Theory.

The corpses of dead plants or animals, material derived from animal tissues, e. g. molted skin, and fecal matter gradually lose their form due to physical processes and the action of decomposers, including grazers, bacteria, and fungi. Decomposition, the process by which organic matter is decomposed, occurs in several phases. Micro- and macro-organisms that feed on it rapidly consume and absorb materials such as proteins, lipids, and sugars that are low in molecular weight, while other compounds such as complex carbohydrates are decomposed slower. The decomposing microorganisms degrade the organic materials so as to gain the resources they require for their survival and reproduction. Accordingly, simultaneous to microorganisms' decomposition of the materials of dead plants and animals is their assimilation of decomposed compounds to construct more of their biomass, i. e., to grow their own bodies. When microorganisms die, fine organic particles are produced, and if small animals that feed on microorganisms eat these particles they collect inside the intestines of the consumers, and change shape into large pellets of dung. As a result of this process, most of the materials of dead organisms disappear and are not visible and recognizable in any form, but are present in the form of a combination of fine organic particles and the organisms that used them as nutrients. This combination is detritus.  In ecosystems on land, detritus is deposited on the surface of the ground, taking forms such as the humic soil beneath a layer of fallen leaves. In aquatic ecosystems, most detritus is suspended in water, and gradually settles. In particular, many different types of material are collected together by currents, and much material settles in slowly flowing areas.  Much detritus is used as a source of nutrition for animals. In particular, many bottom feeding animals (benthos) living in mud flats feed in this way. In particular, since excreta are materials which other animals do not need, whatever energy value they might have, they are often unbalanced as a source of nutrients, and are not suitable as a source of nutrition on their own. However, there are many microorganisms which multiply in natural environments. These microorganisms do not simply absorb nutrients from these particles, but also shape their own bodies so that they can take the resources they lack from the area around them, and this allows them to make use of excreta as a source of nutrients. In practical terms, the most important constituents of detritus are complex carbohydrates, which are persistent (difficult to break down), and the microorganisms which multiply using these absorb carbon from the detritus, and materials such as nitrogen and phosphorus from the water in their environment to synthesise the components of their own cells.  A characteristic type of food chain called the detritus cycle takes place involving detritus feeders (detritivores), detritus and the microorganisms that multiply on it. For example, mud flats are inhabited by many univalves which are detritus feeders. When these detritus feeders take in detritus with microorganisms multiplying on it, they mainly break down and absorb the microorganisms, which are rich in proteins, and excrete the detritus, which is mostly complex carbohydrates, having hardly broken it down at all. At first this dung is a poor source of nutrition, and so univalves pay no attention to it, but after several days, microorganisms begin to multiply on it again, its nutritional balance improves, and so they eat it again. Through this process of eating the detritus many times over and harvesting the microorganisms from it, the detritus thins out, becomes fractured and becomes easier for the microorganisms to use, and so the complex carbohydrates are also steadily broken down and disappear over time.  What is left behind by the detritivores is then further broken down and recycled by decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi.  This detritus cycle plays a large part in the so-called purification process, whereby organic materials carried in by rivers is broken down and disappears, and an extremely important part in the breeding and growth of marine resources. In ecosystems on land, far more essential material is broken down as dead material passing through the detritus chain than is broken down by being eaten by animals in a living state. In both land and aquatic ecosystems, the role played by detritus is too large to ignore.

Aquatic ecosystems.

In contrast to land ecosystems, dead materials and excreta in aquatic ecosystems are typically transported by water flow; finer particles tend to be transported farther or suspended longer. In freshwater bodies organic material from plants can form a silt known as "mulm" or humus on the bottom. This material, some called "undissolved organic carbon" breaks down into dissolved organic carbon and can bond to heavy metal ions via chelation. It can also break down into colored dissolved organic matter such as tannin, a specific form of tannic acid. In saltwater bodies, organic material breaks down and forms a marine snow that slowly settles down to the ocean bottom.

Terrestrial ecosystems.

Detritus occurs in a variety of terrestrial habitats including forest, chaparral and grassland. In forests the detritus is typically dominated by leaf, twig, and bacteria litter as measured by biomass dominance. This plant litter provides important cover for seedling protection as well as cover for a variety of arthropods, reptiles and amphibians. Some insect larvae feed on the detritus. Fungi and bacteria continue the decomposition process after grazers have consumed larger elements of the organic materials, and animal trampling has assisted in mechanically breaking down organic matter. At the later stages of decomposition, mesophilic micro-organisms decompose residual detritus, generating heat from exothermic processes; such heat generation is associated with the well known phenomenon of the elevated temperature of composting.

Consumers.

There is an extremely large number of detritus feeders in water. After all, a large quantity of material is carried in by water currents. Even if an organism stays in a fixed position, as long as it has a system for filtering water, it will be able to obtain enough food to get by. Many rooted organisms survive in this way, using developed gills or tentacles to filter the water to take in food, a process known as filter feeding.  Another more widely used method of feeding, which also incorporates filter feeding, is a system where an organism secretes mucus to catch the detritus in lumps, and then carries these to its mouth using an area of cilia. This is called mucus feeding.  Many organisms, including sea slugs and serpent's starfish, scoop up the detritus which has settled on the water bed. Bivalves which live inside the water bed do not simply suck in water through their tubes, but also extend them to fish for detritus on the surface of the bed.

Producers.

In contrast, from the point of view of organisms using photosynthesis such as plants and plankton, detritus reduces the transparency of the water and gets in the way of this process. Given that these organisms also require a supply of nutrient salts—in other words fertilizer—for photosynthesis, their relationship with detritus is a complex one.  In land ecosystems, the waste products of plants and animals collect mainly on the ground (or on the surfaces of trees), and as decomposition proceeds, plants are supplied with fertiliser in the form of inorganic salts. In water ecosystems, relatively little waste collects on the water bed, and so the progress of decomposition in water takes a more important role. Investigating the level of inorganic salts in sea ecosystems shows that unless there is an especially large supply, the quantity increases from winter to spring—but is normally extremely low in summer. As such, the quantity of seaweed present reaches a peak in early summer and then decreases. The thinking is that organisms like plants grow quickly in warm periods and thus the quantity of inorganic salts is not enough to keep up with the demand. In other words, during winter, plant-like organisms are inactive and collect fertiliser, but if the temperature rises to some extent they will use this up in a very short period.  It is not entirely true that their productivity falls during the warmest periods. Organisms such as dinoflagellate have mobility, the ability to take in solid food, and the ability to photosynthesise. This type of micro-organism can take in substances such as detritus to grow, without waiting for it to be broken down into fertiliser.

Aquariums.

In recent years, the word detritus has also come to be used in relation to aquariums (the word "aquarium" is a general term for any installation for keeping aquatic animals).  When animals such as fish are kept in an aquarium, substances such as excreta, mucus and dead skin cast off during moulting are produced by the animals and, naturally, generate detritus, and are continually broken down by micro-organisms.  Modern sealife aquariums often use the Berlin Method, which employs a piece of equipment called a protein skimmer, which produces air bubbles which the detritus adheres to, and forces it outside the tank before it decomposes, and also a highly porous type of natural rock called live rock where many bentos and bacteria live (hermatype which has been dead for some time is often used), which causes the detritus-feeding bentos and micro-organisms to undergo a detritus cycle. The Monaco system, where an anaerobic layer is created in the tank, to denitrify the organic compounds in the tank, and also the other nitrogen compounds, so that the decomposition process continues until the stage where water, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are produced, has also been implemented.  Initially, the filtration systems in water tanks often worked as the name suggests, using a physical filter to remove foreign substances in the water. Following this, the standard method for maintaining the water quality was to convert ammonium or nitrates in excreta, which have a high degree of neurotoxicity, but the combination of detritus feeders, detritus and micro-organisms has now brought aquarium technology to a still higher level.

In biology, detritus () is dead particulate organic material, as distinguished from dissolved organic material. Detritus typically includes the bodies or fragments of bodies of dead organisms, and fecal material. Detritus typically hosts communities of microorganisms that colonize and decompose, i. e., remineralize, it. In terrestrial ecosystems it is present as leaf litter and other organic matter that is intermixed with soil, which is denominated "soil organic matter". The detritus of aquatic ecosystems is organic material that is suspended in the water and accumulates in depositions on the floor of the body of water; when this floor is a seabed, such a deposition is denominated "marine snow".

Jako detrit je v biologii, ekologii či pedologii označována jakákoli forma neživé organické hmoty, včetně různých rostlinných tkání (například spadané listy, odumřelé kořeny, mrtvé dřevo, pyl, nektar, vodní makrofyty a řasy, rostlinné kleje), živočišné tkáně (mršiny), odumřelé mikroorganismy, fekálie (exkrementy a exudáty), organické části půdy a extracelulární matrix.


History.

Dr. Hiroaki Ota, a Japanese psychiatrist working at the Sainte-Anne Hospital Center in France, coined the term in the 1980s and published a book of the same name in 1991. Katada Tamami of Nissei Hospital wrote of a manic-depressive Japanese patient suffering from Paris syndrome in 1998.  In 2004, Dr. Ota and coauthors wrote in a French psychiatric journal that France was the only European country to offer specialized care to Japanese citizens in their own language, as an agreement between the Japanese Embassy and Dr. Ota's department in the Sainte-Anne Hospital. In the article, they state that, between 1988 and 2004, only 63 Japanese patients were hospitalized and referred to Dr. Ota. 50% were between 20 and 30 years old. Of the 63 patients, 48 were diagnosed with schizophrenic or other psychotic disorders  Later work by Youcef Mahmoudia, a physician with the hospital Hôtel-Dieu de Paris, indicates that Paris syndrome is "psychopathology related to travel, rather than a syndrome of the traveler." He theorized that the excitement resulting from visiting Paris causes the heart to accelerate, causing giddiness and shortness of breath, which results in hallucinations in the manner similar to (although spurring from opposite causes) the Stendhal syndrome described by Italian psychiatrist Graziella Magherini in her book "La sindrome di Stendhal".  Although the BBC reported in 2006 that the Japanese embassy in Paris had a "24-hour hotline for those suffering from severe culture shock", the Japanese embassy states no such hotline exists. Also in 2006, Miyupi Kusama, of the Japanese embassy in Paris, told "The Guardian" "There are around 20 cases a year of the syndrome and it has been happening for several years" and that the embassy had repatriated at least four Japanese citizens that year. However, in 2011, the embassy stated that, despite media reports to the contrary, it did not repatriate Japanese nationals suffering from Paris syndrome.

Susceptibility.

Of the estimated 1.1 million annual Japanese tourists in Paris, the number of reported cases is small. The journal also identified two types of the affliction: Those who have previous history of psychiatric problems and those without morbid history who exhibit the delayed-expression type. In an interview with Slate.fr, Dr. Youcef Mahmoudia, a psychiatrist at the Hôtel-Dieu in Paris, stated that of the fifty pathological travelers hospitalized each year, only 3-5% are Japanese.  The French newspaper "Libération" wrote on article on the syndrome in 2004. In the article, Mario Renoux, the president of the Franco-Japanese Medical Association, states that media and touristic advertising are primarily responsible for creating this syndrome. Renoux indicates that while magazines often depict Paris as a place where most people on the street look like models and most women dress in high fashion brands, in reality neither van Gogh nor models are on the street corners of Paris. In this view, the disorder is caused by positive representations of the city in popular culture, which leads to immense disappointment as the reality of experiencing the city is very different from expectations: tourists are confronted with an overcrowded and littered city (especially if compared to Japanese metropolis) and a less than welcoming attitude by French hospitality workers like shopkeepers, restaurant and hotel personnel without considering the higher safety risks to which tourists used to safer cities are suddenly exposed.  In 2014, "Bloomberg Pursuits" reported the syndrome also affected a few of the million annual Chinese tourists in Paris. Jean-Francois Zhou, president of the association of Chinese travel agencies in France (Association Chinoise des Agences de Voyages en France), said "Chinese people romanticize France, they know about French literature and French love stories [...]. But some of them end up in tears, swearing they’ll never come back." The article cited a 2012 survey from the Paris Tourism Office, in which safety and cleanliness received low scores, and also noted that the Paris Police Prefecture website was made available in Chinese, in addition to English and French. However, Michel Lejoyeux, head of psychiatry at Bichat–Claude Bernard Hospital in Paris, noted in an interview that "Traveler’s syndrome is an old story", and pointed to Stendhal syndrome.

Paris syndrome (,, "pari shōkōgun") is a sense of disappointment exhibited by some individuals when visiting or going on vacation to Paris, who feel that Paris is not as beautiful as they had expected it to be. The syndrome is characterized by a number of psychiatric symptoms such as acute delusional states, hallucinations, feelings of persecution (perceptions of being a victim of prejudice, aggression, or hostility from others), derealization, depersonalization, anxiety, and also psychosomatic manifestations such as dizziness, tachycardia, sweating, and others, such as vomiting. Similar syndromes include Jerusalem syndrome and Stendhal syndrome. The condition is commonly viewed as a severe form of culture shock. It is particularly noted among Japanese travellers. It is not listed as a recognised condition in the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders".

Pařížský syndrom je přechodná psychická porucha, postihující některé osoby, které navštíví Paříž, obecněji Francii nebo Španělsko. Je v podstatě obdobný Jeruzalémskému a Stendhalovu syndromu. Zvláště náchylní jsou k syndromu návštěvníci z Japonska. Tato skutečnost byla poprvé publikována ve francouzském psychiatrickém časopise "Nervure" v roce 2004. Z odhadovaných 8,8 miliónů zahraničních návštěvníků, kteří za rok (2009) navštíví Paříž, je významný počet hlášených případů na japonském velvyslanectví ve Francii, kdy je tímto syndromem ročně postiženo asi dvacet japonských turistů. Citlivost Japonců může být spojena s popularitou Paříže v japonské kultuře, především převládající idealizovaný obraz Paříže v médiích, který neodpovídá realitě. Nicméně určité zklamání a frustraci zažívají během návštěvy i turisté z jiných zemí.


Champ de Mars – Tour Eiffel (stanice RER v Paříži)

Railway station.

A junction station, it is located west of the 7th arrondissement of Paris, on the left bank of the Seine. Located at an altitude of 30.8m, it is located at Kilometric point (PK) 1,970 of the Ligne des Invalides à Versailles-Rive-Gauche. It is also the origin, at the bifurcation of Boulainvilliers, PK 2,460, the Ligne d'Ermont - Eaubonne à Champ-de-Mars.

The 1867 station.

The first station was built for the Exposition Universelle (1867). This station was a terminus and the line ran from the Petite-Ceinture to the Champ de Mars. The station was demolished shortly after the Exposition.

The 1878 station.

A new station was built for the Exposition Universelle (1878). The building was designed and built by Juste Lisch. It had four dead-end tracks as well as four additional parking tracks. This enabled a greater functionality than the previous station.  The station was composed of a central metallic rooftop, filled with red bricks. Two side buildings (called pagodas) encompassed the passenger concourse which were themselves hidden behind canopies which extended onto the platforms. A buffet was built to the south of the station along the Avenue de Suffren.  Champ de Mars remained open after the World's Fair and regained popularity for the 1889 World's Fair. The Eiffel Tower was built next to the station.  In mid 1894, all passenger services ended to permit the demolition of all of the level crossings. A bridge over the river Seine to link the dead-end line to the Ligne d'Auteuil was built soon afterwards which meant that the station building had to be demolished. It was moved in 1897 and used as the station building for Bois-Colombes. The building is now listed.

The 1900 station.

For the Exposition Universelle (1900) the station was yet again reopened. The line was extended to Les Invalides and moved to the side of the river Seine. The CF de l'Ouest created a new through station which was situated below the Eiffel Tower as well as the newly built Celestial Globe.  As well as a passenger station, the CF de l'Ouest also built a goods station; this was situated between the Avenue de Suffren and the Boulevard de Grenelle. At the end of the World's Fair all services were transferred to Les Invalides.

The 1900 goods station.

Between 1900 and 1937, the goods station was a busy coal terminal. 1910 was the scene of spectacular flooding which gave many photographers the opportunity to take curious photos of the site under water.  In 1937, the goods yard was transferred to Vaugirard and the site became an EMU shed. The depot closed in 1971.

The 1988 station.

In 1988, the RER C, a new suburban railway line opened. Champs de Mars became a stop on the line serving the Eiffel Tower and the connection stop for trains from Pontoise and Versailles.  The station is currently covered, situated below the Quai Branly but many features from the original station remain such as the platform walls.  The current station has two side platforms serving 2 out of 3 tracks.

Champ de Mars – Tour Eiffel (or simply Champ de Mars) is a station on RER C in Paris. The site has accommodated a total of five stations, the last of which remains in service for the Paris RER.

Champ de Mars – Tour Eiffel je podzemní nádraží příměstské železnice RER v Paříži, které se nachází na hranicích 7. a 15. obvodu na nábřeží "Quai Branly". Slouží pro linku RER C. Historie stanice je spojena s pořádáním světových výstav v letech 1867, 1878, 1889 a 1900. V roce 2000 činil počet denních pasažérů 7 500–15 000 a vlaků 250–500.


History.

The idea of timestamping information is centuries old. For example, when Robert Hooke discovered Hooke's law in 1660, he did not want to publish it yet, but wanted to be able to claim priority. So he published the anagram "ceiiinosssttuv" and later published the translation "ut tensio sic vis" (Latin for "as is the extension, so is the force"). Similarly, Galileo first published his discovery of the phases of Venus in the anagram form.  Sir Isaac Newton, in responding to questions from Leibniz in a letter in 1677, concealed the details of his "fluxional technique" with an anagram:  Trusted digital timestamping has first been discussed in literature by Haber and Stornetta.

Classification.

There are many timestamping schemes with different security goals:  Coverage in standards: For systematic classification and evaluation of timestamping schemes see works by Masashi Une.

Trusted (digital) timestamping.

According to the <nowiki>RFC 3161</nowiki> standard, a trusted timestamp is a timestamp issued by a Trusted Third Party (TTP) acting as a Time Stamping Authority (TSA). It is used to prove the existence of certain data before a certain point (e.g. contracts, research data, medical records,...) without the possibility that the owner can backdate the timestamps. Multiple TSAs can be used to increase reliability and reduce vulnerability.  The newer ANSI ASC X9.95 Standard for trusted timestamps augments the <nowiki>RFC 3161</nowiki> standard with data-level security requirements to ensure data integrity against a reliable time source that is provable to any third party. This standard has been applied to authenticating digitally signed data for regulatory compliance, financial transactions, and legal evidence.

Creating a timestamp.

The technique is based on digital signatures and hash functions. First a hash is calculated from the data. A hash is a sort of digital fingerprint of the original data: a string of bits that is practically impossible to duplicate with any other set of data. If the original data is changed then this will result in a completely different hash. This hash is sent to the TSA. The TSA concatenates a timestamp to the hash and calculates the hash of this concatenation. This hash is in turn digitally signed with the private key of the TSA. This signed hash + the timestamp is sent back to the requester of the timestamp who stores these with the original data (see diagram).  Since the original data cannot be calculated from the hash (because the hash function is a one way function), the TSA never gets to see the original data, which allows the use of this method for confidential data.

Checking the timestamp.

Anyone trusting the timestamper can then verify that the document was "not" created "after" the date that the timestamper vouches. It can also no longer be repudiated that the requester of the timestamp was in possession of the original data at the time given by the timestamp. To prove this (see diagram) the hash of the original data is calculated, the timestamp given by the TSA is appended to it and the hash of the result of this concatenation is calculated, call this hash A.  Then the digital signature of the TSA needs to be validated. This can be done by checking that the signed hash provided by the TSA was indeed signed with their private key by digital signature verification. The hash A is compared with the hash B inside the signed TSA message to confirm they are equal, proving that the timestamp and message is unaltered and was issued by the TSA. If not, then either the timestamp was altered or the timestamp was not issued by the TSA.

Decentralized timestamping on the blockchain.

With the advent of cryptocurrencies like bitcoin, it has become possible to get some level of secure timestamp accuracy in a decentralized and tamper-proof manner. Digital data can be hashed and the hash can be incorporated into a transaction stored in the blockchain, which serves as evidence of the time at which that data existed. For proof of work blockchains, the security derives from the tremendous amount of computational effort performed after the hash was submitted to the blockchain. Tampering with the timestamp would require more computational resources than the rest of the network combined, and cannot be done unnoticed in an actively defended blockchain.  However, the design and implementation of Bitcoin in particular makes its timestamps vulnerable to some degree of manipulation, allowing timestamps up to two hours in the future, and accepting new blocks with timestamps earlier than the previous block.  The decentralized timestamping approach using the blockchain has also found applications in other areas, such as in dashboard cameras, to secure the integrity of video files at the time of their recording, or to prove priority for creative content and ideas shared on social media platforms.

Trusted timestamping is the process of securely keeping track of the creation and modification time of a document. Security here means that no one—not even the owner of the document—should be able to change it once it has been recorded provided that the timestamper's integrity is never compromised.

Časové razítko je služba poskytovaná certifikační autoritou, která umožňuje prokázat čas vytvoření dokumentu. Časové razítko je vhodné použít u elektronických dokumentů, kde je nutné prokázat čas jejich vzniku, jako jsou například účetní doklady.


Biography.

Branko Radičević was born in Slavonski Brod on 15 March 1824. Aleksije was his baptismal name before he changed it to Branko, a more common Serbian name. He finished high school in Sremski Karlovci, the setting of his best poems. He studied in Vienna. In 1847 Radičević's first book of poetry appeared, announcing a new era in Serbian poetry. He went to Serbia but soon returned to Vienna to study medicine, where he was surrounded by Serb intellectuals, either living in the city or passing through, including his lifelong friend Bogoboj Atanacković, Vuk Karadžić, Đuro Daničić, Milica Stojadinović-Srpkinja, Petar II Petrović-Njegoš, and others. Radičević's second collection of poetry was a bit weaker than the first. He wrote after this, but never recovered his early raptures, except among the very latest of all his poems, the enchanting welcome to death, in this twenty-ninth year, entitled "Kad mlidijah umreti" (As I Thought of Dying).  Radičević gave expression to simple emotion such as joy on a sunny morning or in a fishing boat, pleasure derived from flowers, the exuberance of school youth, patriotic fervor, and love's joys and sorrows. His youthful zeal is also expressed in unabashed eroticism and in the exultation of wine, women and song, according to critic Jovan Skerlić, perhaps the best authority on Branko Radičević. More importantly, he was the first to write poetry in the simple language of the common folk. He attempted to recreate rhythm of the folk song, thus supporting the belief of Vuk Karadžić that even poetry can be written in the language of peasants and shepherds." Radičević proved to be very important to Vuk Karadžić's victory because he gathered his generation of young writers and poets around the cause of language reform. His work was described as "the first dew of Serbian poetry in the folk language of Vuk Karadžić."  Skerlić writes in his "History of New Serbian Literature" that Branko Radičević had a significant influence on Jovan Jovanović Zmaj, Bogoboj Atanacković, Kosta Ruvarac, Jovan Grčić Milenko, and other Serbian poets and writers of the period.  He died of tuberculosis in Vienna 1853 and in 1883 his remains were buried in Stražilovo. Radičević's early death was a great loss to Serbian letters; for he was by far the most promising of the younger lyric poets of his time.

Poetry.

"Đački rastanak" (The Parting of Schoolfriends) is the best and most popular of his works. Nothing is lovelier in this remarkable poem than those passages in which he pictures the life of college students. For a time he gives himself up to the fleeting impressions of the moment. He greets the gently rolling hills and coolness of the forest and delights in the view of the Danube valley below with its widening rivers and vistas. In "Put" (A Journey), a magnanimous allegory, Branko has shown unusual skill in satirical nomenclature by stigmatizing Vuk Stefanović Karadžić's adversaries who disapproved the reforms of language and orthography. His lyrics display extreme tenderness, beauty, originality and delicacy of fancy. Some of his shorter pieces are adapted to national melodies and are sung by young people all over the country. His poetry may be small in bulk and slight in body, but it endures, and will endure, in Serbian literature, because it is the embodiment of the spirit of immortal youth. It has been said that Branko is the poet of spring, and those who have not read him before the meridian of their lives may abandon all hope of penetrating him when the snows of time are on their heads.  Radičević left some unfinished work. He left at least one text meriting close attention in any inquiry into Slavic Romantic irony, the ambitious unfinished poem of 1477 lines, composed in 1849, and featuring two titles: "Ludi Branko" (Branko the Fool) and "Bezimena" (Unnamed). Seventy-four years later, literary critics Pavle Popović and his brother Bogdan Popović found that in this poetic fragment "there is no poetry whatsoever" and that it "merits no compliment of any kind." Comparisons with European phenomena lead Serbian intellectuals and publicists such as Tihomir Ostojić, Ilija M. Petrović, Božidar Kovačević and Vladeta Vuković to reduce it to an imitation or at best thorough influence of Byron. Only after the centenary of Radičević's death, began the re-evaluation of "Bezimena" in essays by Salko Nezečić, Ljubiša Rajković and others. Milan Dedinac and Miodrag Popović, in his 1969 treatise, which is the first true scholarly study of the fragment since Ostojić's monograph of 1918, both move "Bezimena" away from Byron and Romanticism and toward Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin" and Vissarion Belinsky's essay of 1843 about Pushkin and Realism.

Language.

Between 1845 and 1852, at the very climax of the personal activity of Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, several poets were born, who were destined to enrich the Serbian language with its first group of lyrical blossoms. Of these eldest, Peter II Petrovich Njegoš and Branko Radičević, were men of extraordinary gifts, and destined to fascinate the attention of posterity, not only by the brilliance of their work, but by the suffering and brevity of their lives. Njegoš was not only the greatest Serbian poet of the 19th century, but he had few rivals in Europe, if not the world. Radičević, meanwhile, excited great hopes in his contemporaries, but left less that is immortal behind him.  Branko Radičević, therefore, was more important to Vuk's victory in the battle for language reform, but it was Njegoš whose use of the popular language was the most profound.

Legacy.

He is included in The 100 most prominent Serbs. He influenced future generations of Serbian poets, including Đura Jakšić, Jovan Milenko Grčić and Miloš Crnjanski.

Aleksije "Branko" Radičević (, ; 28 March 1824 – 1 July 1853) was an influential Serbian poet and the founder of modern Serbian lyric poetry.

Branko Radičević (v srbské cyrilici Бранко Радичевић;, Slavonski Brod – 1. července 1853, Vídeň) byl srbský romantický básník. Zapsal se významně do dějin srbské literatury, především jako představitel generace, která bez výhrad přijala Vukův pravopis. Je proto považován za pokračovatele jeho tradice; autora, který bez výhrad přijímá lidový jazyk a v lidovém jazyce se svobodně vyjadřuje. S Karadžićem se také i ve Vídni setkal - nejprve tam studoval právo, později lékařství, ale ani jedno z toho nedokončil.


History.

Multics originated the idea of a search path. The early Unix shell only looked for program names in codice_1, but by Version 3 Unix the directory was too large and codice_2, and a search path, became part of the operating system.

Unix and Unix-like.

On POSIX and Unix-like operating systems, the codice_3 variable is specified as a list of one or more directory names separated by colon (codice_4) characters.. Directories in the codice_5-string are not meant to be escaped, making it impossible to have directories with codice_4 in their name.  The codice_1, codice_2, and codice_9 directories are typically included in most users' codice_3 setting (although this varies from implementation to implementation). The superuser also typically has codice_11 and codice_12 entries for easily executing system administration commands. The current directory (codice_13) is sometimes included by users as well, allowing programs residing in the current working directory to be executed directly. System administrators as a rule do "not" include it in codice_3 in order to prevent the accidental execution of scripts residing in the current directory, such as may be placed there by a malicious tarbomb. In that case, executing such a program requires specifying an absolute (codice_15) or relative path (codice_16) on the command line.  When a command name is specified by the user or an exec call is made from a program, the system searches through codice_3, examining each directory from left to right in the list, looking for a filename that matches the command name. Once found, the program is executed as a child process of the command shell or program that issued the command.

DOS, OS/2, and Windows.

On DOS, OS/2, and Windows operating systems, the codice_18 variable is specified as a list of one or more directory names separated by semicolon (codice_19) characters.  The Windows system directory (typically codice_20) is typically the first directory in the path, followed by many (but not all) of the directories for installed software packages. Many programs do not appear in the path as they are not designed to be executed from a command window, but rather from a Graphical User Interface. Some programs may add their directory to the front of the PATH variable's content during installation, to speed up the search process and/or override OS commands. In the DOS era, it was customary to add a PATH {program directory};%PATH% or SET PATH={program directory};%PATH% line to AUTOEXEC.BAT.  When a command is entered in a command shell or a system call is made by a program to execute a program, the system first searches the current working directory and then searches the path, examining each directory from left to right, looking for an executable filename that matches the command name given. Executable programs have filename extensions of codice_21 or codice_22, and batch scripts have extensions of codice_23 or codice_24. Other executable filename extensions can be registered with the system as well.  Once a matching executable file is found, the system spawns a new process which runs it.  The PATH variable makes it easy to run commonly used programs located in their own folders. If used unwisely, however, the value of the PATH variable can slow down the operating system by searching too many locations, or invalid locations.  Invalid locations can also "stop" services from running altogether, especially the 'Server' service which is usually a dependency for other services within a Windows Server environment.

PATH is an environment variable on Unix-like operating systems, DOS, OS/2, and Microsoft Windows, specifying a set of directories where executable programs are located. In general, each executing process or user session has its own PATH setting.

PATH je v informatice název proměnné, která v některých operačních systémech obsahuje seznam adresářů, ve kterých jsou umístěny spustitelné soubory. Proměnnou PATH nalezneme v unixových systémech, DOSu, OS/2 i v Microsoft Windows. Uživatel může v příkazovém řádku jednoduše zadat název spustitelného souboru bez specifikace cesty k danému příkazu a interpret příkazů (shell) se ho pokusí najít ve všech adresářích, které jsou obsaženy v proměnné PATH. Teprve když v nich není nalezen, zahlásí uživateli chybu (obvykle ve smyslu „Příkaz nenalezen“, a podobně).


History.

La Villette ("a world apart") was a warehouse district and industrial section of northeastern Paris, stretching within a plain formed between the Goutte d'Or and the Buttes-Chaumont, and built around the Canal de l'Ourcq and the Canal Saint-Denis. As part of Haussmann's renovation of Paris, Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann proposed concentrating all the abattoirs and meat markets on the city's outskirts at La Villette.  Designed by Jules de Mérindol and Louis-Adolphe Janvier (1818–1878), construction of the Grande Halle took place during the period of 1865–1867. While the La Villette complex opened in the 1860s with a total of three market halls, only the Grande Halle aux Boeufs, preserved for its architectural value, survives. La Villette took on a nickname "la Cité du Sang" ("city of blood") by butchers, or "La Villetouse" in slang.  In 1970, the City of Paris ceded Villette's land and its management to the national government, and four years later, Villette's slaughterhouses ceased operations. In 1979, l'Etablissement Public du Parc de la Villette (EPPV) was created to restore and manage Villette's 55 hectare site; and the slaughterhouse/market became a Monument historique. François Mitterrand's 1982 announcement of "Les Grands Projets"' included Parc de la Villette, and in that year, Bernard Reichen and Philippe Robert were selected for the Grande Halle's restoration. After renovation completion, Mitterrand opened the restored Grande Halle in January 1985. In 1993, by government decree No. 93-96, the EPPV was renamed "L’Etablissement public du Parc et de la grande halle de la Villette" ("The Public Establishment of the Park and the Great Hall de la Villette"; EPPGHV). Another Grande Halle renovation occurred in 2005–2007. The production designer Guy-Claude François collaborated with architects in the conception of the hall's performance stage.

Architecture and fittings.

The Grande Halle is made of cast iron and glass. It covers an area of, and measures by. Three sides are open while the fourth, made of glass, is the entrance to the hall. Speakers are hung from hooks on the overhead canopy and not easily visible to the public in order to separate the listener from the building's technical elements; however, there is a slight reverberation because of the glass roof. The hall's far end is described as the central axis of the building's main visual field. Plans for an organic restaurant by architects Gilles & Boissier include using an adjacent garden as a source for menu requirements; Café de la Villette is in size.

The Grande halle de la Villette (originally: Grande Halle aux Boeufs; translation: "Great Hall of Cattle"), formerly a slaughterhouse and now a cultural center, is located in Paris, France. It is situated on Place de la Fontaine aux Lions within the Parc de la Villette, in the 19th arrondissement. While the Grande Halle is within Paris' main "abattoir" district, the historical building now serves as a venue for trade fairs, exhibitions, music festivals, and open-air cinema.

Grande halle de la Villette (česky "Velká hala v La Villette") je budova bývalých jatek postavená v letech 1865-1867 ve čtvrti La Villette v Paříži. Dnes se nachází v 19. obvodu v parku La Villette a od roku 1979 je chráněná jako historická památka.


Life.

He was born at Thonon-les-Bains, the son of Louis, Duke of Savoy, and Anne de Lusignan, daughter of Janus of Cyprus, King of Cyprus. In 1452, his mother arranged a political marriage to Yolande of Valois (1434–1478), sister of Louis XI of France and daughter of Charles VII of France. Because of his epilepsy and retirement, she was left in control of the state.  France and the Holy Roman Empire competed to gain control of Savoy's strategically important Alpine's mountain passes and trade routes. His sister, Charlotte of Savoy, became the second wife of Louis XI of France. French influence increased in Savoy and involved the country in the wars between France and the emperors. The Castle of Moncalleri in Piedmont, Italy was initially built around 1100 as a fortress on a hill, to command the main southern access to Turin. In the mid-15th century Yolande turned it into a Renaissance Royal Palace.  Amadeus was a particular protector of Franciscan friars and endowed other religious houses as well as homes for the care of the poor and suffering. He made a pilgrimage to Saint-Claude in 1471. Amadeus died in 1472.  He was also an avid collector of manuscripts, adding over sixty items to the ducal library started by his great-grandfather Amadeus VIII.

Family.

Amadeus IX had 10 children with Yolande of Valois:  His daughter, Louise, became a nun of the Franciscan Second Order after being widowed at a young age. She was also beatified.

Beatification.

A painting of Amadeus, made in 1474 was housed in the Dominican church in Turin and acquired a miraculous reputation. In 1612 a brief text was published in the same city, by Girolamo Cordieri, canon of the cathedral chapter of Mondovi, extolling the holy Amadeus. Cordieri was later appointed theologian to Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy. Also that year, a canon from Vercelli published a compendium of miracles attributed to the intercession of Amadeus IX. The cultus of Amadeus was actively promoted by Charles Emanuel's son, Prince Maurice of Savoy, Cardinal of Vercelli.  In 1613, an "Historia del Beato Amedeo terzo duca di Savoia" was composed by Fr. Pietro-Francisco Malletta. Six years later, the Duke of Savoy issued nine-florin coins depicting Amadeus IX on one side. These appear to have been used as religious medals, particularly in the Chablais, where they were distributed by Francis de Sales.  Michel Merle suggests that the revival of the cult of Amadeus IX was part of a decades long effort on the part of the House of Savoy to enhance its political status. Presented as a holy prince known for his charity and concern for the poor, Amadeus IX was beatified on 3 March 1677 by Pope Innocent XI.

Amadeus IX (1 February 1435 – 30 March 1472), nicknamed the Happy, was the Duke of Savoy from 1465 to 1472. The Catholic Church venerates him with a liturgical feast on March 30.

Amadeus IX. Savojský, (, ; 1435 Thonon-les-Bains – 30. března 1472 Vercelli) byl savojský vévoda, kníže z Piemontu, hrabě z Aosty a z Maurienne. Roku 1677 byl papežem blahoslaven.


Synopsis.

A fetish created by the Arumbaya tribe of South America is stolen from Brussels' Museum of Ethnography, only to be returned the following day. Tintin realizes that the replacement is a fake, and draws a connection with a local sculptor, Jacob Balthazar, who has just been murdered. Balthazar's parrot – the only witness to the murder – is obtained by two Hispanic men, Alonso and Ramón, who try to kill Tintin when he begins to investigate their connection to the crime. From the parrot, Alonso and Ramón discover Balthazar's murderer is Rodrigo Tortilla, and they proceed to follow him aboard a ship bound for South America. There, they murder Tortilla, but find that he didn't have the original fetish. Tintin, however, follows them, and arranges their arrest when the ship docks at Los Dopicas, capital of San Theodoros. Nevertheless, the corrupt colonel in charge of the arrest allows the antagonists to slip away, and detains Tintin.  In the city, Tintin is framed as a terrorist, arrested, and sentenced to death by firing squad. Tintin survives when a revolution topples the government, and the new leader, General Alcazar, appoints Tintin to be his aide-de-camp. Alonso and Ramón capture Tintin, and interrogate him in the hope of locating the missing fetish, but they only end up briefly put behind bars by him. As aide-de-camp, Tintin opposes the proposed decision of San Theodoros claiming the supposedly oil rich Gran Chapo, as this would cause a war between San Theodoros and neighboring Nuevo Rico, and he is framed as a traitor by warmongering oil and weapon companies. Nevertheless, Tintin's new friend Pablo frees him from imprisonment, allowing for Tintin to flee to Nuevo Rico. However, in the process, he inadvertently causes events that, partially as its government considered claiming Gran Chapo for its oil as well, have Nuevo Rico start a war between it and San Theodoros. Once within Nuevo Rico, Tintin decides to enter the forest and find the Arumbaya tribe, hoping they can explain to him why people wish to steal the fetish. Finding a British explorer, Ridgewell, living among the Arumbaya, Tintin learns that a diamond was hidden inside the statue.  As the war between San Theodoros and Nuevo Rico ends when Gran Chapo is discovered to have no oil, Tintin returns to Belgium after a brief encounter with Alonso and Ramón. There, Tintin discovers Balthazar's brother has been producing a range of exact replicas of the fetish, which he had discovered among his deceased brother's belongings. Tintin learns it was purchased from him by Samuel Goldbarr, a wealthy American now returning to the United States with it by ship. Catching up to the boat, Tintin finds Alonso and Ramón aboard. His struggle with them for the possession of the fetish results in it smashing on the floor, upon which the diamond hidden in it rolls overboard into the sea. Alonso and Ramón try to kill Tintin for making them lose it, and the three of them accidentally fall overboard as well. Tintin is rescued, but Alonso and Ramón drown. Goldbarr allows Tintin to return the stolen fetish to the museum, where it is repaired and put back on display, albeit comically damaged.

History.

Background and research.

Georges Remi—best known under the pen name Hergé—was employed as editor and illustrator of (""The Little Twentieth""), a children's supplement to (""The Twentieth Century""), a staunchly Roman Catholic, conservative Belgian newspaper based in Hergé's native Brussels which was run by the "Abbé" Norbert Wallez. In 1929, Hergé began "The Adventures of Tintin" comic strip for, revolving around the exploits of fictional Belgian reporter Tintin. Wallez ordered Hergé to set his first adventure in the Soviet Union as anti-socialist propaganda for children ("Tintin in the Land of the Soviets"), to set his second adventure in the Belgian Congo to encourage colonial sentiment ("Tintin in the Congo"), and to set his third adventure in the United States to use the story as a denunciation of American capitalism ("Tintin in America"). Wallez was subsequently removed from the paper's editorship following a scandal, although Hergé was convinced to stay on the condition of a salary increase. In preparing "The Broken Ear", Hergé developed the new habit of keeping plot notes and ideas in a notebook. He also began making cuttings of photographs and other images from magazines and newspapers, filing them away for future use; he used them as a basis for many of the drawings in "The Broken Ear".  Hergé used "The Broken Ear" to allude to real events that had recently taken place in South America. The fictional countries of San Theodoros and Nuevo Rico were based on the real countries Bolivia and Paraguay, while the Gran Chapo War depicted in the strip was an allusion to the Chaco War (1932–35) that was waged between Bolivian and Paraguayan forces over lucrative oil fields in the Gran Chaco region. The name "Gran Chapo" was a pun on the French "grand chapeau", meaning "big hat", while the name Nuevo Rico was a pun on "nouveau riche" and the name of the Nuevo Rican capital city, Sanfación, was a pun on "sans façon", meaning "without manners". Hergé's character Basil Bazarov, of the Vicking Arms Company Ltd (Basil Mazaroff in the 1937 edition), was a thinly veiled allusion to the real-life Greek weapons seller Basil Zaharoff of Vickers Armstrong, who profited from the conflict by supplying arms to both Paraguay and Bolivia. Hergé had learned about the conflict and the western corporations profiting from it through two issues of anti-conformist Belgian magazine "La Crapouillot" ("The Mortar Shell"), which covered news stories ignored by the mainstream media. It is also likely that he had read Richard Lewinsohn's 1930 book "Zaharoff, l'Européen mystérieux" ("Zaharoff, the Mysterious European"), which had been referenced in "La Crapouillot".  Hergé's Arumbaya fetish was based on the design of a genuine Peruvian statue in Brussels' Royal Museums of Art and History; a pre-Columbian Chimu statue, it was made of wood and dated to between 1200 and 1438 CE. Whereas Hergé had access to speakers of Mandarin when creating "The Blue Lotus", he had no access to speakers of indigenous Amerindian languages, and as such, the Arumbaya language that he developed was entirely fictitious. He based its structure largely on the Brusseleir dialect spoken in the Marolles area of Brussels, mixed with Spanish endings and constructions. In developing the Arumbaya's rivals, the Bibaros, he was influenced by anthropological accounts of head shrinking among the Jibaros tribes; when Leslie Lonsdale-Cooper and Michael Turner translated the book into English, they renamed the Bibaros as the Rumbabas, a pun on the rum baba pudding. The explorer Ridgewell, found living among the Arumbayas is based upon the British explorer Colonel Percy Harrison Fawcett, who mysteriously disappeared into the Amazon jungle in 1925. In crafting the story, Hergé was possibly influenced by "The Maltese Falcon", as there are similarities in their plots.

Original publication.

"The Broken Ear" was first serialised in "Le Petit Vingtième" from December 1935 under the title "Tintin et Milou chez les Arumbayas" ("Tintin and Snowy among the Arumbayas"). From 7 February 1937, the story was also serialised in the French Catholic newspaper, "Cœurs Vaillants". In 1937, it was collected in a single hardcover volume and published by Éditions Casterman under the title "L'Oreille cassée" ("The Broken Ear"). For this collected edition, one small change was made; the minor character of Carajo was renamed Caraco, because the word "carajo" is Spanish slang for penis.  "The Broken Ear" introduced the character General Alcazar to the series, who went on to become a recurring character who appeared in three further "Adventures". As noted by Hergé biographer Harry Thompson, "The Broken Ear" is the first story in the "Tintin" series to "start and finish in home surroundings" and the first to deal with the hunt for a specific object. It also marks the last story in which Tintin is seen taking part in journalistic activity and the first time that the "Adventures" featured Tintin's flat at 26 Labrador Road, in which Chinese mementos from "The Blue Lotus" are visible. Influenced by Alfred Hitchcock and his frequent cameo appearances in his own films, Hergé inserted an illustration of himself into the second frame. He also made reference to contemporary news stories in the book, having a radio announcer discuss the ongoing Second Italo-Ethiopian War at the start of the story; this was removed in the colour edition. At the end of the story, Hergé killed off Ramón and Alonso and depicted them being dragged to Hell by devils; this would mark the only depiction of the death(s) of a villain in the series until Colonel Boris Jorgen's death in "Explorers on the Moon". This upset the editors of "Cœurs Vaillants", who asked Hergé to change the scene; annoyed at their request, he later commented, "On the surface it cost me nothing, but that kind of addition was really difficult for me." For their serialisation of the story, he replaced that particular frame with one in which Tintin vouchsafed the souls of Ramón and Alonso for God.

Second version, 1943.

In the 1940s and 1950s, when Hergé's popularity had increased, he and his team at Studios Hergé redrew and coloured many of the original black-and-white Tintin adventures using the ("clear line") drawing style he had developed so that they visually fitted in with the new Tintin stories being created. "The Broken Ear" was the first of these early "Adventures" to undergo the reformatting and colouration, and this second edition was published as a 62-page volume by Casterman in 1943. Unlike some of the earlier adventures, "The Broken Ear" was not redrawn, save for a few minor revisions. To reduce the length of the book, various sections were excised, including a dream sequence that appeared in the original. As the colouration process was new to the series, the use of colour in "The Broken Ear" is more basic than in later volumes; as the book progresses, it is evident that Hergé lost interest and rushed the task, for instance, resorting to using block colour backgrounds without any detail.

Later publications and legacy.

Casterman republished the original black-and-white version in 1979 in a French-language collected volume with "Cigars of the Pharaoh" and "The Blue Lotus", the second part of the collection. In 1986, Casterman published a facsimile version of the original.  Hergé returned to creating fictional nations as allusions to real countries in subsequent "Adventures", such as Syldavia and Borduria (based largely on Yugoslavia and Nazi Germany) in "King Ottokar's Sceptre" and Sondonesia (based on Indonesia) in "Flight 714 to Sydney". He also re-used other elements pioneered in "The Broken Ear" in his later "Adventures": a parrot in "The Castafiore Emerald", a ravine crash in "The Calculus Affair", a fireball and vivid dream in "The Seven Crystal Balls", and a firing squad in "Tintin and the Picaros". Tintin returned to San Theodores in "Tintin and the Picaros", in which the characters Pablo and Ridgewell also made a reappearance.  In 1979, the Palace of Fine Arts in Brussels held an exhibition marking fifty years of "The Adventures of Tintin". As part of this, they included artefacts that featured in the series, with the broken-eared Peruvian statue that inspired Hergé's Arumbaya fetish as the centre piece of the show; however, they feared that it might be stolen, so a replica was exhibited rather than the genuine article. Imitating the events of "The Broken Ear", a thief broke in and stole the statue. A letter was then sent to "Le Soir" in which an individual alleging to be the thief stated that the item would be returned if Hergé returned to the scene of the crime at a certain time with a copy of the book under his right arm. Hergé did so, but carried the book under his left arm; the thief never appeared, and the replica fetish was never recovered.

Critical analysis.

Jean-Marc and Randy Lofficier described "The Broken Ear" as "a "Blue Lotus"-lite", noting that it shared many elements with the previous "Adventure", although they also considered it to be "more reminiscent of the earlier, more caricatured books" like "Tintin in the Congo" and "Tintin in America" with the inclusion of comical natives and absurdist elements like "comical bombs". They nevertheless thought that it exhibited a "marked improvement" in Hergé's use of plotting, noting that the story was clearly structured, praising the "very effective, dramatic story, with plenty of twists". Overall, they awarded "The Broken Ear" two stars out of five. Harry Thompson felt that "The Broken Ear" had a "slightly lacklustre quality" to it, and was "disappointing" due to the fact that the "various elements don't gel well together." He believed that the artistic quality and the use of research deteriorated as the "Adventure" progressed, although it had "the most complex plot yet, by a long way". Philippe Goddin asserted that in the story, Tintin develops from a "classic reporter to an investigative journalist."  Michael Farr described "The Broken Ear" as a "moral condemnation of capitalism, imperialism and war", although felt that it was "not as perfectly constructed" as "The Blue Lotus", being "less detailed and realistic". He thought that the image in which Ramón and Alonso drown in the sea and are dragged to Hell by demons was "truly medieval" and represented the "most fanciful image" in the entire series. He also opined that Hergé's depiction of South American militaries was "full of humour" and that the detail was "generally very accurate". Biographer Benoît Peeters thought that "The Broken Ear" was a return to "pure adventure" from the "quasi-documentary realism" of "The Blue Lotus", and that in this "Adventure", politics remains "in the second line", and that instead Hergé let "the narrative rip and succeeds marvellously." Elsewhere, he praised the work as having a "formidable dynamism" and an "unequaled vitality", containing a "revolution" in narrative structure. He thought that it served as a "perfect metaphor" for the theories of German philosopher Walter Benjamin published in "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction" (1936), which Hergé had not read. Literary critic Tom McCarthy thought that Balthazar was an example of the interesting minor characters that imbue the "Adventures", commenting that his "down-at-heel garret speaks volumes of loneliness and semi-realised artistry." He also opined that the diamond within the fetish was the clitoris of the Arumbaya, describing it as "their pleasure, wrapped up in a fetish". He also thought that there was a homosexual subtext between Ramón and Alonso, believing that the scene in which a bullet was fired into Ramón's buttocks was symbolic of anal sex.  Writing in "Libération", the philosopher Michel Serres opined that "The Broken Ear" was "a treatise on fetishism". Literary critic Jean-Marie Apostolidès of Stanford University believed that "The Broken Ear" established a "tintinian" anthropology that would remain throughout the rest of the series. As part of this, Apostolidès argued, Hergé distances himself from western values and looks at his own society as an outsider, accomplishing what Roger Caillois called "sociological revolution". He felt that the comic was "more contrived" and "more superficial" than the previous "Adventures", and that here Tintin loses his position as "the sole point of identification" for the reader, with the other characters becoming more identifiable. Opining that there was a constant theme of twos throughout the story (i.e. the real and the fake fetish, Alonso and Ramón), he thought that the character of Ridgewell was "a kind of Tintin, grown old among the natives, solitary and ill humored", noting that Ridgewell's position among the Arumbayas was akin to Tintin's position among the Ba Baorom in "Congo". Apostolidès also argued that in the comic, Alcazar was a religious figure, who attained a "sacred" quality through the spilling of blood in his revolt against General Tapioca's government. As part of this, he argued that the threats of assassination would make him a martyr, or a "holy king."

Adaptations.

"The Broken Ear" is one of "The Adventures of Tintin" that were adapted for the first series of the animated "Hergé's Adventures of Tintin" by the Belgian studio Belvision in 1957, directed by Ray Goossens and written by Michel Greg. "The Broken Ear" was divided up into six 5-minute black-and-white episodes that diverted from Hergé's original plot in a variety of ways.  It was also adapted into a 1991 episode of "The Adventures of Tintin" television series by French studio Ellipse and Canadian animation company Nelvana. Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi, Thierry Wermuth voiced the character of Tintin. The episode deviates significantly from the original story line. The passage containing Tintin's drunkenness has been ignored entirely, keeping the character consistent with how it is seen in the rest of series - upright, conscientious and of commendable moral standards. Besides, the political narratives, almost ubiquitously present in the latter part of the original album, have also been largely overlooked. Tintin's conflict with the military was also replaced with one with Alonso Pérez and Ramón Bada.

The Broken Ear (, originally published in English as Tintin and the Broken Ear) is the sixth volume of "The Adventures of Tintin", the comics series by the Belgian cartoonist Hergé. Commissioned by the conservative Belgian newspaper for its children's supplement, it was serialised weekly from December 1935 to February 1937. The story tells of young Belgian reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy, as he searches for a South American fetish, identifiable by its broken right ear, and pursues thieves who have stolen it. In doing so, he ends up in the fictional nation of San Theodoros, where he becomes embroiled in a war and discovers the Arumbaya tribe deep in the forest.

Ulomené ucho je šestá kniha z komiksového cyklu Tintinova dobrodružství. Příběhy poprvé vycházely v časopise "Petit Vingtiéme" v letech 1935–1937. Hergé tuto verzi v roce 1943 upravil na 62 stran.


Structure and function.

Subunit composition.

AMPARs are composed of four types of subunits encoded by different genes, designated as GRIA1 (also named GluA1 or GluR1), GRIA2 (also named GluA2 or GluR2), GRIA3 (Also named GluA3 or GluR3), and GRIA4 (also called GluA4 or GluRA-D2 ), which combine to form tetramers. Most AMPARs are heterotetrameric, consisting of symmetric 'dimer of dimers' of GluA2 and either GluA1, GluA3 or GluA4. Dimerization starts in the endoplasmic reticulum with the interaction of N-terminal LIVBP domains, then "zips up" through the ligand-binding domain into the transmembrane ion pore.  The conformation of the subunit protein in the plasma membrane caused controversy for some time. While the amino acid sequence of the subunit indicated that there seemed to be four transmembrane domains (parts of the protein that pass through the plasma membrane), proteins interacting with the subunit indicated that the N-terminus seemed to be extracellular, while the C-terminus seemed to be intracellular. However, if each of the four transmembrane domains went "all the way" through the plasma membrane, then the two termini would have to be on the same side of the membrane. It was eventually discovered that the second "transmembrane" domain does not in fact cross the membrane at all, but kinks back on itself within the membrane and returns to the intracellular side. When the four subunits of the tetramer come together, this second membranous domain forms the ion-permeable pore of the receptor.  AMPAR subunits differ most in their C-terminal sequence, which determines their interactions with scaffolding proteins. All AMPARs contain PDZ-binding domains, but which PDZ domain they bind to differs. For example, GluA1 binds to SAP97 through SAP97's class I PDZ domain, while GluA2 binds to PICK1 and GRIP/ABP. Of note, AMPARs cannot directly bind to the common synaptic protein PSD-95 owing to incompatible PDZ domains, although they do interact with PSD-95 via stargazin (the prototypical member of the TARP family of AMPAR auxiliary subunits).  Phosphorylation of AMPARs can regulate channel localization, conductance, and open probability. GluA1 has four known phosphorylation sites at serine 818 (S818), S831, threonine 840, and S845 (other subunits have similar phosphorylation sites, but GluR1 has been the most extensively studied). S818 is phosphorylated by protein kinase C, and is necessary for long-term potentiation (LTP; for GluA1's role in LTP, see below). S831 is phosphorylated by CaMKII and PKC during LTP, which helps deliver GluA1-containing AMPAR to the synapse, and increases their single channel conductance. The T840 site was more recently discovered, and has been implicated in LTD. Finally, S845 is phosphorylated by PKA which regulates its open probability.

Ion channel function.

Each AMPAR has four sites to which an agonist (such as glutamate) can bind, one for each subunit. The binding site is believed to be formed by the N-terminal tail and the extracellular loop between transmembrane domains three and four. When an agonist binds, these two loops move towards each other, opening the pore. The channel opens when two sites are occupied, and increases its current as more binding sites are occupied. Once open, the channel may undergo rapid desensitization, stopping the current. The mechanism of desensitization is believed to be due to a small change in angle of one of the parts of the binding site, closing the pore. AMPARs open and close quickly (1ms), and are thus responsible for most of the fast excitatory synaptic transmission in the central nervous system. The AMPAR's permeability to calcium and other cations, such as sodium and potassium, is governed by the GluA2 subunit. If an AMPAR lacks a GluA2 subunit, then it will be permeable to sodium, potassium, and calcium. The presence of a GluA2 subunit will almost always render the channel impermeable to calcium. This is determined by post-transcriptional modification — RNA editing — of the Q-to-R editing site of the GluA2 mRNA. Here, A→I editing alters the uncharged amino acid glutamine (Q) to the positively charged arginine (R) in the receptor's ion channel. The positively charged amino acid at the critical point makes it energetically unfavourable for calcium to enter the cell through the pore. Almost all of the GluA2 subunits in CNS are edited to the GluA2(R) form. This means that the principal ions gated by AMPARs are sodium and potassium, distinguishing AMPARs from NMDA receptors (the other main ionotropic glutamate receptors in the brain), which also permit calcium influx. Both AMPA and NMDA receptors, however, have an equilibrium potential near 0 mV. The prevention of calcium entry into the cell on activation of GluA2-containing AMPARs is proposed to guard against excitotoxicity.  The subunit composition of the AMPAR is also important for the way this receptor is modulated. If an AMPAR lacks GluA2 subunits, then it is susceptible to being blocked in a voltage-dependent manner by a class of molecules called polyamines. Thus, when the neuron is at a depolarized membrane potential, polyamines will block the AMPAR channel more strongly, preventing the flux of potassium ions through the channel pore. GluA2-lacking AMPARs are, thus, said to have an inwardly rectifying I/V curve, which means that they pass less outward current than inward current at equivalent distance from the reversal potential. Calcium permeable AMPARs are found typically early during postnatal development, on some interneurons or in dopamine neurons of the ventral tegmental area after the exposure to an addictive drug.  Alongside RNA editing, alternative splicing allows a range of functional AMPA receptor subunits beyond what is encoded in the genome. In other words, although one gene ("GRIA1"–"GRIA4") is encoded for each subunit (GluA1–GluA4), splicing after transcription from DNA allows some exons to be translated interchangeably, leading to several functionally different subunits from each gene.  The flip/flop sequence is one such interchangeable exon. A 38-amino acid sequence found prior to (i.e., before the N-terminus of) the fourth membranous domain in all four AMPAR subunits, it determines the speed of desensitisation of the receptor and also the speed at which the receptor is resensitised and the rate of channel closing. The flip form is present in prenatal AMPA receptors and gives a sustained current in response to glutamate activation.

Synaptic plasticity.

AMPA receptors (AMPAR) are both glutamate receptors and cation channels that are integral to plasticity and synaptic transmission at many postsynaptic membranes. One of the most widely and thoroughly investigated forms of plasticity in the nervous system is known as long-term potentiation, or LTP. There are two necessary components of LTP: presynaptic glutamate release and postsynaptic depolarization. Therefore, LTP can be induced experimentally in a paired electrophysiological recording when a presynaptic cell is stimulated to release glutamate on a postsynaptic cell that is depolarized. The typical LTP induction protocol involves a “tetanus” stimulation, which is a 100 Hz stimulation for 1 second. When one applies this protocol to a pair of cells, one will see a sustained increase of the amplitude of the excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) following tetanus. This response is interesting since it is thought to be the physiological correlate for learning and memory in the cell. In fact, it has been shown that, following a single paired-avoidance paradigm in mice, LTP can be recorded in some hippocampal synapses "in vivo".  The molecular basis for LTP has been extensively studied, and AMPARs have been shown to play an integral role in the process. Both GluR1 and GluR2 play an important role in synaptic plasticity. It is now known that the underlying physiological correlate for the increase in EPSP size is a postsynaptic upregulation of AMPARs at the membrane, which is accomplished through the interactions of AMPARs with many cellular proteins.  The simplest explanation for LTP is as follows (see the long-term potentiation article for a much more detailed account). Glutamate binds to postsynaptic AMPARs and another glutamate receptor, the NMDA receptor (NMDAR). Ligand binding causes the AMPARs to open, and Na flows into the postsynaptic cell, resulting in a depolarization. NMDARs, on the other hand, do not open directly because their pores are occluded at resting membrane potential by Mg ions. NMDARs can open only when a depolarization from the AMPAR activation leads to repulsion of the Mg cation out into the extracellular space, allowing the pore to pass current. Unlike AMPARs, however, NMDARs are permeable to both Na and Ca. The Ca that enters the cell triggers the upregulation of AMPARs to the membrane, which results in a long-lasting increase in EPSP size underlying LTP. The calcium entry also phosphorylates CaMKII, which phosphorylates AMPARs, increasing their single-channel conductance.

AMPA receptor trafficking.

Molecular and signaling response to LTP-inducing stimuli.

The mechanism for LTP has long been a topic of debate, but, recently, mechanisms have come to some consensus. AMPARs play a key role in this process, as one of the key indicators of LTP induction is the increase in the ratio of AMPAR to NMDARs following high-frequency stimulation. The idea is that AMPARs are trafficked from the dendrite into the synapse and incorporated through some series of signaling cascades.  AMPARs are initially regulated at the transcriptional level at their 5’ promoter regions. There is significant evidence pointing towards the transcriptional control of AMPA receptors in longer-term memory through cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) and Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK). Messages are translated on the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) and modified there. Subunit compositions are determined at the time of modification at the rough ER. After post-ER processing in the golgi apparatus, AMPARs are released into the perisynaptic membrane as a reserve waiting for the LTP process to be initiated.  The first key step in the process following glutamate binding to NMDARs is the influx of calcium through the NMDA receptors and the resultant activation of Ca/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMKII). Blocking either this influx or the activation of CaMKII prevents LTP, showing that these are necessary mechanisms for LTP. In addition, profusion of CaMKII into a synapse causes LTP, showing that it is a causal and sufficient mechanism.  CaMKII has multiple modes of activation to cause the incorporation of AMPA receptors into the perisynaptic membrane. CAMKII enzyme is eventually responsible for the development of the actin cytoskeleton of neuronal cells and, eventually, for the dendrite and axon development (synaptic plasticity). The first is direct phosphorylation of synaptic-associated protein 97(SAP97). First, SAP-97 and Myosin-VI, a motor protein, are bound as a complex to the C-terminus of AMPARs. Following phosphorylation by CaMKII, the complex moves into the perisynaptic membrane. The second mode of activation is through the MAPK pathway. CaMKII activates the Ras proteins, which go on to activate p42/44 MAPK, which drives AMPAR insertion directly into the perisynaptic membrane.

AMPA receptor trafficking to the PSD in response to LTP.

Once AMPA receptors are transported to the perisynaptic region through PKA or SAP97 phosphorylation, receptors are then trafficked to the postsynaptic density (PSD). However, this process of trafficking to the PSD still remains controversial. One possibility is that, during LTP, there is lateral movement of AMPA receptors from perisynpatic sites directly to the PSD. Another possibility is that exocytosis of intracellular vesicles is responsible for AMPA trafficking to the PSD directly. Recent evidence suggests that both of these processes are happening after an LTP stimulus; however, only the lateral movement of AMPA receptors from the perisynaptic region enhances the number of AMPA receptors at the PSD. The exact mechanism responsible for lateral movement of AMPA receptors to the PSD remains to be discovered; however, research has discovered several essential proteins for AMPA receptor trafficking. For example, overexpression of SAP97 leads to increased AMPA receptor trafficking to synapses. In addition to influencing synaptic localization, SAP97 has also been found to influence AMPA receptor conductance in response to glutamate. Myosin proteins are calcium sensitive motor proteins that have also been found to be essential for AMPA receptor trafficking. Disruption of myosin Vb interaction with Rab11 and Rab11-FIP2 blocks spine growth and AMPA receptor trafficking. Therefore, it is possible that myosin may drive the lateral movement of AMPA receptors in the perisynpatic region to the PSD. Transmembrane AMPA receptor regulatory proteins (TARPs) are a family proteins that associate with AMPA receptors and control their trafficking and conductance. CACNG2 (Stargazin) is one such protein and is found to bind AMPA receptors in the perisynaptic and postsynaptic regions. The role of stargazin in trafficking between the perisynaptic and postsynaptic regions remains unclear; however, stargazin is essential for immobilizing AMPA receptors in the PSD by interacting with PSD-95. PSD-95 stabilizes AMPA receptors to the synapse and disruption of the stargazin-PSD-95 interaction suppressed synaptic transmission.

Constitutive trafficking and changes in subunit composition.

AMPA receptors are continuously being trafficked (endocytosed, recycled, and reinserted) into and out of the plasma membrane. Recycling endosomes within the dendritic spine contain pools of AMPA receptors for such synaptic reinsertion. Two distinct pathways exist for the trafficking of AMPA receptors: a regulated pathway and a constitutive pathway.  In the regulated pathway, GluA1-containing AMPA receptors are trafficked to the synapse in an activity-dependent manner, stimulated by NMDA receptor activation. Under basal conditions, the regulated pathway is essentially inactive, being transiently activated only upon the induction of long-term potentiation. This pathway is responsible for synaptic strengthening and the initial formation of new memories.  In the constitutive pathway, GluA1-lacking AMPA receptors, usually GluR2-GluR3 heteromeric receptors, replace the GluA1-containing receptors in a one-for-one, activity-independent manner, preserving the total number of AMPA receptors in the synapse. This pathway is responsible for the maintenance of new memories, sustaining the transient changes resulting from the regulated pathway. Under basal conditions, this pathway is routinely active, as it is necessary also for the replacement of damaged receptors.  The GluA1 and GluA4 subunits consist of a long carboxy (C)-tail, whereas the GluA2 and GluA3 subunits consist of a short carboxy-tail. The two pathways are governed by interactions between the C termini of the AMPA receptor subunits and synaptic compounds and proteins. Long C-tails prevent GluR1/4 receptors from being inserted directly into the postsynaptic density zone (PSDZ) in the absence of activity, whereas the short C-tails of GluA2/3 receptors allow them to be inserted directly into the PSDZ. The GluA2 C terminus interacts with and binds to N-ethylmaleimide sensitive fusion protein, which allows for the rapid insertion of GluR2-containing AMPA receptors at the synapse. In addition, GluR2/3 subunits are more stably tethered to the synapse than GluR1 subunits.

LTD-induced endocytosis of AMPA receptors.

Long-term depression enacts mechanisms to decrease AMPA receptor density in selected dendritic spines, dependent on clathrin and calcineurin and distinct from that of constitutive AMPAR trafficking. The starting signal for AMPAR endocytosis is an NMDAR-dependent calcium influx from low-frequency stimulation, which in turn activates protein phosphatases PP1 and calcineurin. However, AMPAR endocytosis has also been activated by voltage-dependent calcium channels, agonism of AMPA receptors, and administration of insulin, suggesting general calcium influx as the cause of AMPAR endocytosis. Blockage of PP1 did not prevent AMPAR endocytosis, but antagonist application to calcineurin led to significant inhibition of this process.  Calcineurin interacts with an endocytotic complex at the postsynaptic zone, explaining its effects on LTD. The complex, consisting of a clathrin-coated pit underneath a section of AMPAR-containing plasma membrane and interacting proteins, is the direct mechanism for reduction of AMPARs, in particular GluR2/GluR3 subunit-containing receptors, in the synapse. Interactions from calcineurin activate dynamin GTPase activity, allowing the clathrin pit to excise itself from the cell membrane and become a cytoplasmic vesicle. Once the clathrin coat detaches, other proteins can interact directly with the AMPARs using PDZ carboxyl tail domains; for example, glutamate receptor-interacting protein 1 (GRIP1) has been implicated in intracellular sequestration of AMPARs. Intracellular AMPARs are subsequently sorted for degradation by lysosomes or recycling to the cell membrane. For the latter, PICK1 and PKC can displace GRIP1 to return AMPARs to the surface, reversing the effects of endocytosis and LTD. when appropriate. Nevertheless, the highlighted calcium-dependent, dynamin-mediated mechanism above has been implicated as a key component of LTD. and as such may have applications to further behavioral research.

Role in Seizures.

AMPA receptors play a key role in the generation and spread of epileptic seizures. Kainic acid, a convulsant that is widely used in epilepsy research induces seizures, in part, via activation of AMPA receptors

Molecular target for epilepsy therapy.

The noncompetitive AMPA receptor antagonists talampanel and perampanel have been demonstrated to have activity in the treatment of adults with partial seizures, indicating that AMPA receptor antagonists represent a potential target for the treatment of epilepsy.  Decanoic acid acts as a non-competitive AMPA receptor antagonist at therapeutically relevant concentrations, in a voltage- and subunit-dependent manner, and this is sufficient to explain its antiseizure effects. This direct inhibition of excitatory neurotransmission by decanoic acid in the brain contributes to the anticonvulsant effect of the medium-chain triglyceride ketogenic diet. Decanoic acid and the AMPA receptor antagonist drug perampanel act at separate sites on the AMPA receptor, and so it is possible that they have a cooperative effect at the AMPA receptor, suggesting that perampanel and the ketogenic diet could be synergistic.  Preclinical research suggest that several derivatives of aromatic amino acids with antiglutamatergic properties including AMPA receptor antagonism and inhibition of glutamate release such as 3,5-dibromo-D-tyrosine and 3,5-dibromo-L-phenylalnine exhibit strong anticonvulsant effect in animal models suggesting use of these compounds as a novel class of antiepileptic drugs.

The α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (also known as AMPA receptor, AMPAR, or quisqualate receptor) is an ionotropic transmembrane receptor for glutamate that mediates fast synaptic transmission in the central nervous system (CNS). It has been traditionally classified as a non-NMDA-type receptor, along with the kainate receptor. Its name is derived from its ability to be activated by the artificial glutamate analog AMPA. The receptor was first named the "quisqualate receptor" by Watkins and colleagues after a naturally occurring agonist quisqualate and was only later given the label "AMPA receptor" after the selective agonist developed by Tage Honore and colleagues at the Royal Danish School of Pharmacy in Copenhagen. AMPARs are found in many parts of the brain and are the most commonly found receptor in the nervous system. The GRIA2-encoded AMPA receptor (see below) ligand binding core was the first glutamate receptor ion channel to be crystallized.

AMPA receptor nebo receptor α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionové kyseliny je ionotropní transmembránový receptor pro glutamát, který zprostředkovává rychlý synaptický přenos v centrální nervové soustavě. Tradičně byl klasifikován jako receptor ne-NMDA-typu spolu s kainátovými receptory. Jeho název je odvozen od schopnosti být aktivován analogem glutamátu AMPA. AMPARs se nacházejí v mnoha částech mozku, a patří mezi nejběžnější receptory v nervovém systému. Receptor byl jmenován Watkinsem a kolegy jako "kiskalátový receptor" po přirozeně se vyskytujícím agonistovi kiskalátu. AMPA receptory se nacházejí v mnoha částech mozku a jsou nejčastěji nalezenými receptory v nervovém systému.


History.

Incorporation.

After the 1994 genocide the government took several attempts to revive the former national carrier Air Rwanda that ceased operations during the genocide. Various private companies showed interest in partnering with the government and Uganda-based SA Alliance Air ran the company from 1997 to 2000. After SA Alliance ceased operations, the government of Rwanda took over the Rwandan operations and re-branded the airline, to ensure its continuity. RwandAir began operations on 1 December 2002 as the new national carrier for Rwanda under the name Rwandair Express (with passenger air transportation as the core activity). In 2016, RwandAir received International Air Transport Association's Safety Audit for Ground Operations (ISAGO).

Re-branding.

The airline began to expand regionally and by 2009 the network to include Dar-es-Salaam, Nairobi, and domestic destinations such as Gisenyi. In March 2009, the airline registered the new trademark "RwandAir Ltd", which is its current operating name. In June 2009, the airline officially re-branded from Rwandair Express to RwandAir, because the new name implies a large, serious airline, while the "Express" in the former name implied a small regional operation.  In May 2010, Rene Janata became the CEO, introducing a frequent flyer program and developing the airline to become a network carrier. In October 2010, John Mirenge became the new CEO of RwandAir.

2010–2015.

In July 2010 the first of RwandAir's new Boeing 737-500s arrived; the second one arrived on 20 October 2010. Both are leased from General Electric Capital Aviation Services (GECAS) and each has a two-class configuration with 12 business class seats and 90 economy class seats.  In August 2011 the airline took delivery of their first aircraft purchased directly from an airline manufacturer. All prior aircraft operated by RwandAir have been either leased or bought as a second hand. The aircraft purchased is a Boeing 737–800 with Sky Interior, also known as Boeing 737 Next Generation, and was the only one operating among African air carriers. The flight departed from Boeing Field in Seattle, Washington, United States, at 5:30 PM PST. It made its first stop in Keflavík International Airport in Iceland, then it headed for a second stop to Istanbul, Turkey. It finally arrived in Kigali, Rwanda, after a 20-hour flight.  In October 2011 RwandAir took delivery of their second Boeing Next-Generation 737–800. During January 2012, the airline disposed of the two CRJ200 aircraft it owned, in anticipation of acquiring two CRJ-900NGs.  In February 2013, John Mirenge announced that the airline would fly to Accra, Cape Town, Harare, Juba and Zanzibar, in 2013.  In May 2015, RwandAir officially became an IATA member.

2015 to date.

In 2017, the Government of Benin granted RwandAir seventh freedom rights to operate direct flights from Benin. RwandAir plans to base two Boeing 737 aircraft at Cotonou in Benin.  In February 2020, two months after Qatar Airways purchased a 60% stake in Rwanda's Bugesera International Airport, Qatar-state owned airlines purchased a 49% stake in RwandAir.  Flight Pass  In 2019, RwandAir entered into a partnership with USA based Optiontown to launch a prepaid flight subscription platform called Flight Pass, which enables customers to pre-purchase RwandAir flights at the best available price and decide when they want to travel at a later date.

Corporate affairs.

Ownership and management.

Rwandair is owned 51% by the Government of Rwanda, and 49% by Qatar Airways.  The government hoped to privatise the airline after 2013, once it became profitable; the process had been abandoned in 2008, after it emerged that nobody at the time was willing to offer the amount expected from the sale.  RwandAir's Board of Directors is responsible for ensuring that the airline follows a suitable corporate governance framework to ensure the creation and protection of value for the shareholder. Godfrey Kabera is currently the Chairman of RwandAir; the long-time aviation veteran Girma Wake was Chairman from 2012 to 2017. Yvonne Manzi Makolo is the current CEO, having been promoted from deputy CEO, in charge of Corporate Affairs, in April 2018. She replaced acting CEO Col. Chance Ndagano.

Business trends.

RwandAir has been loss-making for many years.  Full detailed accounts are rarely published, although intermittently some figures are made public by senior management or the government, or in government budgetary reports. Available trends are shown below (as at year ending 31 December):

Head office.

The airline has its head office on the top floor of the main building of Kigali International Airport in Kigali, Rwanda. The airline previously had its head office in Centenary House in Kigali. The airline began moving its operations from Centenary House to the airport on Friday 14 May 2010. The airline was scheduled to be moved in by Monday 17 May 2010. At one previous point the airline had its head office in the Telcom House.

Destinations.

RwandAir serves the following destinations as of July 2019:

Codeshare agreements.

RwandAir codeshares with the following airlines:

Fleet.

The RwandAir fleet comprises the following aircraft as of August 2017:

RwandAir Limited is the flag carrier airline of Rwanda. It operates domestic and international services to East Africa, Central Africa, West Africa, Southern Africa, Europe the Middle East and Asia, from its main base at Kigali International Airport in Kigali.

RwandAir je národní rwandský letecký dopravce, který provozuje lety do jižní a východní Afriky a plánem brzy započít lety do střední Afriky.


Early life, family and education.

Born in 1949 as Irene Platzblatt in Brooklyn, New York City, New York, she was an only child. Her father, Robert Platzblatt, was a biochemist and middle school teacher. Her parents were both first-generation American Jews. Her mother's parents were from Romania, and her father's from Lithuania. In the 1950s, the family resided in Brooklyn in an apartment above a pet store, and beginning at a very young age, Irene would own and train a series of budgies.  She earned her bachelor's degree in Chemistry from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1969, and brought one of her budgies there with her. She subsequently earned a master's degree in Chemistry in 1971 at Harvard University, followed by a doctorate in Chemical Physics in 1976 at Harvard. During her doctoral program, she saw an episode of the PBS TV series "Nova" about animals and language, which influenced her to focus on that instead of chemistry.

Work history.

Pepperberg has been a researcher, lecturer and adjunct or visiting professor at multiple universities. She was a research associate and lecturer at Purdue University (1979–1984) and Harvard University (in the 1970s and since 2005). At the MIT Media Lab, she has been a visiting associate professor (1999–2000) and researcher (2001–02). While at Purdue, she was involved in the biological sciences and psychological sciences departments. At University of Arizona, she was an associate professor in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology with joint appointment in the psychology department and in the neuroscience program (1991–2000). She has been a Bunting Fellow at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study (2004–2005) and an adjunct associate professor at Brandeis University (2002–2013), where its bird laboratory was named for her.

Research work.

Although parrots have long been known for their capacities in vocal mimicry, Pepperberg set out to show that their vocal behavior could have the characteristics of human language. She worked intensively with a single grey parrot, Alex, and reported that he acquired a large vocabulary and used it in a sophisticated way, which is often described as similar to that of a five-year-old child. Pepperberg and her colleagues have sought to show that Alex can differentiate meaning and syntax, so that his use of vocal communication is unlike the relatively inflexible forms of "instinctive" communication that are widespread in the animal kingdom. Although such results are always likely to be controversial, and working intensively with a single animal always incurs the risk of Clever Hans effects, Pepperberg's work has strengthened the argument that humans do not hold the monopoly on the complex or semicomplex use of abstract communication.  Some researchers believe that the training method that Pepperberg used with Alex, (called the model/rival technique) holds promise for teaching autistic and other learning-disabled children who have difficulty learning language and communication skills, numerical concepts and empathy. When some autistic children were taught using the same methods Pepperberg devised to teach parrots, their response exceeded expectations.  From work with the single subject Alex, Pepperberg and her colleagues have gone on to study additional grey parrots, and also parrots of other species. Other notable parrot subjects of her research have been Griffin and Arthur. Alex was found dead on the morning of September 6, 2007, and was seemingly healthy the previous day. On September 10, 2007, Alex's necropsy revealed no discernible cause of death.

Model/rival technique.

The model/rival technique involves two trainers, one to give instructions, and one to model correct and incorrect responses and to act as the student's rival for the trainer's attention; the model and trainer also exchange roles so that the student sees that the process is fully interactive. The parrot, in the role of student, tries to reproduce the correct behavior.  The use of this model/rival technique resulted in Alex identifying objects by color, shape, number and material at about the level of chimpanzees and dolphins. His language abilities were equivalent to those of a 2-year-old child and he had the problem solving skills of a 5-year-old. Alex was learning the alphabet, had a vocabulary of 150 words, knew the names of 50 objects and could count up to eight when he died. He could also answer questions about objects.  Pepperberg countered critics' claims that Alex had been taught a script by explaining that the controls and tests she used made it impossible for him simply to recite words when she asked questions. The Clever Hans effect did not apply, she argued, as Alex would talk to anyone, not just to her. Building on Pepperberg's research, cognitive scientist Michael Trestman has argued that scaffolding and modeling, both approaches that the model/rival technique utilizes, can account for the cognitive evolution in humans, including "language, advanced social cognition, and elaborate forms of tool craft."

The Alex Foundation.

Pepperberg is president of The Alex Foundation, a not-for-profit 501(c)(3) organization, which she started. The foundation supports Pepperberg and her team's research. In a 2006 interview, Pepperberg said that the foundation was her only funding source, having lost her paid research position due to a funding crunch at MIT's Media Lab, although the report of that interview does not mention her research associate position at Harvard University since 2005. The Alex Foundation raises money through donations, from direct sale of parrot-related gifts, and indirectly from sales through sponsoring businesses.

AI research.

Some researchers have suggested that studying avian cognition might allow a useful artificial intelligence to be built without requiring as much resources, as for some applications a parrot or corvid level complexity brain would be adequate such as for image sorting. In recent years it was found that pigeons could sort CT scan data as well as microscope slides with equal or better accuracy than a human expert with only weeks of behavioral training needed.

Personal life.

Pepperberg was married for more than twenty years to David Pepperberg, a neuroscientist. However, they divorced.

Irene Maxine Pepperberg (born April 1, 1949) is a scientist noted for her studies in animal cognition, particularly in relation to parrots. She has been a professor, researcher and/or lecturer at multiple universities, and she is currently a research associate and lecturer at Harvard University. Pepperberg also serves on the Advisory Council of METI (Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence). She is well known for her comparative studies into the cognitive fundamentals of language and communication, and she was one of the first to work on language learning in animals other than human species (exemplified by the Washoe project), by extension to a bird species. Pepperberg is also active in wildlife conservation, especially in relation to parrots.

Irene Maxine Pepperberg (* 1. dubna 1949 Brooklyn, New York) je americká vědkyně známá především díky mnohaleté výzkumné práci v oblasti mezidruhové komunikace a srovnávací kognitivní psychologie. V rámci svého výzkumu zkoumala kognitivní schopnosti papouška šedého Alexe a několika dalších papoušků šedých. Její práce znamenala revoluci v nazírání na zvířata.


Early life.

Mays was born in Bristol, Tennessee and raised in Grundy, Virginia, the daughter of Susan Paulette (née Norris) and James Edwin Mays, a high school teacher who also worked in the coal mining industry. At age 15, she was offered a job working on the local radio station reading the obituaries. After graduating from Grundy High School, she earned an associate degree from Southwest Virginia Community College. Mays then attended Virginia Tech for a year before transferring to Radford University.

Career.

In 2004, Mays made her first television appearance on "Joey". The following year, she made her feature film debut with a supporting role in "Red Eye". Mays' other credits include "Six Feet Under", "Stacked", "How I Met Your Mother", "Heroes", "Pushing Daisies", "The Comeback", "Entourage", "Ghost Whisperer", and "Ugly Betty".  Mays appeared in other movies, such as "Bar Starz", "Flags of Our Fathers" and "Blind Guy Driving". She starred in the spoof film "Epic Movie" and as Amy in "". She was a patient on "House" in the episode "Sleeping Dogs Lie" in 2006.  Mays has played the love interest of a character played by Masi Oka in two different roles: Charlie Andrews on "Heroes" and Nina in the direct-to-DVD film "". She has also been cast as a love interest twice for "Glee" co-star Matthew Morrison; in an unaired TV show called "Nice Girls Don't Get the Corner Office", and as mysophobic guidance counsellor Emma Pillsbury on the Fox show "Glee", which premiered on May 19, 2009. She was part of the main cast of "Glee" for the first three seasons, then was made a guest star in seasons four, five, and six. She has also performed musical numbers on "Glee" including her solo performance of "Touch-a, Touch Me" from "The Rocky Horror Show" during the themed episode "The Rocky Horror Glee Show"; which was also the song she had sung for her audition for the role. In March 2010, Mays played Grace Winslow, the female lead in the live-action/animated film adaptation of "The Smurfs". She also played the role of Charlotte, Henry Grubstick's ex-girlfriend on "Ugly Betty". In August 2014, Mays helped to raise awareness of the disease ALS by participating in the Ice Bucket Challenge. She also appeared in the music video for Switchfoot's single "Awakening".  From 2017-2018, Mays starred in the NBC crime anthology comedy "Trial & Error" as prosecutor Carol Anne Keane. She also appeared in a 2018 episode of "Great News" as Cat, the girlfriend of Greg, played by Mays's husband Adam Campbell.

Personal life.

Mays met her husband Adam Campbell on the set of "Epic Movie" in 2006. She gave birth to their son, Jude Jones, in August 2016.

Jamia Suzette "Jayma" Mays (born July 16, 1979) is an American actress. She is best known for playing Emma Pillsbury in the Fox musical series "Glee" (2009–2015) and for her starring roles in the films "Red Eye" (2005), "" (2009) and "The Smurfs" (2011). She is also known for portraying Debbie in the sitcom "The Millers" (2013–2014) and her recurring role as Charlie Andrews on the NBC sci-fi series "Heroes" (2006–2010),

Jayma Suzette Mays (* 16. července 1979, Bristol, Tennessee, Spojené státy americké) je americká televizní a filmová herečka a také zpěvačka. Její nejznámější televizní role je Emma Pillsbury v seriálu "Glee" a ztvárnila roli Grace Winslow ve filmech "Šmoulové" a "Šmoulové 2".