Career.

Geoffrey was raised in the village of Chepkorio in Kenya's Rift Valley Province, he first competed abroad in 2010, when he travelled to Finland and set track bests of 3:48.15 minutes for the 1500 metres and 7:54.15 minutes over 3000 metres. The following year he took to the Kenya cross country circuit and won at the Discovery Kenya Cross Country in Eldoret, defeating Essa Ismail Rashed. At the Kenyan Cross Country Championships a month later, he ran in the junior section and finished in fourth, which was enough to earn him a place on the team for the 2011 IAAF World Cross Country Championships. The world competition proved to be a pivotal moment for Kamworor's career, although it was his teammate Isiah Kiplangat Koech who was the pre-race favourite. The Kenyans were not given any team instructions and Kamworor reacted by taking the lead immediately with a very fast start. He never slipped out of the lead and out ran the field on the final lap to take the world junior title.  A month after his cross country victory, he entered the Berlin Half Marathon and won in a time of 1:00:38 hours. In June he competed in the 2011 IAAF Diamond League circuit: he set a 5000 metres best of 13:12.23 minutes at the Adidas Grand Prix in New York, then improved his 10,000 metres time to 27:06.35 minutes at the Prefontaine Classic. He knocked over half a minute off his half marathon best to win the Lille Half Marathon that September. Kamworor was employed as a pacemaker for the 2011 Berlin Marathon and his work resulted in a new world record for Patrick Makau. In his final outing of the year he ended the Delhi Half Marathon as runner-up to Lelisa Desisa after a sprint finish, although his time of 59:31 minutes made him the seventh fastest over the distance that year.  Kamworor marked his entrance into the senior cross country ranks with a win at the 2012 Cross Internacional de Itálica in Seville. He was the runner-up at the Elgoibar Cross Country behind Paul Tanui the following week. He set a half marathon best at the CPC Loop Den Haag in March, recording a time of 59:26 minutes for fourth place in a high calibre competition. He was enlisted to pace the Rotterdam Marathon and led the runners quicker than the world record pace up to 30 km. He won the World 10K Bangalore title, beating a large field of prominent runners. His marathon debut, not as a pacemaker, came in September, where he ran a fast time of 2:06:12 hours to claim third place at the 2012 Berlin Marathon.  In the 2013 season he ran a series of half and full marathons. He won the Ras Al Khaimah Half Marathon with a time of 58:54, a new personal best and just two seconds outside the course record. He was the winner of the Bogotá Half Marathon in July and was runner-up to Atsedu Tsegay at the Delhi Half Marathon. He placed fourth at the Rotterdam Marathon (2:09:12 hours) and his best performance that year was a run of 2:06:26 hours for third at the 2013 Berlin Marathon.  He won the 2017 New York City Marathon with a time of 2:10:53. He beat fellow Kenyan, Wilson Kipsang, who placed second, just three seconds behind him.  In 2018, he won his third straight half marathon world championship in Valencia in 1:00:02. Also in 2018 Kamworor placed third in the 2018 New York City Marathon with a time of 2:06:26 behind the first and second place Ethiopian runners Lelisa Desisa and Shura Kitata.  Kamworor won the Copenhagen Half Marathon on 15 September 2019 in a world record time of 58:01. In November, he won the 2019 New York City Marathon with a time of 2:08:13, his second time winning the race in three years.

Geoffrey Kipsang Kamworor (born 22 November 1992) is a Kenyan long-distance runner who competes in cross country, marathon, and half marathon races. He was the 2011 World Junior Cross Country Champion. Kipsang won the IAAF World Half Marathon Championships three times in a row from 2014-2018. In the IAAF World Cross Country Championships he won in 2015 and 2017.

Geoffrey Kipsang Kamworor (* 22. listopadu 1992) je keňský vytrvalostní běžec a v současné době držitel světového rekordu na půlmaratonské trati časem 58:01 min.


Features.

Regulations.

Motorways in Ireland have a set of restrictions, which prohibit certain traffic from using the road. The following classes of traffic are not allowed on Irish motorways:  Rules for driving on motorways include the following:  The general motorway speed limit is 120 km/h (75 mph).

Specification.

"For more on motorway specification in general, view this motorway article."  Motorways in Ireland are generally constructed to high-quality dual carriageway standard – with sightlines, curves and elevation designed for 120 km/h speeds. Until recently, all motorways were built with wide medians in the centre, which typically have a wire or steel barrier. The more recent schemes have narrow medians, only 3 metres in width, with a concrete barrier in the middle. These narrow-median schemes also have reduced carriageway width – a typical narrow-median motorway cross section has two 3.5-metre running lanes, a 2.5-metre hard shoulder and a 1.5-metre central reserve in each direction whereas a typical wide median motorway has 3.75-metre running lanes and a 3-metre hard shoulder. Ireland has only a small amount of D3M (motorway with three lanes in each direction). The M50 is the most notable example, having been upgraded in parts from a two-lane motorway, to a three or four lane motorway in each direction.  Apart from terminal junctions, motorways can only be accessed using grade-separated junctions. These typically take the form of roundabout interchanges for higher-capacity junctions, or dumbbell interchanges – which are a variant on the diamond-style interchange. – for lower-trafficked interchanges. A number of other types of junction are also used on the motorway network. The M4/M6 and M7/M9 junctions use a variant of the trumpet-style interchange while the M50/N7 and M50/N4 interchanges use partial cloverleaf junctions.

Safety.

Motorways in Ireland include several safety features not found on other classes of road. The most notable include the presence of a continuous hard-shoulder, use of crash barriers, superior lighting and provision of emergency phones at regular intervals. Some motorway schemes include deflectors to provide protection at interchanges.

Signage.

Motorway signage in Ireland is blue, and is similar in design to UK signage. Route numbers use the Motorway font, and text uses an Irish variant of the Transport Medium typeface (officially described as italic, but more correctly oblique).

Route number inheritance.

In Ireland all motorways form part of a national route. The M50 was the only motorway that initially did not form part of an existing national primary route, though it was designated as the national primary route N50 in 1994.  In most cases, motorways have been built as a by-pass of a road previously forming the national road (e.g. M7 by-passing roads previously forming the N7). The by-passed roads are then generally reclassified as regional roads. Under Irish legislation (the "Roads Act 1993"), motorways are sections of roads with special regulations and they are signposted with the M prefix to indicate that they are under motorway regulations.

Present network.

The following table shows a list of motorways currently open in Ireland.

History.

1983–1989.

In 1983, the first sections of Irish motorway were opened: a short section of M7 bypassing Naas and the first stretch of M1 (part of which has now been redesignated M50). The M1 was later extended in 1985 to Dublin Airport.

1990–1999.

Ireland's motorway network began to expand significantly between 1990 and 1999. The first of the projects completed in this period was the western section of the M50, linking the N7, N4 and N3 together in 1990. This was quickly followed by the M11 Bray/Shankill bypass in 1991. After this there followed a lull in construction after what had been a busy few years in motorway construction by then Irish road building standards. 1993 saw an extension to the M7, continuing from the Naas Bypass and providing a bypass of the town of Newbridge, as well as the M9 Kilcullen spur. In addition, another small section of M1, a bypass of Dunleer in County Louth was opened. The Leixlip to Kilcock motorway was completed in 1994, forming part of the M4. In 1995 there were no new motorways opened and in 1996 only the northern section of the M50 was opened, linking the existing motorway to the N2 and M1. The Portlaoise bypass opened as M7 in 1997 and like the M1 Dunleer bypass, seemed very isolated compared to the rest of the network which was concentrated around Dublin. 1998 featured the opening of another short piece of M1, this time to the south of Balbriggan, modern day junctions 5 and 7. In 1999 however, there were no new sections of motorway opened.

2000–2010.

The first decade of the twenty-first century saw a major expansion in the construction of new motorways in Ireland, after an initially slow start. There were no new motorways opened in 2000 but another section of the M1, extending the Dunleer bypass northwards to the south of Dundalk (junction 16), and the M50 Southern Cross Route were opened in 2001. Continuing the quiet period, 2002 also saw no new motorway in Ireland, but 2003 was a big year. Finally the various sections of M1 were joined together, creating continuous motorway from Dublin to just south of Dundalk. A key part of this route was the Drogheda bypass which was tolled. Also in 2003, the M7 was extended westwards from Newbridge to also bypass Kildare (up to modern day junction 13). A year later and this had been extended further so that both sections of M7 were joined. This provided continuous motorway from Naas to Portlaoise.  By 2005, projects were beginning to be completed faster and in this year the M4 was extended from Kilcock to Kinnegad, this section of motorway having a toll applied to it, one of the first PPP schemes to be trialled in Ireland. The M1 Dundalk bypass was also finished, meaning that there was now a full motorway link on the Dublin to Belfast route virtually as far as the border. Finally in 2005, the M50 was extended to link up to the M11, providing a full western bypass of the capital. In 2006, the M8 Fermoy to Watergrasshill motorway was opened, another section that was tolled. Also a section of what would become M6 was completed, going westwards from the M4 at Kinnegad to Tyrrellspass, the road was opened as N6 and was the first section of road to be completed that would be affected by the Roads Act 2007 and motorway redesignation. In 2007 the same road was extended by some 10 km (6 miles) to join with the N52 north of Tullamore, still opened as N6 as the first tranche of motorway redesignations had only just been submitted.  2008 was one of the most important years for Irish motorways, with a large section of M8 opened, making it the longest motorway in the country. Stretching from Urlingford to just east of Mitchelstown, the motorway opened in various sections, the first being the Cashel bypass, which opened in 2004, and which was followed by the Cashel to Mitchelstown section, both of which were open before the redesignation to motorway came into effect on 24 September 2008. The Urlingford to Cashel section opened later on in the year and so became motorway immediately. Also opened in 2008 was the M9 Carlow bypass which was also open to traffic before the redesignation came into effect. Finally, the M6 was extended to the Athlone bypass and Ireland's motorway network was greatly expanded.  2009 was another major milestone in the development of the Irish motorway network, with many projects under construction finished by the end of the year. Redesignation of High-Quality Dual-Carriageway sections of National Primary routes to motorway took effect on 28 August 2009, further expanding the network. On 18 December 2009 the M6 was opened (Dublin-Galway direct) it is 194 km (120 miles) of motorway. The M9 (linking Dublin to Carlow) was opened on Monday 21 December 2009 and was expanded in March 2010 to link Dublin to Waterford directly. The M9 was fully completed with the opening of the Carlow to Knocktopher section on 9 September 2010.  2010: M3: 61 km (38 miles) of motorway in County Meath opened on 4 June 2010.  M7: Nenagh – Limerick, 38 km (24 miles) long, opened in three stages, being fully opened on 28 September 2010.  M7: Limerick – Shannon motorway tunnel, 10 km (6 miles) long, opened ahead of schedule on 27 July 2010.  M7: Castletown – Nenagh, 36 km (22 miles) long, opened 22 December 2010.  M7/M8: Portlaoise – Castletown, Portlaoise to Cullahill, 40 km (25 miles), opened on 28 May 2010.  M9: Carlow – Knocktopher, 40 km (25 miles) long, opened 9 September 2010.  M9: Knocktopher – Waterford, 24 km (15 miles) long, opened 22 March 2010.  M50: improvements for Dublin, completed August 2010, but expected earlier.  M18: Crusheen and Gort, 22 km (14 miles), opened 12 November 2010.

Motorway redesignation (tranche 1).

The Roads Act 2007 was passed into law in mid-2007. This Act makes provision for the redesignation of suitable dual carriageways to motorway status. The National Roads Authority made formal applications under Section 8 of the Act to the Minister for Transport on 16 October 2007 regarding dual carriageways which the authority believed to be suitable for redesignation as motorways.  On 29 January 2008, the Department of Transport published notice of the Minister's intention to make the orders being sought and invited submissions or observations to be made to the Minister regarding the NRA's applications.  The consultation procession lasted until 28 March 2008. On 17 July 2008 the statutory instrument redesignating the roads as motorways was signed, and any open parts of these roads have officially become motorways as of 24 September 2008. The Carlow bypass and Kilbeggan-Athlone roads opened with motorway signage but with temporary 100 km/h (60 mph) general speed limits between their opening and their official re-designation as motorways.  The following sections were redesignated:

Motorway redesignation (tranche 2).

On 30 September 2008, the NRA announced its second tranche of proposed motorway redesignations. The closing date for submissions was 14 November 2008 and the Statutory Instrument reclassifying the roads as motorways was made on 2 July 2009, taking effect from 28 August 2009  The following schemes were included:  On the N6, the Athlone bypass had also been included in the proposed redesignations. However, the final order ("the Roads Act 2007 (Declaration of Motorways) Order 2009") did not include this section. However, the section of the N9 road between Powerstown and Waterford, which had been proposed as part of the first tranche but not included in the final order, was included in this order.

Inter-urban motorways.

Linking Dublin to regional cities. These motorways are:  All sections of these motorways were completed by the end of 2010. The completion of these schemes added more than 300 km (200 miles) of motorway to the network at the time.

2015–present.

Atlantic Corridor.

Under the government's Transport 21 initiative, Letterkenny will be linked to Waterford and Cork with new high quality roads – collectively known as the "Atlantic Corridor". While it is anticipated much of this scheme will be constructed as either 2+2 dual carriageway or higher quality single-carriageway – a significant portion of it is expected to be constructed as motorway.

Other motorways.

On 18 July 2019, the M11 Enniscorthy bypass was opened, and a scheme to widen the M7 from two to three lanes in each direction from the beginning of the Naas bypass, at junction 9, to the M7/M9 merge near Newbridge, junction 11, is under construction.  A motorway project, the Dublin Outer Orbital Route, may be progressed in the future. It is possible that a motorway will be built to the north of Cork City to link the existing N22, N20 and M8 routes: this route, if built, will most likely be designated as the N40. Other potential motorways include a possible extension of the M4 from Mullingar to Longford and the Galway City Outer Bypass which may be built as an extension to the M6.  The Cork to Ringaskiddy road improvement scheme, originally envisaged as dual-carriageway, will now proceed as a motorway scheme  The planned Adare - Rathkeale dual carriageway, being progressed as part of the Limerick to Foynes improvement scheme, may proceed as a motorway scheme. This scheme is at the route selection stage and more details will become clear in the future.

Motorway service areas.

This is a list of motorway service stations operating in the Republic of Ireland. TII is building a series of service areas across the motorway network to provide for safe rest areas. The first of these opened on 15 September 2010 on the M1 at Lusk.  Tranche 4 Motorway Services were announced in 2016 and are proposed for the following locations:  The following sites have also been proposed:  Originally, service areas were to be located at 12 locations, but a recent An Bord Pleanála decision ruled that a service area to be located at Rathmorrissey at an M6 junction be removed from an adjacent scheme.  It is anticipated that service areas will be provided on both the M3 motorway and the proposed M20 and M28 motorways.

In Ireland, the highest category of road is a motorway ("mótarbhealach", plural: "mótarbhealaí"), indicated by the prefix M followed by a one- or two-digit number (the number of the national route of which each motorway forms a part). The motorway network predominantly consists of two-lane dual carriageways and is primarily focused upon Dublin, although there are a few three-lane motorways and the M50 has four lanes at some points.

Celková délka dálnic v Irsku je v současné době 916 km. Nejvyšší povolená rychlost na dálnicích je pro osobní automobily 120 km/h. Na irských dálnicích funguje mýtný systém pro všechna vozidla. Irské dálnice navazují na ty britské a to jak značením (písmeno M) nebo stylizací značení. Navazují na sebe však i v praxi: např. irská dálnice M1 navazuje na severoirskou dálnici M1. Dálniční poplatky jsou vybírány prostřednictvím mýtných bran.


Antwerp.

Although it did not become a major artistic center until the sixteenth century, Antwerp was one of, if not the first, city to found a guild of Saint Luke. It is first mentioned in 1382, and was given special privileges by the city in 1442. The registers, or "Liggeren", from the guild exist, cataloging when artists became masters, who the dean for each year was, what their specialities were, and the names of any students. In Bruges, however, which was the dominant city for artistic production in the Low Countries in the fifteenth century, the earliest known list of guild members dates to 1453, although the guild was certainly older than this. There all artists had to belong to the guild in order to practice in their own names or to sell their works, and the guild was very strict about which artistic activities could be practiced–distinctly forbidding an artisan to work in an area where another guild's members, such as tapestry weaving, were represented.

Bruges.

The Bruges guild, in a typically idiosyncratic medieval arrangement, also included the saddlemakers, probably because most members were painting illuminated manuscripts on vellum, and were therefore grouped as a sort of leatherworker. Perhaps because of this link, for a period they had a rule that all miniatures needed a tiny mark to identify the artist, which was registered with the Guild. Only under special privileges, such as court artist, could an artist effectively practice their craft without holding membership in the guild. Peter Paul Rubens had a similar situation in the seventeenth century, when he obtained special permission from the Archdukes Albert and Isabella to be both court artist in Brussels and an active member of the Guild of Saint Luke in Antwerp. Membership also allowed members to sell works at the guild-owned showroom. Antwerp, for example, opened a market stall for selling paintings in front of the cathedral in 1460, and Bruges followed in 1482.

Dutch Republic.

Guilds of St. Luke in the Dutch Republic began to reinvent themselves as cities there changed over to Protestant rule, and there were dramatic movements in population. Many St. Luke guilds reissued charters to protect the interests of local painters from the influx of southern talent from places like Antwerp and Bruges. Many cities in the young republic became more important artistic centres in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Amsterdam was the first city to reissue a St. Luke's charter after the reformation in 1579, and it included painters, sculptors, engravers, and other trades dealing specifically in the visual arts. When trade between the Spanish Netherlands and the Dutch Republic resumed with the Twelve Years' Truce in 1609, immigration increased and many Dutch cities reissued guild charters as a form of protection against the great number of paintings that began to cross the border. For example, Gouda, Rotterdam, and Delft, all founded guilds between 1609 and 1611. In each of those cases, panel painters removed themselves from their traditional guild structure that included other painters, such as those who worked in fresco and on houses, in favor of a specific "Guild of St. Luke". On the other hand, these distinctions did not take effect at that time in Amsterdam or Haarlem. In the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke, however, a strict hierarchy was attempted in 1631 with panel painters at the top, though this hierarchy was eventually rejected. In the Utrecht guild, also founded in 1611, the break was with the saddlemakers, but in 1644 a further split created a new painters' guild, leaving the guild of Saint Luke with only the sculptors and woodcarvers. A similar move in The Hague in 1656 led to the painters leaving the Guild of Saint Luke to establish a new "Confrerie Pictura" with all other kinds of visual artists, leaving the guild to the house-painters.  Artists in other cities were not successful in setting up their own guilds of St. Luke, and remained part of the existing guild structure (or lack thereof). For example, an attempt was made in Leiden to set up a guild in 1610 specifically for painters to protect themselves against the sale of art from foreigners, especially those from areas of Brabant and the area around Antwerp. However, the town, which traditionally resisted guilds in general, only offered to help them from illegal imports. Not until 1648 was a loosely organized "quasi-guild" permitted in that city. The Guilds of the small but wealthy seat of government The Hague and its near neighbour, Delft, were constantly battling to stop the other's artists encroaching into their city, often without success. By the later part of the century a kind of balance was achieved, with The Hague's portraitists supplying both cities, whilst Delft's genre painters did the same.

Italy.

In Renaissance Florence the Guild of St. Luke, "per se", did not exist. Painters belonged to the guild of the Doctors and Apothecaries ("Arte dei Medici e Speziali") as they bought their pigments from the apothecaries, while sculptors were members of the Masters of Stone and Wood ("Maestri di Pietri e Legname). They were also frequently members in the confraternity of St. Luke ("Compagnia di San Luca")—which had been founded as early as 1349—although it was a separate entity from the guild system. There were similar confraternal organizations in other parts of Italy, such as Rome. By the 16th century a guild had even been established in Candia in Crete, then a Venetian possession, by the very successful Greek artists of the Cretan School. In the sixteenth century, the "Compagnia di San Luca" began to meet at SS. Annunziata, and sculptors, who had previously been members of a confraternity dedicated to St. Paul ("Compagnia di San Paolo"), also joined. This form of the "compagnia" developed into the Florentine Accademia del Disegno in 1563, which was then formally incorporated into the city's guild system in 1572. The Florence example, in fact, eventually acted more like a traditional guild structure than the Accademia di San Luca in Rome.  Founded by Federico Zuccari in 1593, Rome's Accademia reflects more clearly the "modern" notions of an artistic academy rather than perpetuating what has often been seen as the medieval nature of the guild system. Gradually other cities were to follow the example of Rome and the Carracci in Bologna, with leading painters founding an "Academy", not always initially in direct competition with the local Guilds, but tending to eclipse and supplant it in time. This shift in artistic representation is generally associated with the modern conception of the visual arts as a liberal rather than mechanical art, and occurred in cities across Europe. In Antwerp David Teniers the Younger was both a dean of the Guild and founded the Academy, while in Venice Pittoni and Tiepolo led a breakaway Accademia from the old "Fraglia dei Pittori" as the local guild was known. The new academies began to offer training in drawing and the early stages of painting to students, and artistic theory, including the hierarchy of genres, increased in importance.

Guilds and intellectual pursuits.

The late sixteenth-century elevation of artist's status that occurred in Italy was echoed in the Low Countries by increased participation by artists in literary and humanistic societies. The Antwerp Guild of St. Luke, in particular, was closely associated with one of the city's eminent chambers of rhetoric, the "Violieren", and, in fact, the two were often discussed as being the same. By the mid-sixteenth century, when Pieter Bruegel the Elder was active in the city, most of the members of the "Violieren", including Frans Floris, Cornelis Floris, and Hieronymus Cock, were artists. The relationship between the two organizations, one for professionals practicing a trade and the other a literary and dramatist group, continued into the seventeenth century until the two groups formally merged in 1663 when the Antwerp Academy was founded a century after its Roman counterpart. Similar relationships between the Guild of St. Luke and chambers of rhetoric appear to have existed in Dutch cities in the seventeenth century. Haarlem's "Liefde boven al" ("Love above all") is a prime example, to which Frans Hals, Esaias van de Velde, and Adriaen Brouwer all belonged. These activities also manifested themselves in groups that developed outside of the guild like Antwerp's Romanists, for whom travel to Italy and appreciation of classical and humanist culture were essential.

Guild rules.

Guild rules varied greatly. In common with the Guilds for other trades, there would be an initial apprenticeship of at least three, more often five years. Typically, the apprentice would then qualify as a "journeyman", free to work for any Guild member. Some artists began to sign and date paintings a year or two before they reached the next stage, which often involved a payment to the Guild, and was to become a "free Master". After this the artist could sell his own works, set up his own workshop with apprentices of his own, and also sell the work of other artists. Anthony van Dyck achieved this at eighteen, but in the twenties would be more typical.  In some places the maximum number of apprentices was specified (as for example two), especially in the earlier periods, and alternatively a minimum of one might be specified. In Nuremberg painting, unlike say goldsmithing, was a "free trade" without a Guild and regulated directly by the city council; this was intended to encourage growth in a city where much art was becoming linked with book publishing, for which Nuremberg was the largest German centre. Nonetheless there were rules and for example only married men could operate a workshop. In most cities the women who were important members of workshops making illuminated manuscripts were excluded from the Guild or from being masters; however not in Antwerp, where Caterina van Hemessen and others were members. As the Christian title of the Guild suggested, Jews were excluded, at least from becoming masters, in most cities.  When printmaking arrived, many engravers were from a goldsmithing background and stayed in that guild. As that link weakened with the development of printmaking, some painter' guilds accepted engravers or etchers who did not paint as Members, and others did not. In London painters on glass had their own separate guild with the glaziers; elsewhere they would be accepted by the painters.  The rules of the Delft guild have been much puzzled over by art historians seeking to illuminate the undocumented training of Vermeer. When he joined the Guild there in 1653, he must have received six years training, according to the local rules. In addition, he had to pay a six guilders admission fee, despite the fact that his father was a Guild member (as an art dealer), which would normally have meant only a three guilder fee. This appears to mean that his training had not been received in Delft itself. Pieter de Hooch on the other hand, as an immigrant to Delft, had to pay twelve guilders in 1655, which he could not afford to pay all at once.  Another aspect of the Guild rules is illustrated by the dispute between Frans Hals and Judith Leyster in Haarlem. Leyster was the second woman in Haarlem to join the Guild, and probably trained with Hals - she was a witness at the baptism of his daughter. Some years later, in 1635, she brought a dispute to the Guild complaining that one of her three apprentices had left her workshop after only a few days, and had been accepted into Hals' shop, in breach of Guild rules. The Guild had the power to fine members, and after discovering that the apprentice had not been registered with them, fined both artists, and made a ruling on the apprentice's position.

Decline of the guilds.

All guild local monopolies came under general economic disapproval from the 17th century onwards; in the particular case of painters there was in many places a tension between the Guilds and artists imported as court painter by a ruler. When Anthony van Dyck was finally enticed to come to England by King Charles I, he was provided with a house at Blackfriars, then just outside the boundary of the City of London to avoid the monopoly of the London guild. The Hague with its Catholic court, split itself in two in 1656 with the Confrerie Pictura. By that time it was clear to all involved that the one-stop-shop concept of a guild was past its prime, and to ensure high quality and high prices, the education of artists needed to be separated from sales venues. Many towns set up "academy" style schools for education, while sales could be generated from arranged viewings at local inns, estate sales, or open markets. In Antwerp the Habsburg Governors eventually removed the Guild's monopoly, and by the end of the 18th century hardly any guild monopolies survived, even before Napoleon disbanded all guilds in territories he controlled. Guilds survived as societies or charitable organisations, or merged with the newer "Academies" - as happened in Antwerp, but not in London or Paris. Guild monopoly had a brief 20th century revival in Eastern Europe under Communism, where non-members of the official artist's union or guild found it very hard to work as painters - for example the Czech Josef Váchal.

Paintings for the guilds.

In many cities the Guild of Saint Luke financed a chapel that was decorated with an altarpiece of their patron saint. Rogier van der Weyden's "Saint Luke Drawing the Virgin" (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston), one of the earliest-known paintings, set up a tradition that was followed by many subsequent artists. Jan Gossaert's work in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (illustrated, top right) revisits Van der Weyden's composition while presenting the scene as a visionary experience instead of a directly witnessed portrait sitting. Later, Frans Floris (1556), Marten de Vos (1602) and Otto van Veen all represented the subject for the guild in Antwerp, and Abraham Janssens painted an altarpiece for the guild in Mechelen in 1605. These paintings are frequently self-portraits with the artist as Luke, and often provide insight into artistic practices from the time when they were made since the subject is of an artist at work.

The Guild of Saint Luke was the most common name for a city guild for painters and other artists in early modern Europe, especially in the Low Countries. They were named in honor of the Evangelist Luke, the patron saint of artists, who was identified by John of Damascus as having painted the Virgin's portrait.

Cech svatého Lukáše (Accademia di San Luca) byl častým názvem uměleckých spolků, které vznikaly zejména v Nizozemsku, Itálii a Vlámsku. Slučovaly nejen malíře, ale i některé řemeslníky. Cechy vznikaly odloučením od gild.


History.

The Honda CB600F Hornet was introduced for Europe in 1998. It was based on the CB250F that was restricted to at its home-market (Japan) because of local laws (this bike was released only in Japan from 1996 or 1997 until 2015, when it was succeeded by the CB300F). The bike has a six-speed transmission. Its suspension consists of a single shock in the rear and a conventional telescopic fork in the front until it was succeeded by an upside-down fork in 2005. Its brakes are dual-disc, Nissin twin piston in the front and single-disc, Nissin single piston in the rear. It was given the diameter front wheel and, 180 section rear wheel setup from the Fireblade.  As a sport-oriented motorcycle that provides an upright riding position, it is considered a standard or "naked bike".  In 2000, Honda updated the Hornet, changing the front wheel for a to help corner stability and increasing the strength of the brake pass-over system on the front, making the brakes stronger. However, Honda did not increase the size of the fuel tank. A faired version, the CB600FS, was also introduced in 2000.  In 2003, Honda gave the CB600F version a make-over, with a larger fuel tank ( as opposed to the former ), and'sharper' styling. The CB600S faired version was discontinued.  In 2005, the instrument cluster was modernised, and more importantly, it was fitted with inverted front forks, to improve road-holding and cornering stability.  Honda took the Hornet to the United States and Canadian market for the 2004 and 2006 model years. It was called the "599".  The highly revised CB600F model came out in April 2007. The engine of the new motorcycle is a detuned version of the engine available in the 2007 CBR600RR giving a maximum output power of approximately.  In 2011, the model got a facelift. The headlight assembly was changed and the instrument cluster uses LCD display. This bike shared many of the same componentsswingarm, fork, frame, engineas the Honda CBR600F that was reintroduced in 2011.  In 2014, the model received a major update and got a displacement increase of 49 cc, the new model is called CB650F.

The Honda CB600F (known as the Hornet in Europe and Brazil and 599 in the U.S.) is a standard motorcycle manufactured by Honda. It is powered by a liquid-cooled inline-four engine, originally a detuned version of that in the Honda CBR600 sport bike, which currently produces around. The 'Hornet' name was not taken to North America as AMC, and its successor, Chrysler, had trademarked the name with the AMC Hornet.

Honda CB600F (v Evropě a Brazílii označována jako Hornet a 599 v USA) je poháněna 599 cm3 vodou chlazeným čtyřválcovým motorem, První verze se skládala z poddimenzované verze sportovní motorky CBR600, která produkovala 102 koní (76 kW). Název „Hornet“ nemohl být použitý v USA, protože AMC již vlastnila ochranou známku na AMC Hornet. Hornet se vyráběl v objemových verzích 160cm3, 250cm3, 600cm3 a 900cm3.


History.

The term "kilonova" was introduced by Metzger et al. in 2010 to characterize the peak brightness, which they showed reaches 1000 times that of a classical nova. They are to the brightness of a typical supernova, the self-detonation of a massive star.  The first kilonova to be found was detected as a short gamma-ray burst, SGRB 130603B, by instruments on board the Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Explorer and KONUS/WIND spacecrafts and then observed using the Hubble Space Telescope 9 and 30 days after burst.  In October 2018, astronomers reported that GRB 150101B, a gamma-ray burst event detected in 2015, may be analogous to the historic GW170817, a gravitational wave event detected in 2017, and associated with the merger of two neutron stars. The similarities between the two events, in terms of gamma ray, optical and x-ray emissions, as well as to the nature of the associated host galaxies, are considered "striking", and this remarkable resemblance suggests the two separate and independent events may both be the result of the merger of neutron stars, and both may be a hitherto-unknown class of kilonova transients. Kilonova events, therefore, may be more diverse and common in the universe than previously understood, according to the researchers.

Theory.

The inspiral and merging of two compact objects are a strong source of gravitational waves (GW). Kilonovae are thought to be progenitors of short gamma-ray bursts (GRB) and the predominant source of stable r-process elements in the Universe. The basic model for neutron star mergers was introduced by Li-Xin Li and Bohdan Paczyński in 1998.

Observations.

The first observational suggestion of a kilonova came in 2008 following the short-hard gamma-ray burst GRB 080503, where a faint object appeared in optical and infrared light after one day and rapidly faded. Another kilonova was suggested in 2013, in association with the short-duration gamma-ray burst GRB 130603B, where the faint infrared emission from the distant kilonova was detected using the Hubble Space Telescope. On October 16, 2017, the LIGO and Virgo collaborations announced the first simultaneous detections of gravitational waves (GW170817) and electromagnetic radiation (GRB 170817A, SSS17a) of any phenomena, and demonstrated that the source was a kilonova caused by a binary neutron star merger. This short GRB was followed by a longer transient visible for weeks in the optical electromagnetic spectrum (AT 2017gfo) located in a relatively nearby galaxy, NGC 4993.

A kilonova (also called a macronova or r-process supernova) is a transient astronomical event that occurs in a compact binary system when two neutron stars or a neutron star and a black hole merge into each other. Kilonovae are thought to emit short gamma-ray bursts and strong electromagnetic radiation due to the radioactive decay of heavy r-process nuclei that are produced and ejected fairly isotropically during the merger process.

Kilonova je astronomická událost, při níž dojde ke splynutí dvou neutronových hvězd nebo neutronové hvězdy a černé díry. Tento jev je přibližně 1000× jasnější než běžná nova – z toho vychází její název.


Taxonomy.

Discovery and naming.

An isolated population of orangutans in the Batang Toru area of South Tapanuli was reported in 1939. The population was rediscovered by an expedition to the area in 1997, but it was not recognized as a distinct species then. "Pongo tapanuliensis" was identified as a distinct species, following a detailed phylogenetic study in 2017. The study analyzed the genetic samples of 37 wild orangutans from populations across Sumatra and Borneo and conducted a morphological analysis of the skeletons of 34 adult males. The holotype of the species is the complete skeleton of an adult male from Batang Toru who died after being wounded by locals in November 2013. The holotype is stored in the Zoological Museum of Bogor. The skull and teeth of the Batang Toru male differ significantly from those of the other two orangutan species. Comparisons of the genomes of all 37 orangutans using principal component analysis and population genetic models also indicated that the Batang Toru population is a separate species.  The specific name, "tapanuliensis", as well as the common name, Tapanuli orangutan, refer to Tapanuli, the hilly region in North Sumatra where the species lives.

Phylogeny.

Genetic comparisons show that Tapanuli orangutans diverged from Sumatran orangutans about 3.4 million years ago, and became more isolated after the Lake Toba eruption that occurred about 75,000 years ago. They had continued sporadic contact that stopped between 10,000 and 20,000 years ago. Tapanuli orangutans diverged from Bornean orangutans about 674,000 years ago. Orangutans were able to travel from Sumatra to Borneo because the islands were connected by land bridges as parts of Sundaland during recent glacial periods when sea levels were much lower. The present range of Tapanuli orangutans is thought to be close to the area where ancestral orangutans first entered what is now Indonesia from mainland Asia.

Description.

Tapanuli orangutans resemble Sumatran orangutans more than Bornean orangutans in body build and fur color. However, they have frizzier hair, smaller heads, and flatter and wide faces. Dominant male Tapanuli orangutans have prominent moustaches and large flat cheek pads, known as flanges, covered in downy hair. Both male and female Tapanuli orangutans have beards but with Bornean orangutans, only the males do. The Tapanuli orangutan differs from the other two existing orangutan species in several specific features: When comparing the Tapanuli orangutan with the "Pongo abelii", the Tapanuli orangutan has a deeper suborbital fossa, a triangular pyriform aperture, and a facial profile that is more angled.

Behavior.

The loud, long-distance call or 'long call' of male Tapanuli orangutans has a higher maximum frequency than that of Sumatran orangutans, and lasts much longer and has more pulses than that of Bornean orangutans. Their diet is also unique, containing unusual items like caterpillars and conifer cones. Tapanuli orangutans are thought to be exclusively arboreal as scientists have not seen them descend to the ground in over 3,000 hours of observation. This is probably due to the presence of Sumatran tigers in the area.

Habitat and distribution.

Tapanuli orangutans live in tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests located south of Lake Toba in Sumatra. The entirety of the species is found in an area of about at elevations from. Tapanuli orangutans are separated from the island's other species of orangutan, the Sumatran orangutan, by just.

Conservation.

With fewer than 800 individuals restricted to an area of about, the Tapanuli orangutan is the rarest great ape. It is listed as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) because of hunting, conflict with humans, the illegal wildlife trade, rampant habitat destruction for small-scale agriculture, mining and a proposed hydroelectric dam, the Batang Toru hydropower project, in the area with the highest density of orangutans, which could impact up to 10% of its already dwindling habitat and degrade important wildlife corridors. Conservationists predict an 83% decline in three generations (75 years) if the necessary conservation measures and practices are not implemented. Inbreeding depression is likely due to the small population size and fragmented range. This is supported by the genomes of the two Tapanuli orangutan individuals, which show signs of inbreeding. In August 2019 Swiss environmental group PanEco, which is a partner in the Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme, dropped its previous opposition to the dam, several months after firing several researchers who opposed the new strategy.

The Tapanuli orangutan ("Pongo tapanuliensis") is a species of orangutan restricted to South Tapanuli in the island of Sumatra in Indonesia. It is one of three known species of orangutan, alongside the Sumatran orangutan ("Pongo abelii"), found farther northwest on the island, and Bornean orangutan ("Pongo pygmaeus"). It was described as a distinct species in 2017., there are roughly 800 individuals of this species and it is currently on the critically endangered species list.

Orangutan tapanulijský či tapanulský ("Pongo tapanuliensis") je jeden ze tří druhů orangutanů. Žije výhradně na indonéském ostrově Sumatra, konkrétně v oblasti zvané Jižní Tapanuli. Jako samostatný druh byl popsán až v roce 2017. Ve stejné době bylo rovněž známo necelých 800 zástupců druhu. Od zbylých dvou druhů orangutanů, tedy orangutana sumaterského a orangutana bornejského, se liší geneticky, velikostí lebky (je výrazně menší), chrupem a zbarvením a délkou srsti. K oddělení tohoto druhu došlo asi před 3,4 mil. let. Výzkum probíhal převážně na základě kostry, která byla nalezena roku 2013.


Geography.

Bedford is located at. It is a first ring suburb to the southeast of Cleveland. The city is bounded by Maple Heights to the north and west, Valley View to the west, Walton Hills and Northfield to the south, Oakwood to the south and east, and Bedford Heights to the east.  According to the 2010 census, the city has a total area of, of which (or 99.07%) is land and (or 0.93%) is water.  The boundaries of the city of Bedford include part of the Bedford Reservation. The reservation includes Tinker's Creek, which flows through a gorge that has been listed as a National Natural Landmark. The Great Falls of Tinker's Creek are within the city limits of Bedford.

History.

The area that is now Bedford and northeastern Ohio was originally inhabited by Native Americans as early as 11,000 years ago. By 1662 the area had become a part of the Connecticut Colony through royal charter. Much of the colony's land, which extended to the Pacific Ocean, was ceded to the early U.S. government, but a few million acres west of the border of Pennsylvania became what was known as the Western Reserve.  Bedford began as part of the Connecticut Western Reserve in 1797. A large portion of the Western Reserve was sold to the Connecticut Land Company in 1795. Surveying of the land began shortly after and was spearheaded by Moses Cleaveland. Seth Pease and Amzi Atwater surveyed Lot 46, which eventually would become Bedford Township. It was surveyed as township 6, range 11.  The first settlers to the area started to arrive in 1813. Early settlers to the region were drawn to Tinkers Creek and the hardwood forests. Waterfalls on Tinkers Creek were ideal for mills, which would power local businesses. The first mill in Bedford Township was built by Adams and Starr in 1815. It was situated at the mouth of Tinkers Creek. The first official settler to the area was Elijah Nobles. He settled here in 1810 in the western part of the township on one of the 100 lots surveyed.  More settlers followed, including Benjamin Franklin Fitch, who founded the Taylor Chair Company in 1816. He began making chairs at his home, which was located at Warrensville Center and Libby Roads in present-day Maple Heights, Ohio. The company did not close until 2012, making it the longest-running manufacturing company in the Western Reserve area. Fitch made chairs that were considered to be better than others because of his use of pre-shrunk wood that prevented creaking. He is also known for inventing the strap lathe, a tool that would become standard in furniture making.  Bedford Township was officially founded in 1823 and Township 6 was renamed Bedford Township by Daniel Benedict, originally a native of Bedford, New York. The original township covered what today includes Bedford, Bedford Heights, Ohio, Maple Heights, Ohio, Oakwood Village, Ohio, and Walton Hills, Ohio.  In 1834, the First Baptist Church was established to help meet the religious needs of the growing population in the area. The first church in Bedford was the First Baptist Church, founded with just 14 original members at the home of Hezekiah Dunham. In 1893, the church moved into its first dedicated building located on the Bedford Commons. The old First Baptist Church is a stone building done in the Late Gothic Revival style and was designed by architect Jacob Snyder. In 1968, the First Baptist Church moved to its present location at the corner of Turney Road and West Glendale Avenue. The old stone church still stands though and is owned by the Bedford Historical Society. It currently serves as a community building and a rental hall.  Bedford became an incorporated village on March 15, 1837. In 1837, the population of Bedford Township had grown to be 475 people and at that time, the residents petitioned to become the Village of Bedford, which sits at the geographic center of Bedford Township. At this time, Hezekiah Dunham, who was a prominent and wealthy local business man, and his wife, Clarissa Dunham, donated three acres of land for the village to be able to build a public square as well as other public and religious buildings. The deed for the land stated the property was to be "used as a public square forever."  In addition to the falls on Tinkers Creek and the abundant forests, transportation helped Bedford to grow. Before the roads were even built, Bedford was situated along the main route between Pittsburgh and Cleveland and was an important stagecoach stop. Today this is U.S. Route 14, which runs through town from the northwest to southeast.  Transportation became even more important in the area when the Ohio and Erie Canal opened in 1827 and the Cleveland & Pittsburgh Railroad began in 1852. Both of these helped drive more industry to the area, and by 1840 the population of Bedford was 2,021. Another railroad, the Connotton Valley Railroad, opened in 1881.  In 1927, the Bedford Municipal Hospital was built. The original hospital still stands, though it has been heavily added onto since it was first constructed. It is now operated as a branch of University Hospitals of Cleveland.  The village of Maple Heights left Bedford Township in 1915 and in 1932 Maple Heights achieved city status.  In 1932, the Village of Bedford adopted a city manager government and charger and became the City of Bedford. As the village grew, many industries developed in Bedford and new businesses opened. Some of the important businesses in Bedford were manufacturing companies:  The first car dealerships opened on Broadway Avenue in the early 1950s and formed the Bedford Automile Dealers Association in 1956, formally creating the first Bedford Automile. The Bedford Automile Dealers Association was created to not only give the car dealerships in the area a unified voice for working with the city but to also create a group who would actively help to improve the city.  On February 20, 1951, the northeast corner of Bedford Township broke off from the City of Bedford and incorporated to become the village of Bedford Heights, Ohio. Bedford Heights achieved city status in 1961.

Demographics.

96.2% spoke English, 1.3% Spanish, and 0.9% Polish at home.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 13,074 people, 6,265 households, and 3,346 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 6,951 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 53.9% White, 41.9% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.9% Asian, 0.6% from other races, and 2.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.0% of the population.  There were 6,265 households, of which 25.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.2% were married couples living together, 17.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46.6% were non-families. 41.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.08 and the average family size was 2.83.  The median age in the city was 41.9 years. 21.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.4% were from 25 to 44; 28.9% were from 45 to 64; and 17% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 45.8% male and 54.2% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 14,214 people, 6,659 households, and 3,682 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,653.3 people per square mile (1,023.9/km). There were 7,062 housing units at an average density of 1,318.2 per square mile (508.7/km). The racial makeup of the city was 79.01% White, 17.63% Black, 0.17% Native American, 1.08% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.47% from other races, and 1.62% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.07% of the population.  There were 6,659 households, out of which 23.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.4% were married couples living together, 12.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.7% were non-families. 39.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.1 and the average family size was 2.85.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 20.5% under the age of 18, 6.9% from 18 to 24, 33.0% from 25 to 44, 20.9% from 45 to 64, and 18.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.6 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $36,943, and the median income for a family was $47,142. Males had a median income of $36,524 versus $27,851 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,076. About 5.5% of families and 7.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.2% of those under age 18 and 8.1% of those age 65 or over.

Transportation.

One of the main roads through Bedford is Ohio State Route 14 (OH-14). It runs northwest to southeast and follows the original stagecoach route between Cleveland and Pittsburgh. Within Bedford city limits, OH-14 is known as Broadway Avenue. Other main roads in Bedford include:  Bedford is served by the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority. Bus route 76: Broadway – Turney travels between downtown Cleveland and the Southgate Transit Center in Maple Heights with several stops in downtown Bedford. Route 90F: Broadway – Libby travels between downtown Cleveland and Oakwood Village with stops in Bedford along Northfield Road.

Commercial districts.

There are two main commercial districts in Bedford, the Automile and the Bedford Historic District. The Automile, which lies along Rockside Road and Broadway, was formally established in 1956 to promote the interests of the auto dealerships and to help these companies work together to give back to the community.  The Bedford Automile is the largest collection of new and used automotive dealerships in Ohio. There are currently 24 dealerships. Together the Automile companies have raised money for a number of charitable causes, including breast cancer awareness, Cleveland's homeless population, and Bedford High School scholarships.  The Historic District is located downtown and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Bedford Baptist Church, Hezekiah Dunham House, and Holsey Gates House are included on the Register. The area is approximately bounded by Broadway, Columbus, Franklin, and Willis. The District also includes the Bedford Public Square and several other historic buildings: the Gates Handyside House, Franklin Victorian House, Moody House, and numerous commercial buildings dating to the 1890s to 1920s.

Economy.

In addition to the important commercial districts of the Automile and Historic District, Bedford is home to a few large companies that employ many residents in the area. Xellia Pharmaceuticals, a company owned by Danish Novo Holdings A/S, opened a manufacturing facility in Bedford in 2017.  Art of Beauty is another big employer in Bedford. The beauty supply company is most well known for its Zoya brand of nail polishes and nail care products.  Nature Stone Flooring is a local company that makes epoxy stone flooring materials. The epoxy resin used is patent pending and the company, founded in 1989, is the largest maker of this type of flooring.  Other large employers in Bedford include:

Education.

Bedford is served by the Bedford City School District, which also serves the communities of Bedford Heights, Oakwood, and Walton Hills. There are approximately 3,400 students in the district, which covers an area of 22 square miles. There are six schools:  In Bedford, 86.3 percent of students are enrolled in the public school system. There are only a few private school and private special education options in Bedford. The Holy Spirit Academy serves students from kindergarten through eighth grade.  Safely Home offers residential and outpatient programs for young people with special education needs and behavioral challenges. The Safely Home School provides specialized educational programming for students who have not been successful in traditional schools. Education Alternatives, non-profit educational agency, serves at-risk students in several Cleveland-area locations, including Bedford.  The Cuyahoga County Public Library Southeast Branch is located in Bedford. Educational youth services include free, after school mentoring and homework assistance. The branch also hosts Aspire Greater Cleveland services, which include adult literacy, GED, English as a second language, and job skills training.

Bedford is a city in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, United States located to the east of Cleveland. The population was 13,074 at the 2010 census. It is an eastern first ring suburb of Cleveland.

Bedford je město v okrese Cuyahoga County ve státě Ohio ve Spojených státech amerických. Podle sčítání lidu zde v roce 2010 žilo 13 074 obyvatel. Je východním předměstím Clevelandu.


Life.

Klebs was born in Königsberg, Province of Prussia. He studied at the University of Würzburg under Rudolf Virchow in 1855 and received his doctorate at the University of Berlin in 1858. He achieved his habilitation at the University of Königsberg the following year.  Klebs was an assistant to Virchow at the Charité in Berlin from 1861 until 1866, when he became a professor of pathology at the University of Bern in Switzerland. He married Rosa Grossenbacher, a Swiss, and also acquired Swiss citizenship. He served as a military physician for the Prussian Army in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War; several of his ancestors had fought during the Napoleonic Wars.  Klebs taught at Würzburg from 1872 to 1873, at Prague from 1873 to 1882, and at Zürich from 1882 to 1892. Because of disagreements with the rest of the faculty, the impetuous Klebs resigned from Zürich in 1893 and ran an unsuccessful private business in Karlsruhe and Strassburg in 1894.  From 1896 to 1900, Klebs taught at Rush Medical College in Chicago, United States. From 1905 to 1910, he was a private researcher in Berlin, after which he returned to Switzerland, living with his oldest son in Lausanne. Klebs died in Bern.

Discoveries.

In 1883, Klebs successfully identified the bacterium "Corynebacterium diphtheriae" as the etiological cause of diphtheria. This bacterium is also known as the Klebs-Löffler bacillus.  The bacterial genus "Klebsiella" is named in honor of his work.  Klebs' works preceded some of the most important discoveries in medicine. He described acromegaly in 1884, two years before Pierre Marie. In 1878, he successfully inoculated syphilis in monkeys, antedating Élie Metchnikoff and Émile Roux by 25 years. He isolated colonies of bacteria nine years before Robert Koch. He was the first to produce tuberculosis experimentally in animals by the injection of milk from infected cows. He identified the typhoid bacillus (now named "Salmonella typhi") before Karl Joseph Eberth.

Fundamental tests in bacteriology.

Klebs identified four ""Grundversuche"" (fundamental tests) that provided a basis for his own research strategy, as well as general bacteriological research. According to Klebs, the bacteriological tests consist of the following postulates:  Although some of these hypotheses are literally false, they are in general the foundation of modern experiments in bacteriology.

Scientific blunders.

Klebs made some significant errors about infectious diseases. He believed, for example, that malaria was caused by a bacterium. In 1879, Corrado Tommasi-Crudeli and he claimed that they isolated a bacterium from the waters of Pontine Marshes in Roman Campagna. They concluded that the bacterium was the pathogen for malaria as they discovered it from damp soil in the region of malaria epidemics. They gave it the name "Bacillus malariae". They further experimented with the bacterial isolate which they injected into rabbits. They observed that infected rabbits developed fever and enlarged spleen, characteristics of malaria. They proposed that the malarial bacterium was transmitted by drinking contaminated water or inhalation from air. Klebs reported that antimalarial drug quinine killed the germ. The discovery was supported by leading malariologists of the time. It was then declared that the malaria problem was solved. When a French Army physician Charles Alphonse Laveran correctly discovered in 1880 that malaria was caused by a protozoan parasite (which he called "Oscillaria malariae", now "Plasmodium falciparum"), the discovery was ignored in preference of the bacillus theory of Klebs and Tommasi-Crudeli. An American physician, though, George Miller Sternberg, proved that the bacillus did not cause specific symptoms of malaria in 1881. The bacillus theory was eventually proved wrong by the experimental demonstration of the mosquito-malaria theory in 1898.  Klebs also made mistakes in claiming the existence of "Microzoon septicum" as causative agent of wound infection, and "monadines" as the pathogen for rheumatism.

Theodor Albrecht Edwin Klebs (6 February 1834 – 23 October 1913) was a German-Swiss microbiologist. He is mainly known for his work on infectious diseases. His works paved the way for the beginning of modern bacteriology, and inspired Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. He was the first to identify a bacterium that causes diphtheria, which was called Klebs–Loeffler bacterium (now "Corynebacterium diphtheriae"). He was the father of physician Arnold Klebs.

Edwin Theodor Albert Klebs (6. únor 1834 – 23. říjen 1913) byl německo-švýcarský patolog, bakteriolog a fyziolog. V roce 1869 objevil Klebsův-Löfflerův bacil ("Corynebacterium diphtheriae"), který je původcem záškrtu. Ovlivnil též vývoj mikroskopie, když do ní zavedl impregnaci parafínem. V letech 1873-1882 působil na pražské Karlo-Ferdinandově univerzitě. V letech 1879–80 byl děkanem lékařské fakulty UK v Praze. Rod bakterií klebsiella je pojmenován na jeho počest. Narodil se v dnešním Kaliningradě (tehdy pruský Königsberg), zemřel v Bernu. Byl žákem Rudolfa Virchowa na univerzitě ve Würzburgu. Jeho syn Arnold Klebs byl lékařem.


Etymology.

The exact etymology of Lugus is unknown and contested. The Proto-Celtic root of the name, ', is generally believed to have been derived from one of several different Proto-Indo-European roots, such as'"black",'"to break", and'"to swear an oath", It was once thought that the root may be derived from Proto-Indo-European'"to shine", but there are difficulties with this etymology and few modern scholars accept it as being possible (notably because Proto-Indo-European'never produced Proto-Celtic "").

Inscriptions.

The god Lugus is mentioned in a Celtiberian inscription from Peñalba de Villastar in Spain, which reads:  The exact interpretation of the inscription is debated, but the phrase ""to Luguei"" (where the theonym appears in the dative singular following the preposition "to" "to, for", thus "to/for Lugus") clearly indicates a dedication to the god Lugus.  Additionally, the name is attested several times in the plural, for example: nominative plural "Lugoues" in a single-word (and potentially Gaulish) inscription from Avenches, Switzerland, and dative plural in a well known Latin inscription from Uxama (Osma), Spain:  [Scholars have long noted the interesting parallel between Lugus being worshiped by shoemakers in Spain and his Welsh counterpart Lleu being represented as a shoemaker in the 4th branch of the Mabinogion]  The plural form of the theonym is also found in the following Latin inscriptions:  Lugo, Galicia, Spain:  Outeiro de Rei, Lugo, Galicia, Spain:  Sober, Lugo, Galicia, Spain:  Nemausus (Nîmes), France: The majority of the known inscriptions dedicated to Lugus come from the Iberian Peninsula, perhaps indicating this deity's particular importance and popularity among the Iberian Celts.  An inscribed lead plate found in Chamalières in France includes the phrase "luge dessummiíis", which has been tentatively interpreted by some scholars as "I prepare them for Lugus", though it may also mean "I swear ("luge") with/by my right (hand)".

Toponyms and ethnonyms.

His name was commemorated in numerous place-names, such as Lugdunum (Celtic *"Lug[u]dūnon", "fort of Lugus"; modern Lyon, France), capital of the Roman province of Gallia Lugdunensis. Other such place-names include Lugdunum Clavatum (modern Laon, France) and Luguvalium (modern Carlisle, England). It is also possible that Lucus Augusti (modern Lugo in Galicia, Spain) is derived from the theonym Lugus, but Lucus in that place may in fact be purely Latin ("lucus" ='sacred grove/forest').  Other places which are likely named after him include:  Ethnonyms which may derive from Lugus include the Luggones of Asturias, and the "Lougei", known from inscriptions in Lugo and El Bierzo.

Gaulish Mercury.

Julius Caesar in his "De Bello Gallico" identified six gods worshipped in Gaul, by the usual conventions of "interpretatio romana" giving the names of their nearest Roman equivalents rather than their Gaulish names. He said that "Mercury" was the god most revered in Gaul, describing him as patron of trade and commerce, protector of travellers, and the inventor of all the arts. The Irish god Lug bore the epithet "samildánach" ("skilled in all arts"), which has led to the widespread identification of Caesar's Mercury as Lugus. Mercury's importance is supported by the more than 400 inscriptions referencing him in Roman Gaul and Britain. Such a blanket identification is optimistic – Jan de Vries demonstrates the unreliability of any one-to-one concordance in the "interpretatio romana" – but the available parallels are worth considering.

Iconography.

The iconography of Gaulish Mercury includes birds, particularly ravens and the cock, now the emblem of France; horses; the tree of life; dogs or wolves; a pair of snakes (c.f. Hermes's Caduceus and Abraxas); mistletoe; shoes (one of the dedications to the "Lugoves" was made by a shoemakers' guild; Lugus's Welsh counterpart Lleu (or Llew) Llaw Gyffes is described in the Welsh Triads as one of the "three golden shoemakers of the island of Britain"); and bags of money. He is often armed with a spear. He is frequently accompanied by his consort Rosmerta ("great provider"), who bears the ritual drink with which kingship was conferred (in Roman mythology). Unlike the Roman Mercury, who is always a youth, Gaulish Mercury is occasionally also represented as an old man.

Triplism.

Gaulish Mercury is associated with triplism: sometimes he has three faces, sometimes three phalluses, which may explain the plural dedications. This also compares with Irish myth. In some versions of the story Lug was born as one of triplets, and his father, Cian ("Distance"), is often mentioned in the same breath as his brothers Cú ("Hound") and Cethen (meaning unknown), who nonetheless have no stories of their own. Several characters called Lugaid, a popular medieval Irish name thought to derive from Lug, also exhibit triplism: for example, Lugaid Riab nDerg ("of the Red Stripes") and Lugaid mac Trí Con ("Son of Three Hounds") both have three fathers.  Ludwig Rübekeil suggests that Lugus was a triune god, comprising Esus, Toutatis and Taranis, the three chief deities mentioned by Lucan (who, at the same time, makes no mention of Lugus), and that pre-Proto-Germanic tribes in contact with the Celts (possibly the Chatti) moulded aspects of Lugus into the Germanic god "Wōdanaz" i.e. that Gaulish Mercury gave rise to Germanic Mercury.

Sacred sites.

High places ("Mercurii Montes"), including Montmartre, the Puy-de-Dôme and the Mont de Sène, were dedicated to him.

Continuity in later Celtic narratives.

In Ireland, Lugh was the victorious youth who defeats the monstrous Balor "of the venomous eye". He was the godly paradigm of priestly kingship, and another of his appellations, "lámhfhada" “of the long arm”, carries on an ancient Proto-Indo-European image of a noble sovereign expanding his power far and wide. His festival, called Lughnasadh ("Festival of Lugh") in Ireland, was commemorated on 1 August. When the Emperor Augustus inaugurated Lugdunum ("fort of Lugus", now Lyon) as the capital of Roman Gaul in 18 BC, he did so with a ceremony on 1 August (this may be purely coincidental, however). At least two of the ancient Lughnasadh locations, Carmun and Tailtiu, were supposed to enclose the graves of goddesses linked with terrestrial fertility.  Lugus has also been suggested as the origin not only of Lugh and Lleu Llaw Gyffes, but also the Arthurian characters Lancelot and Lot (most famously championed by the Arthurian scholar Roger Sherman Loomis), though more recent Arthurian scholarship has downplayed any such link between Lugus and Lancelot.

Lugus was a deity of the Celtic pantheon. His name is rarely directly attested in inscriptions, but his importance can be inferred from place names and ethnonyms, and his nature and attributes are deduced from the distinctive iconography of Gallo-Roman inscriptions to Mercury, who is widely believed to have been identified with Lugus, and from the quasi-mythological narratives involving his later cognates, Welsh Lleu Llaw Gyffes (Lleu of the Skillful Hand) and Irish Lugh Lámhfhada (Lugh of the Long Arm).

Lugus je galský bůh nejasné funkce, který však byl Římany ztotožňován s Mercuriem. Na Britských ostrovech mu odpovídá irský Lugh Ildánach „Lugh mnoha dovedností“ a welšský Lleu Llaw Gyffes „Lleu zručná ruka“.


Uses.

Vowel length.

History.

Length marks first appeared in Hungarian orthography in the 15th-century Hussite Bible. Initially, only "á" and "é" were marked, since they are different in quality as well as length. Later "í", "ó", "ú" were marked as well.  In the 18th century, before Hungarian orthography became fixed, "u" and "o" with umlaut + acute (ǘ, ö́) were used in some printed documents. 19th century typographers introduced the double acute as a more aesthetic solution.

Hungarian.

In Hungarian, the double acute is thought of as the letter having both an umlaut and an acute accent. Standard Hungarian has 14 vowels in a symmetrical system: seven short vowels "(a, e, i, o, ö, u, ü)" and seven long ones, which are written with an acute accent in the case of "á, é, í, ó, ú", and with the double acute in the case of "ő, ű". Vowel length has phonemic significance in Hungarian, that is, it distinguishes different words and grammatical forms.

Slovak.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the letter A̋ a̋ (A with double acute) was sometimes used in Slovak as a long variant of the short vowel Ä ä (A with diaeresis), representing the vowel in dialect or in some loanwords. Other long vowels are written with a single acute accent.  The letter is still used for this purpose in Slovak phonetic transcription systems.

Umlaut.

Handwriting.

In handwriting in German and Swedish, the umlaut is sometimes written similarly to a double acute.

Chuvash.

The Chuvash language written in the Cyrillic script uses a double-acute Ӳ, ӳ as a front counterpart of Cyrillic letter У, у (see Chuvash vowel harmony), likely after the analogy of handwriting in Latin script languages. In other minority languages of Russia (Khakas, Mari, Altai, and Khanty), the umlauted form "Ӱ" is used instead.

Faroese.

Classical Danish handwriting uses "ó" for "ø", which becomes a problem when writing Faroese in the same tradition, as "ó" is a part of the Faroese alphabet. Thus "ő" is sometimes used for "ø" in Faroese.

Tone.

International Phonetic Alphabet.

The IPA and many other phonetic alphabets use two systems to indicate tone: a diacritic system and an adscript system. In the diacritic system, the double acute represents an extra high tone.  One may encounter this use as a tone sign in some IPA-derived orthographies of minority languages, such as in the North American Native Tanacross (Athapascan). In line with the IPA usage it denotes the extra-high tone.

Technical notes.

O and U with double acute accents are supported in the Code page 852, ISO 8859-2 and Unicode character sets.

Code page 852.

Some of the box drawing characters of the original DOS code page 437 were sacrificed in order to put in more accented letters (all printable characters from ISO 8859-2 are included).

ISO 8859-2.

In ISO 8859-2 Ő, ő, Ű, ű take the place of some similar looking (but distinct, especially at bigger font sizes) letters of ISO 8859-1.

Unicode.

All occurrences of "double acute" in character names in the Unicode 9.0 standard:

LaTeX Input.

In LaTeX, the double acute accent is typeset with the \H{} (mnemonic for "Hungarian") command. For example, the name Paul Erdős (in his native Hungarian: Erdős Pál) would be typeset as Erd\H{o}s P\'al.

X11 Input.

In modern X11 systems, the double acute can be typed by pressing the followed by (the equal sign) and desired letter ( or ).

The double acute accent ( ̋ ) is a diacritic mark of the Latin script. It is used primarily in written Hungarian, and consequently is sometimes referred to by typographers as hungarumlaut. The signs formed with a regular umlaut are letters in their own right in the Hungarian alphabet—for instance, they are separate letters for the purpose of collation. Letters with the double acute, however, are considered variants of their equivalents with the umlaut, being thought of as having both an umlaut and an acute accent.

Dvě čárky (též odborně dvojitý akut, ̋ nebo zvýrazněně ◌̋) je diakritické znaménko v latince a výjimečně i v cyrilici. V Unicode má kód U+030B. Bývá často zaměňováno za přehlásku ( ̈) nebo za dvojitou svislou čárku ( ). Na české klávesnici ho lze zapsat jako +.


Life and career.

Lubomír Beneš grew up in Hloubětín, a suburb of Prague. As a child, he was artistically talented, so his parents paid for private art lessons, in which he studied drawing, painting and writing.  He began working in animation in the late 1950s in the animation studios of "Krátký Film Praha". After winning a competition he was accepted to the animated film studio "Bratři v triku" after his military service, where he became acquainted with various animation techniques.  In 1967, he transferred from "Bratři v triku" to the "Jiří Trnka Studio". There he created and directed his first film, "Homo" (Man) in 1969. Beneš’s first puppet film, "Beg your pardon" (), was made in 1974. He directed over a hundred short films, mostly puppet stop motion animation, and many of them for children. Some of his films also used cutout techniques.  During the 1970s and 1980s, Beneš worked on numerous TV projects for the state channels Československá televize (ČST) Praha and ČST Bratislava. His most popular animated series for ČST were "... a je to!" (... and that's it!) (28 episodes, 1979–1985) and "Jája a Pája" (21 episodes, 1986, 1987, 1995).  From 1990, he worked in the aiF Studio, which he had founded together with his son Marek, Pat & Mat co-creator Vladimír Jiránek and producer Michal Podhradský. There, he produced and directed 14 new "Pat & Mat" episodes in 1992 and 1994, which were highly successful and broadcast internationally. The animated films made by aiF were also broadcast on BBC One. Beneš directed, produced and wrote animated films in his studio until his death in 1995. His studio declared bankruptcy four years later.

Awards and prizes.

His films won several prizes abroad and at home. "The King and the Dwarf" () won several prizes, including The Silver Carnation at the Sitges Film Festival, Silver in the Odessa International Film Festival, and the Silver Mikeldi in Bilbao. "The Record Player" () from "...A je to!" won the Prize for the Best Film for Children at the 6th festival in Espinho, Portugal. "Uneven Fight" () won the Main prize at the Vancouver Film Festival. "With a Smile" () won the main prize, Golden Dancer, in Huesca.  The 38th "Pat & Mat" episode, "The Cyclists" (), animated by Alfons Mensdorff-Pouilly, participated in the "Annecy '93" (Annecy, France) animation festival competition, and was invited to a number of other international festivals. "The Cyclists" was also included in the selection "The Best of Annecy '93" by Cinémathèque Québécoise (Montreal), Museum of Fine Arts (Boston), Pacific Film Archive (Berkeley), Museum of Modern Art (New York City) and presented by these institutions in their autumn 1993 show.  The 44th "Pat & Mat" episode, "The Billiards" (), animated by František Váša, was selected for the "Annecy '95" competition, and invited to many other international film festivals. "The Billiards" won two prizes at the World Animation Celebration in Agoura, California, in March 1997: 1st prize, Best Animation for a Daytime TV Series and 2nd prize, Best Stop Motion Professional Animation.

Personal life.

Beneš lived in Roztoky, near Prague. He was married, and had a son and daughter. His son Marek is the current director of the Pat & Mat series.

Lubomír Beneš (Prague, 7 November 1935 – Roztoky, 12 September 1995) was a Czech animator, director, and author, best known as the co-creator of "Pat & Mat", an animated series about two highly inventive, yet incredibly clumsy handymen neighbours.

Lubomír Beneš (7. listopad 1935 Praha – 12. září 1995 Roztoky u Prahy) byl český animátor a režisér loutkových filmů. Tvůrce slavného seriálu "Pat a Mat".


Modeless.

"Non-modal" or "modeless" dialog boxes are used when the requested information is not essential to continue, and so the window can be left open while work continues elsewhere. A type of modeless dialog box is a toolbar which is either separate from the main application, or may be detached from the main application, and items in the toolbar can be used to select certain features or functions of the application.  In general, good software design calls for dialogs to be of this type where possible, since they do not force the user into a particular mode of operation. An example might be a dialog of settings for the current document, e.g. the background and text colors. The user can continue adding text to the main window whatever color it is, but can change it at any time using the dialog. (This isn't meant to be an example of the "best" possible interface for this; often the same functionality may be accomplished by toolbar buttons on the application's main window.)

System modal.

System modal dialog boxes prevent interaction with any other window onscreen and prevent users from switching to another application or performing any other action until the issue presented in the dialog box is addressed. System modal dialogs were more commonly used in the past on single tasking systems where only one application could be running at any time. One current example is the shutdown screen of current Windows versions.

Application modal.

Modal dialog boxes temporarily halt the program: the user cannot continue without closing the dialog; the program may require some additional information before it can continue, or may simply wish to confirm that the user wants to proceed with a potentially dangerous course of action (confirmation dialog box). Usability practitioners generally regard modal dialogs as bad design-solutions, since they are prone to produce mode errors. Dangerous actions should be undoable wherever possible; a modal alert dialog that appears unexpectedly or which is dismissed automatically (because the user has developed a habit) will not protect from the dangerous action.  A modal dialog interrupts the main workflow. This effect has either been sought by the developer because it focuses on the completion of the task at hand or rejected because it prevents the user from changing to a different task when needed.

Document modal.

The concept of a "document modal" dialog has recently been used, most notably in macOS and Opera Browser. In the first case, they are shown as "sheets" attached to a parent window. These dialogs block only that window until the user dismisses the dialog, permitting work in other windows to continue, even within the same application. In macOS, dialogs appear to emanate from a slot in their parent window, and are shown with a reinforcing animation. This helps to let the user understand that the dialog is attached to the parent window, not just shown in front of it. No work can be done in the underlying document itself while the dialog is displayed, but the parent window can still be moved, re-sized, and minimized, and other windows can be brought in front so the user can work with them:  The same type of dialog box can be compared with the "standard" modal dialog boxes used in Windows and other operating systems.  Similarities include: The differences are that  Both mechanisms have shortcomings:

The dialog box (also called dialogue box (non-U.S. English) or just dialog) is a graphical control element in the form of a small window that communicates information to the user and prompts them for a response.

Dialogové okno je v informatice označení pro ovládací prvek v grafickém uživatelském rozhraní. Jedná se o nevelké okno se zobrazenou informací pro uživatele, u které je od uživatele vyžadována odezvu, obvykle kliknutí myší na zobrazené tlačítko. Provedení a chování dialogových oken může být různé podle požadované uživatelské interakce.


History.

In 1943, Mituhisa Takasaki (高崎光久) introduced an algebraic structure which he called a "Kei" (圭), which would later come to be known as an involutive quandle. His motivation was to find a nonassociative algebraic structure to capture the notion of a reflection in the context of finite geometry. The idea was rediscovered and generalized in (unpublished) 1959 correspondence between John Conway and Gavin Wraith, who at the time were undergraduate students at the University of Cambridge. It is here that the modern definitions of quandles and of racks first appear. Wraith had become interested in these structures (which he initially dubbed sequentials) while at school. Conway renamed them wracks, partly as a pun on his colleague's name, and partly because they arise as the remnants (or 'wrack and ruin') of a group when one discards the multiplicative structure and considers only the conjugation structure. The spelling 'rack' has now become prevalent.  These constructs surfaced again in the 1980s: in a 1982 paper by David Joyce (where the term quandle was coined), in a 1982 paper by (under the name distributive groupoids) and in a 1986 conference paper by Egbert Brieskorn (where they were called automorphic sets). A detailed overview of racks and their applications in knot theory may be found in the paper by Colin Rourke and Roger Fenn.

Racks.

A rack may be defined as a set formula_1 with a binary operation formula_2 such that for every formula_3 the self-distributive law holds:  and for every formula_5 there exists a unique formula_6 such that  This definition, while terse and commonly used, is suboptimal for certain purposes because it contains an existential quantifier which is not really necessary. To avoid this, we may write the unique formula_6 such that formula_9 as formula_10 We then have  and thus  and  Using this idea, a rack may be equivalently defined as a set formula_1 with two binary operations formula_15 and formula_16 such that for all formula_17  It is convenient to say that the element formula_22 is acting from the left in the expression formula_23 and acting from the right in the expression formula_10 The third and fourth rack axioms then say that these left and right actions are inverses of each other. Using this, we can eliminate either one of these actions from the definition of rack. If we eliminate the right action and keep the left one, we obtain the terse definition given initially.  Many different conventions are used in the literature on racks and quandles. For example, many authors prefer to work with just the "right" action. Furthermore, the use of the symbols formula_2 and formula_16 is by no means universal: many authors use exponential notation  and  while many others write  Yet another equivalent definition of a rack is that it is a set where each element acts on the left and right as automorphisms of the rack, with the left action being the inverse of the right one. In this definition, the fact that each element acts as automorphisms encodes the left and right self-distributivity laws, and also these laws:  which are consequences of the definition(s) given earlier.

Quandles.

A quandle is defined as a rack, formula_31 such that for all formula_32  or equivalently

Examples and applications.

Every group gives a quandle where the operations come from conjugation:  In fact, every equational law satisfied by conjugation in a group follows from the quandle axioms. So, one can think of a quandle as what is left of a group when we forget multiplication, the identity, and inverses, and only remember the operation of conjugation.  Every tame knot in three-dimensional Euclidean space has a 'fundamental quandle'. To define this, one can note that the fundamental group of the knot complement, or knot group, has a presentation (the Wirtinger presentation) in which the relations only involve conjugation. So, this presentation can also be used as a presentation of a quandle. The fundamental quandle is a very powerful invariant of knots. In particular, if two knots have isomorphic fundamental quandles then there is a homeomorphism of three-dimensional Euclidean space, which may be orientation reversing, taking one knot to the other.  Less powerful but more easily computable invariants of knots may be obtained by counting the homomorphisms from the knot quandle to a fixed quandle formula_36 Since the Wirtinger presentation has one generator for each strand in a knot diagram, these invariants can be computed by counting ways of labelling each strand by an element of formula_31 subject to certain constraints. More sophisticated invariants of this sort can be constructed with the help of quandle cohomology.  The are also important, since they can be used to compute the Alexander polynomial of a knot. Let formula_38 be a module over the ring formula_39 of Laurent polynomials in one variable. Then the Alexander quandle is formula_38 made into a quandle with the left action given by  Racks are a useful generalization of quandles in topology, since while quandles can represent knots on a round linear object (such as rope or a thread), racks can represent ribbons, which may be twisted as well as knotted.  A quandle formula_42 is said to be involutory if for all formula_43  or equivalently,  Any symmetric space gives an involutory quandle, where formula_46 is the result of'reflecting formula_47 through formula_48'.

In mathematics, racks and quandles are sets with binary operations satisfying axioms analogous to the Reidemeister moves used to manipulate knot diagrams.

Rack je měřítko výkonu textilních strojů. 1 rack znamená - u strojů na výrobu záclonoviny = 240 obrátek stroje 1 rack znamená - u strojů na výrobu záclonoviny = 240 obrátek stroje