses Compound Verb Tenses The present participle is used to qualify nouns: un cat ama, un amant cat (a cat loves, a loving cat) and is often seen in adjectives such as fatigant (tiring, from fatigar, to tire). The gerund is used to indicate another action or state of being going on at the same time: scriente un missage, yo videt que...

Derivation.

The application of de Wahl's rule to verbs and the usage of numerous suffixes and prefixes was created to resolve irregularities that had plagued creators of language projects before Occidental, who were forced to make the choice between regularity and innatural forms, or irregularity and natural forms. The prevailing view was that natural forms needed to be sacrificed for the sake of regularity, while those that opted

Affixes.

The major prefixes and suffixes used in word derivation in Interlingue are added to either the present theme (infinitive minus -r), verbal root (infinitive minus two

Ease of learning.

As an international auxiliary language, ease of learning through regular derivation and recognizable vocabulary was a key principle in Occidental's creation. The magazine Cosmoglotta often featured letters from new users and former users of other international languages (primarily Esperanto and Ido) attesting to the language's simplicity: letters from new users to demonstrate their quick command of the language, and attestations from experienced auxiliary

Example texts.

Possible pronunciation:  Translation: "Material civilization, science, and even art unify themselves more and more. The educated European feels himself almost at home in all lands that have European civilization, that is, more and more, in the entire world. Today almost all states war with the same armaments. Without pause the modes of intercommunication improve, and in consequence from that the world seems to decrease. A Parisian is now closer to an Englishman or a German than he was a hundred years before to a French peasant."

Interlingue (; ISO 639 language codes "ie", "ile"), known until 1949 as Occidental (), is a planned international auxiliary language created by Edgar de Wahl, a Baltic German naval officer and teacher from Tallinn, Estonia, and published in 1922. The vocabulary is based on already existing words from various languages and a system of derivation using recognized prefixes and suffixes. The language is thereby naturalistic, at the same time as it is constructed to be regular. Occidental was quite popular in the years up to, during, and shortly after the Second World War, but declined thereafter.

Occidental, později interlingue, je umělý jazyk publikovaný v roce 1922 německým námořním důstojníkem a učitelem Edgarem de Wahlem. Interlingue je pečlivě navržen tak, aby mnoho z jeho odvozených slovních forem odráželo podobné formy mnoha západoevropských jazyků. To je možné aplikací De Wahlova pravidla skládajícího se s několika podpravidel umožňujících převádět infinitivy sloves na odvozená podstatná a přídavná jména. Výsledkem je pro jednotlivce seznámeného se západoevropskými jazyky na první pohled poměrně dobře srozumitelný jazyk. Společně s jednoduchou gramatikou pak tento fakt vedl k jeho značné popularitě v posledních 15 letech před druhou světovou válkou. Po volapüku, esperantu a idu šlo pravděpodobně o nejrozšířenější umělý jazyk.


Biography.

Kadenyuk was a Soviet military pilot. He began his service in the Soviet Air Forces and was selected in 1976 for the Soviet Cosmonaut Corps being on a team of test pilots of the Soviet new space shuttle Buran, but was removed after marital issues. He was allowed to rejoin the Cosmonaut Detachment several years later. With the break-up of the Soviet Union, Kadenyuk remained in the Russian Space Forces and adopted Ukrainian citizenship. In 1995, during the preparation of the first Ukrainian space mission, he volunteered to take part and returned to his homeland.  There were two main candidates for the mission, the other being Yaroslav Pustovyi, a civil Ukrainian scientist in space research. Kadeniuk was chosen as better-trained and accustomed to space mission organization.  After the flight, Leonid Kadeniuk continued his career in the State Space Agency of Ukraine.  In the 2002 parliamentary election, he was elected to the Verkhovna Rada in the list of pro-Kuchma United Ukraine Bloc. Later, Kadeniuk joined the "Trudova Ukrayina - Industrialists and Entrepreneurs" faction, but hadn't been politically active. He worked within parliament's Committee on Defense and National Security.  In the 2006 parliamentary election, Kadenyuk was #3 in the electoral party list of Lytvyn's People's Bloc, but the block won only 2.44% of the popular vote (short of the required 3%) and no seats in the parliament.  Kadenyuk died on 31 January 2018, three days after turning 67. He was interred in the central avenue of Kiev's Baikove Cemetery.

Awards and honors.

Asteroid 399673 Kadenyuk, discovered by astronomers at the Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory in 2004, was named in his honor. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 5 October 2017 ().  In September 2018 Chernivtsi International Airport was renamed after Kadeniuk.

Leonid Kostyantynovych Kadenyuk (, 28 January 1951 – 31 January 2018) was the first, and to this day remains the only, astronaut of independent Ukraine who flew into the space. He flew on NASA's Space Shuttle "Columbia" in 1997 as part of the international mission STS-87. Kadenyuk held the rank of Major General in the Ukrainian Air Force.

Leonid Kosťantynovyč Kadeňuk (; ; 28. ledna 1951, Kliškivci, Černovická oblast, Ukrajinská SSR – 31. ledna 2018 Kyjev) byl kosmonaut z Ukrajiny, 368. člověk ve vesmíru. Do kosmu se dostal roku 1997 na palubě amerického raketoplánu Columbia.


Scope.

Hyperbaric medicine includes hyperbaric oxygen treatment, which is the medical use of oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure to increase the availability of oxygen in the body; and therapeutic recompression, which involves increasing the ambient pressure on a person, usually a diver, to treat decompression sickness or an air embolism by eliminating bubbles that have formed within the body.  Research found evidence that HBOT improves local tumour control, mortality, and local tumour recurrence for cancers of the head and neck.

Medical uses.

In the United States the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society, known as UHMS, lists approvals for reimbursement for certain diagnoses in hospitals and clinics. The following indications are approved (for reimbursement) uses of hyperbaric oxygen therapy as defined by the UHMS Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy Committee:  Evidence is insufficient to support its use in autism, cancer, diabetes, HIV/AIDS, Alzheimer's disease, asthma, Bell's palsy, cerebral palsy, depression, heart disease, migraines, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, spinal cord injury, sports injuries, or stroke. A Cochrane review published in 2016 has raised questions about the ethical basis for future clinical trials of hyperbaric oxygen therapy, in view of the increased risk of damage to the eardrum in children with autism spectrum disorders. Despite the lack of evidence, in 2015, the number of people utilizing this therapy has continued to rise.

Hearing issues.

There is limited evidence that hyperbaric oxygen therapy improves hearing in patients with sudden sensorineural hearing loss who present within two weeks of hearing loss. There is some indication that HBOT might improve tinnitus presenting in the same time frame.

Chronic ulcers.

HBOT in diabetic foot ulcers increased the rate of early ulcer healing but does not appear to provide any benefit in wound healing at long-term follow-up. In particular, there was no difference in major amputation rate. For venous, arterial and pressure ulcers, no evidence was apparent that HBOT provides a long-term improvement over standard treatment.

Radiation injury.

There is some evidence that HBOT is effective for late radiation tissue injury of bone and soft tissues of the head and neck. Some people with radiation injuries of the head, neck or bowel show an improvement in quality of life. Importantly, no such effect has been found in neurological tissues. The use of HBOT may be justified to selected patients and tissues, but further research is required to establish the best people to treat and timing of any HBO therapy.

Neuro-rehabilitation.

As of 2012, there is insufficient evidence to support using hyperbaric oxygen therapy to treat people who have traumatic brain injuries. In stroke, HBOT does not show benefit. HBOT in multiple sclerosis has not shown benefit and routine use is not recommended.  A 2007 review of HBOT in cerebral palsy found no difference compared to the control group. Neuropsychological tests also showed no difference between HBOT and room air and based on caregiver report, those who received room air had significantly better mobility and social functioning. Children receiving HBOT were reported to experience seizures and the need for tympanostomy tubes to equalize ear pressure, though the incidence was not clear.

Cancer.

In alternative medicine, hyperbaric medicine has been promoted as a treatment for cancer. A 2012 review article in the journal, "Targeted Oncology," reports that "there is no evidence indicating that HBO neither acts as a stimulator of tumor growth nor as an enhancer of recurrence. On the other hand, there is evidence that implies that HBO might have tumor-inhibitory effects in certain cancer subtypes, and we thus strongly believe that we need to expand our knowledge on the effect and the mechanisms behind tumor oxygenation." However, a 2011 study by the American Cancer Society reported no evidence it is effective for this purpose.

Migraines.

Low-quality evidence suggests that hyperbaric oxygen therapy may reduce the pain associated with an acute migraine headache in some cases. It is not known which people would benefit from this treatment, and there is no evidence that hyperbaric medicine can prevent future migraines. More research is necessary to confirm the effectiveness of hyperbaric oxygen therapy for treating migraines.

Respiratory distress.

Patients who are having extreme difficulty breathing – acute respiratory distress syndrome – are commonly given oxygen and there have been limited trials of hyperbaric equipment in such cases. Examples include treatment of the Spanish flu and COVID-19.

Contraindications.

The toxicology of the treatment has been reviewed by Ustundag "et al." and its risk management is discussed by Christian R. Mortensen, in light of the fact that most hyperbaric facilities are managed by departments of anaesthesiology and some of their patients are critically ill.  The only absolute contraindication to hyperbaric oxygen therapy is untreated pneumothorax. The reason is concern that it can progress to tension pneumothorax, especially during the decompression phase of therapy, although treatment on oxygen-based tables may avoid that progression. The COPD patient with a large bleb represents a relative contraindication for similar reasons. Also, the treatment may raise the issue of Occupational health and safety (OHS), which has been encountered by the therapist.  The following are relative contraindications -- "meaning that special consideration must be made by specialist physicians before HBO treatments begin:"  Pregnancy is not a relative contraindication to hyperbaric oxygen treatments, although it may be for underwater diving. In cases where a pregnant woman has carbon monoxide poisoning there is evidence that lower pressure (2.0 ATA) HBOT treatments are not harmful to the fetus, and that the risk involved is outweighed by the greater risk of the untreated effects of CO on the fetus (neurologic abnormalities or death.) In pregnant patients, HBO therapy has been shown to be safe for the fetus when given at appropriate levels and “doses” (durations). In fact, pregnancy lowers the threshold for HBO treatment of carbon monoxide-exposed patients. This is due to the high affinity of fetal hemoglobin for CO.

Therapeutic principles.

The therapeutic consequences of HBOT and recompression result from multiple effects.  The increased overall pressure is of therapeutic value in the treatment of decompression sickness and air embolism as it provides a physical means of reducing the volume of inert gas bubbles within the body; Exposure to this increased pressure is maintained for a period long enough to ensure that most of the bubble gas is dissolved back into the tissues, removed by perfusion and eliminated in the lungs.  The improved concentration gradient for inert gas elimination (oxygen window) by using a high partial pressure of oxygen increases the rate of inert gas elimination in the treatment of decompression sickness.  For many other conditions, the therapeutic principle of HBOT lies in its ability to drastically increase partial pressure of oxygen in the tissues of the body. The oxygen partial pressures achievable using HBOT are much higher than those achievable while breathing pure oxygen under normobaric conditions (i.e. at normal atmospheric pressure). This effect is achieved by an increase in the oxygen transport capacity of the blood. At normal atmospheric pressure, oxygen transport is limited by the oxygen binding capacity of hemoglobin in red blood cells and very little oxygen is transported by blood plasma. Because the hemoglobin of the red blood cells is almost saturated with oxygen at atmospheric pressure, this route of transport cannot be exploited any further. Oxygen transport by plasma, however, is significantly increased using HBOT because of the higher solubility of oxygen as pressure increases.  A study suggests that exposure to hyperbaric oxygen (HBOT) might also mobilize stem/progenitor cells from the bone marrow by a nitric oxide-dependent mechanism.

Hyperbaric chambers.

Construction.

The traditional type of hyperbaric chamber used for therapeutic recompression and HBOT is a rigid shelled pressure vessel. Such chambers can be run at absolute pressures typically about, or more in special cases. Navies, professional diving organizations, hospitals, and dedicated recompression facilities typically operate these. They range in size from semi-portable, one-patient units to room-sized units that can treat eight or more patients. The larger units may be rated for lower pressures if they are not primarily intended for treatment of diving injuries.  A rigid chamber may consist of:  Flexible monoplace chambers are available ranging from collapsible flexible aramid fiber-reinforced chambers which can be disassembled for transport via truck or SUV, with a maximum working pressure of 2 bar above ambient complete with BIBS allowing full oxygen treatment schedules. to portable, air inflated "soft" chambers that can operate at between above atmospheric pressure with no supplemental oxygen, and longitudinal zipper closure.

Oxygen supply.

In the larger multiplace chambers, patients inside the chamber breathe from either "oxygen hoods" – flexible, transparent soft plastic hoods with a seal around the neck similar to a space suit helmet – or tightly fitting oxygen masks, which supply pure oxygen and may be designed to directly exhaust the exhaled gas from the chamber. During treatment patients breathe 100% oxygen most of the time to maximise the effectiveness of their treatment, but have periodic "air breaks" during which they breathe chamber air (21% oxygen) to reduce the risk of oxygen toxicity. The exhaled treatment gas must be removed from the chamber to prevent the buildup of oxygen, which could present a fire risk. Attendants may also breathe oxygen some of the time to reduce their risk of decompression sickness when they leave the chamber. The pressure inside the chamber is increased by opening valves allowing high-pressure air to enter from storage cylinders, which are filled by an air compressor. Chamber air oxygen content is kept between 19% and 23% to control fire risk (US Navy maximum 25%). If the chamber does not have a scrubber system to remove carbon dioxide from the chamber gas, the chamber must be isobarically ventilated to keep the CO within acceptable limits.  A soft chamber may be pressurised directly from a compressor. or from storage cylinders.  Smaller "monoplace" chambers can only accommodate the patient, and no medical staff can enter. The chamber may be pressurised with pure oxygen or compressed air. If pure oxygen is used, no oxygen breathing mask or helmet is needed, but the cost of using pure oxygen is much higher than that of using compressed air. If compressed air is used, then an oxygen mask or hood is needed as in a multiplace chamber. Most monoplace chambers can be fitted with a demand breathing system for air breaks. In low pressure soft chambers, treatment schedules may not require air breaks, because the risk of oxygen toxicity is low due to the lower oxygen partial pressures used (usually 1.3 ATA), and short duration of treatment.  For alert, cooperative patients, air breaks provided by mask are more effective than changing the chamber gas because they provide a quicker gas change and a more reliable gas composition both during the break and treatment periods.

Treatments.

Initially, HBOT was developed as a treatment for diving disorders involving bubbles of gas in the tissues, such as decompression sickness and gas embolism, It is still considered the definitive treatment for these conditions. The chamber treats decompression sickness and gas embolism by increasing pressure, reducing the size of the gas bubbles and improving the transport of blood to downstream tissues. After elimination of bubbles, the pressure is gradually reduced back to atmospheric levels. Hyperbaric chambers are also used for animals, especially race horses where a recovery is worth a great deal to their owners. It is also used to treat dogs and cats in pre- and post-surgery treatment to strengthen their systems prior to surgery and then accelerate healing post surgery.

Protocol.

Emergency HBOT for decompression illness follows treatment schedules laid out in treatment tables. Most cases employ a recompression to absolute, the equivalent of of water, for 4.5 to 5.5 hours with the casualty breathing pure oxygen, but taking air breaks every 20 minutes to reduce oxygen toxicity. For extremely serious cases resulting from very deep dives, the treatment may require a chamber capable of a maximum pressure of, the equivalent of of water, and the ability to supply heliox as a breathing gas.  U.S. Navy treatment charts are used in Canada and the United States to determine the duration, pressure, and breathing gas of the therapy. The most frequently used tables are Table 5 and Table 6. In the UK the Royal Navy 62 and 67 tables are used.  The Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS) publishes a report that compiles the latest research findings and contains information regarding the recommended duration and pressure of the longer-term conditions.

Home and out-patient clinic treatment.

There are several sizes of portable chambers, which are used for home treatment. These are usually referred to as "mild personal hyperbaric chambers", which is a reference to the lower pressure (compared to hard chambers) of soft-sided chambers.  In the US, these "mild personal hyperbaric chambers" are categorized by the FDA as CLASS II medical devices and requires a prescription in order to purchase one or take treatments. The most common option (but not approved by FDA) some patients choose is to acquire an oxygen concentrator which typically delivers 85–96% oxygen as the breathing gas.  Oxygen is never fed directly into soft chambers but is rather introduced via a line and mask directly to the patient. FDA approved oxygen concentrators for human consumption in confined areas used for HBOT are regularly monitored for purity (+/- 1%) and flow (10 to 15 liters per minute outflow pressure). An audible alarm will sound if the purity ever drops below 80%. Personal hyperbaric chambers use 120 volt or 220 volt outlets.

Possible complications and concerns.

There are risks associated with HBOT, similar to some diving disorders. Pressure changes can cause a "squeeze" or barotrauma in the tissues surrounding trapped air inside the body, such as the lungs, behind the eardrum, inside paranasal sinuses, or trapped underneath dental fillings. Breathing high-pressure oxygen may cause oxygen toxicity. Temporarily blurred vision can be caused by swelling of the lens, which usually resolves in two to four weeks.  There are reports that cataract may progress following HBOT.

Effects of pressure.

Patients inside the chamber may notice discomfort inside their ears as a pressure difference develops between their middle ear and the chamber atmosphere. This can be relieved by ear clearing using the Valsalva maneuver or other techniques. Continued increase of pressure without equalising may cause ear drums to rupture, resulting in severe pain. As the pressure in the chamber increases further, the air may become warm.  To reduce the pressure, a valve is opened to allow air out of the chamber. As the pressure falls, the patient's ears may "squeak" as the pressure inside the ear equalizes with the chamber. The temperature in the chamber will fall. The speed of pressurization and de-pressurization can be adjusted to each patient's needs.

Costs.

HBOT is recognized by Medicare in the United States as a reimbursable treatment for 14 UHMS "approved" conditions. A 1-hour HBOT session may cost between $300 and higher in private clinics, and over $2,000 in hospitals. U.S. physicians (either M.D., D.O., D.D.S., D.M.D., D.C., N.D.) may lawfully prescribe HBOT for "off-label" conditions such as stroke, and migraine. Such patients are treated in outpatient clinics. In the United Kingdom most chambers are financed by the National Health Service, although some, such as those run by Multiple Sclerosis Therapy Centres, are non-profit. In Australia, HBOT is not covered by Medicare as a treatment for multiple sclerosis. China and Russia treat more than 80 maladies, conditions and trauma with HBOT.

Research.

The University of Birmingham's 2012 guidance to West Midlands primary care trusts and clinical commissioning groups concluded "The primary research studies investigating the efficacy of HBOT are remarkable for the consistent poor quality of the published clinical trials as well as the lack of evidence demonstrating significant health benefits. There is a lack of adequate clinical evidence to support the view that HBOT therapy is efficacious for any of the indications for which it is being used".  Aspects under research include radiation-induced hemorrhagic cystitis; and inflammatory bowel disease.

Neurological.

Tentative evidence shows a possible benefit in cerebrovascular diseases. The clinical experience and results so far published has promoted the use of HBOT therapy in patients with cerebrovascular injury and focal cerebrovascular injuries. However, the power of clinical research is limited because of the shortage of randomized controlled trials.

Radiation wounds.

A 2010 review of studies of HBOT applied to wounds from radiation therapy reported that, while most studies suggest a beneficial effect, more experimental and clinical research is needed to validate its clinical use.

History.

Hyperbaric air.

Junod built a chamber in France in 1834 to treat pulmonary conditions at pressures between 2 and 4 atmospheres absolute.  During the following century “pneumatic centres” were established in Europe and the USA which used hyperbaric air to treat a variety of conditions.  Orval J Cunningham, a professor of anaesthesia at the University of Kansas in the early 1900s observed that people suffering from circulatory disorders did better at sea level than at altitude and this formed the basis for his use of hyperbaric air. In 1918 he successfully treated patients suffering from the Spanish flu with hyperbaric air. In 1930 the American Medical Association forced him to stop hyperbaric treatment, since he did not provide acceptable evidence that the treatments were effective.

Hyperbaric oxygen.

The English scientist Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen in 1775. Shortly after its discovery, there were reports of toxic effects of hyperbaric oxygen on the central nervous system and lungs, which delayed therapeutic applications until 1937, when Behnke and Shaw first used it in the treatment of decompression sickness.  In 1955 and 1956 Churchill-Davidson, in the UK, used hyperbaric oxygen to enhance the radiosensitivity of tumours, while, at the University of Amsterdam, successfully used it in cardiac surgery.  In 1961 et al. published on the use of hyperbaric oxygen in the treatment of clostridial gas gangrene.  In 1962 Smith and Sharp reported successful treatment of carbon monoxide poisoning with hyperbaric oxygen.  The Undersea Medical Society (now Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society) formed a Committee on Hyperbaric Oxygenation which has become recognized as the authority on indications for hyperbaric oxygen treatment.

Hyperbaric medicine is medical treatment in which an ambient pressure greater than sea level atmospheric pressure is a necessary component. The treatment comprises hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT), the medical use of oxygen at an ambient pressure higher than atmospheric pressure, and therapeutic recompression for decompression illness, intended to reduce the injurious effects of systemic gas bubbles by physically reducing their size and providing improved conditions for elimination of bubbles and excess dissolved gas.

Hyperbarická oxygenoterapie (: "hyperbaric oxygen therapy, HBOT"), jinak též hyperbarická kyslíková terapie či hyperbaroxie (HBO) je léčebná metoda vedoucí ke zvýšenému okysličení krve, která se rozvíjí někdy od poloviny 60. let 20. století.


Specifications.

Landsat 5 had a maximum transmission bandwidth of 85 Mbit/s. It was deployed at an altitude of, and it took about 16 days to scan the entire Earth. The satellite was an identical copy of Landsat 4 and was originally intended as a backup. Therefore, Landsat 5 carried the same instruments, including the Thematic Mapper and Multi-Spectral Scanner. The Multi-Spectral Scanner was powered down in 1995, but reactivated again in 2012.

Mission history.

Landsat 5 was launched by NASA from Vandenberg Air Force Base on March 1, 1984.  Landsat 5 recorded many significant events. It was the first satellite to capture the nuclear accident at Chernobyl in 1986. Landsat 5 also documented deforestation occurring in tropical regions, and captured the devastating 2004 tsunami in southeast Asia.  On November 26, 2005, the back-up solar array drive on Landsat 5 began exhibiting unusual behavior. The solar array drive maintains the proper pointing angle between the solar array and the Sun. The rotation of the solar array drive became sporadic, and the solar array was not able to provide the power needed to charge the batteries. Maintaining power to the batteries is critical to sustain proper operation of the spacecraft. The primary solar array drive failed under similar circumstances in January 2006. As a result of this situation, imaging operations were suspended. After a month-long investigation in December 2005 and testing in January 2006, new operating procedures were developed that would allow Landsat 5 to continue normal operations.  On December 18, 2009, the transmitter on Landsat 5 experienced technical difficulties. Data downlink was restored on January 7, 2010 after a test successfully managed to retrieve a picture over North America. This test exercised the only remaining Traveling Wave Tube Amplifier (TWTA). The remaining TWTA is in fact the primary TWTA that was in operation when Landsat 5 launched in 1984. After several issues in late 1986 and 1987, the primary TWTA was turned off and the secondary redundant TWTA was used. The USGS Flight Operations Team applied lessons learned while operating the redundant TWTA to the primary TWTA for its first successful transmission in over 22 years.  On November 18, 2011, image acquisitions were suspended for a period of 90 days, due to fluctuations in the performance of a critical amplifier in the satellite's transmission system. USGS indicated the satellite was nearing the end of its life, after more than 27 years in space.

Longevity.

Landsat 5 significantly exceeded its designed life expectancy, lasting several decades beyond its original three-year mission. Contributing to Landsat 5's longevity was the presence of extra fuel for possible future retrieval by the Space Shuttle. If the need arose, Landsat 5 could use the extra fuel to move into a lower orbit. Instead, the extra fuel was used to maintain its existing orbit as long as practicable.  On February 10, 2013, NASA announced that the Guinness World Records had awarded Landsat 5 the world record for "longest-operating Earth observation satellite" at 28 years, 10 months and counting.

End of mission.

In mid-2012, with the satellite suffering multiple mechanical failures, the USGS Landsat team began planning a complex series of steps to ensure that the satellite's decommissioning would meet the requirements set under international agreements. When planning began, a date for decommissioning had not yet been set. However, in November 2012, one of Landsat 5's redundant gyroscopes failed, leaving only two operational. If one more failed, the satellite would be left derelict in its valued orbital band. Considering these circumstances, USGS announced on December 21, 2012 that Landsat 5 would be permanently decommissioned as soon as practicable.  Landsat 5 transmitted its last image on January 6, 2013. Nine days later, USGS Mission Operations began the process of maneuvering the satellite from its operational orbit into a lower disposal orbit. On June 5, 2013, with Landsat 5's fuel reserve completely depleted, the USGS Flight Operations Team issued commands to shut off all moving mechanisms and hobble the spacecraft's ability to generate and store power from its solar arrays. The final command shut down Landsat 5's transmitter, silencing the mission permanently and effectively terminating the mission 29 years, 3 months and 4 days after its launch.  At the time of Landsat 5's decommissioning, Landsat 7 (launched in 1999) and Landsat 8 (launched in 2013) remained in orbit. Landsat 8 came online only a few weeks prior to Landsat 5's decommissioning.

Landsat 5 was a low Earth orbit satellite launched on March 1, 1984 to collect imagery of the surface of Earth. A continuation of the Landsat Program, Landsat 5 was jointly managed by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Data from Landsat 5 was collected and distributed from the USGS's Center for Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS).

Landsat 5 je pátý vypuštěný satelit Země z programu Landsat agentury NASA v roce 1984, byl určen obdobně jako předchozí Landsaty k podrobnému snímkování naší planety.


Life.

Early years.

He was born in in Lower Austria, the son of a schoolmaster named Martin Pleyl. He was the 24th of 38 children in the family. While still young, he probably studied with Johann Baptist Vanhal, and from 1772 he became the pupil of Joseph Haydn in Eisenstadt. As with Beethoven, born 13 years later, Pleyel benefited in his study from the sponsorship of aristocracy, in this case Count Ladislaus Erdődy (1746–1786). Pleyel evidently had a close relationship with Haydn, who considered him to be a superb student.  Among Pleyel's apprentice work from this time was a puppet opera "Die Fee Urgele", (1776) performed in the marionette theater at the palace of Eszterháza and in Vienna. Pleyel apparently also wrote at least part of the overture of Haydn's opera "Das abgebrannte Haus", from about the same time.  Pleyel's first professional position may have been as Kapellmeister for Count Erdődy, although this is not known for certain. Among his early publications was a set of six string quartets, his Opus 1.  In the early 1780s, Pleyel visited Italy, where he composed an opera ("Ifigenia in Aulide") and works commissioned by the king of Naples, Ferdinand I.

Strasbourg 1783–1795.

Attracted to the benefits associated with an organist position, Pleyel moved to Strasbourg, France in 1783 to work alongside Franz Xaver Richter, the maître de chapelle at the Strasbourg Cathedral. The cathedral was extremely appealing to Pleyel as it possessed a full orchestra, a choir, and a large budget devoted to performances. After establishing himself in France, Pleyel voluntarily called himself by the French version of his name, Ignace. While he was the assistant "maître de chapelle" at Strasbourg Cathedral, he wrote more works than during any other period in his musical career (1783–1793). At the cathedral, he would organize concerts that featured his symphonies concertantes and liturgical music. After Richter's death in 1789, Pleyel assumed the function of full "maître de chapelle". In 1788 Pleyel married Françoise-Gabrielle Lefebvre, the daughter of a Strasbourg carpet weaver. The couple had four children, the eldest being their son Camille. Maria Pleyel, née Moke (1811–1875), the wife of Camille, was one of the most accomplished pianists of her time.  In 1791, the French Revolution abolished musical performances in church as well as public concerts. Seeking alternative employment, Pleyel traveled to London, where he led the "Professional Concerts" organized by Wilhelm Cramer. In this capacity Pleyel inadvertently played the role of his teacher's rival, as Haydn was at the same time leading the concert series organized by Johann Peter Salomon. Although the two composers were rivals professionally, they remained on good terms personally.  Just like Haydn, Pleyel made a fortune from his London visit. On his return to Strasbourg, he bought a large house, the moated Château d'Ittenwiller, about 35 km south, between nearby Saint-Pierre and Eichhoffen in the Bas-Rhin department.  With the onset of the Reign of Terror in 1793 and 1794, life in France became dangerous for many, not excluding Pleyel. He was brought before the Committee of Public Safety a total of seven times due to the following: his foreign status, his recent purchase of a château, and his ties with the Strasbourg Cathedral. He was subsequently labeled a Royalist collaborator. The outcome of the committee's attentions could easily have been imprisonment or even execution. With prudent opportunism, Pleyel preserved his future by writing compositions in honor of the new republic. All were written in Strasbourg at times surrounding the Terror. Below are the pieces composed with dates of publication and details:  Most of these compositions debuted at the Strasbourg Cathedral, which was known at the time as the "Temple de l'Être Suprême" (Temple of the Supreme Being), as churches were outlawed during the Terror. Pleyel became a naturalized French citizen and thus came to be known as Citoyen (citizen) Pleyel. With his involvement in artistic propaganda and loyalism to the new regime, Pleyel can be seen as the ultimate musical champion of Strasbourg republicanism.  In addition to composing the above works for the Strasbourg public, Pleyel also contributed to the Parisian music scene during the Revolution. One example is "Le Jugement de Pâris", a pantomime-ballet by Citoyen (Citizen) Gardel and performed with Pleyel's music (along with that of Haydn, and Étienne Méhul) on 5 March 1793.

Pleyel as businessman.

Pleyel moved to Paris in 1795. In 1797 he set up a business as a music publisher ("Maison Pleyel"), which among other works produced a complete edition of Haydn's string quartets (1801), as well as the first miniature scores for study (the "Bibliothèque Musicale", "musical library"). The publishing business lasted for 39 years and published about 4,000 works during this time, including compositions by Adolphe Adam, Luigi Boccherini, Ludwig van Beethoven, Muzio Clementi, Johann Baptist Cramer, Johann Ladislaus Dussek, Johann Nepomuk Hummel and Georges Onslow.  Pleyel visited Vienna on business in 1805, meeting his now elderly mentor Haydn for a final time and hearing Beethoven play.  In 1807, Pleyel became a manufacturer of pianos; for more on the Pleyel piano firm, see Pleyel et Cie.

Old age.

Pleyel retired in 1824 and moved to the countryside about 50 km outside Paris. He died in 1831, apparently quite aware that his own musical style had been fully displaced by the new Romanticism in music. He was buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris.

Pleyel's music.

Pleyel was prolific, composing at-least 42 symphonies, 70 string quartets and several operas. Many of these works date from the Strasbourg period; Pleyel's production tailed off after he had become a businessman.  Recent scholarship has suggested that the theme for the "Variations on a Theme by Haydn", by Johannes Brahms, Op. 56a, was probably composed not by Haydn but by Ignaz Pleyel.  Pleyel also wrote music for masonic rituals.

Reputation and assessment.

Pleyel is one instance of the phenomenon of a composer (others include Cherubini, Meyerbeer, and Thalberg) who was very famous in his own time but currently obscure. Keefe (2005) describes a "craze for his music c. 1780–1800", and quotes a number of contemporary witnesses to this surge. For instance François-Joseph Fétis wrote, "What composer ever created more of a craze than Pleyel? Who enjoyed a more universal reputation or a more absolute domination of the field of instrumental music? Over more than twenty years, there was no amateur or professional musician who did not delight in his genius."  Pleyel's fame even reached the then-remote musical regions of America: there was a Pleyel Society on the island of Nantucket off the coast of Massachusetts, and tunes by Pleyel made their way into the then-popular shape note tunebooks. Pleyel's work is twice represented in the principal modern descendant of these books, "The Sacred Harp".  In his own time, Pleyel's reputation rested at least in part on the undemanding character of his music. A reviewer writing in the "Morning Herald" of London (1791) said that Pleyel "is becoming even more popular than his master [Haydn], as his works are characterized less by the intricacies of science than the charm of simplicity and feeling." In the mid 20th century, the harpsichord builder Wolfgang Zuckermann reminisced about playing Pleyel in his childhood in the 1930s: "When I was ten years old, my family string quartet played a lot of Pleyel since it was the only thing easy enough to keep us going. My cello part consisted of unending stretches of quarter notes played on open strings." Pleyel continues to be known today as a composer of didactic music: generations of beginning violin and flute students, for example, learn to play the numerous duets he wrote for those instruments.

Pleyel pianos.

The piano firm "Pleyel et Cie" was founded by Ignace Pleyel and continued by Pleyel's son Camille (1788–1855), a piano virtuoso who became his father's business partner as of 1815. The firm provided pianos used by Frédéric Chopin, and also ran a concert hall, the Salle Pleyel, in which Chopin performed his first—and also his last—Paris concerts.

Ignace Joseph Pleyel (; ; 18 June 1757 – 14 November 1831) was an Austrian-born French composer and piano builder of the Classical period.

Ignaz Joseph Pleyel (18. června 1757 Ruppersthal Dolní Rakousy – 14. listopadu 1831 Paříž) byl francouzský skladatel, dirigent a nástrojař rakouského původu, žák J. Haydna.