Plot summary.

In 1835, the wealthy and respected Buddenbrooks, a family of grain merchants, invite their friends and relatives to dinner in their new home in Lübeck, Germany. The family consists of patriarch Johann Jr. and his wife Antoinette; their son Johann III ("Jean") and his wife Elizabeth, and the latter's three school-age children, sons Thomas and Christian, and daughter Antonie ("Tony"). They have several servants, most notably Ida Jungmann, whose job is to care for the children. During the evening, a letter arrives from Gotthold, estranged son of the elder Johann and half-brother of the younger. The elder Johann disapproves of Gotthold's life choices, and ignores the letter. Johann III and Elizabeth later have another daughter, Klara.  As the older children grow up, their personalities begin to show. Diligent and industrious Thomas seems likely to inherit the business some day. By contrast, Christian is more interested in entertainment and leisure. Tony has grown quite conceited and spurns an advance from the son of another up-and-coming family, Herman Hagenström. Herman takes it in stride, but Tony bears a grudge against him for the rest of her life. The elder Johann and Antoinette die, and the younger Johann takes over the business, and gives Gotthold his fair share of the inheritance. The half-brothers will never be close, though, and Gotthold's three spinster daughters continue to resent Johann's side of the family, and delight in their misfortune over the coming years. Thomas goes to Amsterdam to study, while Tony goes to boarding school. After finishing school, Tony remains lifelong friends with her former teacher, Theresa "Sesame" Weichbrodt.  An obsequious businessman, Bendix Grünlich, of Hamburg, introduces himself to the family, and Tony dislikes him on sight. To avoid him, she takes a vacation in Travemünde, a Baltic resort northeast of Lübeck, where she meets Morton Schwarzkopf, a medical student in whom she is interested romantically. In the end, though, she yields to pressure from her father, and marries Grünlich, against her better judgment, in 1846. She produces a daughter, Erika. Later, though, it is revealed that Grünlich had been cooking his books to hide unpayable debt, and had married Tony solely on the hopes that Johann would bail him out. Johann refuses, and takes Tony and Erika home with him instead. Grünlich goes bankrupt, and Tony divorces him in 1850.  Christian begins traveling, going as far as Valparaíso, Chile. At the same time, Thomas comes home, and Johann puts him to work at the business. Johann is able to calm an angry mob with a speech, defusing tensions during the unrest in 1848. He and Elizabeth become increasingly religious in their twilight years. Johann dies in 1855, and Thomas takes over the business. Christian comes home and initially goes to work for his brother, but he has neither the interest nor the aptitude for commerce. He complains of bizarre illnesses and gains a reputation as a fool, a drunk, a womanizer, and a teller of tall tales. Thomas, coming to despise his brother, sends him away, to protect his own and his business's reputation. Later, Thomas marries Gerda Arnoldsen, a musician from Amsterdam and Tony's former schoolmate.  Klara marries Sievert Tiburtius, a pastor from Riga, but she dies of tuberculosis without producing any children. Tony marries her second husband, Alois Permaneder, a provincial but honest hops merchant from Munich. However, once he has her dowry in hand, he invests the money and retires, intending to live off his interest and dividends, while spending his days in his local bar. Tony is unhappy in Munich, where her family name impresses no one, where her favorite seafoods are unavailable at any price in the days before refrigeration, where even the dialect is noticeably different from her own. She delivers another baby, but it dies on the same day it is born, leaving her heartbroken. Tony later leaves Permaneder after she discovers him drunkenly trying to rape the maid. She and Erika return to Lübeck. Somewhat surprisingly, Permaneder writes her a letter apologizing for his behavior, agreeing not to challenge the divorce, and returning the dowry.  In the early 1860s, Thomas becomes a father and a senator. He builds an ostentatious mansion and soon regrets it, as maintaining the new house proves to be a considerable drain on his time and money. The old house, now too big for the number of people living in it, falls into disrepair. Thomas suffers many setbacks and losses in his business. His hard work keeps the business afloat, but it is clearly taking its toll on him. Thomas throws a party to celebrate the business's centennial in 1868, during which he receives news that one of his risky business deals has resulted in yet another loss.  Erika, now grown up, marries Hugo Weinschenk, a manager at a fire insurance company, and delivers a daughter, Elizabeth. Weinschenk is arrested for insurance fraud and is sent to prison. Thomas's son, Johann IV ("Hanno"), is born a weak, sickly runt and remains one as he grows. He is withdrawn, melancholic, easily upset, and frequently bullied by other children. His only friend, Kai Mölln, is a disheveled young count, a remnant of the medieval aristocracy, who lives with his eccentric father outside Lübeck. Johann does poorly in school, but he discovers an aptitude for music, clearly inherited from his mother. This helps him bond with his uncle Christian, but Thomas is disappointed by his son.  In 1871, the elder Elizabeth dies of pneumonia. Tony, Erika, and little Elizabeth sadly move out of their old house, which is then sold, at a disappointing price, to Herman Hagenström, who is now a successful businessman himself. Christian expresses his desire to marry Aline, a woman of questionable morals with three illegitimate children, one of whom may, or may not, be Christian's. Thomas, who controls their mother's inheritance, forbids him. Thomas sends Johann to Travemünde to improve his health. Johann loves the peace and solitude of the resort, but returns home no stronger than before. Weinschenk is released from prison, a disgraced and broken man. He soon abandons his wife and daughter and leaves Germany, never to return.  Thomas, becoming increasingly depressed and exhausted by the demands of keeping up his faltering business, devotes ever more time and attention to his appearance, and begins to suspect his wife may be cheating on him. In 1874, he takes a vacation with Christian and a few of his old friends to Travemünde during the off season, where they discuss life, religion, business, and the unification of Germany. In 1875, he collapses and dies after a visit to his dentist. His complete despair and lack of confidence in his son and sole heir are obvious in his will, in which he directed that his business be liquidated. All the assets, including the mansion, are sold at distress prices, and faithful servant Ida is dismissed.  Christian gains control of his own share of his father's inheritance and then marries Aline, but his illnesses and bizarre behavior get him admitted to an insane asylum, leaving Aline free to dissipate Christian's money. Johann still hates school, and he passes his classes only by cheating. His health and constitution are still weak, and it is hinted that he might be gay. Except for his friend Count Kai, he is held in contempt by everyone outside his immediate family, even his pastor. In 1877, he takes ill with typhoid fever and soon dies. His mother, Gerda, returns home to Amsterdam, leaving an embittered Tony, her daughter Erika, and granddaughter Elizabeth, as the only remnants of the once proud Buddenbrook family, with only the elderly and increasingly infirm Theresa Weichbrodt to offer any friendship or moral support. Facing destitution, they cling to their wavering belief that they may be reunited with their family in the afterlife.

Major themes.

One of the more famous aspects of Thomas Mann's prose style can be seen in the use of leitmotifs. Derived from his admiration for the operas of Richard Wagner, in the case of "Buddenbrooks" an example can be found in the description of the color – blue and yellow, respectively – of the skin and the teeth of the characters. Each such description alludes to different states of health, personality and even the destiny of the characters. Rotting teeth are also a symbol of decay and decadence because it implies indulging in too many cavity-causing foods. An example of this would be Hanno's cup of hot chocolate at breakfast.  Aspects of Thomas Mann's own personality are manifest in the two main male representatives of the third and the fourth generations of the fictional family: Thomas Buddenbrook and his son Hanno Buddenbrook. It should not be considered a coincidence that Mann shared the same first name with one of them. Thomas Buddenbrook reads a chapter of Schopenhauer's "The World as Will and Idea", and the character of Hanno Buddenbrook escapes from real-life worries into the realm of music, Wagner's "Tristan und Isolde" in particular. (Wagner himself was of bourgeois descent and decided to dedicate himself to art.) In this sense both Buddenbrooks reflect a conflict lived by the author: departure from a conventional bourgeois life to pursue an artistic one, although without rejecting bourgeois ethics.  In any case, a central theme of Thomas Mann's novels, the conflict between art and business, is already a dominant force in this work. Music also plays a major role: Hanno Buddenbrook, like his mother, tends to be an artist and musician, and not a person of commerce like his father.

Literary significance and criticism.

Thomas Mann did not intend to write an epic against contemporary aristocratic society and its conventions. On the contrary, Mann often sympathizes with their Protestant ethics. Mann criticizes with irony and detachment. When "Die protestantische Ethik und der 'Geist' des Kapitalismus" (1905, "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism") by Max Weber was published, Thomas Mann himself recognised the affinities with his own novel. The same happened with "Religion and the Rise of Capitalism" (1926) by R. H. Tawney. (See Hugh Ridley's "Thomas Mann: Buddenbrooks" – Cambridge, 1987.)  Before writing the novel, Mann conducted extensive research in order to depict with immaculate detail the conditions of the times and even the mundane aspects of the lives of his characters. In particular, his cousin Marty provided him with substantial information on the economics of Lübeck, including grain prices and the city's economic decline. The author carried out financial analysis to present the economic information depicted in the book accurately.  Accurate information through extensive research was a general topic in Thomas Mann's other novels. Some characters in the book speak in the Low German of northern Germany.  In the conversations appearing in the early parts of the book, many of the characters switch back and forth between German and French, and are seen to be effectively bilingual. The French appears in the original within Mann's German text, similar to the practice of Tolstoy in "War and Peace". The bilingual characters are of the older generation, who were already adults during the Napoleonic Wars; in later parts of the book, with the focus shifting to the family's younger generation against the background of Germany moving towards unification and assertion of its new role as a major European power, the use of French by the characters visibly diminishes.  All occurrences in the lives of the characters are seen by the narrator and the family members in relation to the family trade business: the sense of duty and destiny accompanying it as well as the economic consequences that events bring. Through births, marriages, and deaths, the business becomes almost a fetish or a religion, especially for some characters, notably Thomas and his sister Tony. The treatment of the female main character Tony Buddenbrook in the novel resembles the 19th-century Realists (Flaubert's Madame Bovary and Leo Tolstoy's Anna Karenina), but from a more ironic and less tragic point of view.  Mann's emotional description of the Frau Consul's death has been noted as a significant literary treatment of death and the subject's self-awareness of the death process.

Thomas Buddenbrook and Schopenhauer.

In part 10, chapter 5, Thomas Mann described Thomas Buddenbrook's encounter with Arthur Schopenhauer's philosophy. When he read the second volume of Schopenhauer's "The World as Will and Representation", Thomas Buddenbrook was strongly affected by Chapter 41, entitled "On Death and Its Relation to the Indestructibility of Our Inner Nature." From this chapter's influence, he had such thoughts as "Where shall I be when I am dead?...I shall be in all those who have ever, do ever, or ever shall say 'I' "..."Who, what, how could I be if I were not—if this my external self, my consciousness, did not cut me off from those who are not I?"..."soon will that in me which loves you be free and be in and with you – in and with you all." "I shall live...Blind, thoughtless, pitiful eruption of the urging will!" Schopenhauer had written that "Egoism really consists in man's restricting all reality to his own person, in that he imagines he lives in this alone, and not in others. Death teaches him something better, since it abolishes this person, so that man's true nature, that is his will, will henceforth live only in other individuals." According to this teaching, there really is no self to lose when death occurs. What is usually considered to be the self is really the same in all people and animals, at all times and everywhere. Irvin D. Yalom had a character in his novel describe it as follows:

Film and television adaptations.

A silent film version directed by Gerhard Lamprecht was filmed in Lübeck and released in 1923.  Alfred Weidenmann directed a two-part film version of "Buddenbrooks" starring Liselotte Pulver, Nadja Tiller, Hansjörg Felmy, Hanns Lothar, Lil Dagover and Werner Hinz. "Buddenbrooks – 1. Teil" was released in 1959, and "Buddenbrooks – 2. Teil" was released in 1960.  Franz Peter Wirth directed, consisting of 11 episodes, that premiered in 1979. It was filmed in Gdańsk, which had been less damaged by war than Lübeck was.  Another film version, starring Armin Mueller-Stahl, was released in 2008.

Buddenbrooks is a 1901 novel by Thomas Mann, chronicling the decline of a wealthy north German merchant family over the course of four generations, incidentally portraying the manner of life and mores of the Hanseatic bourgeoisie in the years from 1835 to 1877. Mann drew deeply from the history of his own family, the Mann family of Lübeck, and their milieu.

Buddenbrookovi: úpadek jedné rodiny (1901, "Buddenbrooks. Verfall einer Familie.") je první román německého spisovatele Thomase Manna, nositele Nobelovy ceny za literaturu za rok 1929, který založil jeho světovou proslulost.


Plot summary.

"The Beloved Returns" is the story of one of Goethe's old romantic interests, a real historical figure by the name of Charlotte Kestner née Buff, who has come to Weimar to see him again after more than 40 years of separation. Goethe had romanced Charlotte when they were young, but she had already been engaged (and then married) to another man whom she truly loved. Ultimately, the romance ended unconsummated; afterwards, Goethe wrote a fictional depiction of these events, with some artistic changes, and published it under the title "The Sorrows of Young Werther"—a still famous book, which brought early renown to Goethe. The real Charlotte became inadvertently and unwillingly famous, and remained so for the rest of her life to a certain degree.  Her return in some ways is due to her need to settle the "wrongs" done to her by Goethe in his creation of "Werther"; one of the underlying motifs in the story is the question of what sacrifices both a "genius" and the people around him/her must make to promote his/her creations, and whether or not Goethe (as the resident genius of Weimar) is too demanding of his supporters. Most of the novel is written as dialogues between Charlotte and other residents of Weimar, who give their own opinions on the issue of Goethe's genius. Only in the last third of the book, starting with the internal monologue in the seventh chapter, the reader is finally directly confronted with Goethe and what he himself thinks of the entire affair.  "Lotte in Weimar" also echoes in subtle ways Mann's and the world's concerns with German military aggression and social oppression.

Quotation at the Nuremberg Trials.

On 27 July 1946 Hartley Shawcross, Chief Prosecutor for the UK at the Nuremberg Trial of the Major War Criminals, at the end of his final argument, told the International Military Tribunal: Later Shawcross expressed his hope that by the judgement of the court could in the future  Within a few days, the British press was commenting that these were not Goethe's words at all but words put into his mouth by Thomas Mann in the seventh chapter of his novel "Lotte in Weimar". On 16 August 1946 Mann, then living in Pacific Palisades, California, received a letter from the British ambassador in Washington inquiring “whether you put the words into Goethe’s mouth or whether they are an actual quotation from the latter’s works. If they do represent an actual quotation, I should be very glad if you could let me know in which work they appear. It is, of course, possible that they are a passage from a contemporary or later commentator. Should this be the case, perhaps you would be good enough to say where you got them from.”  Mann answered the ambassador: "It is true, the quoted words do not appear literally in Goethe's writings or conversations; but they were conceived and formulated strictly in his spirit and although he never spoke them, he might well have done so." For Goethe’s monologue in the novel many quotations had been "modified and variegated for poetic purposes.” On the other hand, the monologue contained much which Goethe had never said but was so much in line with what one knew of his thinking that it could be called authentic. Therefore, in a higher sense the words the British prosecutor had used were indeed Goethe’s.  In his "The Story of a Novel: The Genesis of Doctor Faustus" Thomas Mann later explained that already during the war a few copies of "Lotte in Weimar" had been smuggled into Germany from Switzerland and that haters of the regime had distributed a compilation of excerpts from the monologue in the seventh chapter under the camouflage title “From Goethe’s Conversations With Riemer”. A copy or a translation had come into the hands of Sir Hartley Shawcross who - finding its content striking - in good faith had used it extensively in his final argument.

Film adaptation.

The novel was filmed in 1974 by Egon Günther, with Lilli Palmer in the title role.

Lotte in Weimar: The Beloved Returns, otherwise known as Lotte in Weimar or The Beloved Returns, is a 1939 novel by Thomas Mann. It is a story written in the shadow of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe; Mann developed the narrative almost as a response to Goethe's novel "The Sorrows of Young Werther", which is more than 150 years older than "Lotte in Weimar". "Lotte in Weimar" was first published in English in 1940.

Lotta ve Výmaru (1939, "Lotte in Weimar") je román německého spisovatele Thomase Manna, nositele Nobelovy ceny za literaturu za rok 1929, ve kterém autor postavil proti nacismu humanistické klasické dědictví Goethovo a připomenul světu, že vedle nenáviděného Německa existuje i Německo demokratických tradic a velké kultury s trvalou platností. Román zfilmoval roku 1974 německý režisér Egon Günther.


Biography.

Descendant of the Alepoudelis, an old olive oil industrial family from Lesbos, Elytis was born in Heraklion on the island of Crete, on 2 November 1911. His family later moved to Athens, where the poet graduated from high school and later attended courses as an auditor at the law school at University of Athens.  In 1935 Elytis published his first poem in the journal "New Letters" ("Νέα Γράμματα") at the prompting of such friends as George Seferis. His entry with a distinctively earthy and original form assisted to inaugurate a new era in Greek poetry and its subsequent reform after the Second World War.  From 1969 to 1972, under the Greek military junta of 1967–1974, Elytis exiled himself to Paris. He was romantically linked to the lyricist and musicologist Mariannina Kriezi, who subsequently produced and hosted the legendary children's radio broadcast "Here Lilliput Land". Elytis was intensely private and vehemently solitary in pursuing his ideals of poetic truth and experience.

The war.

In 1937 he served his military requirements. As an army cadet, he joined the National Military School in Corfu. He assisted Queen Frederika off the train and on to Greek soil personally when she arrived from Germany to marry hereditary Prince Paul. During the war he was appointed Second Lieutenant, placed initially at the 1st Army Corps Headquarters, then transferred to the 24th Regiment, on the first-line of the battlefields. Elytis was sporadically publishing poetry and essays after his initial foray into the literary world.  He was a member of the Association of Greek Art Critics, AICA-Hellas, International Association of Art Critics.

Programme director for ERT.

He was twice Programme Director of the Greek National Radio Foundation (1945–46 and 1953–54), Member of the Greek National Theatre's Administrative Council, President of the Administrative Council of the Greek Radio and Television as well as Member of the Consultative Committee of the Greek National Tourists' Organisation on the "Athens Festival". In 1960 he was awarded the First State Poetry Prize, in 1965 the Order of the Phoenix and in 1975 he was awarded the Doctor Honoris Causa in the Faculty of Philosophy at Thessaloniki University and received the Honorary Citizenship of the Town of Mytilene.

Travels.

In 1948–1952 and 1969–1972 he lived in Paris. There, he audited philology and literature seminars at the Sorbonne and was well received by the pioneers of the world's avant-garde (Reverdy, Breton, Tzara, Ungaretti, Matisse, Picasso, Francoise Gilot, Chagall, Giacometti) as Tériade's most respected friend. Teriade was simultaneously in Paris publishing works with all the renowned artists and philosophers (Kostas Axelos, Jean-Paul Sartre, Francoise Gilot, René Daumal) of the time. Elytis and Teriade had formed a strong friendship that solidified in 1939 with the publication of Elytis first book of poetry entitled "Orientations". Both Elytis and Teriade hailed from Lesbos and had a mutual love of the Greek painter Theophilos. Starting from Paris he travelled and subsequently visited Switzerland, England, Italy and Spain. In 1948 he was the representative of Greece at the "International Meetings of Geneva", in 1949 at the Founding Congress of the "International Art Critics Union" in Paris and in 1962 at the "Incontro Romano della Cultura" in Rome.  In 1961, upon an invitation of the State Department, he traveled through the U.S.A.; and —upon similar invitations— through the Soviet Union in 1963 and Bulgaria in 1965.

Death.

Odysseus Elytis had been completing plans to travel overseas when he died of a heart attack in Athens on 18 March 1996, at the age of 84. He was survived by his niece Myrsene and his older brother Evangelos, who received a writ of condolence from the mayor of Athens on behalf of the nation at the funeral at the First National Cemetery.

Poetry.

Elytis' poetry has marked, through an active presence of over forty years, a broad spectrum of subject matter and stylistic touch with an emphasis on the expression of that which is rarefied and passionate. He borrowed certain elements from Ancient Greece and Byzantium but devoted himself exclusively to today's Hellenism, of which he attempted—in a certain way based on psychical and sentimental aspects—to reconstruct a modernist mythology for the institutions. His main endeavour was to rid people's conscience from unjustifiable remorses and to complement natural elements through ethical powers, to achieve the highest possible transparency in expression and finally, to succeed in approaching the mystery of light, "the metaphysics of the sun" of which he was a "worshiper" -"idolater" by his own definition. A parallel manner concerning technique resulted in introducing the "inner architecture", which is evident in a great many poems of his; mainly in the phenomenal landmark work "It Is Truly Meet" ("Το Άξιον Εστί"). This work due to its setting to music by Mikis Theodorakis as an oratorio, is a revered anthem whose verse is sung by all Greeks for all injustice, resistance and for its sheer beauty and musicality of form. Elytis' theoretical and philosophical ideas have been expressed in a series of essays under the title "The Open Papers" ("Ανοιχτά Χαρτιά"). Besides creating poetry he applied himself to translating poetry and theatre as well as a series of collage pictures. Translations of his poetry have been published as autonomous books, in anthologies or in periodicals in eleven languages.

Odysseus Elytis (, pen name of Odysseus Alepoudellis, ; 2 November 1911 – 18 March 1996) was regarded as a major exponent of romantic modernism in Greece and the world. In 1979, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Odysseas Elytis (řecky Οδυσσέας Ελύτης) (2. listopadu 1911 Iraklio – 18. března 1996 Athény) byl řecký básník, nositel Nobelovy ceny za literaturu za rok 1979.


Life.

Martinson was born in Jämshög, Blekinge County in south-eastern Sweden. At a young age he lost both his parents whereafter he was placed as a foster child ("Kommunalbarn") in the Swedish countryside. At the age of sixteen Martinson ran away and signed onto a ship to spend the next years sailing around the world visiting countries including Brazil and India.  A few years later lung problems forced him to set ashore in Sweden where he travelled around without a steady employment, at times living as a vagabond on country roads. At the age of 21, he was arrested for vagrancy in Lundagård park, Lund.  In 1929, he debuted as a poet. Together with Artur Lundkvist, Gustav Sandgren, Erik Asklund and Josef Kjellgren he authored the anthology "Fem unga" (Five Youths), which introduced Swedish modernism. His poetry, characterized by linguistic innovation and a frequent use of metaphors, combined an acute eye for, and love of nature, with a deeply felt humanism. His popular success as a novelist came with the semi-autobiographical "Nässlorna blomma" ("Flowering Nettles") in 1935, about hardships encountered by a young boy in the countryside. It has since been translated into more than thirty languages. The novel "Vägen till Klockrike" ("The Road to Klockrike", 1948) was another huge success, and in 1949 Martinson became the first proletarian writer to be elected a member of the Swedish Academy.  One of his most noted works is the poetic cycle "Aniara", which is a story of the spacecraft "Aniara" that during a journey through space loses its course and subsequently floats on without destination. The book was published in 1956 and became an opera in 1959 composed by Karl-Birger Blomdahl. The cycle has been described as "an epic story of man's fragility and folly".  From 1929 to 1940, he was married to Moa Martinson, whom he met through a Stockholm anarchist newspaper, "Brand". He travelled to the Soviet Union in 1934. He and Moa were divorced due to her criticism of his lack of political commitment. Moa became a writer; Harry married Ingrid Lindcrantz (1916–1994) in 1942.

Controversy.

The joint selection of Eyvind Johnson and Martinson for the Nobel Prize in 1974 was very controversial as both were members of the Swedish Academy and thus on the Nobel panel. Graham Greene, Saul Bellow and Vladimir Nabokov were the favoured candidates that year.

Death.

The sensitive Martinson found it hard to cope with the criticism following his award, and committed suicide on 11February 1978 at the Karolinska University Hospital in Stockholm by cutting his stomach open with a pair of scissors in what has been described as a "hara-kiri-like manner".

Legacy.

The 100th anniversary of Martinson's birth was celebrated around Sweden in 2004.

Bibliography.

Titles in English where known.

Harry Martinson (6May 190411February 1978) was a Swedish author, poet and former sailor. In 1949 he was elected into the Swedish Academy. He was awarded a joint Nobel Prize in Literature in 1974 together with fellow Swede Eyvind Johnson "for writings that catch the dewdrop and reflect the cosmos". The choice was controversial, as both Martinson and Johnson were members of the academy.

Harry Edmund Martinson (6. května 1904 Jämshög, Blekinge – 11. února 1978 Stockholm) byl švédský spisovatel, nositel Nobelovy ceny za literaturu za rok 1974 společně se svým krajanem Eyvindem Johnsonem.


Mythology.

Danaus did not want his daughters to go ahead with the marriages and he fled with them in the first boat to Argos, which is located in Greece near the ancient city of Mycenae.  Danaus agreed to the marriage of his daughters only after Aegyptus came to Argos with his fifty sons in order to protect the local population, the Argives, from any battles. The daughters were ordered by their father to kill their husbands on the first night of their weddings and this they all did with the exception of one, Hypermnestra, who spared her husband Lynceus because he respected her desire to remain a virgin. Danaus was angered that his daughter refused to do as he ordered and took her to the Argives courts. Lynceus killed Danaus as revenge for the death of his brothers and he and Hypermnestra started the Danaid Dynasty of rulers in Argos.  The other 49 daughters remarried by choosing their mates in footraces. Some accounts tell that their punishment in Tartarus was being forced to carry a jug to fill a bathtub (pithos) without a bottom (or with a leak) to wash their sins off. Because the water was always leaking, they would forever try to fill the tub. Probably this myth is connected with a ceremony having to do with the worship of waters, and the "Danaïdes" were water-nymphs.

The Danaïds and their husbands.

Apollodorus.

The list in the "Bibliotheca" preserves not only the names of brides and grooms but also those of their mothers. A lot was cast among the sons of Aegyptus to decide which of the Danaids each should marry except for those daughters born to Memphis who were joined by their namesakes, the sons of Tyria. According to Hippostratus, Danaus had all these progeny begotten by a single woman, Europa, the daughter of Nilus.

Hyginus.

Hyginus' list is partially corrupt and some of the names are nearly illegible. Nevertheless, it is evident that this catalogue has almost nothing in common with that of Pseudo-Apollodorus. Names with (†) symbol means corrupted entries but annotations from various editors were provided to rationalize their possible names.

Ellis.

A third list was provided by the English antiquarian, Henry Ellis which was derived from Hyginus. The names of the Danaïdes was complete but with new entries and some alteration in the spellings. It can be observed that the names Armoaste and Danaes (Danais), was an addition to complete the list while Scea (Scaea) and Autonomes (Automate) which was obviously borrowed from Apollodorus' accounts were also added.

Other Danaïdes.

Several minor female characters, mentioned in various accounts unrelated to the main myth of Danaus and the Danaïdes, are also referred to as daughters of Danaus. These include:

Modern literature.

"The Daughters of Danaus" is also the title of an 1894 novel by Mona Caird, also dealing with imposed marriage although, in this case, it is a single marriage instead of 50, and in 19th-century Great Britain.  Magda Szabó's 1964 novel, "A Danaida" (The Danaid), is about a woman who lives selfishly for two-thirds of her life without realizing that even she can change the course of history.  "Le châtiment des Danaïdes" is an essay by the French-Canadian author Henri Paul Jacquesthe applying the Freudian concept of psychoanalysis to the study of the punishment imposed on the Danaïdes after they committed their crimes.  In "Monday Begins on Saturday", it is mentioned that the Danaïdes had their case reviewed in modern times, and, due to mitigating circumstances (the marriage being forced), had their punishment changed to laying down and then immediately demolishing asphalt.

In Greek mythology, the Danaïdes (; ), also Danaides or Danaids, were the fifty daughters of Danaus. In the "Metamorphoses", Ovid refers to them as the Belides after their grandfather Belus. They were to marry the 50 sons of Danaus' twin brother Aegyptus, a mythical king of Egypt. In the most common version of the myth, all but one of them killed their husbands on their wedding night, and are condemned to spend eternity carrying water in a sieve or perforated device. In the classical tradition, they came to represent the futility of a repetitive task that can never be completed (see also Sisyphus).

Danaovny, též Danaidky () jsou v řecké mytologii dcery Danaa, krále v Libyi a později v Argu, praotce kmene Danaů (Danajců).


Early life.

Manzoni was born in Milan, Italy, on 7 March 1785. Pietro, his father, aged about fifty, belonged to an old family of Lecco, originally feudal lords of Barzio, in the Valsassina. The poet's maternal grandfather, Cesare Beccaria, was a well-known author and philosopher, and his mother Giulia had literary talent as well. The young Alessandro spent his first two years in "cascina Costa" in Galbiate and he was wet-nursed by Caterina Panzeri, as attested by a memorial tablet affixed in the place. In 1792 his parents broke their marriage and his mother began a relationship with the writer Carlo Imbonati, moving to England and later to Paris. For this reason, Alessandro was brought up in several religious institutes.  Manzoni was a slow developer, and at the various colleges he attended he was considered a dunce. At fifteen, however, he developed a passion for poetry and wrote two sonnets of considerable merit. Upon the death of his father in 1807, he joined the freethinking household of his mother at Auteuil, and spent two years mixing with the literary set of the so-called "ideologues", philosophers of the 18th-century school, among whom he made many friends, notably Claude Charles Fauriel. There too he imbibed the anti-Catholic creed of Voltairianism.  In 1806–1807, while at Auteuil, he first appeared before the public as a poet, with two works, one entitled "Urania", in the classical style, of which he became later the most conspicuous adversary, the other an elegy in blank verse, on the death of Count Carlo Imbonati, from whom, through his mother, he inherited considerable property, including the villa of Brusuglio, thenceforward his principal residence.

1808–1821.

In 1808, Manzoni married Henriette Blondel, daughter of a Genevese banker. She came from a Calvinist family, but in 1810 she became a Roman Catholic. Her conversion profoundly influenced her husband. That same year he experienced a religious crisis which led him from Jansenism to an austere form of Catholicism. Manzoni's marriage proved a happy one, and he led for many years a retired domestic life, divided between literature and the picturesque husbandry of Lombardy.  His intellectual energy in this period of his life was devoted to the composition of the "Inni sacri", a series of sacred lyrics, and of a treatise on Catholic morality, "Osservazioni sulla morale cattolica", a task undertaken under religious guidance, in reparation for his early lapse from faith. In 1818 he had to sell his paternal inheritance, as his money had been lost to a dishonest agent. His characteristic generosity was shown at this time in his dealings with his peasants, who were heavily indebted to him. He not only cancelled on the spot the record of all sums owed to him, but bade them keep for themselves the whole of the coming maize harvest.  In 1819, Manzoni published his first tragedy, "Il Conte di Carmagnola", which, boldly violating all classical conventions, excited a lively controversy. It was severely criticized in a "Quarterly Review" article to which Goethe replied in its defence, "one genius," as Count de Gubernatis remarks, "having divined the other." The death of Napoleon in 1821 inspired Manzoni's powerful stanzas "Il Cinque maggio" ("The Fifth of May"), one of the most popular lyrics in the Italian language. The political events of that year, and the imprisonment of many of his friends, weighed much on Manzoni's mind, and the historical studies in which he sought distraction during his subsequent retirement at Brusuglio suggested his great work.

"The Betrothed".

Round the episode of the Innominato, historically identified with Bernardino Visconti, the first manuscript of the novel "The Betrothed" (in Italian "I promessi sposi") began to grow into shape, and was completed in September 1823. The work was published, after being deeply reshaped by the author and revised by friends in 1825–1827, at the rate of a volume a year; it at once raised its author to the first rank of literary fame. It is generally agreed to be his greatest work, and the paradigm of modern Italian language. The Penguin Companion to European Literature notes that 'the book's real greatness lies in its delineation of character...in the heroine, Lucia, in Padre Cristoforo, the Capuchin friar, and the saintly cardinal of Milan, he has created three living examples of that pure and wholehearted Christianity which is his ideal. But his psychological penetration extends also to those who fall short of this standard, whether through weakness or perversity, and the novel is rich in pictures of ordinary men and women, seen with a delightful irony and disenchantment which always stops short of cynicism, and which provides a perfect balance for the evangelical fervour of his ideal'. In 1822, Manzoni published his second tragedy, "Adelchi", turning on the overthrow by Charlemagne of the Lombard domination in Italy, and containing many veiled allusions to the existing Austrian rule. With these works Manzoni's literary career was practically closed. But he laboriously revised "The Betrothed" in Tuscan-Italian, and in 1840 republished it in that form, with a historical essay, "Storia della colonna infame", on details of the 17th-century plague in Milan so important in the novel. He also wrote a small treatise on the Italian language.

Family, death and legacy.

The death of Manzoni's wife in 1833 was preceded and followed by those of several of his children, and of his mother. In the mid-1830s he attended the "Salotto Maffei", a salon in Milan hosted by Clara Maffei, and in 1837 he married again, to Teresa Borri, widow of Count Stampa. Teresa also died before him, while of nine children born to him in his two marriages all but two pre-deceased him. In 1860 King Victor Emmanuel II named him a senator. The death of his eldest son, Pier Luigi, on 28 April 1873, was the final blow which hastened his end. He was already weakened as he had fallen on 6 January while exiting the San Fedele church, hitting his head on the steps, and he died after 5 months of cerebral meningitis, a complication of the trauma. His funeral was celebrated in the church of San Marco with almost royal pomp. His remains, after they lay in state for some days, were followed to the Cimitero Monumentale in Milan by a vast cortege, including the royal princes and all the great officers of state, but his noblest monument was Giuseppe Verdi's "Requiem", written to honour his memory. In modern times, he has been honored twice with a Google Doodle.  His "Osservazioni sulla morale cattolica" was quoted by Pope Pius XI in his encyclical on Christian Education "Divini Illius Magistri": "20. It is worthy of note how a layman, an excellent writer and at the same time a profound and conscientious thinker, has been able to understand well and express exactly this fundamental Catholic doctrine: The Church does not say that morality belongs purely, in the sense of exclusively, to her; but that it belongs wholly to her. She has never maintained that outside her fold and apart from her teaching, man cannot arrive at any moral truth; she has on the contrary more than once condemned this opinion because it has appeared under more forms than one. She does however say, has said, and will ever say, that because of her institution by Jesus Christ, because of the Holy Ghost sent her in His name by the Father, she alone possesses what she has had immediately from God and can never lose, the whole of moral truth, omnem veritatem, in which all individual moral truths are included, as well those which man may learn by the help of reason, as those which form part of revelation or which may be deduced from it".

Alessandro Francesco Tommaso Antonio Manzoni (,, ; 7 March 1785 – 22 May 1873) was an Italian poet, novelist and philosopher. He is famous for the novel "The Betrothed" (orig. ) (1827), generally ranked among the masterpieces of world literature. The novel is also a symbol of the Italian Risorgimento, both for its patriotic message and because it was a fundamental milestone in the development of the modern, unified Italian language. Manzoni also contributed to the stabilization of the modern Italian language and helped to insure linguistic unity throughout Italy. He was an influential proponent of Liberal Catholicism in Italy. His work and thinking has often been contrasted with that of his younger contemporary Giacomo Leopardi by critics.

Alessandro Francesco Tommaso Manzoni (7. březen 1785, Milán – 22. květen 1873, Milán) byl italský básník a romanopisec. Jeho nejvýznamnějším dílem je historický román „Snoubenci“ (italsky "I Promessi Sposi") z roku 1827. Román se odehrává za španělské nadvlády roku 1628, v roce 1827 jej však Italové četli jako obžalobu rakouského panství, takže významně podpořil italské risorgimento, zápas o sjednocení Itálie. Zároveň významně ovlivnil moderní italský jazyk.


History.

Indigenous Victorians.

Aboriginal Victorians, the indigenous Australians of Victoria, Australia, occupied the land for tens of thousands of

European colonisation.

Victoria, like Queensland, was named after Queen Victoria, who had been on the British throne for 14 years when the colony was established in 1851.  After the founding of the colony of New South Wales in 1788, Australia was divided into an eastern half named New South Wales and a western half named New Holland, under the administration of the colonial government in Sydney. The first British settlement in the area later known as Victoria was established in October 1803 under Lieutenant-Governor David Collins at Sullivan Bay on Port Phillip. It consisted of 402 people (five government officials, nine officers of marines, two drummers, and 39 privates, five soldiers' wives and a child, 307 convicts, 17 convicts' wives, and seven children). They had been sent from England in under the command of Captain Daniel Woodriff,

Creation of separate colony of Victoria.

On 1 July 1851, writs were issued for the election of the first Victorian Legislative Council, and the absolute independence of Victoria from New South Wales was established proclaiming a new Colony of Victoria. Days later, still in 1851 gold was discovered near Ballarat, and subsequently at Bendigo. Later discoveries occurred at many sites across Victoria. This triggered one of the largest gold rushes the world has ever seen. The colony grew rapidly in both population and economic power. In 10 years, the population of Victoria increased sevenfold from 76,000 to 540,000. All sorts of gold records were produced, including the "richest shallow alluvial goldfield in the world" and the largest gold nugget. In the decade 1851–1860 Victoria produced 20 million ounces of gold, one-third of the world's output.  Immigrants arrived from all over the world to search for gold, especially from Ireland and China. By 1857, 26,000 Chinese miners worked in Victoria, and their legacy is particularly strong in Bendigo and its environs.

Geography and geology.

Victoria's northern border follows a straight line from Cape Howe to the start of the Murray River and then follows the Murray River as the remainder of the northern border. On the Murray River, the border is the southern bank of the river. This precise definition was not established until 1980, when a ruling by Justice Ninian Stephen of the High Court of Australia settled the question as to which state had jurisdiction in the unlawful death of a man on an island in the middle of the river. The ruling clarified that no part of the watercourse is in Victoria. The border also rests at the southern end of the Great Dividing Range, which stretches along the east coast and terminates west of Ballarat. It is bordered by South Australia to the west and shares Australia's shortest land border with Tasmania. The official border between Victoria and Tasmania is at 39°12' S, which passes through Boundary Islet in the Bass Strait for 85 metres.  Victoria contains many topographically, geologically and climatically diverse areas, ranging from the wet, temperate climate of Gippsland in the southeast to the snow-covered Victorian alpine areas which rise to almost, with Mount Bogong the highest peak at. There are extensive semi-arid plains to the west and northwest. There is an extensive series of river systems in Victoria. Most notable is the Murray River system. Other rivers include: Ovens River, Goulburn River, Patterson River, King River, Campaspe River, Loddon River, Wimmera River, Elgin River, Barwon River, Thomson River, Snowy River, Latrobe River, Yarra River, Maribyrnong River, Mitta River, Hopkins River, Merri River and Kiewa River. The state symbols include the pink heath (state flower), Leadbeater's possum (state animal) and the helmeted honeyeater (state bird).  The state's capital, Melbourne, contains about 70% of the state's population and dominates its economy, media, and culture. For other cities and towns, see list of localities (Victoria) and local government areas of Victoria.

Major cities.

The following is a

Climate.

Victoria has a varied climate despite its small size. It ranges from semi-arid temperate with hot summers in the north-west, to temperate and cool along the coast. Victoria's main land feature, the Great Dividing Range, produces a cooler, mountain climate in the centre of the state. Winters along the coast of the state, particularly around Melbourne, are relatively mild ("see chart at right)".  Victoria's southernmost position on the Australian mainland means it is cooler and wetter than other mainland states and territories. The coastal plain south of the Great Dividing Range has Victoria's mildest climate. Air from the Southern Ocean helps reduce the heat of summer and the cold of winter. Melbourne and

Rainfall.

Victoria is the wettest Australian state after Tasmania. Rainfall in Victoria increases from south to the northeast, with higher averages in areas of high altitude. Mean annual rainfall exceeds in some parts of the northeast but is less than in the Mallee.  Rain is heaviest in the Otway Ranges and Gippsland in southern Victoria and in the mountainous northeast. Snow generally falls only in the mountains and hills in the centre of the state. Rain falls most frequently in winter, but summer precipitation is heavier. Rainfall is most reliable in Gippsland and the Western District, making them both leading farming areas. Victoria's highest recorded daily rainfall was at Tidal River in Wilsons Promontory National Park on 23 March 2011.

Demographics.

At June 2019 Victoria had a population of 6,594,804. The Australian Bureau of Statistics estimates that the population may well reach 7.2 million by 2050.  Victoria's founding Anglo-Celtic population has been supplemented by successive waves of migrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, Asia and, most recently, Africa and the Middle East. Victoria's population is ageing in proportion with the average of the remainder of the Australian population.  About 72% of Victorians are Australian-born. This figure falls to around 66%

Ancestry and immigration.

At the 2016 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were: 0.8% of the population, or 47,788 people, identified as Indigenous Australians (Aboriginal Australians and Torres

Language.

As of the 2016 census, 72.2% of Victorians speak English at

Religion.

In the 2016 Census, 47.9% of Victorians described themselves as Christian, 10.6% stated that they followed other religions and 32.1% stated that they had no religion.  31.7% of Victorians stated

Age structure and fertility.

The government predicts that nearly a quarter of Victorians will be aged over 60 by 2021. The 2016 census revealed

Crime.

In 2011–2012

Government.

Parliament.

Victoria has a parliamentary form of government based on the Westminster System. Legislative power resides in the Parliament consisting of the Governor (the representative of the Queen), the executive (the Government), and two legislative chambers. The Parliament of Victoria consists of the lower house Legislative Assembly, the upper house Legislative Council and the Queen of Australia.  Eighty-eight members of the Legislative Assembly are elected to four-year terms from

Premier and cabinet.

The Premier of Victoria is the leader of the political party or coalition with the most seats in the Legislative Assembly. The Premier is the public face of government and, with cabinet, sets

Governor.

Executive authority is vested in the Governor of Victoria who represents and is appointed by Queen Elizabeth II. The

Constitution.

Victoria has a written constitution enacted in 1975, but based on the 1855 colonial constitution, passed by the United Kingdom Parliament as the "Victoria Constitution Act 1855", which establishes the Parliament as the state's law-making

Politics.

Victorians, and Melburnians in particular, are considered by some analysts to be more progressive than other Australians. The state recorded the highest "Yes" votes of any state in the republic referendum and same-sex marriage survey. Victorians are said to be "generally socially progressive, supportive of multiculturalism, wary of extremes of any kind".  Premier Daniel Andrews leads the Australian Labor Party that won the November 2014 Victorian state election.

Federal government.

Victorian voters elect 50 representatives to the Parliament of Australia, including 38 members of the House of Representatives and 12 members of the Senate. Since 18 May 2019, the

Local government.

Victoria is incorporated into 79 municipalities for the purposes of local government, including 39 shires, 32 cities, seven rural cities and one

Education.

Primary and secondary.

Victoria's state school system dates back to 1872, when the colonial government legislated to make schooling both free and compulsory. The state's public secondary school system began in 1905. Before then, only private secondary schooling was available. Today, a Victorian school education consists of seven years of primary schooling (including one preparatory year) and six years of secondary schooling.  The final years of secondary school are optional for children aged over 17. Victorian children generally begin school at age five or six. On completing secondary school, students earn the Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE) or Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning (VCAL). Students who successfully complete their VCE also receive an ATAR, to determine university admittance.  Victorian schools are either publicly or privately funded. Public schools, also known as state or government schools, are funded and run directly by the Victoria Department of Education

Tertiary education.

Victoria has nine universities. The first to offer degrees, the University of Melbourne, enrolled its first student in 1855. The largest, Monash University, has an enrolment of over 83,000 students—more than any other Australian university.  The number of students enrolled in Victorian universities was 418,447 in 2018, an increase of 5.3% on the previous year. International students made up 40% of enrolments and account for the highest percentage of pre-paid university tuition fees. The largest number of enrolments were recorded

Libraries.

The State Library Victoria is the State's research and reference library. It is responsible for collecting and preserving Victoria's documentary heritage and making it available through a range

Economy.

The state of Victoria is the second largest economy in Australia after New South Wales, accounting for a quarter of the nation's gross domestic product. The total gross state product (GSP) at current prices for Victoria was A$455 billion in June 2019, with a GSP per capita of A$69,654.  Finance and insurance is Victoria's largest income producing sector, while the health care and social assistance sector is the state's biggest employer. The shift towards service industries in the preceding decades has seen manufacturing lose its mantle as Victoria's largest employer and income producer.

Agriculture.

During 2003–04, the gross value of Victorian agricultural production increased by 17% to $8.7 billion. This represented 24% of national agricultural production total gross value. As of 2004, an estimated 32,463 farms occupied around 136,000 square kilometres (52,500 sq mi) of Victorian land. This comprises more than 60% of the state's total land surface. Victorian farms range from small horticultural outfits to large-scale livestock and grain productions. A quarter of farmland is used to grow consumable crops.  More than 26,000 square kilometres (10,000 sq mi) of Victorian farmland are sown for grain, mostly in the state's west. More than 50% of this area is sown for wheat, 33% for barley and 7% for oats. A further 6,000 square kilometres (2,300 sq mi) is sown for hay. In 2003–04, Victorian farmers produced more than 3 million tonnes of wheat and 2 million tonnes of barley.

Manufacturing.

Victoria has a diverse range of manufacturing enterprises and Melbourne is considered Australia's most important industrial city. The post-World War II manufacturing boom was fuelled by international investment; attracted to the state by the availability of cheap land close to the city and inexpensive energy from the Latrobe Valley. Victoria produced 26.4% of total manufacturing output in Australia in 2015–16, behind New South Wales at 32.4%.  Machinery and equipment manufacturing is the state's most valuable manufacturing activity, followed by food and beverage products, petrochemicals and chemicals. Prominent manufacturing plants in the state include the Portland and Point Henry aluminium smelters, owned by Alcoa; oil refineries at Geelong and Altona; a major petrochemical facility at Laverton; and Victorian-based CSL, a global biotechnology company that produces vaccines and plasma products, among others. Victoria also plays an important role in providing goods for the defence industry.  Victoria proportionally relies on manufacturing more than any

Land.

Victoria adopted the Torrens system of land registration with the "Real Property Act 1862". The Torrens system did not replace the common law system but applied only to new land

Mining.

Mining in Victoria contributes around A$6 billion to the gross state product (~2%) but employs less than 1% of workers. The Victorian mining industry is concentrated on energy producing minerals, with brown coal, petroleum and gas accounting for nearly 90% of local production. The oil and gas industries are centred off the coast of Gippsland in the state's east, while brown coal mining and power generation is based in the Latrobe Valley.  In the 2005–06 fiscal year, the average gas production was over

Service industry.

The service industries sector is the fastest growing component of the Victorian economy. It includes the wide range of activities generally classified as financial and professional services; health care and social assistance, education, transportation, IT and communication services, government services and wholesale and

Tourism.

Some major tourist destinations in Victoria are:  Other popular tourism activities are gliding, hang-gliding, hot air ballooning and scuba diving.  Major events that explore cultural diversity, music and sports play a big part in Victoria's

Transport.

Victoria has the highest population density in any state in Australia, with population centres spread out over most of the state; only the far northwest and the Victorian Alps lack permanent settlement.  The Victorian road network services the population centres, with highways generally radiating from Melbourne and other major cities and rural centres with secondary roads interconnecting the highways to each other. Many of the highways are built to freeway standard ("M" freeways), while most are generally sealed and of reasonable quality. Rail transport in Victoria is provided by several private and public railway operators who operate over government-owned lines. Major operators include: Metro Trains Melbourne which runs an extensive, electrified, passenger system throughout Melbourne and suburbs; V/Line which is now owned by the Victorian Government, operates a concentrated service to major regional centres, as well as long distance services on other lines; Pacific National, CFCL Australia which operate freight services; Great Southern Rail which operates "The Overland" Melbourne—Adelaide; and NSW TrainLink which operates XPTs Melbourne—Sydney.  There are also several smaller freight operators and numerous tourist railways operating over lines which were once parts of a state-owned

Utilities.

Energy.

Victoria's major utilities include a collection of brown-coal-fired power stations, particularly in the Latrobe Valley. One of these was the recently decommissioned

Water.

Victoria's water infrastructure includes a series of dams and reservoirs, predominantly in Central Victoria, that hold and collect water for much of the state. The water collected is of a very high quality and requires little chlorination treatment, giving the water a taste more like water collected in a rainwater tank. In regional areas

Sport.

Victoria is the home of Australian rules football, with ten of the eighteen Australian Football League (AFL) clubs based in the state. The AFL Grand Final is traditionally held at the Melbourne Cricket Ground on the last Saturday of September. The state has a public holiday the day before the Grand Final, which coincides with the AFL Grand Final parade.  Victoria's cricket team, the Victorian Bushrangers play in the national Sheffield Shield cricket competition. Victoria is represented in the National Rugby League by the Melbourne Storm and in Super Rugby by the Melbourne Rebels. It is represented in the National Basketball League by Melbourne United and South East Melbourne Phoenix. It is also represented in soccer by Melbourne Victory, Melbourne City and Western United in the A-League.  Melbourne has held the 1956 Summer Olympics, 2006 Commonwealth Games and the FINA World Swimming Championship.  Melbourne is also home to the Australian Open tennis tournament in January each year, the first of the

Sister states.

Victoria has

See also.

Geography:  Lists:

Victoria (abbreviated as Vic, officially the State of Victoria) is a state of Australia. Victoria is the second-smallest, second-most populous and most densely-populated Australian state. It is a federated state and a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Situated in the south-east of Australia, Victoria is bordered by the Bass Strait and Tasmania to the south, New South Wales to the north, the Tasman Sea (a marginal sea of the South Pacific Ocean) to the east, and South Australia to the west. With an area of, Victoria encompasses a range of climates and geographical features from its temperate coastal and central regions to the Victorian Alps in the north-east and the semi-arid north-west.

Victoria je jeden ze šesti spolkových států Austrálie, který leží na jihovýchodě Austrálie. Hlavním a zároveň největším městem je Melbourne se 4 725 316 obyvatel, což je 75 % populace celé Victorie (celková populace Victorie je 6 290 700).


Geology.

Ku-ring-gai Chase is part of the Hornsby Plateau, a massive block of sandstone tilting upwards to the north. The park comprises a plateau with an elevation of generally 150–200 m above sea level. The plateau is divided into separate sections by the steep valleys of Cowan Creek, Coal and Candle Creek, and Smiths Creek. These "flooded" or "drowned" valleys, knowns as rias, were eroded into the sandstone much deeper than the current sea level during the glacial phases of the Pleistocene ice age. When the ice caps melted about 10,000 years ago, the sea levels rose and flooded the valleys of the park.  The dominant rock type is Hawkesbury Sandstone which determines the topography and the vegetation in the sandy soils. Sandstone cliffs, rocky and outcrops, and worn caves are common throughout the park. Indigenous people engraved the flat sandstone outcrops (see Sydney rock engravings). Tessellated pavements are found in the park whereby regular chequered patterns in the stone form along fault lines and lines of weakness.  Other rock types in the park are less common. Soils derived from the Narrabeen group of shales are around the eastern shore of the Lambert Peninsula, particularly around Elvina Bay and Lovett Bay. These richer soils provide for a vegetation type different from that of the sandy ridge top soils, providing for forests of spotted gums ("Corymbia maculata") with forest oaks as a secondary layer. Eroded remnants of volcanic dykes occur including at Resolution Picnic Area at West Head and Campbells Crater near Cowan, which provide for forests of Sydney blue gum ("Eucalyptus saligna").  The park's highest point is 246 m at Willunga Trig near West Head Road which runs along the ridge of the Lambert Peninsula.

History.

Pre-European history.

The first inhabitants of the area were the indigenous Guringai people, after whom the park is named. Little about the Guringai was recorded by Europeans at contact and their communities were soon destroyed through disease and conflict with European settlers.  The national park contains extensive evidence of Aboriginal occupation of the area prior to European contact, across more than 800 sites in the park. These include rock engravings, cave drawings, occupation sites, paintings and stencils, axe grinding grooves and middens providing significant evidence of the way of life of the Guringai people.

Park history.

It was previously underdeveloped by early settlers due to poor accessibility and low soil fertility, except for some of the more fertile ridgetops. Sawmills were established in the 1830s, including at the upper reaches of Cowan Creek where Duffy's Wharf was built to transport logs.  The Pacific Highway and railway built along the ridgetop forming the park's current western border provided access to Cowan Creek along which pioneers settled. 40 hectares at Gerard Point, now Church Point, were granted to James Terry of Gordon.  Following pressure from a local citizen, Eccleston Du Faur, to establish a "National Park for North Sydney", approximately 13,500 hectares, including not only land areas but also most of Cowan Water, was set aside in 1894 as Ku-ring-gai Chase and placed under the care, control and management of trustees. The park was named after its original inhabitants, an Aboriginal group called the Kuring-gai or Guringai, and called a "chase" to indicate it was an area of natural bush which was not enclosed by fences.  Ku-ring-gai Chase became a national park with the proclamation of the National Parks and Wildlife Act in 1967. Additions to the park have made it 14,882 hectares in size.  The television series, "Skippy the Bush Kangaroo" was shot in northern Sydney at Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park and the adjacent Waratah Park. Bushfires ravaged the park in January 1994.

Locations, access and facilities.

Many of the park's attractions are accessible only by walking track. Many kilometres of park front the southern shoreline of Broken Bay making it a good place to explore by boat.  Rail access is provided at Mount Colah, Mount Kuring-gai, Berowra and Cowan railway stations. All roads in the area are sealed and all have collection gates where a daily fee is payable.

Bobbin Head.

Bobbin Head is located on Cowan Creek and facilities include a marina, picnic areas, a small store, and a lunch-time restaurant in what used to be the Bobbin Head Inn, which also contains an information centre. The area contains many fire trails and a walk through mangroves. Aboriginal engravings can be seen in the area.

The Basin.

A popular camping and picnic site with a small beach is located at the Basin on Pittwater. This is the only place in the entire national park where camping is allowed. Access is either by West Head Road via The Basin Track or on a ferry from Palm Beach Wharf.

West Head.

West Head is a headland at the north eastern tip of the National Park. A lookout, with views of Barrenjoey, Palm Beach and Broken Bay, has been built on West Head. The Flint & Steel Guesthouse was one of the first buildings on West Head.

Barrenjoey.

Barrenjoey is a locality of Palm Beach. It is a headland and unusual amongst the National Park's features as it is not joined to the rest of the Park by land but separated by 1 kilometer of water, the Pittwater.

The Sphinx.

This is a walk going by the Sphinx Memorial, which is a sandstone monument commemorating the fallen A.I.F comrades of Pte. William T. Shirley during World War I and was created by the returned soldier in the 1920s. The Sphinx took about one and a half years to complete.  The top inscription reads: To my glorious comrades of the A.I.F by the late W. Shirley No 5756 Pte. 13th Battalion Died 27th August 1928 The lower plaque's inscription reads: This memorial, following restoration, was rededicated on the 9th November 1995, in recognition of the selflessness and sacrifices of the members of the A.I.F.

Cottage Point.

Cottage Point is Sydney's smallest locality and is listed as a heritage conservation area. Cottage Point Kiosk and Boat Hire, built around 1918, is situated at Cottage Point at the entrance to Coal and Candle Creek.

Jerusalem Bay.

Jerusalem Bay is accessible by a track which is part of the Great North Walk from Cowan railway station next to the Pacific Highway. The track passes through a creek gorge lined with temperate rainforest and large turpentines before opening to the bay. At the bay is an old abandoned habitation site. It opens out to Cowan Water and Broken Bay making it popular with boating and fishing enthusiasts. After the bay the track proceeds up a steep climb past Campbell's Crater and along the ridge all the way to Brooklyn. Campbell's Crater is a volcanic diatreme containing subtropical rainforest species such as Red Cedars and Cabbage Palms with a floor of ferns.  A plane accident occurred in the area on 31 December 2017, killing the pilot and five passengers.

Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park is a national park on the northern side of Sydney in New South Wales, Australia. The park is north of the Sydney Central Business District and generally comprises the land east of the Sydney-Newcastle Expressway, south of the Hawkesbury River, west of Pittwater and north of Mona Vale Road. It includes Barrenjoey Headland on the eastern side of Pittwater.

Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park je australský národní park ležící 24 km na sever od Sydney. Rozloha parku je 154 km a byl vyhlášen národním parkem v roce 1967. Nejsnazší přístup do parku je ze silnice "Pacific Highway". Národním parkem protéká řeka "Hawkesbury" s bočním přítokem "Cowan Creek". Rozkládá se zde větší vodní plocha "Pittwater" v zátoce "Broken Bay".


History.

After the railway from Chemnitz to Chomutov via Annaberg and Vejprty was opened in 1872 (consisting of Chemnitz–Flöha, Flöha–Annaberg, Annaberg–Vejprty and Vejprty–Chomutov sections), plans were made to also connect the former mining town of Oberwiesenthal to the Saxon Railway system. The requirements and qualifications to build a narrow gauge railway from Cranzahl were met by 1884, but it wasn't until April 6, 1896, that construction started. The railway opening took place on July 20, 1897. By the end of that year, 67,756 passengers (and 57 dogs) had already traveled on the new railway.  Passenger count increased in the following years, and tourism played an increasing role in the passenger count. Freight traffic also increased significantly. Until 1906, freight had to be transloaded in Cranzahl; since then transporter wagons made the extra cargo handling unnecessary. The biggest cargo customer – even until the mid-1990s – was the quarry in Hammerunterwiesenthal, requiring around 30 freight cars daily.  After 1990 the railway lost its status as the most important carrier into Oberwiesenthal (which is the highest town in (Germany)), and in 1992 freight service was terminated. After 1994, the Deutsche Bahn became the new owner, and planned to either dismantle the railway, or sell it.  For the 100-year anniversary, the communities along the track, together with the operators of the Pressnitz Valley Railway and the Lößnitzgrund Railway organized a festival week that drew 40,000 visitors. With different rolling stock of narrow gauge railways from all over Germany; a train schedule of extra and regularly scheduled trains meant that there was a train on the track almost every hour. Fun fairs along the track and historic trains ensured the success of the event.  New thinking started after the success of the event, and the district of Annaberg prepared to acquire the railway. On June 1, 1998, the operator BVO Bahn GmbH, since 2007 Saxon Steam Railway Company took over operations from the Deutsche Bahn, and renamed the railway to the catchier "Fichtelbergbahn". The new operator aligned operations with the tourism in the surrounding area, and within relative short time achieved country-wide recognition. Especially during the winter months the railway now has similar significance as in its heyday, as winter sports tourists in the towns of Neudorf and Cranzahl can reach the ski areas of Oberwiesenthal with ease and in style.

Route.

The railway starts at the standard gauge station Cranzahl at of the Vejprty–Annaberg-Buchholz railway. The passenger trains start on the same platform as the standard gauge trains. The former freight yard and its loading ramp for the transporter flatcars is on the northern end of the station. The narrow gauge trains leave the station in a left turn and follow the right side of the Sehma valley through the village of "Neudorf".  The first stop is "Unterneudorf", followed by "Neudorf". The following stop "Vierenstrasse" is a popular starting point for hiking into the Fichtelberg area. Leaving "Vierenstrasse", the track follows a long incline (1:33 or 3.03%) through the densely covered Fichtelberg forest. The next station "Kretscham-Rothensehma" is used to allow valley-bound trains to pass. The track continues to climb, reaching the watershed of the Pöhlbach river, arriving at the next stop of "Niederschlag".  The tracks now lead downward into the Pöhlbach valley, crossing the Bundesstrasse 95, and run along the border with the Czech Republic uphill to the "Hammerunterwiesenthal" station. Leaving "Hammerunterwiesenthal", the valley becomes so narrow that there is only room for the state road and the railroad tracks, steep meadows on the right hand side, and a steep forest to the left on the Czech side of the border.  After the next stop "Unterwiesenthal", the track unwinds itself from the narrow valley, and the peaks of Fichtelberg on the right, and Klínovec on the left become visible. After crossing the federal route again, the railway leads over a long and high steel viaduct, and reaches the terminus of Oberwiesenthal at.

Train operations.

The SDG operates only steam powered passenger trains, which carry dining and baggage cars. Six train-pairs operate daily. On weekends, trains pass each other in the morning in Neudorf, otherwise trains pass in Hammerunterwiesenthal. The SDG uses steam engines of the DR Class 99.77-79, serial "099 772", "099 773", "099 785", "099 786" and "099 794".

Photo opportunities.

There are many nice photo opportunities along the railway. Notable are the trains passing each other in "Neudorf", the valley-bound train entering the "Kretscham-Rothensehma" station, the train making its way through "Hammerunterwiesenthal" with the church as backdrop, the ride through the Pöhlbach valley, and the train on the viaduct shortly before entering Oberwiesenthal.  The scenery is enhanced in the winter, when low temperatures increase the volume of steam from the locomotive, and snow-covered forests alternate with small Erzgebirge villages displaying their typical Christmas decoration.

The Fichtelberg railway (German: "Fichtelbergbahn") is a narrow-gauge railway that leads from the standard-gauge international line at Cranzahl to the ski resort of Oberwiesenthal in the Erzgebirge mountains in eastern Germany. It takes its name from the Fichtel Mountain near Oberwiesenthal.

Fichtelbergbahn je označení úzkorozchodné trati o rozchodu 750 milimetrů vedoucí z Cranzahlu do Oberwiesenthalu. Trať vede střední částí Krušných hor v německém Sasku, v blízkosti hranic s Českou republikou.


List of top-division football clubs in AFC countries

Seznam klubů v nejvyšších fotbalových soutěžích zemí AFC

Afghanistan.

"As of 2018 season:"

Australia.

"As of 2018–19 A-League season:"  "As of 2018–19 W-League season:"

Bahrain.

"As of 2016–17 season:"

Bangladesh.

"As of 2018-19 season:"

Bhutan.

"As of 2018 season:"

Brunei.

"As of 2020 season:"

Cambodia.

"As of 2019 season:"

China.

"As of 2019 season:"

Chinese Taipei.

See Chinese Taipei for the naming issue.  "As of 2019 season:"

East Timor.

"As of 2016 season:"

Guam.

"As of 2016–17 season:"

Hong Kong.

"As of 2016–17 season:"  List of Football clubs in India

India.

Assam.

"Main State League: Assam State Premier League"

Bihar.

"Main State League: "Moin-ul-Haq Cup

Delhi.

"Main State League: Delhi Senior Division"

Goa.

"Main State League: Goa Professional League"

Gujarat.

"Main State League: None"

Haryana.

"Main State League: Haryana State Football League"

Jharkhand.

"Main State League: None"

Karnataka.

"Main State League: Bangalore Super Division"

Kerala.

"Main State League: Kerala Premier League"

Chhattisgarh.

"Main State League: Bhilai Super Division"

Madhya Pradesh.

"Main State League:Various Districts league"

Maharashtra.

"Main State League: Various Districts league"

Manipur.

"Main State League: Manipur State League"

Meghalaya.

"Main State League: Shillong Premier League"

Mizoram.

"Main State League: Mizoram Premier League"

Nagaland.

"Main State League: Nagaland Premier League"

Odisha.

"Main State League: FAO Football League"

Punjab.

"Main State League: Punjab Super League"

Rajasthan.

"Main State League: RAJASTHAN League"

Sikkim.

"Main State League: Sikkim Senior Division"

Tamil Nadu.

"Main State League: Chennai Football Senior Division"

West Bengal.

"Main State League: Calcutta Premier Division"

Indonesia.

"As of 2020 season:"  "As of 2018–19 season:"

Iraq.

"As of 2016–17 season:"

Japan.

"As of 2019 season:"

Jordan.

"As of 2016–17 season:"

North Korea.

"As of 2007 season:"

South Korea.

"As of 2017 season:"

Kuwait.

"As of 2016–17 season:"  "As of 2019 season:"

Laos.

"As of 2016 season:"

Lebanon.

"As of 2019–20 season:"

Macau.

"As of 2016 season:"

Malaysia.

"As of 2019 season:"  "As of 2019 season:"

Maldives.

"As of 2016 season:"

Mongolia.

"As of 2018 season:"

Myanmar.

"As of 2019 season:"

Nepal.

"As of 2015 season:"

Northern Mariana Islands.

"As of 2019 season"

Oman.

"As of 2016–17 season:"

Pakistan.

"As of 2018–19 season:"

Palestine.

"As of 2018–19 season:" "As of 2017–18 season"

Philippines.

"As of the 2019 PFL season:"  "As of the 2019 PFFWL season:"

Qatar.

"As of 2018–19 season:"

Saudi Arabia.

"As of 2018–19 season:"

Singapore.

"As of 2020 season:"

Sri Lanka.

"As of 2018–19 season:"

Syria.

"As of 2016–17 season:"

Tajikistan.

"As of 2019 season:"

Thailand.

"As of 2017 season:"

Turkmenistan.

"As of 2018 season:"

United Arab Emirates.

"As of 2019–20 season:"

Uzbekistan.

"As of 2017 season:"

Vietnam.

"As of 2017 season:"

Yemen.

"As of 2013–14 season:"

This is a list of top-division football clubs in Asian Football Confederation countries. The Asian Football Confederation (AFC) includes all Asian countries except Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cyprus, Georgia, Israel, Kazakhstan and Turkey as members, but also includes the Oceanian countries of Australia, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands (the association of the Northern Mariana Islands is a provisional associate member of AFC but not a member of FIFA).

Toto je seznam klubů, které hrají v nejvyšších fotbalových soutěžích zemí, které patří k Asijské fotbalové konfederaci. Patří sem všechny státy z asijského kontinentu, kromě Arménie, Ázerbájdžánu, Gruzie, Izraele, Kazachstánu a Kypru, kteří patří k UEFA, ale na druhou stranu do AFC patří Austrálie a ostrov Guam. Hongkong a Macao, jakožto speciální administrativní regiony Čínské lidové republiky, mají také své vlastní fotbalové federace, patřící pod AFC. Čínská republika - Tchaj-wan (ve světě sportu používá název Čínská Tchaj-pej) a Palestinská autonomie mají také své vlastní fotbalové federace, patřící do AFC.


Construction features.

Karosa C 956 is model of Karosa 900 series. C 956 is unified with city bus models such as B 952 and B 961. Body was assembled to the skeleton, which has undergone a dip stage, sheets were galvanized and painted and then to have it installed additional components. Body is semi-self-supporting with frame and engine with manual gearbox is placed in the rear part. Only rear axle is propulsed. Front and rear axles are solid. All axles are mounted on air suspension. On the right side are two doors. Inside are used cloth seats. Drivers cab is not separated from the rest of the vehicle.  The front face of the vehicle, unlike the C 955 has modified slightly different plastic bumper with round lights. The rear face is identical to C 955.  C 956 provides high, folding padded seat which are spaced 2 + 2 with the central aisle and placed on an elevated landing. The latest models of AXER have belts on all seats and three-point seatbelts. Previous versions had these extras menu option, the mandatory two-point belts fitted with only the front seats (and also the middle seat in the last row and double seats at the back door). According to customer requirements, bus is equipped with either only heating or air conditioning, on-demand of customers may be placed inside coffee maker, TV with video or DVD player or refrigerator. The driver has a heated seat with three-point seat belt. The luggage compartment below the floor between the axles has a volume of 6.5 m3 (version 12M) or 7.65 m3 (version 12.8). The interesting thing is that the bus uses the entire front headlights originally developed in 1988 for BMW cars.

Production and operation.

In 2002 started serial production, which continued until 2006. Model C 956 is a sort between the type of the intercity C 954 and luxury touring LC 956. It is designed for a long lines or shorter trips.

Historical vehicles.

Any historical vehicle was not saved yet.

Karosa C 956 is an intercity bus produced by bus manufacturer Karosa from the Czech Republic, in the years 2002 to 2006. In 2003 was introduced modernised version C 956 E.

Karosa C 956, známější pod obchodním jménem Axer, je meziměstský autobus z dílny společnosti Karosa Vysoké Mýto. Je určen na střední a delší dálkové linky a zájezdy, výjimečně je používán i na kratších příměstských tratích. Vůz byl dodáván ve dvou délkových verzích – 12 m a 12,8 m – v letech 2002 až 2006. C 956, který je nástupcem typu C 955, byl ve výrobě nahrazen vozem Irisbus Arway.


History.

The first known isoseismal map was produced for the 1810 earthquake in Mór in Hungary, and published by Kitaibel and Tomtsányi in 1814. The first, six-level intensity scale was proposed by Egen in 1828 for an earthquake in Rhineland. Robert Mallet coined the term 'isoseismal' and produced a map for the 1857 Basilicata earthquake with a threefold intensity scale and used this and other information to identify the epicentral area (a term he also coined). Later studies made use of similar techniques, the main changes being to the actual seismic intensity scale employed.

Methodology.

Firstly, observations of the felt intensity need to be obtained for all areas affected by the tremor. In the case of recent earthquakes, news reports are augmented by sending out questionnaires or by collecting information online about the intensity of the shaking. For a historical earthquake the procedure is much the same, except that it requires searching through contemporary accounts in newspapers, letters, diaries, etc. Once the information has been assembled and intensities assigned at the location of the individual observations, these are plotted on a map. Isoseismal lines are then drawn to link together areas of equal shaking. Because of local variations in the ground conditions, isoseismals will generally separate zones of broadly similar felt intensity, while containing areas of both higher and lower degrees of shaking. To make the isoseismals less subjective, attempts have been made to use computer-based methods of contouring such as kriging, rather than relying on visual interpolation.

Use.

Locating the epicenter.

In most earthquakes, the isoseismals define a single clear area of maximum intensity, which is known as the epicentral area. In some earthquakes, there is more than one maximum because of the effect of ground conditions or complexities in the rupture propagation, and other information is therefore required to identify the area that contains the epicenter.

Measuring the magnitude.

The magnitude of an earthquakes can be roughly estimated by measuring the area affected by intensity level III or above in square kilometres and taking the logarithm. A more accurate estimate relies on the development of regional calibration functions derived using many isoseismal radii. Such approaches allow magnitudes to be estimated for historical earthquakes.

Estimating the focal depth.

The depth to the hypocenter can be estimated by comparing the sizes of different isoseismal areas. In shallow earthquakes the lines are close together while in deep events the lines are spread further apart.

Confirming the focal mechanism.

Focal mechanisms are routinely calculated using teleseismic data but an ambiguity remains as there are always two potential fault planes. The shape of the areas of highest intensity are generally elongate along the direction of the active fault plane.

Testing seismic hazard assessments.

Because of the relatively long history of macroseismic intensity observations (sometimes stretching back many centuries in some regions) isoseismal maps can be used to test seismic hazard assessments by comparing the expected temporal frequency of different levels of intensity assuming an assessment is true and the observed rate of exceedance.

In seismology, an isoseismal map is used to show lines of equal felt seismic intensity, generally measured on the Modified Mercalli scale. Such maps help to identify earthquake epicenters, particularly where no instrumental records exist, such as for historical earthquakes. They also contain important information on ground conditions at particular locations, the underlying geology, radiation pattern of the seismic waves and the response of different types of buildings. They form an important part of the macroseismic approach, i.e. that part of seismology dealing with non-instrumental data. The shape and size of the isoseismal regions can be used to help determine the magnitude, focal depth and focal mechanism of an earthquake.

Izoseista je myšlená čára spojující místa na zemském povrchu oddělující oblasti s převažující intenzitou otřesů příslušných k danému zemětřesení. Izoseisty tedy nejsou izolinie v pravém slova smyslu. Tyto čáry se většinou číslují pomocí označení stupňů Richterovy škály, přičemž uvnitř izoseisty s nejvyšším číslem leží epicentrum. Tvar izoseist souvisí také s rozložením vlastností zemské kůry, např. přítomností zlomů apod.


Chemistry.

Linoleic acid is a fatty acid. It is an 18-carbon chain with two double bonds in cis configuration. A shorthand notation like "18:2 (n-6)" or "18:2 "cis"-9,12" may be used in literature. It typically occurs in nature as a triglyceride ester; free fatty acids, the form not combined with glycerol to form triglyceride, are typically low in foods. It is very soluble in acetone, benzene, diethyl ether and ethanol.

In physiology.

Linoleic acid is a polyunsaturated fatty acid used in the biosynthesis of arachidonic acid (AA) with elongation and saturation, and thus some prostaglandins, leukotrienes (LTA, LTB, LTC), and thromboxane (TXA). It is found in the lipids of cell membranes. It is abundant in safflower, sunflower, corn, and comprises over half their composition (by weight). It is present in medium quantities in soybean oils, sesame and almonds.  The consumption of linoleic acid is vital to proper health, as it is an essential fatty acid. In rats, a diet deficient in linoleate (the salt form of the acid) has been shown to cause mild skin scaling, hair loss, and poor wound healing. However, chronic consumption of high levels of LA may be associated with the development of ulcerative colitis.  Cockroaches release oleic and linoleic acid upon death, which prevents other roaches from entering the area. This is similar to the mechanism found in ants and bees, which release oleic acid upon death.

Metabolism and eicosanoids.

The first step in the metabolism of linoleic acid is performed by Δdesaturase, which converts LA into gamma-Linolenic acid (GLA).  There is evidence suggesting that infants lack Δdesaturase of their own, and must acquire it through breast milk. Studies show that breast-milk fed babies have higher concentrations of GLA than formula-fed babies, while formula-fed babies have elevated concentrations of LA.  GLA is converted to dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA), which in turn is converted to arachidonic acid (AA). One of the possible fates of AA is to be transformed into a group of metabolites called eicosanoids during the inflammatory response and during physical activity; eicosanoids are a class of paracrine hormones. The three types of eicosanoids are prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes. Eicosanoids produced from AA tend to "promote" (not cause) inflammation and "promote" growth during and after physical activity in healthy humans. For example, both AA-derived thrombaxane and leukotriene are proaggregatory and vasoconstrictive eicosanoids during inflammation. The oxidized metabolic products of linoleic acid, such as 9-hydroxyoctadecanoic acid and 13-hydroxyoctadecanoic acid, have also been shown to activate TRPV1, the capsaicin receptor, and through this might play a major role in hyperalgesia and allodynia.  There are some suggested negative health effects related to this inflammation promoting function of linoleic acid as an omega-6 fatty acid.  In addition, LA is converted by various lipoxygenases, cyclooxygenases, certain cytochrome P450 enzymes (the CYP monooxygenases), and non-enzymatic autoxidation mechanisms to mono-hydroxyl products viz., 13-Hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid and 9-Hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid; these two hydroxy metabolites are enzymatically oxidized to their keto metabolites, 13-oxo-octadecadienoic acid and 9-oxo-octadecdienoic acid. Certain cytochrome P450 enzymes, the CYP epoxygenases, metabolize LA to epoxide products viz., its 12,13-epoxide, Vernolic acid and its 9,10-epoxide, Coronaric acid. All of these linoleic acid products have bioactivity and are implicated in human physiology and pathology as indicated in the cited linkages.

Uses.

Industrial uses.

Linoleic acid is used in making quick-drying oils, which are useful in oil paints and varnishes. These applications exploit the easy reaction of the linoleic acid with oxygen in air, which leads to crosslinking and formation of a stable film called linoxyn.  Reduction of linoleic acid yields linoleyl alcohol. Linoleic acid is a surfactant with a critical micelle concentration of 1.5 x 10 M @ pH 7.5.  Linoleic acid has become increasingly popular in the beauty products industry because of its beneficial properties on the skin. Research points to linoleic acid's anti-inflammatory, acne reductive, skin-lightening and moisture retentive properties when applied topically on the skin.

Use in research.

Linoleic acid lipid radicals can be used to show the antioxidant effect of polyphenols and natural phenols. Experiments on linoleic acid subjected to 2,2'-Azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride induced oxidation of linoleic acid; hence producing lipid radicals and then the use of different combinations of phenolics show that binary mixtures can lead to either a synergetic antioxidant effect or to an antagonistic effect towards the lipid radicals. Research like this is useful in discovering which phenols prevent the autoxidation of lipids in vegetable oils.

Linoleic acid (LA) is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid and is one of two essential fatty acids for humans, who must obtain it through their diet. It is a colorless or white oil that is virtually insoluble in water.

Kyselina linolová je nenasycená vyšší mastná kyselina. Pojmenování pochází z řeckého "linon" (len), protože je obsažena ve lněném oleji. V její molekule je 18 atomů uhlíku a 2 dvojné vazby. Nachází se v tucích buněčných membrán. Je široce rozšířená v mnoha rostlinných olejích, zejména v olejích ze světlice barvířské, máku setého a slunečnice.