Names.

Kinich Ahau is the Yucatec and Lacandon name of the sun god. The element "kʼinich", usually assumed to mean'sun-eyed', appears to have been in general use as a royal title during the Classic Period. Kinich Ahau should not be confused with Ah Kʼin or Ah Kʼin Chob. "Ah Kʼin" is Yucatec for'someone who deals with the day(s)', the word for 'day' and'sun' being the same. The term refers to Yucatec calendar priests and to priests in general. As to "Ah Kʼin" Chob, J.E.S. Thompson suggested that this Lacandon deity name (alternating with Can Chob and Chi Chac Chob) could refer to the sun deity, but the mythology of Ah Kʼin Chob does not bear this out. Although the element "chob" has been translated as'squint-eyed', which is an iconographic feature of the Classic sun deity, the only source for this translation is a single statement by Tozzer.

16th-century Yucatan.

Kinich Ahau was the patron of one of the four years of the 52-year cycle (Landa). In the rituals introducing this year, war dances were executed. Kinich Ahau was apparently considered an aspect of the upper god, Itzamna. He may conceivably be related to the patron deity of Izamal, Kinich Kakmo 'Fire Parrot', who was reported to descend to earth while the sun was standing in the zenith in order to consume offerings (Cogolludo).

Classic period.

God G's appearances in Classic Maya art are, perhaps, best known from large stucco masks adorning pyramids. Compared to the deities connected to agricultural fertility, however, God G occurs rather infrequently in other media than stucco, and is rarely part of narrative events. It may be noted that the Hero Twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque, although stated to have changed into Sun and Moon, are never shown assimilated to God G.

Land of the Sunrise: Eastern Paradise.

The Sun God is associated with an aquatic eastern paradise, where he can assume the shape of a chimerical water bird, or be shown as a young man, paddling a canoe. Such imagery could suggest lyric religious poetry comparable to the Aztec evocations of a 'flower paradise' (Taube).

Ancestral solar kings.

The sun deity can be shown as a king ("ajaw") seated high on a throne cushion (as on the famous, narrative 'Rabbit Vase' from Naranjo), or as a ruler carrying the bicephalic 'ceremonial bar'. Inversely, the Maya king is repeatedly assimilated to the sun deity. The emblematic double-bird of the early Copan king, Yax Kʼukʼ Moʼ 'Great Quetzal-Parrot', shows the head of the sun deity within its beaks. Ancestral Maya kings assimilated to the sun deity were sometimes depicted while vertically descending from the zenith (as on Takalik Abaj stela 2 and Tikal stela 31). Particularly in Yaxchilan, the ancestral king is seated within a solar cartouche, his wife in a lunar crescent. The solar aspect of a king often seems to imply apotheosis and life after death.

Calendar.

Hieroglyphically, the sun god is the patron of the day-unit ("kʼin" 'day, sun'), the month of Yaxkʼin 'dry season', and the number Four (in parallel with the day Ahau).

Connections with other deities.

Several other deities evince a large eye, such as God D (Itzamna), Chaak, and various jaguar gods. Attribute sharing (including the "kʼin" infix) occurs chiefly with the so-called Jaguar God of the Underworld and a human-faced ocean deity with shell ears, fins beside the mouth, and a sacrificial awl set in the mouth. The 'Jaguar God of the Underworld' is traditionally referred to by scholars as the 'Night Sun', i.e., the form supposedly taken by the sun during his subterranean journey from West to East. It has been suggested that the three just-mentioned deities involved in the sharing of attributes could, perhaps, represent various stages of the sun's daily cycle.

Mythology and ritual.

Recent Maya mythology is mainly concerned with Sun's childhood and the conflicts leading up to his actual solar transformation. Although specific imagery is used for the path of the sun (for example, the sun being carried through the underworld on the shoulders of its lord), there are hardly any histories concerning the mature sun deity, save for the southern Lacandons. According to them, Kinich Ahau, the elder brother of the upper god, will put an end to this world by descending from the skyand have his jaguars devour mankind. Little is also known about specific solar rituals, although Kinich Ahau regularly occurs in the Dresden Codex, which is largely concerned with ritual matters.

Kinich Ahau (Kʼinich Ajaw) is the 16th-century Yucatec name of the Maya sun god, designated as God G when referring to the codices. In the Classic period, God G is depicted as a middle-aged man with an aquiline nose, large square eyes, cross-eyed, and a filed incisor in the upper row of teeth. Usually, there is a "k'in"'sun'-infix, sometimes in the very eyes. Among the southern Lacandons, Kinich Ahau continued to play a role in narrative well into the second half of the twentieth century.

Kinich Ahau - mayský bůh slunce, „Pán slunečního oka“. Býval zobrazován s velkýma šilhavýma očima, opilovanými zuby, vyplazeným jazykem a zahnutými kančími tesáky, popř. hadím tělem. Jeho představiteli jsou jelen, ledňáček, orel a jaguár. K jeho poslům patří straka a papoušek Macav, v nějž se podle legendy bůh Kinich Ahau proměnil při sestupu na zem.


History.

Formation.

By 2003, drummer Vinnie Paul and guitarist Dimebag Darrell were plagued with difficulties that their previous metal band, Pantera, was experiencing. Both described the performance level of Pantera's vocalist, Phil Anselmo, as "hit and miss, depending on what type of chemicals he was on". Following the release of Pantera's 2000 album "Reinventing the Steel" and the subsequent tour, Anselmo and bassist Rex Brown started to focus on their side projects, and did not discuss or record any further Pantera material, while Darrell and Paul wanted to continue to write and play music. Both Abbott brothers thought it was time to move on, and, upon disbanding Pantera, they began writing new material.  A demo of the song "Crawl" was sent to former Halford guitarist Pat Lachman who auditioned as vocalist. Lachman was hired, and New Found Power was formed in early 2003 with former Jerry Cantrell guitarist Shawn Matthews on bass initially, who was replaced after the album recording with the brothers' tattoo artist, Bob Zilla. When writing music, Paul claimed; "we put no boundaries on it... we wanted it to be very diverse", and Darrell said "We wanted to stretch out and expand our capabilities to their fullest." The band changed its name to Damageplan and decided to name the first album "New Found Power".

"New Found Power".

The single "Save Me" debuted on American radio on January 26, 2004, and the band's debut album, "New Found Power", was released in the United States on February 10. The album was recorded at the brothers' backyard studio, Chasin' Jason, in Arlington, Texas, where previous Pantera albums were also recorded. The Abbott brothers found out that during recording, everyone was willing to contribute and "put 100% effort into it" while with Pantera, but they found it too difficult to have Anselmo in the recording studio. Corey Taylor of Slipknot and Stone Sour, Zakk Wylde of Black Label Society, and Jerry Cantrell of Alice in Chains made guest appearances on the tracks "Fuck You", "Soul Bleed", and the bonus track "Ashes to Ashes" respectively, and Sterling Winfield handled co-production duties.  "New Found Power" sold 44,676 copies in its first week to debut at number 38 on the "Billboard" 200. The album received mixed reviews from music critics; Christine Klunk of PopMatters commented "I'm not in the least bit interested in where this band goes or what new and exciting ways they'll think of to abuse the listeners," while Johnny Loftus of AllMusic felt it was a "blazing new beginning".  Alice in Chains' vocalist/guitarist Jerry Cantrell attended a Thanksgiving party hosted by the Abbott brothers. Darrell and Paul had a demo of the first song they wrote, titled "Ashes to Ashes". Lachman insisted that it was on the "backburner" until Cantrell showed interest. The band entered the Abbott brothers' backyard studio with Cantrell to record "Ashes to Ashes". Although the song was not completed in time to be featured on "New Found Power", it was included on the Japanese version, and for the soundtrack "". To promote "New Found Power", the band toured with Hatebreed, Drowning Pool, and Unearth on the second installment of the Headbangers Ball.

Death of Dimebag Darrell.

On December 8, 2004, the band was on a tour at the Alrosa Villa nightclub in Columbus, Ohio. Moments into the concert, Nathan Gale, a deranged 25-year-old fan, climbed onto the stage, drew his 9 mm Beretta M9, and shot Dimebag Darrell five times, killing him instantly. The band's head of security Jeffery "Mayhem" Thompson then engaged in hand-to-hand combat with Gale, which allowed Paul and other members to escape. However, Thompson was shot and killed in the struggle. A fan named Nathan Bray, who attempted to give CPR to Thompson and Darrell, and Erin Halk, a U.S. Marine-turned-roadie who tried to disarm Gale while he was reloading, were both shot and killed as well. Once the police arrived, Columbus Police officer James Niggemeyer approached the stage from the side, and saw Gale holding his weapon to a hostage. Niggemeyer shot Gale once in the head with a 12-gauge Remington Model 870, killing him. Fifteen shots were fired by Gale, and an additional 36 rounds were found at his possession.  A police investigation did not find any motive behind the shooting, although Gale's mother stated that he was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia, and that he believed the Abbott brothers had stolen his lyrics while trying to steal his identity. She was unaware if her son took the medication he was given for his condition, but was proud of his military service following his discharge, and had given him the weapon that was used in the shooting. Major Jason Johnston, a Marine Corps spokesman at The Pentagon, was unable to comment on Gale's discharge.  A foundation called The Dimebag Darrell Memorial Fund was founded after the incident, which donated its profits to cover medical expenses of drum technician John Brooks and tour manager Chris Paluska, who were among those injured during the shooting. A public memorial service for Darrell took place on December 14, 2004 at Arlington Convention Center in Arlington, Texas. Many musicians paid tribute to Darrell on message boards and at live performances.  In May 2005, Niggemeyer was called before a grand jury, which was convened by the Franklin County prosecutor's office to examine the actions taken on the night of Dimebag Darrell's demise, a standard practice when deadly force is used. The jury found that there was no wrongdoing on Niggemeyer's part. Franklin County prosecutor Ron O'Brien commented, "There was little doubt [the shooting] was lawful, given the 200 eyewitnesses and the circumstances that surrounded the shooting. Nevertheless, we still have an independent body review the facts". Niggemeyer was nominated for a bravery award on the TV show "America's Most Wanted".

Aftermath.

In a 2005 interview, Damageplan manager Paul Bassman said that unreleased recordings before Darrell's death were near completion. He commented, "Vinnie Paul has said there will be a follow-up album down the road, as Dime would have wanted his music to be heard." Rumors circulated of another album, although nothing has been released.  Following the events since Dimebag Darrell's death, Paul was unsure if he wanted to continue playing music. He was invited to join the band called Hellyeah, which included members of Mudvayne and Nothingface, but declined the offer. However, bassist Jerry repeatedly called Paul, and he accepted to join the project as he thought "Everybody had their head in the right place." Hellyeah released its debut album on April 10, 2007. One week later, Zilla joined the band as its new bassist, after left due to "personal reasons". The album was recorded at Abbott's backyard studio, Chasin' Jason, where "New Found Power" was also recorded.  Vocalist Lachman joined The Mercy Clinic, which aided the grieving process. He commented, "you have to get back on the horse. You could easily let a decade go by and not do anything. I'm happy to have walked away with my life after the situation I was thrown into. But, I mean, what do you do? I'm a musician. I'm going to make music. What Dime would have told me was, 'You make music, motherfucker. Get back on it. Do what you do.' So, that's what I did." Before the shooting, Phil Anselmo stated in the December 2004 edition of "Metal Hammer" that Dimebag "deserves to be severely beaten". He apologized and said the "severely beaten" comment was a joke, although Paul requested "Metal Hammer" to provide the audio tapes to discern the nature of the comments. Paul concluded that the quote was not a joke and referred to Anselmo as the "master of lies".  A book titled "A Vulgar Display of Power: Courage and Carnage at the Alrosa Villa" was penned by author Chris Armold. For 14 months, Armold interviewed people and researched the events leading up to December 8, stating "It's not a book about rock stars, but heroes, regular guys who made the ultimate sacrifice." In his research, Armold found no evidence that the comments Anselmo made before Darrell's death had influenced Gale's actions. The book was released in 2007.  In a 2017 interview with Loudwire, Paul had stated that he had planned to release all unreleased Damageplan recordings at some point in the future, many of which have no vocals. He even stated having some of Dimebag Darrell's favorite musicians, such as Rob Halford of Judas Priest to record vocals for the songs.  Paul died on June 22, 2018, at the age of 54.

Lyrical themes and style.

According to Johnny Loftus of AllMusic, Damageplan incorporated elements of traditional heavy metal, post-grunge, metalcore, and death metal. Damageplan's sound has been described as groove metal, nu metal and thrash metal.  The lyrical process was a collaborative effort consisting of Paul, Darrell, and Lachman. Themes explored on the album included the brothers' experiences, Darrell commented, "the crumbling of one empire and then starting over... So there are a lot of lyrics about being reborn in a sense, about it being a new day, moving forward, letting go of the past and becoming something new." This is exemplified in the songs "Reborn", "Wake Up", and "Breathing New Life". "Blunt Force Trauma" is about when someone or something comes up behind you when you least expect it, "it could be a situation in your life, it could be a person you know with a beer bottle".  When writing music, the Abbott brothers suggested guitar riffs and "grooves", while Lachman added his input to modify the song's structure. The band's sound has been described by music critics to be similar to Pantera. Christine Klunk of "PopMatters" disliked the similarities and commented, "aside from a constant, driving rhythm, repetitive riffs, and unintelligible lyrics about (I'm assuming) kicking ass—there's nothing of interest to pay attention to". The song "Breathing New Life" features 180 beats-per-minute bass drum pedaling, what Vik Bansal of MusicOMH described as "exploding into a blaze of riffage and a cool chorus". Bansal was impressed with certain elements of the song such as the switch from downbeat singing to "a big chorus lodged in power chord heaven", and the incorporated groove rhythms. However, he felt Dimebag "borrow[ed]" Anthrax's guitar solo from the song "Only".

Damageplan was an American heavy metal supergroup from Dallas, Texas, formed in 2003. Following the demise of their previous group Pantera, brothers Dimebag Darrell and Vinnie Paul Abbott wanted to start a new band. The pair recruited former Diesel Machine and Halford guitarist Patrick Lachman on vocals, and later Bob Zilla on bass. Damageplan released "New Found Power", their only album, on February 10, 2004. "New Found Power" debuted at number 38 on the "Billboard" 200, selling 44,676 copies in its first week.

Damageplan byla americká groove metalová kapela která vznikla po rozpadu skupiny Pantera. Jejími členy byli Dimebag Darrell a Vinnie Paul z Pantery, Patrick Lachman (ex-Halford) a Bob Zilla.


Work.

The Marree Man geoglyph depicts a man holding either a woomera (a throwing stick once used to disperse small flocks of birds) or a boomerang (but see Plaque section below).  By December 1998, it had been noted that the outline matched, in reverse, that of the Artemision Zeus bronze raised from the bottom of the Adriatic Sea in 1928.  The lines outlining the figure were deep at the time of discovery and up to wide. The image was gradually eroded through natural processes, but because the climate is extremely dry and barren in the region, the image was still visible in 2013. While there is a layer of white chalk material slightly below the red soil, the figure was not defined to this depth.  The creation of Marree Man occurred between May 27, 1998 and June 12, 1998. By comparing images collected on those dates from NASA'a Landsat-5 satellite, the desert area where Marree Man was found goes from undisturbed to the completed figure. See image below:

Left image from May 27, 1998 Right image from June 12, 1998.

In August 2016, work was carried out to redefine the geoglyph using a grader assisted by GPS. The work resulted in an outline clearly visible from the air, matching the original. Two decades after its creation it was speculated that the work itself could not have been created without GPS technology, then in its infancy.

Discovery.

Trec Smith, a charter pilot flying between Marree and Coober Pedy in the remote north of South Australia, spotted the figure from the air on 26 June 1998. The discovery of the geoglyph fascinated Australians due to its size and the mystery surrounding how it came to be there.  Shane Anderson from the William Creek Hotel, located north-west of the town of Marree, claimed the hotel received an anonymous fax describing the location of the artwork.

Anonymous press releases.

Several anonymous press releases sent to media and local businesses in July and August 1998 led to the suggestion that the Marree Man was created by people from the United States. The releases said "your State of SA", "Queensland Barrier Reef" and mentioned Aborigines "from the local Indigenous Territories", terms not used by Australians. The press releases also mentioned the Great Serpent in Ohio, which is not well known outside the US. It was also conjectured that these features of the press releases may have been red herrings, inserted to provide an illusion of American authorship.

Preservative bottle.

On 16 July 1998, it was reported that a small glass jar had been found in a trough freshly dug at the site containing a satellite photo of Marree Man together with a note bearing a U.S. flag and references to the Branch Davidians and "Stuart's Giant".

Plaque.

In January 1999, a fax sent to officials described a dedication plaque buried south of the nose of the figure. The plaque bore an American flag, long by wide, with an imprint of the Olympic rings and bore the words,  "In honour of the land they once knew. His attainments in these pursuits are extraordinary; a constant source of wonderment and admiration".  which come from Hedley H. Finlayson's 1946 book "The Red Centre", in a section describing the hunting of wallabies with throwing sticks and with photographs of hunters without loincloths and other details seen in the "Marree Man". The book deals with hunters of the Pitjantjatjara tribe.

Suggested creator.

Bardius Goldberg, a Northern Territory artist who died in 2002 and lived at Alice Springs, has been suggested as the creator of the work. Goldberg, who was known to be interested in creating a work visible from space, refused when questioned to either confirm or deny that he had created the image.  Others have suggested that members of either the Australian Army or American soldiers stationed in Woomera are responsible.

Reactions.

Much of the public and media reaction to the discovery of the figure was positive. "The Advertiser", the state's only daily newspaper, called for the figure to be made permanent by excavating the outline down to the white chalk layer.  At the time of discovery, the area was part of a Federal Court lawsuit through the National Native Title Tribunal to determine the traditional owners. The area was claimed by both the Arabunna people and the Dieri Mitha who had been in dispute for several years. The Dieri Mitha publicly complained of harm and exploitation of the Dreamtime, calling for the image to be erased and for the artist to be prosecuted. As native title claimants, the Dieri Mitha took legal action to stop charter flights and vehicles visiting the site, prompting the state government to close the area to the public shortly after discovery. The Arabunna replied, through a solicitor, that the area covered points of archaeological interest and that the artist could be prosecuted. In May 2012, the Federal Court handed native title to the Arabunna people.  The artwork was called environmental vandalism by the former Environment Minister, Dorothy Kotz, and graffiti by the South Australian chief of Aboriginal affairs, David Ruthman.  In June 2018, adventurer Dick Smith revealed that he had had a team working on investigating the origins of Marree Man for two years to no avail and was offering a A$5,000 reward for information leading to identifying its creators. The South Australian state government subsequently formally stated that they would not pursue any legal proceedings against the creators if identified.

The Marree Man, or Stuart's Giant, is a modern geoglyph the circumstances of whose creation have not been ascertained. It appears to depict an indigenous Australian man hunting with a boomerang or stick. It lies on a plateau at Finnis Springs west of the township of Marree in central South Australia. It is just outside the Woomera Prohibited Area. The figure is tall with a perimeter of, extending over an area of about. Although it is one of the largest geoglyphs in the world (arguably second to the Sajama Lines), its origin remains a mystery, with no one claiming responsibility for its creation nor any eye-witness having been found, notwithstanding the scale of the operation required to form the outline on the plateau floor. The description "Stuart's Giant" was used in anonymous faxes sent to media as "Press Releases" in July 1998, in a reference to the explorer John McDouall Stuart. It was discovered fortuitously by a charter pilot in an overflight on 26 June 1998.

Marree Man nebo též Stuartův obr (po Johnovi McDouall Stuartovi), jak byl pojmenován v anonymní tiskové zprávě, je geoglyf objevený při letu 26. června 1998. Geoglyf zobrazuje domorodého australského muže, nejpravděpodobněji z kmene Pitjantjatjara, lovícího ptáky, nebo Wallabiho se zvláštním druhem bumerangu. Nalézá se na náhorní plošině, 60 km západně od města Marree ve střední Austrálii. Nachází se v blízkosti zakázané oblasti Woomera. Postava je 4,2 km vysoká. Je to největší známý geoglyf na světě.


Archaeology.

Phaistos was located by Thomas Abel Brimage Spratt, commander of the "Spitfire", a paddle steamer, in the Mediterranean Survey of 1853, which described the topography, settlements and monuments of Crete. Spratt followed the directions of Strabo, who said:Of the three cities that were united under one metropolis by Minos, the third, which was Phaestus, was razed to the ground by the Gortynians; it is sixty stadia distant from Gortyn, twenty from the sea, and forty from the seaport Matalum; and the country is held by those who razed it. The simple geometric problem posed by these distances from known points was solved with no difficulty by the survey. The location pinpointed was the eastern end of a hill, or ridge, rising from the middle of the Geropotamos river valley extending from the sea to the Messara Plain in an east–west direction. The hill was called Kastri ("fort", "small castle"). A military man, Spratt understood the significance of the location immediately:I thus found that Phaestus had occupied the extremity of a ridge that divides the maritime plain of Debaki from the plain of the Messara, so as to command the narrow valley of communication.  A village of 16 houses remained on the ridge, but the vestiges of fortification walls indicated a city had once existed there. A half-century later, after removing the houses, Federico Halbherr and his crew began to discover the remains of an extensive palace complex. As he had begun excavation before Arthur Evans at Knossos in 1900, he did not have the advantage of Evans' concepts of Minoan civilization nor the knowledge acquired after the decipherment of the Linear B syllabary by Michael Ventris. Excavation ended in 1904, to begin again after another half-century, in 1950. By this time it was understood that the palace had been constructed at the beginning of the Proto-Palace Period. After 1955 the place name,, "pa-i-to", interpreted as "Phaistos" (written in Mycenaean Greek), began to turn up in the Linear B tablets at Knossos, then under the Mycenaean Greeks. There was every reason to think that "pa-i-to" was located at Kastri.  No Linear B has been found at Phaistos, but tradition and the Knossos tablets suggest that Phaistos was a dependency of Knossos. Moreover, only a few pieces of Linear A have been found. As Phaistos appears to have been an administrative center, the lack of records is surprising.  In 1908, Pernier found the Phaistos Disc in the basements of the northern group of the palace. This artifact is a clay disk, dated to between 1950 BC and 1400 BC and impressed with a unique, sophisticated hieroglyphic script.  The tombs of the rulers of Phaistos were found in a cemetery 20 minutes away from the palace remains.

Bronze Age.

Phaistos was inhabited from about 4000 BC. A palace, dating from the Middle Bronze Age, was destroyed by an earthquake during the Late Bronze Age. Knossos along with other Minoan sites was destroyed at that time. The palace was rebuilt toward the end of the Late Bronze Age.  The first palace was built about 2000 BC. This section is on a lower level than the west courtyard and has a nice facade with a plastic outer shape, a cobbled courtyard, and a tower ledge with a ramp, which leads up to a higher level. The old palace was destroyed three times in period of about three centuries. After the first and second disaster, reconstruction and repairs were made, so there are distinguished three construction phases.  The Old Palace was built in the Protopalatial Period, then rebuilt twice due to extensive earthquake damage. When the palace was destroyed by earthquakes, the re-builders constructed a New Palace atop the old.  Several artifacts with Linear A inscriptions were excavated at this site. The name of the site also appears in partially deciphered Linear A texts, and is probably similar to Mycenaean 'PA-I-TO' as written in Linear B. Several kouloura structures (subsurface pits) have been found at Phaistos. Pottery has been recovered at Phaistos from in the Middle and Late Minoan periods, including polychrome items and embossing in imitation of metal work. Bronze Age works from Phaistos include bridge spouted bowls, eggshell cups, tall jars and large pithoi.  In one of the three hills of the area, remains of the middle neolithic age have been found, and a part of the palace was built during the Early Minoan period. Another two palaces seems to have been built at the Middle and Late Minoan Age. The older looks like the Minoan palace of Knossos, although this is smaller. An earthquake c. 18th century BC destroyed the palace but a larger palace of the later Minoan period was built on the ruins around 1700 BC, consisting of several rooms separated by columns.  The levels of the theater area, in conjunction with two splendid staircases, gave a grand access to the main hall of the propylaea through high doors. A twin gate led directly to the central courtyard through a wide street. The floors and walls of the interior rooms were decorated with plates of sand and white gypsum stone. Upper floors of the west sector had spacious ceremonial rooms, although their exact restoration was not possible.  A brilliant entrance from the central courtyard led to the royal apartments in the north part of the palace, with a view of the tops of Psiloritis. The rooms were constructed from alabaster and other materials. The rooms for princes were smaller and less luxurious than the rooms of the royal departments.  Around 1400 BC, the invading Achaeans destroyed Phaistos, as well as Knossos. The palace appears to have been unused thereafter, as evidence of the Mycenaean era have not been found.

Iron Age.

References to Phaistos in ancient Greek literature are quite frequent. Phaistos is first referenced by Homer as "well populated", and the Homeric epics indicate its participation in the Trojan War. The historian Diodorus Siculus indicates that Phaistos, together with Knossos and Kydonia, are the three towns that were founded by King Minos on Crete. Instead, Pausanias and Stephanus of Byzantium supported in their texts that the founder of the city was Phaestos, son of Hercules or Ropalus. The city of Phaistos is associated with the mythical king of Crete Rhadamanthys.  The site was reinhabited during the Geometric Age (8th century BC). Phaistos had its own currency and had created an alliance with other autonomous Cretan cities, and with the king of Pergamon Eumenes II. Around the end of the 3rd century BC, Phaestos was destroyed by the Gortynians and since then ceased to exist in the history of Crete. Scotia Aphrodite and goddess Leto, who was also called Phytia, were worshiped there. The people of Phaistos were distinguished for their funny adages. Epimenides, the wise man invited by the Athenians to clean the city after the Cylonian affair (Cyloneio agos) in the 6th century BC, was of Phaistian descent.

Phaistos (, ; Ancient Greek:,, Minoan: PA-I-TO?), also transliterated as Phaestos, Festos and Latin Phaestus, is a Bronze Age archaeological site at modern Faistos, a municipality in south central Crete. Ancient Phaistos was located about east of the Mediterranean Sea and south of Heraklio, the second largest city of Minoan Crete. The name Phaistos survives from ancient Greek references to a city in Crete of that name at or near the current ruins.

Faistos (řecky: Φαιστός, mykénskou řečtinou: PA-I-TO), taktéž přepisováno jako Phaistos, Phaestos, Festos nebo Phaestus, byl starověkým mínojským městem na ostrově Kréta.


Description.

Like most dinosaurs, the skeleton of "Parasaurolophus" is incompletely known. The length of the type specimen of "P. walkeri" is estimated at, and its weight is estimated at. Its skull is about long, including the crest, whereas the type skull of "P. tubicen" is over long, indicating a larger animal. Its single known forelimb was relatively short for a hadrosaurid, with a short but wide shoulder blade. The thighbone measures long in "P. walkeri" and is robust for its length when compared to other hadrosaurids. The upper arm and pelvic bones were also heavily built.  Like other hadrosaurids, it was able to walk on either two legs or four. It probably preferred to forage for food on four legs, but ran on two. The neural spines of the vertebrae were tall, as was common in lambeosaurines; tallest over the hips, they increased the height of the back. Skin impressions are known for "P. walkeri", showing uniform tubercle-like scales but no larger structures.

Skull.

The most noticeable feature was the cranial crest, which protruded from the rear of the head and was made up of the premaxilla and nasal bones. William Parks, who named the genus, hypothesized that a ligament ran from the crest to the notch to support the head, and cited the presence of a possibly pathological notch as evidence. Although this idea seems unlikely, "Parasaurolophus" is sometimes restored with a skin flap from the crest to the neck. The crest was hollow, with distinct tubes leading from each nostril to the end of the crest before reversing direction and heading back down the crest and into the skull. The tubes were simplest in "P. walkeri", and more complex in "P. tubicen", where some tubes were blind and others met and separated. While "P. walkeri" and "P. tubicen" had long crests with only slight curvature, "P. cyrtocristatus" had a short crest with a more circular profile.

Discovery and naming.

Meaning "near crested lizard", the name "Parasaurolophus" is derived from the Greek "para"/παρα "beside" or "near", "saurus"/σαυρος "lizard" and "lophos"/λοφος "crest". It is based on ROM 768, a skull and partial skeleton missing most of the tail and the hind legs below the knees, which was found by a field party from the University of Toronto in 1920 near Sand Creek along the Red Deer River in Alberta, Canada. These rocks are now known as the Campanian-age Upper Cretaceous Dinosaur Park Formation. William Parks named the specimen "P. walkeri" in honor of Sir Byron Edmund Walker, Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Royal Ontario Museum. "Parasaurolophus" remains are rare in Alberta, with only one other partial skull from (probably) the Dinosaur Park Formation, and three Dinosaur Park specimens lacking skulls, possibly belonging to the genus. In some faunal lists, there is a mention of possible "P. walkeri" material in the Hell Creek Formation of Montana, a rock unit of late Maastrichtian age. This occurrence is not noted by Sullivan and Williamson in their 1999 review of the genus, and has not been further elaborated upon elsewhere.  In 1921, Charles H. Sternberg recovered a partial skull (PMU.R1250) from what is now known as the slightly younger Kirtland Formation in San Juan County, New Mexico. This specimen was sent to Uppsala, Sweden, where Carl Wiman described it as a second species, "P. tubicen", in 1931. The specific epithet is derived from the Latin "tǔbǐcěn" "trumpeter". A second, nearly complete "P. tubicen" skull (NMMNH P-25100) was found in New Mexico in 1995. Using computed tomography of this skull, Robert Sullivan and Thomas Williamson gave the genus a monographic treatment in 1999, covering aspects of its anatomy and taxonomy, and the functions of its crest. Williamson later published an independent review of the remains, disagreeing with the taxonomic conclusions.  John Ostrom described another good specimen (FMNH P27393) from New Mexico as "P. cyrtocristatus" in 1961. It includes a partial skull with a short, rounded crest, and much of the postcranial skeleton except for the feet, neck, and parts of the tail. Its specific name is derived from the Latin "curtus" "shortened" and "cristatus" "crested". The specimen was found in either the top of the Fruitland Formation or, more likely, the base of the overlying Kirtland Formation. The range of this species was expanded in 1979, when David B. Weishampel and James A. Jensen described a partial skull with a similar crest (BYU 2467) from the Campanian-age Kaiparowits Formation of Garfield County, Utah. Since then, another skull has been found in Utah with the short/round "P. cyrtocristatus" crest morphology.

Species.

"Parasaurolophus" is known from three certain species, "P. walkeri", "P. tubicen", and "P. cyrtocristatus". All of them can be distinguished from each other, and have many differences. The first named species, therefore the type, is "P. walkeri". One certain specimen, from the Dinosaur Park Formation is referred to it, but many more are almost certainly referable. Like stated above, it is different from the other two species, with it having a simpler internal structure than "P. tubicen", a straighter crest and different internal structuring than "P. cyrtocristatus".  The next named species is "P. tubicen", which is the largest of the "Parasaurolophus" species. It lived in New Mexico, where three specimens are known, and can be differentiated from its other species. It possesses a long and straight crest, with a very complex interior compared to the other species. All known specimens of "P. tubicen" come from the De-Na-Zin Member of the Kirtland Formation. In 1961, the third species, "P. cyrtocristatus" was named by John Ostrom. Its three known specimens, have been found in the Fruitland and Kaiparowits formations from Utah and New Mexico. The second specimen, the first known from the Kaiparowits Formation, was originally unassigned to a specific taxon. Of the "Parasaurolophus" species, "P. cyrtocristatus" it is the smallest, and has the most curved crest. Because of its possession of the two above features, it has often been speculated that it was a female of "P. walkeri" or "P. tubicen", which were males, although "P. tubicen" lived approximately a million years later. As noted by Thomas Williamson, the type material of "P. cyrtocristatus" is about 72% the size of "P. tubicen", close to the size at which other lambeosaurines are interpreted to begin showing definitive sexual dimorphism in their crests (~70% of adult size). Even though many scientists have supported the possible fact of "P. cyrtocristatus" being a female, many other studies have found that it is not, because of the differences in age, distribution, and the large differences in the crest and its internal structure.  A study published in "PLoS ONE" in 2014 found that one more species could be referred to "Parasaurolophus". This study, led by Xing, found "Charonosaurus jiayensis" was actually nested deeply inside "Parasaurolophus", which created the new species "P. jiayensis". If this species is indeed inside "Parasaurolophus", then the genus lasted until the K-Pg extinction, and is known from two continents.

Classification.

As its name implies, "Parasaurolophus" was initially thought to be closely related to "Saurolophus" because of its superficially similar crest. However, it was soon reassessed as a member of the lambeosaurine subfamily of hadrosaurids—"Saurolophus" is a hadrosaurine. It is usually interpreted as a separate offshoot of the lambeosaurines, distinct from the helmet-crested "Corythosaurus", "Hypacrosaurus", and "Lambeosaurus". Its closest known relative appears to be "Charonosaurus", a lambeosaurine with a similar skull (but no complete crest yet) from the Amur region of northeastern China, and the two may form a clade Parasaurolophini. "P. cyrtocristatus", with its short, rounder crest, may be the most basal of the three known "Parasaurolophus" species, or it may represent subadult or female specimens of "P. tubicen".  The following cladogram is after the 2007 redescription of "Lambeosaurus magnicristatus" (Evans and Reisz, 2007):

Paleobiology.

Diet and feeding.

As a hadrosaurid, "Parasaurolophus" was a large bipedal/quadrupedal herbivore, eating plants with a sophisticated skull that permitted a grinding motion analogous to chewing. Its teeth were continually being replaced; they were packed into dental batteries containing hundreds of teeth, only a relative handful of which were in use at any time. It used its beak to crop plant material, which was held in the jaws by a cheek-like organ. Vegetation could have been taken from the ground up to a height of around. As noted by Bob Bakker, lambeosaurines have narrower beaks than hadrosaurines, implying that "Parasaurolophus" and its relatives could feed more selectively than their broad-beaked, crestless counterparts.

Growth.

"Parasaurolophus" is known from many adult specimens, and a juvenile described in 2013. The juvenile was discovered in the Kaiparowits Formation in 2009. Excavated by the joint expedition by The Webb Schools and Raymond M. Alf Museum of Paleontology (RAM), the juvenile has been identified as around only one year old when it died. Referred to "Parasaurolophus" sp., the juvenile, under specimen number RAM 14000, is the most complete, as well as youngest "Parasaurolophus" ever found, and measures. This individual fits neatly into the currently known "Parasaurolophus" growth stages, and lived approximately 75 million years ago. Even though no complete skull of the intermediate age between RAM 14000 and adult "Parasaurolophus" has been found yet, a partial braincase of about the right size is known. At 25% of the total adult size, the juvenile show that crest growth of "Parasaurolophus" began sooner than in related genera, such as "Corythosaurus". It has been suggested that "Parasaurolophus" adults bore such large crests, especially when compared to the related "Corythosaurus", because of this difference in age between when their crests started developing. Its age also means that "Parasaurolophus" had a very fast growth rate, which took place in about a year. The crest of the juvenile is not long and tubular like the adults, but low and hemispherical.  The skull of RAM 14000 is almost complete, with the left side only lacking a piece of the maxilla. However, the skull was split down the middle by erosion, possibly when it was resting on the bottom of a river bed. The two sides are displaced slightly, with some bones of the right being moved off the main block, also by erosion. After reconstruction, the skull viewed from the side resembles other juvenile lambeosaurines found, being roughly a trapezoid in shape.  A partial cranial endocast for RAM 14000 was reconstructed from CT scan data, the first ever for a "Parasaurolophus" of any ontogenetic stage. The endocast was reconstructed in two sections, one on the portion of the braincase articulated with the left half of the skull and the remainder on the disarticulated portion of the braincase. Their relative position was then approximated based on cranial landmarks and comparison with other hadrosaurids. Because of weathering, many of the smaller neural canals and foramina could not be identified for certain.

Cranial crest.

Many hypotheses have been advanced as to what functions the cranial crest of "Parasaurolophus" performed, but most have been discredited. It is now believed that it may have had several functions: visual display for identifying species and sex, sound amplification for communication, and thermoregulation. It is not clear which was most significant at what times in the evolution of the crest and its internal nasal passages.

Differences in crests.

As for other lambeosaurines, it is believed that the cranial crest of "Parasaurolophus" changed with age and was a sexually dimorphic characteristic in adults. James Hopson, one of the first researchers to describe lambeosaurine crests in terms of such distinctions, suggested that "P. cyrtocristatus", with its small crest, was the female form of "P. tubicen". Thomas Williamson suggested it was the juvenile form. Neither hypothesis became widely accepted. As only six good skulls, one juvenile braincase, and one recently discovered juvenile skull are known, additional material will help clear up these potential relationships. Williamson noted that in any case, juvenile "Parasaurolophus" probably had small, rounded crests like "P. cyrtocristatus", that probably grew faster as individuals approached sexual maturity. Recent restudy of a juvenile braincase previously assigned to "Lambeosaurus", now assigned to "Parasaurolophus", provides evidence that a small tubular crest was present in juveniles. This specimen preserves a small upward flaring of the frontal bones that was similar to but smaller than what is seen in adult specimens; in adults, the frontals formed a platform that supported the base of the crest. This specimen also indicates that the growth of the crest in "Parasaurolophus" and the facial profile of juvenile individuals differed from the "Corythosaurus"-"Hypacrosaurus"-"Lambeosaurus" model, in part because the crest of "Parasaurolophus" lacks the thin bony 'coxcomb' that makes up the upper portion of the crest of the other three lambeosaurines.

Rejected function hypotheses.

Many early suggestions focused on adaptations for an aquatic lifestyle, following the hypothesis that hadrosaurids were amphibious, a common line of thought until the 1960s. Thus, Alfred Sherwood Romer proposed it served as a snorkel, Martin Wilfarth that it was an attachment for a mobile proboscis used as a breathing tube or for food gathering, Charles M. Sternberg that it served as an airtrap to keep water out of the lungs, and Ned Colbert that it served as an air reservoir for prolonged stays underwater.  Other proposals were more physical in nature. As mentioned above, William Parks suggested that it was joined to the vertebrae with ligaments or muscles, and helped with moving and supporting the head. Othenio Abel proposed it was used as a weapon in combat among members of the same species, and Andrew Milner suggested that it could be used as a foliage deflector, like the helmet crest (called a 'casque') of the cassowary. Still, other proposals made housing specialized organs the major function. Halszka Osmólska suggested that it housed salt glands, and John Ostrom suggested that it housed expanded areas for olfactory tissue and much improved sense of smell of the lambeosaurines, which had no obvious defensive capabilities.  Most of these hypotheses have been discredited or rejected. For example, there is no hole at the end of the crest for a snorkeling function. There are no muscle scars for a proboscis and it is dubious that an animal with a beak would need one. As a proposed airlock, it would not have kept out water. The proposed air reservoir would have been insufficient for an animal the size of "Parasaurolophus". Other hadrosaurids had large heads without needing large hollow crests to serve as attachment points for supporting ligaments. Also, none of the proposals explain why the crest has such a shape, why other lambeosaurines should have crests that look much different but perform a similar function, how crestless or solid-crested hadrosaurids got along without such capabilities, or why some hadrosaurids had solid crests. These considerations particularly impact hypotheses based on increasing the capabilities of systems already present in the animal, such as the salt gland and olfaction hypotheses, and indicate that these were not primary functions of the crest. Additionally, work on the nasal cavity of lambeosaurines shows that olfactory nerves and corresponding sensory tissue were largely outside the portion of the nasal passages in the crest, so the expansion of the crest had little to do with the sense of smell.

Temperature regulation hypothesis.

The large surface area and vascularization of the crest also suggests a thermoregulatory function. The first to propose the cranial crests of lambeosaurines related to temperature regulation was Wheeler (1978). He proposed that there was a nerve connection between the crest and the brain, so that the latter could be cooled by the former. The next people to publish a related idea were Teresa Maryańska and Osmólska, who realized that like modern lizards, dinosaurs could have possessed salt glands, and cooled off by osmo-regulation. In 2006 Evans published an argument about the functions of lambeosaurine crests, and supported why this could be a causing factor for the evolution of the crest.

Behavioural hypotheses.

"Parasaurolophus" is often hypothesized to have used its crest as a resonating chamber to produce low frequency sounds to alert other members of a group or its species. This function was originally suggested by Wiman in 1931 when he described "P. tubicen". He noted that the crests internal structures are similar to those of a swan and theorized that an animal could use its elongated nasal passages to create noise. However, the nasal tubes of "Hypacrosaurus", "Corythosaurus", and "Lambeosaurus" are much more variable and complicated than the airway of "Parasaurolophus". A large amount of material and data supports the hypothesis that the large, tubular crest of "Parasaurolophus" was a resonating chamber. Weishampel in 1981 suggested that "Parasaurolophus" made noises ranging between the frequencies 55 and 720 Hz, although there was some difference in the range of individual species because of the crest size, shape, and nasal passage length, most obvious in "P. cyrtocristatus" (interpreted as a possible female). Hopson found that there is anatomical evidence that hadrosaurids had a strong hearing. There is at least one example, in the related "Corythosaurus", of a slender stapes (reptilian ear bone) in place, which combined with a large space for an eardrum implies a sensitive middle ear. Furthermore, the hadrosaurid lagena is elongate like a crocodilian's, indicating that the auditory portion of the inner ear was well-developed. Based on the similarity of hadrosaurid inner ears to those of crocodiles, he also proposed that adult hadrosaurids were sensitive to high frequencies, such as their offspring might produce. According to Weishampel, this is consistent with parents and offspring communicating.  Computer modeling of a well-preserved specimen of "P. tubicen", with more complex air passages than those of "P. walkeri", has allowed the reconstruction of the possible sound its crest produced. The main path resonates at around 30 Hz, but the complicated sinus anatomy causes peaks and valleys in the sound. The other main behavioral theory is that the crest was used for intra-species recognition. This means that the crest could have been used for species recognition, as a warning signal, and for other, non-sexual uses. These could have been some of the reasons crests evolved in "Parasaurolophus" and other hadrosaurids. Instead, social and physiological functions have become more supported as function(s) of the crest, focusing on visual and auditory identification and communication. As a large object, the crest has clear value as a visual signal and sets this animal apart from its contemporaries. The large size of hadrosaurid eye sockets and the presence of sclerotic rings in the eyes imply acute vision and diurnal habits, evidence that sight was important to these animals. If, as is commonly illustrated, a skin frill extended from the crest to the neck or back, the proposed visual display would have been even showier. As is suggested by other lambeosaurine skulls, the crest of "Parasaurolophus" likely permitted both species identification (such as separating it from "Corythosaurus" or "Lambeosaurus") and sexual identification by shape and size.

Paleopathology.

"Parasaurolophus walkeri" is known from one specimen which might contain a pathology. The skeleton shows a v-shaped gap or notch in the vertebrae at the base of the neck. Originally thought to be pathologic, Parks published a second interpretation of this, as a ligament attachment to support the head. The crest would attach to the gap via muscles or ligaments, and be used to support the head while bearing a frill, like predicted to exist in some hadrosaurids. One other possibility, is that during preparation, the specimen was damaged, creating the possible pathology. The notch, however, is still considered more likely to be a pathology, even though some illustrations of "Parasaurolophus" restore the skin flap.  Another possible pathology was noticed by Parks, and from around the notch. In the fourth, fifth, and sixth vertebrae, directly anterior to the notch, the neural spines were damaged. The fourth had an obvious fracture, with the other two possessing a swelling at the base of the break.

Paleoecology.

Alberta.

"Parasaurolophus walkeri", from the Dinosaur Park Formation, was a member of a diverse and well-documented fauna of prehistoric animals, including well-known dinosaurs such as the horned "Centrosaurus", "Chasmosaurus", and "Styracosaurus"; fellow duckbills "Gryposaurus" and "Corythosaurus"; tyrannosaurid "Gorgosaurus"; and armored "Edmontonia", "Euoplocephalus" and "Dyoplosaurus". It was a rare constituent of this fauna. The Dinosaur Park Formation is interpreted as a low-relief setting of rivers and floodplains that became more swampy and influenced by marine conditions over time as the Western Interior Seaway transgressed westward. The climate was warmer than present-day Alberta, without frost, but with wetter and drier seasons. Conifers were apparently the dominant canopy plants, with an understory of ferns, tree ferns, and angiosperms.  Some of the less common hadrosaurs in the Dinosaur Park Formation of Dinosaur Provincial Park, such as "Parasaurolophus", may represent the remains of individuals who died while migrating through the region. They might also have had a more upland habitat where they may have nested or fed. The presence of "Parasaurolophus" and "Kritosaurus" in northern latitude fossil sites may represent faunal exchange between otherwise distinct northern and southern biomes in Late Cretaceous North America. Both taxa are uncommon outside of the southern biome, where, along with "Pentaceratops", they are predominate members of the fauna.

New Mexico.

In the Fruitland Formation of New Mexico, "P. cyrtocristatus" shared its habitat with other ornithischians and theropods. Specifically, its contemporaries were the ceratopsian "Pentaceratops sternbergii"; the pachycephalosaur "Stegoceras novomexicanum"; and some unidentified fossils belonging to Tyrannosauridae,?"Ornithomimus",?Troodontidae,?"Saurornitholestes langstoni",?"Struthiomimus", Ornithopoda,?"Chasmosaurus",?"Corythosaurus", Hadrosaurinae, Hadrosauridae, and Ceratopsidae. When "Parasaurolophus" existed, the Fruitland Formation was swampy, positioned in the lowlands, and close to the shore of the Cretaceous Interior Seaway. The lowermost part of the Fruitland Formation is just younger than 75.56 ± 0.41 mya, with the uppermost boundary dating to 74.55 ± 0.22 mya.  Existing slightly later than the species from the Fruitland Formation, "P. tubicen" is also found in New Mexico, in the Kirtland Formation. Numerous vertebrate groups are from this formation, including fishes, crurotarsans, ornithischians, saurischians, pterosaurs, and turtles. The fishes are represented by the two species "Melvius chauliodous" and "Myledalphus bipartitus". The crurotarsans include "Brachychampsa montana" and "Denazinosuchus kirtlandicus". Ornithischians from the formation are represented by the hadrosaurids "Anasazisaurus horneri", "Naashoibitosaurus ostromi", "Kritosaurus navajovius", and "P. tubicen"; the ankylosaurids "Ahshislepelta minor" and "Nodocephalosaurus kirtlandensis"; the ceratopsians "Pentaceratops sternbergii" and "Titanoceratops ouranos"; and the pachycephalosaurs "Stegoceras novomexicanum" and "Sphaerotholus goodwini". Saurischians include the tyrannosaurid "Bistahieversor sealeyi"; the ornithomimid "Ornithomimus" sp.; and the troodontid "Saurornitholestes" "robustus". One pterosaur is known, named "Navajodactylus boerei". Turtles are fairly plentiful, and are known from "Denazinemys nodosa", "Basilemys nobilis", "Neurankylus baueri", "Plastomenus robustus". and "Thescelus hemispherica". Unidentified taxa are known, including the crurotarsan?"Leidyosuchus", and the theropods?"Struthiomimus", Troodontidae and Tyrannosauridae. The beginning of the Kirtland Formation dates to 74.55 ± 0.22 mya, with the formation ending at around 73.05 ± 0.25 mya.

Utah.

Argon-argon radiometric dating indicates that the Kaiparowits Formation was deposited between 76.6 and 74.5 million years ago, during the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous period. During the Late Cretaceous period, the site of the Kaiparowits Formation was located near the western shore of the Western Interior Seaway, a large inland sea that split North America into two landmasses, Laramidia to the west and Appalachia to the east. The plateau where dinosaurs lived was an ancient floodplain dominated by large channels and abundant wetland peat swamps, ponds and lakes, and was bordered by highlands. The climate was wet and humid, and supported an abundant and diverse range of organisms. This formation contains one of the best and most continuous records of Late Cretaceous terrestrial life in the world.  "Parasaurolophus" shared its paleoenvironment with other dinosaurs, such as dromaeosaurid theropods, the troodontid "Talos sampsoni", ornithomimids like "Ornithomimus velox", tyrannosaurids like "Albertosaurus" and "Teratophoneus", armored ankylosaurids, the duckbilled hadrosaur "Gryposaurus monumentensis", the ceratopsians "Utahceratops gettyi", "Nasutoceratops titusi" and "Kosmoceratops richardsoni" and the oviraptorosaurian "Hagryphus giganteus". Paleofauna present in the Kaiparowits Formation included chondrichthyans (sharks and rays), frogs, salamanders, turtles, lizards and crocodilians. A variety of early mammals were present including multituberculates, marsupials, and insectivorans.

Parasaurolophus (; meaning "near crested lizard" in reference to "Saurolophus") is a genus of herbivorous ornithopod dinosaur that lived in what is now North America and possibly Asia during the Late Cretaceous Period, about 76.5–73 million years ago. It was an herbivore that walked both as a biped and as a quadruped. Three species are universally recognized: "P. walkeri" (the type species), "P. tubicen", and the short-crested "P. cyrtocristatus". Additionally, a fourth species, "P. jiayensis", has been proposed, although it is more commonly placed in the separate genus "Charonosaurus". Remains are known from Alberta (Canada), New Mexico and Utah (United States), and possibly Heilongjiang, (China). The genus was first described in 1922 by William Parks from a skull and partial skeleton found in Alberta.

Parasaurolophus ("téměř jako "Saurolophus"") byl velký, asi 10 metrů dlouhý býložravý dinosaurus ze skupiny Ornithopoda. Známý je z dobře zachovaných fosilních pozůstatků mnoha jedinců různých věkových stadií. Před 76 až 73 milióny let (období svrchní křídy) obýval západ Severní Ameriky.


Humans and animals.

In the context of human vision, the term "field of view" is typically only used in the sense of a restriction to what is visible by external apparatus, like when wearing spectacles or virtual reality goggles. Note that eye movements are allowed in the definition but do not change the field of view.  If the analogy of the eye's retina working as a sensor is drawn upon, the corresponding concept in human (and much of animal vision) is the visual field. It is defined as "the number of degrees of visual angle during stable fixation of the eyes". Note that eye movements are excluded in the definition. Different animals have different visual fields, depending, among others, on the placement of the eyes. Humans have a slightly over 210-degree forward-facing horizontal arc of their visual field, while some birds have a complete or nearly complete 360-degree visual field. The vertical range of the visual field in humans is around 150 degrees.  The range of visual abilities is not uniform across the visual field, and varies from animal to animal. For example, binocular vision, which is the basis for stereopsis and is important for depth perception, covers 114 degrees (horizontally) of the visual field in humans; the remaining peripheral 40 degrees on each side have no binocular vision (because only one eye can see those parts of the visual field). Some birds have a scant 10 or 20 degrees of binocular vision.  Similarly, color vision and the ability to perceive shape and motion vary across the visual field; in humans color vision and form perception are concentrated in the center of the visual field, while motion perception is only slightly reduced in the periphery and thus has a relative advantage there. The physiological basis for that is the much higher concentration of color-sensitive cone cells and color-sensitive parvocellular retinal ganglion cells in the fovea – the central region of the retina, together with a larger representation in the visual cortex – in comparison to the higher concentration of color-insensitive rod cells and motion-sensitive magnocellular retinal ganglion cells in the visual periphery, and smaller cortical representation. Since cone cells require considerably brighter light sources to be activated, the result of this distribution is further that peripheral vision is much more sensitive at night relative to foveal vision (sensitivity is highest at around 20 deg eccentricity).

Conversions.

Many optical instruments, particularly binoculars or spotting scopes, are advertised with their field of view specified in one of two ways: angular field of view, and linear field of view. Angular field of view is typically specified in degrees, while linear field of view is a ratio of lengths. For example, binoculars with a 5.8 degree (angular) field of view might be advertised as having a (linear) field of view of 102 mm per meter. As long as the FOV is less than about 10 degrees or so, the following approximation formulas allow one to convert between linear and angular field of view. Let formula_1 be the angular field of view in degrees. Let formula_2 be the linear field of view in millimeters per meter. Then, using the small-angle approximation:

Machine vision.

In machine vision the lens focal length and image sensor size sets up the fixed relationship between the field of view and the working distance. Field of view is the area of the inspection captured on the camera’s imager. The size of the field of view and the size of the camera’s imager directly affect the image resolution (one determining factor in accuracy). Working distance is the distance between the back of the lens and the target object.

Tomography.

In tomography, the field of view is the area of each tomogram. In for example computed tomography, a volume of voxels can be created from such tomograms by merging multiple slices along the scan range.

Remote sensing.

In remote sensing, the solid angle through which a detector element (a pixel sensor) is sensitive to electromagnetic radiation at any one time, is called "instantaneous field of view" or IFOV. A measure of the spatial resolution of a remote sensing imaging system, it is often expressed as dimensions of visible ground area, for some known sensor altitude. Single pixel IFOV is closely related to concept of "resolved pixel size", ground resolved distance, ground sample distance and modulation transfer function.

Astronomy.

In astronomy, the field of view is usually expressed as an angular area viewed by the instrument, in square degrees, or for higher magnification instruments, in square arc-minutes. For reference the Wide Field Channel on the Advanced Camera for Surveys on the Hubble Space Telescope has a field of view of 10 sq. arc-minutes, and the High Resolution Channel of the same instrument has a field of view of 0.15 sq. arc-minutes. Ground-based survey telescopes have much wider fields of view. The photographic plates used by the UK Schmidt Telescope had a field of view of 30 sq. degrees. The 1.8 m (71 in) Pan-STARRS telescope, with the most advanced digital camera to date has a field of view of 7 sq. degrees. In the near infra-red WFCAM on UKIRT has a field of view of 0.2 sq. degrees and the VISTA telescope has a field of view of 0.6 sq. degrees. Until recently digital cameras could only cover a small field of view compared to photographic plates, although they beat photographic plates in quantum efficiency, linearity and dynamic range, as well as being much easier to process.

Photography.

In photography, the field of view is that part of the world that is visible through the camera at a particular position and orientation in space; objects outside the FOV when the picture is taken are not recorded in the photograph. It is most often expressed as the angular size of the view cone, as an angle of view. For a normal lens, the diagonal field of view can be calculated FOV = 2 arctan(SensorSize/2f), where "f" is focal length.

Microscopy.

In microscopy, the field of view in high power (usually a 400-fold magnification when referenced in scientific papers) is called a high-power field, and is used as a reference point for various classification schemes.

Video games.

The field of view in video games refers to the field of view of the camera looking at the game world, which is dependent on the scaling method used.

The field of view (FoV) is the extent of the observable world that is seen at any given moment. In the case of optical instruments or sensors it is a solid angle through which a detector is sensitive to electromagnetic radiation.

Zorné pole je část prostoru, které je oko nebo optický přístroj (objektiv fotoaparátu, dalekohled aj.) schopen zachytit a ze kterého do něj přicházejí světelné paprsky.


Recording.

AC/DC returned to Compass Point Studios in the Bahamas to record their ninth album, the same studio where they had recorded "Back in Black" with Robert John "Mutt" Lange in 1980. Lange had produced AC/DC's three previous releases but this time the band chose to produce themselves. On the recorded commentary on the album for the "Live at Donington" DVD, the band members state that the album was an attempt to make the band raw again, and were happy with the result. In the book "AC/DC: Maximum Rock & Roll", AC/DC engineer Tony Platt recalls:  The album is notable for its "dry" sound, with very little of the polish that is evident on their previous effort "For Those About to Rock We Salute You". In a 1983 interview that appears on ultimateguitar.com, Angus Young said of the LP, "We wanted this one as raw as possible. We wanted a natural, but big, sound for the guitars. We didn't want echoes and reverb going everywhere and noise eliminators and noise extractors."  However, the album's birth was a troubled one; after having problems with Malcolm as well as drugs and alcohol, drummer Phil Rudd was fired midway through the album's recording sessions, although he had completed his drum parts. According to Murray Engleheart's band memoir "AC/DC: Maximum Rock & Roll", Rudd had been struggling for some time; tour manager Ian Jeffrey recalls getting a phone call from a strung-out Rudd at four in the morning when the band was playing in Nebraska on the Back in Black tour and finding the drummer in his hotel room in a state of disorientated agitation. Eventually Rudd broke down crying and begged Jeffery "Don't tell Malcolm." Jeffery also reveals that Malcolm punched the drummer after he showed up two hours late for the band's show at Long Island's Nassau Coliseum and was unable to play the last song of the encore. "It was an absolutely stupid thing that finished it, but it had been brewing for a long, long time," Jeffery remembers. "He got into drugs and got burned out," Malcolm later explained to KNAC.com in August 2000. Former Procol Harum drummer B.J. Wilson was hired to help complete the recording if needed, but his contributions were not used. Platt later recalled to band biographer Jesse Fink, "It wasn't a happiest of albums. There were all sorts of tensions within the band. They were all pretty knackered by that point. It was the album that copped the backlash, really." The drum position was eventually filled by future Dio drummer Simon Wright after more than 700 auditions were held in the U.S. and UK. Simon Kirke of Free and Bad Company fame, and Paul Thompson of Roxy Music were two of the drummers auditioned. Wright appeared in the videos for "Flick of the Switch", "Nervous Shakedown", and "Guns For Hire". A second video for "Nervous Shakedown" was also shot at a pre-show rehearsal at Joe Louis Arena in Detroit. He also toured for the album, and is seen in the pro-shot video recordings from that period. The videos, which were shot in an aircraft-hangar sized area, seemed to reflect the stripped-down sound of the album and flew in the face of the growing infatuation that the music business was developing with the glitz of MTV.  The songs on "Flick of the Switch" contain much of the outlaw bravado ("Guns For Hire," "Badlands") and sexual innuendo ("Rising Power," "Deep in the Hole") that fans had come to expect from the Australian rockers. "Badlands" features guitarist Angus Young playing slide guitar, a rarity on record. The song "Bedlam in Belgium" was inspired by the band's appearance at Kontich when a riot nearly broke out when police tried to close down the show after the band allegedly ignored a strict 11 p.m. curfew. On tour in support of the album, "Guns For Hire" was the set opener. The tour resulted in more upheaval in the band's inner circle when Malcolm, frustrated by mixed reviews for "Flick of the Switch" and dwindling audience numbers in certain cities, fired tour manager Ian Jeffrey. In his Bon Scott memoir "Highway to Hell", author Clinton Walker observes:

Album cover.

The "Flick of the Switch" cover features a simple, pencil-drawn picture of Angus, illustrated by artist Brent Richardson, that he himself had originally sketched out to reflect the simple, raw approach of the album, and Atlantic Records hated it. Angus had also wanted the album graphics to be embossed the same way that "Back in Black" had been but, according to Ian Jeffrey, Atlantic did not want to spend the money because they believed the album contained no hit singles.

Reception.

Recorded shortly after their 1982 European Tour at the beginning of 1983, the album was originally released with little promotion in the US on 15 August 1983. The album reached #4 in UK and #15 in the US, and has been certified platinum by the RIAA. In his original "Rolling Stone" review, David Fricke noted, "Produced by the band, "Flick of the Switch" isn't quite the monster blowout that 1980's "Back in Black" was, and the Youngs' retooling of old riffs for new hits also teeters on self-plagiarism at times." Steve Huey of "AllMusic" observes, "As perhaps indicated by the record's idiotic original title, the utterly generic "I Like to Rock", AC/DC seemed to be running out of ideas at an alarming rate, and their record sales began to reflect that fact." Malcolm Young later said of the LP, "It was thrown together real quick. I wouldn't say it's a great album..."

Flick of the Switch is the ninth studio album by Australian hard rock band AC/DC. Released in 1983, it followed the highly successful "Back in Black" and "For Those About to Rock" albums. "Flick of the Switch" is the third AC/DC album to feature lead vocalist Brian Johnson, and last to feature drummer Phil Rudd before his eleven-year break from the band. It is the band's eighth internationally released studio album, the ninth to be released in their native Australia.

Flick of the Switch je album australské hard rockové kapely AC/DC nahrané a vydané v roce 1983. Album se umístilo na čtvrtém místě britského a na patnáctém místě amerického žebříčku, ačkoliv bylo po vydání kritikou považováno za zklamání.


Development.

The Let L-200 Morava light twin-engine transport was preceded in production at the Let factory by the license-built Aero Ae 45. In 1955 the newly created design team led by Ladislav Smrcek of the Czechoslovak State Aircraft Factory decided to proceed with a proprietary design for a more modern twin with seating capacity of five and powered by a pair of then new 210 hp Avia M 337 engines, but as they were not yet available, the prototype made do with the less powerful Walter Minor 6-III engines of 160 hp each. While maintaining similar characteristics of western twin engine aircraft of the time, updated features of the Morava included twin tails, standard thermal wing de-icing equipment and inverted inline engines.  Three prototypes were built. The first, designated XL-200 (OK-LNA) made its maiden flight on 9 April 1957. It was followed in flight testing by the second prototype (OK-LNB) while the third was used for static testing. The aircraft sported clean, elegant lines. During the same year the factory built a run of 10 pre-production L-200s, one of these aircraft undergoing government flight testing in 1958. The program was successful, and the airplane was ordered into full-scale production. One L-200 was converted into a prototype of the M-337-powered production model L-200A. This aircraft incorporated minor changes, consisting mostly of new two-blade V-410 propellers, a cockpit lowered by 43mm, a modified tailfin design as well as longer engine nacelles. It was completed in 1959 and shown at the Paris Air Show in July of that year. The aircraft underwent government trials in the fall of 1959, having been fitted with M-337 engines. The trials once again proved successful and were completed the following July. The first production L-200A took to the skies in February 1960.  L-200B and C models were not produced. The second production variant was the L-200D, modified according to Soviet Aeroflot demands. It was fitted with new three-blade propellers V-506 of a smaller diameter and some minor improvements, such as dust filters. It also received more comprehensive navigation equipment. The prototype (OK-NIA) was converted from the L-200A prototype in 1960 and tested in 1961-1963.  In all, 367 L-200s were built by 1964, including 3 prototypes and 197 L-200D (eight L-200A and the L-200A prototype were converted to L-200D as well). 5 aircraft were manufactured from parts by Libis in Yugoslavia.  A further development was 6-place L-210 (also known as L-201; registration OK-PHB), converted from one L-200D in 1966, powered with 245 hp M-338 engines, but it was not ordered by the airlines and was not produced.

Operational Service.

The pre-series aircraft L-200 were distributed for testing: 5 to the Czechoslovak airline Agrolet (OK-MEA - MEE), 2 to the Czechoslovak Air Force and 2 to Aeroflot in the USSR.  Aeroflot, who used them as air taxis, was the largest single user of Moravas - 68 L-200A and 113 L-200D, final deliveries taking place in 1966. In the 1970s however, the Soviet Union sold or withdrew its aircraft from use, in favour of indigenous designs.  About 100 Moravas were used for civilian purposes in Czechoslovakia by aeroclubs Svazarm (about 50), the airlines Agrolet (from 1969 Slov-Air) and Czechoslovak Airlines (45) and by businesses, such as Škoda. 20 were used by the Czechoslovak Air Force (16 of which L-200A), among others, for training. About 50 were sold to Poland, where they were used mostly as air ambulances and in aeroclubs. Some other countries had smaller fleets of Moravas.  During the Cold War Era, not many light aircraft were exported from behind the Iron Curtain. 144 L-200A were exported to 15 countries. They were used in Australia, Argentina, Cuba, Hungary, West Germany, Great Britain, Egypt, India, Italy, Poland, South Africa, USSR and Yugoslavia. L-200D were exported to Bulgaria, Cuba, Egypt, France, Hungary, GDR, Great Britain, India, Indonesia, Italy, Poland, Switzerland, Sweden, USSR and Yugoslavia.  Small number of Moravas are still used (as of 2008), mainly in Czech Republic, Slovakia Poland and Ukraine.

The Let L-200 Morava is a two-engine touring and light passenger aircraft of the 1960s, designed and produced by Let Kunovice in the Czech Republic.

Let L-200 Morava je československý dvoumotorový letoun s dvojitou SOP a zatahovacím podvozkem příďového typu. Pro svou oblíbenost a kvalitu je v současnosti využíván zejména pro vyhlídkové lety.


Design and development.

Development began 1946 and was accomplished by the technical designers Jiři Bouzek, Ondřej Němec and František Vik. The design bears a superficial resemblance, viewed nose-on, to the German Siebel Si 204 which, among other German aircraft like the Messerschmitt Bf 109, were produced in Czechoslovakia while under German occupation. The prototype (registered OK-BCA) flew for the first time on 21 July 1947 and the second, registered OK-CDA, one year later. Flight testing ran without incidents and the type was released for series production in 1948. The model number of "45" was not a continuation of Aero's pre-war numeration scheme, but a reference to the 4/5 seats in the aircraft.

Description.

The Aero 45 had a sleek, teardrop-shaped fuselage, with a rounded, extensively-glazed nose affording excellent visibility. It had a low wing on which the engine nacelles were mounted, and a conventional tail. The main undercarriage was retractable but the tailwheel was fixed.

Operational history.

Ae-45 prototypes were widely advertised abroad. In August 1949 Jan Anderle won the Norton Griffiths Race in Great Britain (Ae-45 registration OK-DCL). They also set several international records. As a result, apart from Eastern Bloc countries, the plane was also bought by Italy and Switzerland. On 10–11 August 1958 Dr. Pier Paolo Brielli flew an Italian Ae-45 3000 kilometers from South America to Dakar across the southern Atlantic (as the first Czechoslovak-built aircraft). In 1981 Jon Svensen flew Ae-45S from Europe to the USA.  This type was used in Czechoslovakia and was exported to the People's Republic of China, East Germany, France, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Romania, Soviet Union and Switzerland. Hungary was a major customer, where the aircraft was known as the "Kócsag" (Hungarian: "Egret").

The Aero 45 was a twin-piston engined civil utility aircraft produced in Czechoslovakia after World War II. Aero Vodochody produced the aircraft in 1947–1951, after which the Let Kunovice rolled out these planes until 1961. In 1958 the Ae-45S became the first Czechoslovak plane to cross the Atlantic Ocean. It was the first product of the nation's postwar aviation industry and proved a great success, with many of the 590 produced being exported.

Aero Ae 45 je československé celokovové dvoumotorové aerotaxi, které se zejména v padesátých letech proslavilo v mnoha zemích světa. V letech 1947-1951 vyrábělo tyto letouny Aero Vodochody, poté ho do roku 1961 vystřídal Let Kunovice. Aero Ae-45S bylo první československé letadlo, které roku 1958 překonalo Atlantský oceán.


Paternity.

The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" reports that Harold said that he was a son of Cnut the Great and Ælfgifu of Northampton, ""although it was not true"". Florence of Worcester (12th century) elaborates on the subject. Claiming that Ælfgifu wanted to have a son by the king but was unable to, she secretly adopted the newborn children of strangers and pretended to have given birth to them. Harold was reportedly the son of a cobbler, while his brother Svein Knutsson was the illegitimate son of a priest. She deceived Cnut into recognizing both children as his own. Harriet O'Brien doubts that Cnut, the shrewd politician who "masterminded the bloodless takeover of Norway" could have been deceived in such a way. She suspects that the tale started out as a popular myth, or intentional defamation presumably tailored by Emma of Normandy, the other wife of Cnut and rival to Ælfgifu.

Harthacnut's reign.

Upon the death of Cnut on 12 November 1035, Harold's younger half-brother Harthacnut, the son of Cnut and his queen Emma of Normandy, was the legitimate heir to the thrones of both the Danes and the English. Harthacnut, however, was unable to travel to his coronation in England because his Danish kingdom was under threat of invasion by King Magnus I of Norway and King Anund Jacob of Sweden. England's magnates favored the idea of installing Harold Harefoot temporarily as regent or joint monarch, due to the difficulty of Harthacnut's absence, and despite the opposition of Godwin, the Earl of Wessex, and the Queen, he eventually wore the crown. There is some dispute in primary sources (the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle") about Harold's initial role. Versions E and F mention him as regent, the others as co-ruler.  Ian Howard points out that Cnut had been survived by three sons: Svein, Harold, and Harthacnut. The "Encomium Emmae Reginae" also describes Edward the Confessor and Alfred Aetheling as the sons of Canute, though the modern term would be step-sons. Harold could claim the regency or kingship because he was the only one of the five present in England in 1035. Harthacnut was reigning in Denmark, and Svein had joined him there following his deposition from the Norwegian throne, while Edward and Alfred were in Normandy. Harold could reign in the name of his absent brothers, with Emma rivaling him as a candidate for the regency.  The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" ignores the existence of Svein, or his claim to the throne, which Howard considers as evidence of the relative entries being unreliable, of failing to give a complete picture. The Heimskringla of Snorri Sturluson claims that Svein and Harthacnut had agreed to share the kingdom between them. This agreement would include Denmark and (probably) England. Snorri quotes older sources on the subject and could be preserving valuable details.

Reign.

Assumption of the throne.

Harold reportedly sought coronation as early as 1035. According to the "Encomium Emmae Reginae", however, Æthelnoth, Archbishop of Canterbury, refused to crown Harold Harefoot. Coronation by the Archbishop would be a legal requirement to become a king. Æthelnoth reportedly placed the sceptre and crown on the altar of a temple, possibly that of the Canterbury Cathedral. Offering to consecrate Harold without using any of the royal regalia would have been an empty honour. He refused to remove the items from the altar and forbade any other bishop from doing so. The tale goes on that Harold failed to sway Æthelnoth, as both bribes and threats proved ineffectual. The despairing Harold reportedly rejected Christianity in protest. He refused to attend church services while uncrowned, preoccupying himself with hunting and trivial matters.  The "Encomium" stays silent on an event reported by the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" and other sources. Harold was accepted as monarch in a Witenagemot held at Oxford. His chief supporter in the council was Leofric, Earl of Mercia, while the opposition was led by Godwin, Earl of Wessex. There is evidence that Ælfgifu of Northampton was attempting to secure her son's position through bribes to the nobles. In 1036, Gunhilda of Denmark, sister to Harthcanut and half-sister to Harold, married Henry III, King of Germany. On this occasion Immo, a priest serving at the court of the Holy Roman Empire, wrote a letter to Azecho, Bishop of Worms. It included information on the situation in England, with messengers from there reporting that Ælfgifu was gaining the support of the leading aristocrats through pleas and bribery, binding them to herself and Harold by oaths of loyalty.  Initially the Kingdom of England was divided between the two half-brothers. Harold ruled the areas north of the River Thames, supported by the local nobility. The southern nobility under Godwin and Emma continued to be ruled in the name of the absent Harthacnut. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" reports that Godwin and the leading men of Wessex opposed the rule of Harold for ""...as long as they could, but they could not do anything against it. "" With the north at least on Harold's side, in adherence to the terms of a deal, which Godwin was part of, Emma was settled in Winchester, with Harthacnut's huscarls. Harold soon "sent and had taken from her all the best treasures" of Cnut the Great.  The situation could not last for long, and Godwin eventually switched sides. William of Malmesbury asserts that Godwin had been overwhelmed ""in power and in numbers"" by Harold. In 1037, Emma of Normandy fled to Bruges, Flanders, and Harold "was everywhere chosen as king". The details behind the event are obscure. The account of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", version E, jumps from Harold being a mere regent to Harold being the sole king. Versions C and D do not even make a distinction between the two phases. Ian Howard theorises that the death of Svein Knutsson could have strengthened Harold's position. He went from being the second surviving son of Cnut to being the eldest living, with Harthacnut still absent and unable to press his claim to the throne.  Harold himself is somewhat obscure; the historian Frank Stenton considered it probable that his mother Ælfgifu was "the real ruler of England" for part or all of his reign. Kelly DeVries points that during the High Middle Ages, royal succession in Northern Europe was determined by military power. The eldest son of a king could have a superior right of inheritance but still lose the throne to a younger brother, or other junior claimant, possessing greater military support. Harold managed to win the throne against the superior claim of Harthacnut in this way. The 11th century provides other similar examples. Magnus I of Norway (reigned 1035–1047), who wasn't a warlord, had reigned for more than a decade when his uncle Harald Hardrada (reigned 1047–1066) challenged his rule. With Harald being a famous military leader, his claim would end Magnus' reign early. Baldwin VI, Count of Flanders (reigned 1067–1070) was effectively succeeded by his brother Robert I (reigned 1071–1093), rather than his own sons. Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy (reigned 1087–1106) lost the throne of England to his younger brothers William II (reigned 1087–1100) and Henry I (reigned 1100–1135).  With the Kingdom of England practically owned by Harold, Harthacnut could not even approach without securing sufficient military strength. His decision to remain in Denmark probably points to him lacking sufficient support, though he would certainly wait for an opportunity to forcefully assert his claim and depose his half-brother. Harold reigned as sole king from 1037 to 1040. There are few surviving documents about events of his reign. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" mostly covers church matters, such as the deaths and appointments of bishops and archbishops. There is, however, record of a skirmish between the Anglo-Saxons and the Welsh in 1039. The named casualties were Eadwine (Edwin), brother to Leofric, Earl of Mercia, Thurkil, and Ælfgeat. But there are no other details concerning this event. Also in 1039, there is mention of a great gale, again with no details.

Return of Ælfred and Edward.

In 1036, Ælfred Ætheling, son of Emma by the long-dead Æthelred, returned to the kingdom from exile in the Duchy of Normandy with his brother Edward the Confessor, with some show of arms. Their motivation is uncertain. William of Poitiers claimed that they had come to claim the English throne for themselves. Frank Barlow suspected that Emma had invited them, possibly to use them against Harold. If so, it could mean that Emma had abandoned the cause of Harthacnut, probably to strengthen her own position. But that could have inspired Godwin to also abandon the lost cause.  The "Encomium Emmae Reginae" claims that Harold himself had lured them to England, having sent them a forged letter, supposedly written by Emma. The letter reportedly both decried Harold's behaviour against her, and urged her estranged sons to come and protect her. Barlow and other modern historians suspect that this letter was genuine. Ian Howard argued that Emma not being involved in a major political manoeuvre would be ""out of character for her"", and the Encomium was probably trying to mask her responsibility for a blunder. William of Jumièges reports that earlier in 1036, Edward had conducted a successful raid of Southampton, managing to win a victory against the troops defending the city and then sailing back to Normandy ""richly laden with booty"". But the swift retreat confirms William's assessment that Edward would need a larger army to seriously claim the throne.  With his bodyguard, according to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", Ælfred intended to visit his mother, Emma, in Winchester, but he may have made this journey for reasons other than a family reunion. As the "murmur was very much in favour of Harold", on the direction of Godwin (now apparently on the side of Harold Harefoot), Ælfred was captured. Godwin had him seized and delivered to an escort of men loyal to Harefoot. He was transported by ship to Ely, blinded while on board. He died in Ely soon after due to the severity of the wounds, his bodyguard similarly treated. The event would later affect the relationship between Edward and Godwin, the Confessor holding Godwin responsible for the death of his brother.  The failed invasion shows that Harold Harefoot, as a son and successor to Cnut, had gained the support of Anglo-Danish nobility, which violently rejected the claims of Ælfred, Edward, and (by extension) the Aethelings. The House of Wessex had lost support among the nobility of the Kingdom. It might also have served as a turning point in the struggle between Harold and Emma that resulted in Emma's exile.

Death.

Harold died at Oxford on 17 March 1040 at the young age of 24, just as Harthacnut was preparing an invasion force of Danes, and was buried at Westminster Abbey. His body was subsequently exhumed, beheaded, and thrown into a fen bordering the Thames when Harthacnut assumed the throne in June 1040. The body was subsequently recovered by fishermen, and resident Danes reportedly had it reburied at their local cemetery in London. The body was eventually buried in a church in the City of Westminster, which was fittingly named St. Clement Danes. A contradictory account in the "Knýtlinga saga" (13th century) reports Harold buried in the city of Morstr, alongside his half-brother Harthacnut and their father Cnut. While mentioned as a great city in the text, nothing else is known of Morstr.The Heimskringla by Snorri Sturluson reports Harold Harefoot buried at Winchester, again alongside Cnut and Harthacnut.  The cause of Harold's death is uncertain. Katherine Holman attributes the death to "a mysterious illness". An Anglo-Saxon charter attributes the illness to divine judgment. Harold had reportedly claimed Sandwich for himself, thereby depriving the monks of Christchurch. Harold is described as lying ill and in despair at Oxford. When monks came to him to settle the dispute over Sandwich, he "lay and grew black as they spoke". The context of the event was a dispute between Christchurch and St Augustine's Abbey, which took over the local toll in the name of the king. There is little attention paid to the illness of the king. Harriet O'Brien feels this is enough to indicate that Harold died of natural causes, but not to determine the nature of the disease. The Anglo-Saxons themselves would consider him elf-shot (attacked by elves), their term for any number of deadly diseases. Michael Evans points out that Harold was only one of several youthful kings of pre-Conquest England to die following short reigns. Others included Edmund I (reigned 939–946, murdered at age 25), Eadred (reigned 946–955, died at age 32), Eadwig (reigned 955–959, died at age 19), Edmund Ironside (reigned 1016, murdered at age 26), and Harthacnut (reigned 1040–1042, who would die at age 24). Evans wonders whether the role of king was dangerous in this era, more so than in the period after the Conquest, or whether hereditary diseases were in effect, since most of these kings were members of the same lineage, the House of Wessex.  It is unclear why a king would have been buried at the Abbey. The only previous royals reportedly buried there were Sæberht of Essex and his wife Æthelgoda. Emma Mason speculates that Cnut had built a royal residence in the vicinity of the Abbey, or that Westminster held some significance to the Danish Kings of England, which would also explain why Harthacnut would not allow a usurper to be buried there. The lack of detail in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" implies that, for its compilers, the main point of interest was not the burial site, but the exhumation of the body. Harriet O'Brien theorises that the choice of location might simply reflect the political affiliation of the area, the area of Westminster and nearby London being a power base for Harold.  A detailed account of the exhumation appears in the writings of John of Worcester (12th century). The group tasked with the mission was reportedly led by Ælfric Puttoc, Archbishop of York, and Godwin, Earl of Wessex. The involvement of such notable men would have had a significance of its own, giving the event an official nature and avoiding secrecy. Emma Mason suspects that this could also serve as a punishment for Godwine, who had served as a chief supporter of Harold, and was now tasked with the gruesome task.

Offspring.

Harold may have had a wife, Ælfgifu, and a son, Ælfwine, who became a monk on the continent when he was older – his monastic name was Alboin. Ælfwine/Alboin is recorded in 1060 and 1062 in charters from the Abbey Church of Saint Foy in Conques, which mention him as son of ""Heroldus rex fuit Anglorum"" (Latin: Harold, who was king of the English People). Harold Harefoot is the most likely father as the only other king Harold was Harold Godwinson, who would not rise to the throne until 1066. Either way, an underage boy would be unable to claim the throne in 1040. His possible hereditary claims would not be enough to gain the support of the leading nobles against the adult Harthacnut.  Ælfgifu of Northampton disappears with no trace after 1040. According to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", Harold Harefoot ruled for four years and sixteen weeks, by which calculation he would have begun ruling two weeks after the death of Cnut.

Reputation.

The "Prose Brut chronicle" was an Anglo-Norman work, covering British and English monarchs from Brut (Brutus of Troy) to the death of Henry III in 1272. It was probably written during the reign of Edward I (reigned 1272–1307), though the oldest surviving manuscript dates to 1338. The text often includes notable errors. The original author remains unknown, but there were a number of continuations by different hands, extending the story to the Battle of Halidon Hill (1333). The material on Harold Harefoot is rather unflattering. The author considered both Harold and Harthacnut to have been sons of Cnut and Emma of Normandy. He proceeds to portray Harold as follows: ""...He went astray from the qualities and conduct of his father King Cnut, for he cared not at all for knighthood, for courtesy, or for honour, but only for his own will..."". He accuses Harold of driving his own mother Emma out of England, by the advice of Godwin, Earl of Wessex. He paints Harthacnut in a more favorable light.  The "Knýtlinga saga" (13th century) considers Harold Harefoot to be the oldest son of Cnut and Emma of Normandy, though its author frequently misrepresents family relationships. Harthacnut and Gunhilda of Denmark are regarded in the text as his younger siblings. The narrative has Harold and Harthacnut dividing the realms of their father in an agreement. It also features Harold offering hospitality to his half-brother Edward the Confessor, but they were actually step-brothers, and Edward only settled in England following the death of Harold.

Harold I ( 1016 – 17 March 1040), also known as Harold Harefoot, was King of England from 1035 to 1040. Harold's nickname "Harefoot" is first recorded as "Harefoh" or "Harefah" in the twelfth century in the history of Ely Abbey, and according to some late medieval chroniclers it meant that he was fleet of foot.

Harold I., někdy také Harold Harefoot (cca 1015 – 17. března 1040) byl králem Anglie od 12. listopadu 1035 do 17. března 1040. Jeho přídomek Harefoot ("rychlonohý") byl odvozen z jeho rychlosti a schopnosti lovit.