Geography.

The mountain pass is located between the Montasio massif in the north and Mt. Kanin in the south, in the Province of Udine near the border with Slovenia. The pass road connects Chiusaforte via the steep Raccolana valley in the southwest with Cave del Predil and Tarvisio in the north. Sella Nevea is part of a European Watershed dividing the basin of the Tagliamento river, running southwards to the Adriatic Sea, from the Slizza creek in the north, which is part of the Danube catchment area. About 10 km (6 mi) north of the pass is the picturesque Lago del Predil, a popular destination for canoeing, wind-surfing, and other water sports.  Sella Nevea offers facilities and equipment for winter sports, such as alpine skiing, cross-country skiing snowboarding, and ice skating. In the summer, the location is used as a base for mountain trekking and rock climbing.

History.

For centuries, the Sella Nevea mountain pass marked the border between the "Domini di Terraferma" territories of the Republic of Venice and the Imperial Duchy of Carinthia in the north. Incorporated into the Austrian Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia from 1815, the former Venetian territory in the south finally became part of the newly established Kingdom of Italy upon the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866. The remote border region remained an agricultural area. In the late 19th century, the mountaineer Julius Kugy (1858–1944) described it as a "forest paradise".  In World War I, however, the Italian Front ran along Sella Nevea, while the bloody Battles of the Isonzo raged nearby. When in late 1917 Austro-Hungarian forces were able to break into the Italian front line during the Battle of Caporetto, they also rolled over the top of the pass, nevertheless, they again moved out of the area after the Austrian defeat at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto one year later. By the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain, the area of Cave del Predil ("Raibl") and Tarvisio ("Tarvis") north of the pass also fell to Italy.

Ski resort.

The beginning of the ski area date back to the 1930s, while the present-day Sella Nevea ski resort and hotel village started about 1965, when by resolution of the Chiusaforte municipal council plans for the first ski runs were developed. Considered as "snow-reliable", the area was projected to be a heaven for winter sports, including cable transport to the Celso Gilberti mountain hut at Mt. Kanin, several surface lifts and a hotel complex. However, Sella Nevea's development suffered a serious setback after a series of avalanches struck it in March 1975. In 1980, the company that managed the ski runs went bankrupt.  In the 1990s, Sella Nevea's ski runs fell under the control of "Promotur", a state-owned but independent company, which took charge of all five main regional ski resorts. The Sella Nevea resort suffered from neglect that caused it to lose popularity. Promotur said repeatedly that despite the potential of the location, nothing further have been done to arrest its decline. In 2001, preventive measures against avalanches were finally completed. While Sella Nevea was excluded from the 2003 Winter Universiade in Tarvisio, the location grew in popularity as a ski racing training camp. It acquired a reputation for uncrowded slopes.

Connection to Bovec.

In 2005, it was announced that Sella Nevea will receive substantial funds to replace outdated ski equipment, and that a cableway will be built that will connect it to the neighbouring Goriška municipality of Bovec, one of the largest winter ski resorts in Slovenia. The cross-border link of the two resorts was completed in December 2009. It is now possible to ski at both resorts. Because both Italy and Slovenia are members of the European Schengen zone, skiers are able to cross the border between Italy and Slovenia freely, effectively merging the Sella Nevea and Bovec ski resorts into one large ski resort covering both sides of the Kanin mountain.

Sella Nevea (,, ), at an altitude of, is a high mountain pass in the Julian Alps, in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region of northeast Italy. Sella Nevea also lends its name to a "frazione" of the Chiusaforte municipality and the nearby Kanin-Sella Nevea Ski Resort.

Sella Nevea (furlandsky "Nevee", slovinsky "Na Žlebeh", německy "Neveasattel") je silniční sedlo v nadmořské výšce 1190 m v italské části pohoří Julské Alpy nedaleko trojmezí státních hranic Slovinska, Rakouska a Itálie. Odděluje dominantní vrcholy Monte Canin a Jôf di Montasio.


Usage.

The next stage in the evolution of DOS was for the operating system to use upper memory blocks (UMBs) and the high memory area (HMA). This occurred with the release of DR DOS 5.0 in 1990. DR DOS' built-in memory manager, EMM386.EXE, could perform most of the basic functionality of QEMM and comparable programs.  The advantage of DR DOS 5.0 over the combination of an older DOS plus QEMM was that the DR DOS kernel itself and almost all of its data structures could be loaded into high memory. This left virtually "all" the base memory free, allowing configurations with up to 620 KB out of 640 KB free.  Configuration was not automatic - free UMBs had to be identified by hand, manually included in the line that loaded EMM386 from CONFIG.SYS, and then drivers and so on had to be manually loaded into UMBs from CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT. This configuration was not a trivial process. As it was largely automated by the installation program of QEMM, this program survived on the market; indeed, it worked well with DR DOS' own HMA and UMB support and went on to be one of the best-selling utilities for the PC.  This functionality was copied by Microsoft with the release of MS-DOS 5.0 in June 1991. Eventually, even more DOS data structures were moved out of conventional memory, allowing up to 631 KB out of 640 KB to be left free. Starting from version 6.0 of MS-DOS, Microsoft even included a program called MEMMAKER which was used to automatically optimize conventional memory by moving TSR programs to the upper memory.  For a period in the early 1990s, manual optimization of the DOS memory map became a highly prized skill, allowing for the largest applications to run on even the most complex PC configurations. The technique was to first create as many UMBs as possible, including remapping allocated but unused blocks of memory, such as the monochrome display area on colour machines. Then, DOS' many subcomponents had to be loaded into these UMBs in the correct sequence to use the blocks of memory as efficiently as possible. Some TSR programs required additional memory while loading, which was freed up again once loading was complete. Fortunately, there were few dependencies amongst these modules, so it was possible to load them in almost any sequence. Exceptions were that to successfully cache CD-ROMs, most disk caches had to be loaded after any CD-ROM drivers, and that the modules of most network stacks had to be loaded in a certain sequence, essentially working progressively up through the layers of the OSI model.  A basic yet effective method used to optimize conventional memory was to load HIMEM.SYS as a device, thereafter loading EMM386.EXE as a device with the "RAM AUTO" option which allows access into the UMA by loading device drivers as devicehigh. This method effectively loads the fundamental memory managers into conventional memory, and thereafter everything else into the UMA. Conventional memory glutton programs such as MSCDEX could also be loaded into the UMA in a similar fashion, hence freeing up a large amount of conventional memory.

Windows.

The increasing popularity of Windows 3.0 made the necessity of the upper memory area less relevant, as Windows applications were not directly affected by DOS' base memory limits, but DOS programs running under Windows (with Windows itself acting as a multitasking manager) were still thus constrained. With the release of Windows 95, it became less relevant still, as this version of Windows provides much of the functionality of the DOS device drivers to DOS applications running under Windows, such as CD, network and sound support; the memory map of Windows 95 DOS boxes was automatically optimised. However, not all DOS programs could execute in this environment. Specifically, programs that tried to directly switch from real mode to protected mode would not work as this was not allowed in the virtual 8086 mode it was running in. This point is now being addressed by x86 virtualization technologies such as Intel VT-x (Vanderpool) and AMD-V (Pacifica). Also, programs that tried making the switch using the Virtual Control Program Interface (VCPI) API (which was introduced to allow DOS programs that needed protected mode to enter it from the virtual 8086 mode set up by a memory manager, as described above) didn't work in Windows 95. Only the DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) API for switching to protected mode was supported.

Implementation.

Virtual x86 Mode.

Upper memory blocks can be created by mapping extended memory into the upper memory area when running in virtual x86 mode. This is similar to how expanded memory can be emulated using extended memory so this method of providing upper memory blocks is usually provided by the expanded memory manager (for example EMM386). The application programming interface for managing the upper memory blocks is specified in the "eXtended Memory Specification".

Shadow RAM.

On many systems including modern ones it is possible to use memory reserved for shadowing expansion card ROM as upper memory. Many chipsets reserve up to 384 KB RAM for this purpose and since this RAM is generally unused it may be used as real mode upper memory with a custom device driver, such as UMBPCI.

IBM XT.

On IBM XT computers, it was possible to add more memory to the motherboard and use a custom address decoder PROM to make it appear in the upper memory area. As with the 386-based upper memory described above, the extra RAM could be used to load TSR files, or as a RAM disk.  The AllCard, an add-on memory management unit for XT-class computers, allowed normal memory to be mapped into the 0xA0000-EFFFF address range, giving up to 952 KB for DOS programs. Programs such as Lotus 1-2-3, which accessed video memory directly, needed to be patched to handle this memory layout. Therefore, the 640 KB barrier was removed at the cost of software compatibility. This usage of the upper memory area is different from using upper memory blocks, which was used to free conventional memory by moving device drivers and TSRs into the upper 384 KB of the 1 MB address space, but left the amount of addressable memory (640 KB) intact.

In DOS memory management, the upper memory area (UMA) refers to memory between the addresses of 640 KB and 1024 KB (0xA0000–0xFFFFF) in an IBM PC or compatible. IBM reserved the uppermost 384 KB of the 8088 CPU's 1024 KB address space for ROM, RAM on peripherals, and memory-mapped input/output. For example, the monochrome video memory area runs from 704 to 736 KB (0xB0000–B7FFF).

Upper memory area (UMA) je v informatice označení pro část operační paměti počítače IBM PC kompatibilní pracujících v reálném režimu procesoru Intel 8086. Nachází se mezi adresami 640 KiB a 1 MiB a byla vyhrazena pro speciální účely.


Description.

The Canyon Lands are a desolate, but spectacularly scenic sandstone area of southeastern Utah and northeastern Arizona. Dominated by canyons (as the name implies) this section has four large upwarps between which are structural basins. Very little faulting is associated with the upwarps or basins. Other distinctive features of the Canyon Lands Section are the laccolithic mountains, like the Henry Mountains and the La Sal Mountains. These are structural domes.  The turbid San Juan River flows into the region from the east, through a deep meandering gorge, which, with its tributaries, drains a far-reaching area, including the La Plata Mountains, the San Juan Mountains and other lesser ranges on the Continental Divide, the Chuska Mountains, and enormous areas of mesa land in the interior of the basin. From the Wasatch Range and Aquarius Mountains on the west come other, but lesser, silt-laden streams, all carving the deep, winding canyons which have given this country its name and developed a weirdly dissected landscape. The Colorado River is the largest such stream.  In northeastern Arizona is Monument Valley, where sharp spires, obelisks, and tower-like masses of rock rise hundreds of feet above their surroundings. At the eastern margin of the Canyon Lands is the Mesa Verde, a huge cuesta that has been deeply dissected by streams. Here in great recesses in the canyon walls are found the ruins of ancient cliff dwellings.  East of the Little Colorado River are the brilliantly colored areas known as the Painted Desert. Here the rocks show gorgeous colors in strata that are gently inclined and present a series of cliffs that are slowly migrating as weathering and erosion proceed.  The area north of the canyon of the San Juan River has several surfaces varying from above sea level. There are bold escarpments bordering some of these plateaus, canyons with steep walls, and a group of mesas called the Tables of the Sun, and several national monuments containing natural bridges.  The Canyon Lands terminate, approximately, at a third, intermittent barrier formed by the Paria Plateau, Black Mesa, and the Chuska Mountains mass.

Geology.

Perhaps the dominant physical feature within the area is the San Rafael Swell occupying the majority of Emery County, Utah. This feature is a large northeast trending upwarp approximately long and wide that is part of a much larger, double-plunging anticline (e.g., dome) structure. This large, regional fold exposes rocks of Pennsylvanian through Cretaceous age. Resistant beds of sandstone are exposed as hogbacks on the steeply upturned east and west flanks of the anticline and are referred to locally as "reefs." Three perennial rivers (the Muddy, San Rafael, and Price) flow eastward across the San Rafael Swell into the Green and Colorado River systems.

The Canyon Lands Section of the Colorado Plateau is a physiographic section of the larger Colorado Plateaus province, which in turn is part of the larger Intermontane Plateaus physiographic division in the Western United States

Canyon Lands () je oblast ve střední části Koloradské plošiny. Leží na jihovýchodě Utahu, ve Spojených státech amerických. Canyon Lands se rozkládá na horní toku řeky Colorado, kde přitékají řeky Green River a San Juan River. Oblast je charakteristická řadou rozlehlých pískovcových kaňonů (Marble kaňon, Glen Kaňon, Labyrinth kaňon). K další charakteristickým geologickým rysům náleží klenby, solné dómy a lakolity.


Early life and education.

Droysen was born at Treptow in Pomerania (now Trzebiatów in Poland) on 6 July 1808. His father, Johann Christoph Droysen, was an army chaplain who had been present at the celebrated siege of Kolberg in 1806–1807. As a child, Droysen witnessed some of the military operations during the War of Liberation, his father by then being pastor at Greifenhagen, in the immediate neighbourhood of Stettin, which was held by the French for most of 1813. These youthful impressions laid the foundation of his ardent attachment to the Kingdom of Prussia. He was educated at the gymnasium of Stettin and at the University of Berlin; in 1829 he became a master at the Graues Kloster, one of the oldest schools in Berlin; in addition, he gave lectures at the University of Berlin, from 1833 as "Privatdozent", and from 1835 as professor, without a salary. The famed historian Jacob Burckhardt visited his class in his last semester (1839–40).  During these years Droysen studied classical antiquity; he published a translation of Aeschylus in 1832 and a paraphrase of Aristophanes (1835–1838), but the work by which he made himself known as a historian was his "Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen" ("History of Alexander the Great"; Berlin, 1833 and other editions), a book that long remained the best work on Alexander the Great. It was in some ways the herald of a new school of German historical thought, for it idealized power and success, a conceptual framework Droysen had learned from the teaching of Hegel. Droysen followed the biography of Alexander with other works dealing with Alexander's Greek successors, published under the title of "Geschichte des Hellenismus" (Hamburg, 1836–1843), in which he created the term "Hellenistic" to refer to the period between Alexander's conquests and the emergence of the Roman Empire. A new and revised edition of the whole work was published in 1885, and translated into French, but not at the time into English. His "Vorlesung des Freiheits Krieg" (in English: "Lectures of the War of Liberation") appeared in 1846 and his "Outlines of the Principles of History", published 1858, translated 1893, was widely read throughout German universities. He followed this with "Erhebung der Geschichte zum Rang einer Wissenschaft" (1863), a methodological study that reflected his new approach to research and writing.

History meets politics.

In 1840, Droysen was appointed professor of history at the University of Kiel. There, the political movement for the defense of the rights of the Elbe duchies, of which Kiel was the center, attracted his interest. Like Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann, he placed his historical learning at the service of the estates of Schleswig and Holstein and composed the address of 1844, in which the estates protested against the claim of King Christian VIII of Denmark to alter the law of succession in the duchies. The issue was diplomatically negotiated through the London Protocol of 1852, and ultimately resolved in a war between Denmark and allied forces from Austria and Prussia in the Second Schleswig War.  Droysen's first great political appearance occurred in 1843, on the one thousand year anniversary of the Verdun agreement between Karl the Bald and Ludwig the German, grandsons of Charlemagne. The patrimony of Charlemagne, and his son, Louis the Pius; Droysen found in this event the evidence of the German nation. Later, Droysen gave a lecture to a crowded audience in Berlin entitled the Agreement at Verdun, which was greeted with enthusiasm not only by the listeners but also the German Kaiser himself.

Support of Prussian hegemony.

In 1848, Droysen was elected a member of the revolutionary Frankfurt parliament and acted as secretary to the committee for drawing up a proposed constitution. He was a determined supporter of Prussian ascendancy, seeing this as the only feasible route to German unification. "We cannot conceal the fact that the whole German question is a simple alternative between Prussia and Austria. In these states, German life has its positive and negative poles — in the former, all the interests which are national and reformative, in the latter, all that are dynastic and destructive. The German question is not a constitutional question, but a question of power; and the Prussian monarchy is now wholly German, while that of Austria cannot be." Droysen was one of the first members to retire from the Frankfurt Parliament after King Frederick William IV of Prussia refused the imperial crown in 1849. In the following two years, Droysen continued to support the cause of the duchies, and in 1850, with Carl Samwer, he published a history of the dealings of Denmark with Schleswig and Holstein, "Die Herzogthümer Schleswig-Holstein und das Königreich Dänemark seit dem Jahre 1800" (Hamburg, 1850). A translation was published in London in the same year under the title "The Policy of Denmark towards the Duchies of Schleswig-Holstein". The work was one of great political importance and contributed to the formation of German public opinion on the rights of the duchies in their struggle with Denmark.

Legacy to Prussian historiography.

In his later years, Droysen was almost entirely occupied with Prussian history. After 1851, he was appointed to a professorship at Jena; in 1859, he was called to Berlin, where he remained until his death. In 1851, he brought out a life of Count Yorck von Wartenburg (Berlin, 1851–1852), generally considered one of the best biographies in the German language and then began his great work on the "Geschichte der preussischen Politik", or, in English, "The History of Prussian Politics" (Berlin, 1855–1886). Seven volumes were published, the last posthumously; in total the work consumed 32 volumes. It forms a complete history of the growth of the Prussian monarchy to the year 1756. This, like all Droysen's work, shows a strongly marked individuality, and a penchant of tracing the manner in which important dynamic forces worked themselves out in history.

Personal life.

Droysen was twice married, and died in Berlin. His eldest son, Gustav, wrote several well-known historical works, namely, "Gustav Adolf" (Leipzig, 1869–1870), a study of the Gustavus Adolphus, the King of Sweden during the Thirty Years War, and "Herzog Bernhard von Weimar" (Leipzig, 1885), a study of Duke Bernhard, another able Protestant General during the Thirty Years War; an "Historischer Handatlas" (Leipzig, 1886), a geographic analysis of historical and territorial changes, and several writings on various events of the Thirty Years' War. Another son, Hans Droysen, was the author of some works on Greek history and antiquities.

Johann Gustav Bernhard Droysen (; ; 6 July 180819 June 1884) was a German historian. His history of Alexander the Great was the first work representing a new school of German historical thought that idealized power held by so-called "great" men.

Johann Gustav Droysen (6. července 1808, Trzebiatów – 19. června 1884, Berlín) byl německý historik a politik narozený na území dnešního Polska.


History of the hypothesis.

Classifications similar to Dené–Caucasian were put forward in the 20th century by Alfredo Trombetti, Edward Sapir, Robert Bleichsteiner, Karl Bouda, E. J. Furnée, René Lafon, Robert Shafer, Olivier Guy Tailleur, Morris Swadesh, Vladimir N. Toporov, and other scholars.  Morris Swadesh included all of the members of Dené–Caucasian in a family that he called "Basque-Dennean" (when writing in English, 2006/1971: 223) or ""vascodene"" (when writing in Spanish, 1959: 114). It was named for Basque and Navajo, the languages at its geographic extremes. According to Swadesh (1959: 114), it included "Basque, the Caucasian languages, Ural-Altaic, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman, Chinese, Austronesian, Japanese, Chukchi (Siberia), Eskimo-Aleut, Wakash, and Na-Dene", and possibly "Sumerian". Swadesh's Basque-Dennean thus differed from Dené–Caucasian in including (1) Uralic, Altaic, Japanese, Chukotian, and Eskimo-Aleut (languages which are classed as Eurasiatic by the followers of Sergei Starostin and those of Joseph Greenberg), (2) Dravidian, which is classed as Nostratic by Starostin's school, and (3) Austronesian (which according to Starostin is indeed related to Dené–Caucasian, but only at the next stage up, which he termed Dené–Daic, and only via Austric (see Starostin's Borean macrofamily)). Swadesh's colleague Mary Haas attributes the origin of the Basque-Dennean hypothesis to Edward Sapir.  In the 1980s, Sergei Starostin, using strict linguistic methods (proposing regular phonological correspondences, reconstructions, glottochronology, etc.), became the first to put the idea that the Caucasian, Yeniseian and Sino-Tibetan languages are related on firmer ground. In 1991, Sergei L. Nikolaev added the Na-Dené languages to Starostin's classification.  The inclusion of the Na-Dené languages has been somewhat complicated by the ongoing dispute over whether Haida belongs to the family. The proponents of the Dené–Caucasian hypothesis incline towards supporters of Haida's membership in Na-Dené, such as Heinz-Jürgen Pinnow or, most recently, John Enrico. Edward J. Vajda, who otherwise rejects the Dené–Caucasian hypothesis, has suggested that Tlingit, Eyak, and the Athabaskan languages are closely related to the Yeniseian languages, but he denies any genetic relationship of the former three to Haida. Vajda's ideas on the relationship of Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit and Yeniseian have found support independently in works of various authors, including Heinrich K. Werner or Merritt Ruhlen. DNA analyses have not shown any special connection between the modern Ket population and the modern speakers of the Na-Dené languages.  In 1996, John D. Bengtson added the Vasconic languages (including Basque, its extinct relative or ancestor Aquitanian, and possibly Iberian), and in 1997 he proposed the inclusion of Burushaski. The same year, in his article for "Mother Tongue", Bengtson concluded that Sumerian might have been a remnant of a distinct subgroup of the Dené–Caucasian languages. However, two other papers on the genetic affinity of Sumerian appeared in the same volume: while Allan R. Bomhard considered Sumerian to be a sister of Nostratic, Igor M. Diakonoff compared it to the Munda languages.  In 1998, Vitaly V. Shevoroshkin rejected the Amerind affinity of the Almosan (Algonquian-Wakashan) languages, suggesting instead that they had a relationship with Dené–Caucasian. Several years later, he offered a number of lexical and phonological correspondences between the North Caucasian, Salishan, and Wakashan languages, concluding that Salishan and Wakashan may represent a distinct branch of North Caucasian and that their separation from it must postdate the dissolution of the Northeast Caucasian unity (Avar-Andi-Tsezian), which took place around the 2nd or 3rd millennium BC.

Evidence for Dené–Caucasian.

The existence of Dené–Caucasian is supported by:  Potential problems include:

Shared pronominal morphemes.

Several roots can be reconstructed for the 1st and 2nd person singular pronouns. This may indicate that there were pronouns with irregular declension (suppletion) in Proto-Dené–Caucasian, like "I" vs "me" throughout Indo-European. In the presumed daughter languages some of the roots are often affixes (such as verb prefixes or possessive noun prefixes) instead of independent pronouns.  The Algic, Salishan, Wakashan, and Sumerian comparisons should be regarded as especially tentative because regular sound correspondences between these families and the more often accepted Dené–Caucasian families have not yet been reconstructed. To a lesser degree this also holds for the Na-Dené comparisons, where only a few sound correspondences have yet been published.  /V/ means that the vowel in this position has not been successfully reconstructed. /K/ could have been any velar or uvular plosive, /S/ could have been any sibilant or assibilate.  All except Algic, Salishan and Wakashan are taken from Bengtson (2008). Footnotes:

Shared noun class pre- and infixes.

Noun classification occurs in the North Caucasian languages, Burushaski, Yeniseian, and the Na-Dené languages. In Basque and Sino-Tibetan, only fossilized vestiges of the prefixes remain. One of the prefixes, */s/-, seems to be abundant in Haida, though again fossilized.  The following table with its footnotes, except for Burushaski, is taken from Bengtson (2008).  Footnotes: <br>

Verb morphology.

In general, many Dené–Caucasian languages (and Sumerian) have polysynthetic verbs with several prefixes in front of the verb stem, but usually few or no suffixes. (The big exceptions are East Caucasian, where there is usually only one prefix and many suffixes, the similarly suffixing Haida, and Sino-Tibetan, for which little morphology can so far be reconstructed at all; Classical Tibetan with its comparatively rich morphology has at most two prefixes and one suffix. In Burushaski, the number of suffixes can surpass the rather large number of prefixes.)  The following is an example of a Kabardian (West Caucasian) verb from Bengtson (2008:98):  Bengtson (2008) suggests correspondences between some of these prefixes (sometimes suffixes) and between their positions.  For example, a preverb /t/- occurs in Yeniseian languages and appears in position −3 (Ket) or −4 (Kott) in the verb template (where the verb stem is in position 0, suffix positions get positive numbers, and prefix positions negative numbers). In Burushaski, a fossilized preverb /d/- appears in position −3. In Basque, an element "d-" appears in position −3 of auxiliary verbs in the present tense unless a first or second person absolutive agreement marker occupies that position instead. The Na-Dené languages have a "classifier" /d/- (Haida, Tlingit, Eyak) or */də/- (Proto-Athabaskan) that is either fossilized or has a vaguely transitive function (reflexive in Tlingit) and appears in position −3 in Haida. In Sino-Tibetan, Classical Tibetan has a "directive" prefix /d/-, and Nung has a causative prefix /d/- (positions do not apply because Sino-Tibetan verbs have at most two prefixes depending on the language).  A past tense marker /n/ is found in Basque, Caucasian, Burushaski, Yeniseian, and Na-Dené (Haida, Tlingit and Athabaskan); in all of these except Yeniseian, it is a suffix or circumfix, which is noteworthy in these (with the exception of East Caucasian and Haida) suffix-poor language families.  Another prefix /b/ is found in some Sino-Tibetan languages; in Classical Tibetan it marks the past tense and precedes other prefixes (if any). It may correspond to the Tlingit perfect prefix "wu-/woo-" /wʊ, wu/, which occurs in position −2, and the fossilized Haida "wu-/w-" /wu, w/ which occurs in verbs with "resultative/perfect" meanings.  "There are also some commonalities in the sequential ordering of verbal affixes: typically the transitive/causative "*s-" is directly before the verb stem (−1), a pronominal agent or patient in the next position (−2). If both subject/agent and object/patient are referenced in the same verbal chain, the object typically precedes the subject (OSV or OVS, where V is the verb stem): cf. Basque, West Caucasian [see table above], Burushaski, Yeniseian, Na-Dené, Sumerian templates [...]. [Footnote: "Alone in N[a]-D[ene] Eyak allows for subjects and objects in a suffix position."] In Yeniseian (position −5) [...] and Na-Dene (position −5) [...] noun stems or (secondary) verb stems can be incorporated into the verbal chain." (Bengtson 2008:108)  The mentioned "transitive/causative" */s/- is found in Haida, Tlingit, Sino-Tibetan, Burushaski, possibly Yeniseian ("an 'empty' morpheme occupying the position of object in intransitive verbs with an animate subject"; Bengtson 2008:107) and maybe in Basque. A causative suffix *-/s/ is found in many Nostratic languages, too, but its occurrence as a prefix and its position in the prefix chain may nevertheless be innovations of Dené–Caucasian.

Family tree proposals.

Starostin's theory.

The Dené–Caucasian family tree and approximate divergence dates (estimated by modified glottochronology) proposed by S. A. Starostin and his colleagues from the Tower of Babel project:

Bengtson's theory.

John D. Bengtson groups Basque, Caucasian and Burushaski together in a Macro-Caucasian (earlier Vasco-Caucasian) family (see the section on Macro-Caucasian below). According to him, it is as yet premature to propose other nodes or subgroupings, but he notes that Sumerian seems to share the same number of isoglosses with the (geographically) western branches as with the eastern ones:

Proposed subbranches.

Macro-Caucasian.

John Bengtson (2008) thinks that, within Dené–Caucasian, the Caucasian languages form a branch together with Basque and Burushaski, based on many shared word roots as well as shared grammar such as:  As Bengtson (2008) himself notes, an ergative ending -/s/, which may be compared to the ending that has instrumental function in Basque, occurs in some Sino-Tibetan languages, and the Yeniseian language Ket has an instrumental/comitative in. This suffix may therefore be shared among a larger group, possibly Dené–Caucasian as a whole. On the other hand, comparison of noun morphology among Dené–Caucasian families other than Basque, Burushaski and Caucasian is usually not possible: little morphology can so far be reconstructed for Proto-Sino-Tibetan at all; "Yeniseian has case marking, but it seems to have little in common with the western DC families" except for the abovementioned suffix (Bengtson 2008:footnote 182, emphasis added); and Na-Dené languages usually express case relations as prefixes on the polysynthetic verb. It can therefore not be excluded that some or all of the noun morphology presented here was present in Proto-Dené–Caucasian and lost in Sino-Tibetan, Yeniseian and Na-Dené; in this case it cannot be considered evidence for the Macro-Caucasian hypothesis. That said, as mentioned above, Basque, Caucasian and Burushaski also share words that do not occur in other families.  A genitive suffix -/nV/ is also widespread among Nostratic languages.

Karasuk.

George van Driem has proposed that the Yeniseian languages are the closest known relatives of Burushaski, based on a small number of similarities in grammar and lexicon. The Karasuk theory as proposed by van Driem does not address other language families that are hypothesized to belong to Dené–Caucasian, so whether the Karasuk hypothesis is compatible or not with the Macro-Caucasian hypothesis remains to be investigated.

Dené–Caucasian is a proposed language family that includes widely-separated languages spoken in the Northern Hemisphere: Sino-Tibetan, Yeniseian, Burushaski and North Caucasian in Asia; Na-Dené in North America; and from Europe the Vasconic languages (including Basque).

Dené-kavkazské jazyky je navrhovaná, velká jazyková rodina, zahrnující jazyky sinotibetské, severokavkazské, jazyky na-dené, jenisejské, Vaskonské (včetně baskičtiny) a Burušaskí. V roce 2008 přišel Edward Vajda s tzv. Dené-jenisejskou hypotézou, spočívající ve specifickém spojení mezi Na-Dené a Jenisejštinou, která byla částečně přijata. Nicméně validita zbytku této rodiny je odmítána, případně vnímána jako značně pochybná většinou historických lingvistů.


Transport.

Bad Grönenbach is located on the county road MN 15, which runs north of Memmingen on Woringen and Zell by Bad Grönenbach to Wolfertschwenden in an easterly direction. In the center of Bad Grönenbach begins the county road MN 24, which leads from Bad Grönenbach to the border of the district Oberallgäu in the south. From the west, the county road MN 21 leads from Legau over the hamlet Au and Rothenstein to Bad Groenenbach and flows there into the county road 24.  To the east of Bad Grönenbach runs the Bundesautobahn 7. The nearest motorway interchange is about two kilometers away and is located on the edge of belonging to Bad Grönenbach industrial park Thal.  The train station at Bad Grönenbach is located outside the village in the district Thal, about 2.5 km from the village center on the Illertalbahn. Originally, the railway line should lead directly to Bad Grönenbach, but was redesigned in 1862 to the existing route.  Bad Grönenbach is the starting point of the Iller Cycle Route between Ulm and Oberstdorf and the Kneipp Cycle Path, which was established in 1997 on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the death of Sebastian Kneipp and connects the Kneipp spa towns of Bad Grönenbach, Ottobeuren and Bad Wörishofen with a length of around 50 kilometers. The longest of the signposted bike paths through Bad Grönenbach is the Swabian Bäderradweg with just under 250 kilometers from Überlingen on Lake Constance to the Kneipp spa town of Bad Wörishofen Almost continuous cycling routes exist from Bad Grönenbach to the municipalities of the Verwaltungsungsgemeinschaft Woringen and Wolfertschwenden.

Bad Grönenbach is a market town in the district of Unterallgäu in Bavaria, Germany. It belongs to the region of Upper Swabia and the headquarters of the Gemeindeverband of the same name.

Bad Grönenbach je městys ("Markt") německé spolkové zemi Bavorsko, v zemském okrese Unterallgäu ve vládním obvodu Švábsko. Žije zde obyvatel.


Geology.

The Salton Sink is the topographic low area within the Salton Trough, an active tectonic pull-apart basin. The Salton Trough is a result of crustal stretching and sinking by the combined actions of the San Andreas Fault and the East Pacific Rise. The Brawley seismic zone forms the southeast end of the basin and connects the San Andreas Fault system with the Imperial Fault Zone to the south. The Salton Buttes are rhyolite lava domes within the basin which were active 10,300 (± 1000) years BP.

History.

A large lake, Lake Cahuilla, existed in the area from about 20,500 to 3,000 years ago and left evidence as wave cut benches on the higher portions of the Salton Buttes. A beach mark outlines the shoreline of ancient Lake Cahuilla where archeologists found rock fish traps and charred remains of razorback sucker and bonytail bones. High water lines suggest the basin has filled many times, creating a lake some 105 miles (170 km) in length and nearly 300 feet (100 m) deep. Its most recent incarnation is evidenced by fish traps found some 30 feet (10 m) below the high-water mark that were estimated to be between 300 and 1,000 years old.  In recent times, the 1862 Colorado River flood waters reached the Salton Sink, filling it and creating a lake some 60 miles (95 km) long and 30 miles (50 km) wide. In 1884 and 1891 the Colorado River had escapement flow into the Salton Sink. The 1891 flood created a lake that covered an area 30 miles (50 km) long and 10 miles (15 km) wide. A larger 1905 Colorado flood escaped into a diversion canal, forming the Alamo and New Rivers and creating the current Salton Sea in the sink's Coachella Valley. A 1907 dam prevents flood escapements, but leakage still occurs to the Salton Sea.

The Salton Sink is the low point of an Endorheic basin, a closed drainage system with no outflows to other bodies of water, in the Colorado Desert sub region of the Sonoran Desert. The sink falls within the larger Salton Trough and separates the Coachella Valley from the Imperial Valley, which are also segments of the Salton Trough. The lowest point of the sink is below sea level, and since 1906 the Salton Sea has filled the lowest portion of the sink to a water depth of up to.

Saltonský prolom () je hluboká příkopová propadlina na jihovýchodě Kalifornie, ve Spojených státech amerických. Je propojena s poruchovou zónou Sanandreaským zlomem. Oblast se nachází v Koloradské poušti, která je součástí Sonorské pouště. V centru propadliny se nachází jezero Salton Sea.


History.

Utes.

Prior to 1868 the Capote (Kapota) band of Ute Indians lived in the valley. The Utes made a treaty of peace with the United States in 1849 shortly after the Mexican War. Shortly thereafter settlers from New Mexico established several small settlements in what is now Colorado and in 1868 the Utes were removed to a reservation in western Colorado. They continued to play a role in Saguache in the northwestern corner of the valley from the Los Pinos Agency to the west of Saguache until they lost their expansive reservation as the result of the Meeker Massacre in 1879.

Spanish and Mexican administration.

The area was administered as part of the Spanish, later Mexican, province of Nuevo Mexico until the area was ceded to the United States in 1848 after the Mexican–American War in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

United States administration.

Extensive settlement began in the San Luis Valley, primarily by Hispanic farmers and ranchers from New Mexico, in the 1850s. Early settlers built a church in the village that is now called San Luis and dedicated it on the Feast of Saint Louis, 21 June 1851. At present, the San Luis Valley has the largest native Hispanic population in Colorado; many families are directly descended from the original New Mexican settlers. The surge of immigration followed the construction by the U.S. Army of Fort Massachusetts for protection against the Utes, who had previously barred settlers. The history of the established U.S. military presence in the valley is preserved at Fort Garland and other historic preserves in the valley.  The San Luis Valley became part of the Territory of Colorado in 1861. The original Ute population was confined to the Southern Ute and Ute Mountain Indian reservations in the late 19th century.

Geography.

The San Luis Valley is the broad, generally flat, valley at the headwaters of the Rio Grande in south central Colorado and far north central New Mexico. The northern portion of the San Luis Valley is an endorheic basin; surface water does not exit this area. Irrigated agriculture is possible in the area due to groundwater and streams fed by the average 100 inches of snow the surrounding mountain ranges receive. The southern portion is drained by the Rio Grande.  There is no clear southern boundary but the term is generally used to include the San Luis Hills of southern Colorado and the Taos Plateau of northern New Mexico. About 50 miles from east to west and about 150 miles from north to south, the valley is bounded on the east by the Sangre de Cristo Mountains and on the west by the San Juan Mountains.  Within Colorado the San Luis Valley is generally considered to comprise six Colorado counties: Saguache, Alamosa, Rio Grande, Conejos, Costilla and Mineral. The principal towns are: Alamosa, Monte Vista, Del Norte, South Fork, Creede, Saguache, Center, Fort Garland, San Luis, Antonito, La Jara, Capulin, Manassa, Sanford, Crestone, Villa Grove, Hooper, Mosca, San Acacio and a number of smaller locations. A few other counties of Colorado have some land in the Rio Grande Basin including Archuleta County, Hinsdale County and San Juan County. Blanca Peak is prominent in the Sierra Blanca at the southern end of the northernmost section of the mountains, which is known as the Sangre de Cristo Range. There are several passes, with elevations between, giving access to the valley. North La Veta Pass, through the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, is used by U.S. Highway 160 and by the San Luis and Rio Grande Railroad (formerly a branch of the Denver & Rio Grande Western) tracks. Other passes used historically were Medano, Mosca and Sangre de Cristo Passes.  The Great Sand Dunes are a famous feature of the valley. They lie directly to the west of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. The dunes can reach high. The Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve is now in place to protect both the dunes and the numerous archeological sites found in the area. The natural valley aquifer is close to the surface in this part of the valley, and helps with maintenance of water levels in the San Luis Lakes, just to the west of the sand dunes.  Elevation rises as you go north in the valley to Poncha Pass, used now by U.S. Highway 285 and historically by the narrow gauge tracks of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad. Otto Mears, then of Saguache, built and operated an historic toll road over Poncha Pass at the north end of the valley into the San Luis Valley during Colorado's 19th century mining era when the valley was the gateway to the San Juan and Gunnison country and the Ute agency was in the mountains west of Saguache.  Cumbres Pass is a 10,015 ft. pass between Antonito, Colorado and Chama, New Mexico. The pass is traversed by State Highway 17 and the Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad (originally built as the San Juan Extension of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad that ran to Durango, Colorado). From the headwaters of the Rio Grande Wolf Creek Pass is the route of U.S. Highway 160 between Del Norte, Colorado and Pagosa Springs, Colorado, while Slumgullion Pass is the route of State Highway 149 between U.S. Highway 160 and Lake City, Colorado. Stony Pass, sometimes spelled Stoney Pass, an historic wagon road to the mining camps of the San Juans, is now a jeep trail. At the north end of the valley, North Pass is the route of State Highway 114 between Saguache, Colorado and Gunnison, Colorado, bypassing the original route over Cochetopa Pass, now a county road.  The Rio Grande follows a course through the southern valley from Del Norte southeastward via Alamosa to New Mexico. South of Alamosa it is joined by several streams from the west including the Alamosa River and the Conejos River and Culebra Creek from the east. Most of the northern valley is an endorheic basin called the San Luis Closed Basin. Generally, within the Closed Basin the major streams such as Saguache Creek, San Luis Creek, and the streams from the west face of the Sangre de Cristos flow only a short distance onto the valley floor as surface streams. Only in very wet years, perhaps every 20 years, does the stream system in the Closed Basin flow as a contiguous unit into San Luis Lake at the low point of the Closed Basin west of the Great Sand Dunes.

Land ownership and management.

About 50% of the in the San Luis Valley is privately owned. Much of the land in the south part of the Valley, in Conejos and Costilla counties, was originally part of large Mexican land grants and is private land.  Public lands in the mountains surrounding the San Luis Valley are generally part of the Rio Grande National Forest and are managed by the United States Forest Service.  Large areas of private lands have either been subdivided into small "ranch" lots or have been sold or donated to the Federal government and make up portions of the Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve, other wildlife preserves, and various state wildlife sites.

Geology.

The San Luis Valley contains an alluvial basin, the Alamosa Basin, which lies at the north end of the Rio Grande rift. Deposits include the deeper alluvial strata, overlying Precambrian basement rock, Eocene alluvial deposits from a shallow Laramide depression, the Blanco Basin Formation; and Oligocene ash and lava flows associated with the Conejos Formation, is the Santa Fe formation, mixed alluvium and lava outflows from the San Juan volcanic field to the west; later strata comprise the Alamosa formation, alternating layers of sand, gravel, and clay. The relatively impermeable clay layers trap ground water in the "confined aquifer" which, if tapped, supplies artesian wells. Surface waters, including the Rio Grande and other streams, are hydrologically connected to the "unconfined aquifer" a shallow ground water formation which underlies much of the valley. The deeper confined aquifers have sufficient hydrological connection with the surface waters of the valley that they are not considered for the purposes of Colorado water law "nontributary" waters which could legally be mined. Streams which flow into the valley, particularly the Rio Grande, have deposited alluvial fans where they emerge from higher terrain onto the valley floor.

Ancestral Rockies, the Central Colorado Trough, and the San Luis-Uncompahgre Highlands.

The gap between the Precambrian basement rock and the Eocene alluvial deposits in the San Luis Valley is considered evidence that much of southern Colorado, including the western portion of the San Luis Valley, was highlands in the period prior to the Eocene Epoch, 56 to 34 million years ago. There were lowlands to the north in central Colorado, the Colorado sag, an east-west basin. It is from those highlands to the west, in Paleozoic, Pennsylvanian, and Permian times that the coarse alluvial deposits of the Sangre de Cristo Formation such as the Crestone Conglomerate originated. The Minturn Formation, a limestone formation exemplified at Marble Mountain on the crest of the Sangre de Cristos, is evidence of a sea in the Central Colorado Trough during the era of the Ancestral Rockies.

Western Interior Seaway.

In the middle and late Cretaceous Period, about 100 million years ago, the San Luis Valley lay on the shore of or beneath the Western Interior Seaway, a shallow sea which divided North America into two parts. As the sea deepened and expanded sand and gravel eroded from mountains in the west was deposited in the Dakota Formation; later, when the sea was deeper mud and sand were deposited in the Mancos Shale. The Lexam oil play near Crestone is based on the hypothesis that there is oil trapped in Dakota Formation sandstones lying beneath Mancos Shale to the west of the Sangre de Cristo fault at the western base of the Sangre de Cristo Range southwest of Crestone. Drilling at the base of the range during gold exploration in the vicinity showed small amounts of oil and evidence of the existence of those formations as well as the underlying Morrison Formation. Prior to this discovery it was assumed that these formations had eroded away during the Laramide orogeny.

Laramide orogeny.

Building of the Rocky Mountains by folding during the Laramide orogeny 80 to 55 million years ago created a highland, the San Luis-Brazos uplift, in the area of the San Luis Valley. This process over 30 million years resulted in an elevated and highly eroded peneplain where the San Luis Valley is today. There was a basin in its western portion which may have drained west through the course historically followed by the San Juan River. Sedimentary deposits formed in that basin during Eocene times remain in place beneath the western portion of the San Luis Valley.

Agriculture and wildlife.

Much of the land in the San Luis Valley is used for grazing. Farming is generally concentrated in Conejos County and around the towns of Alamosa, Monte Vista and Center. Principal crops include potatoes, head lettuce, wheat, and barley. The barley grown here is the main supplier for Coors beer company. In 1982, quinoa was successfully grown for the first time outside of South America in the San Luis Valley of Colorado, and commercial growth has occurred since 1987. Less favored areas with a shorter growing season and less access to water rights tend to be devoted to alfalfa and grazing. Broad areas, especially in Saguache County, Colorado have a high water table or are even flooded part of the year. Uncultivated land is often covered with "chico", low brush such as rabbitbrush, greasewood and other woody species. Cropland is typically irrigated with large ( mile radius) center-pivot irrigation systems, and a common feature of the Rio Grande Delta area where the Rio Grande enters the valley are large piles of potato-sized rocks screened from the soil.  The area supports a wide variety of wildlife. Sandhill cranes migrate through the valley every spring and fall. The Monte Vista Crane Festival takes place in March, centering on the wildlife refuge located six miles (10 km) south of town. The valley is a flyway for many migrating birds including avocets, bald eagles, goldfinches, and a plethora of hawk species.

Economy.

Predominantly agricultural in nature, the area is also one of the poorest rural areas of Colorado, with a poverty rate estimated at between 20-25% in 2019. The San Luis Valley Regional Medical Center is the largest employer in the valley, with over 600 employees.  Tourism has become a more important part of the economy in recent years, coupled with attempts to develop the area as a retirement destination. The arts are becoming an increasing force in expanding the economy of the San Luis Valley.

Tourist attractions.

Tourist attractions suggested by "National Geographic Traveler" include the Monte Vista Crane Festival in March, Los Caminos Antiguos, a regional road network, the Luther Bean Museum at Adams State University, the Sand Dunes Swimming Pool Hot Spring, and the Firedworks Gallery on Main Street in Alamosa for regional history and art, and regional Mexican food. Also recommended near Alamosa for wildlife viewing are The Alamosa Ranch north of town and the Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge to the southeast. To the northeast of Alamosa lie San Luis State Park and the San Luis Lakes and the Great Sand Dunes National Park  At Fort Garland, Colorado south of the Great Sand Dunes on U.S. Highway 160 the Fort Garland Museum is recommended and further south on State Highway 159 at San Luis, Colorado, the oldest town in Colorado, the bronze sculptures by Huberto Maestas, depicting the Stations of the Cross. From San Luis, the National Geographic road trip suggests traveling west on State Highway 142 through Manassa, Colorado, then south on U.S. Highway 285 past Conejos, Colorado then west on State Highway 17 over Cumbres Pass to Chama, New Mexico paralleling the route of the narrow gauge Cumbres & Toltec Scenic Railroad.  Rock climbing and camping are available at Penitente Canyon and other locations.

Art community.

There are over 500 known artists living in the San Luis Valley as evidenced by an ongoing directory maintained by Monte Vista artists' group, The Art Thing, The Art Thing's membership boasts several nationally recognized artists working in various media. Monte Vista is also home to the Monte Arts Council as well as several festivals and an art tour that attracts artists from as far away as California and North Carolina.  The San Luis Valley is home to five active live theaters, two at Adams State University, The Creede Repertory Theater, The Old Spanish Trails Theatre Company and Rocky Mountain Stage in Monte Vista. In August there are two major Music Festivals, the Spanish Trails Music Festival and Mexican Rodeo, and Rhythms on the Rio. Music in the valley is sponsored by the South Fork Music Association and the Alamosa Live Music Association.

Solar energy.

The San Luis Valley is an alpine desert environment which is conducive to solar energy production. It has the highest per capita concentration of home-based solar energy systems in the United States. Colorado law requires that 30% of the power used in the state be generated from renewable sources by 2020. It also requires that 3% of the power generated be used at or near where it is generated; i.e. distributed generation.  There are also a number of utility-scale photovoltaic power stations in the valley, and an active market in selling or leasing land to be used for solar facilities. In 2007, SunEdison constructed the 7.7 megawatt Alamosa Photovoltaic Power Plant on about 80 acres near the town of Mosca, Colorado. It was the largest grid-connected solar electric facility in the United States at that time. It was followed in 2010 by the 19 megawatt Greater Sandhill Solar Plant, in 2011 by the 30 megawatt San Luis Valley Solar Ranch, in 2012 by the 30 megawatt Alamosa Solar Generating Project, and in 2015 by the 50 megawatt Hooper Solar PV Power Plant. All are located on previously developed agricultural lands near Mosca.  On 11 December 2009, more than 125 people gathered to respond to a proposal by Tessera Solar (affiliated with Stirling Energy Systems) to install 8,000 parabolic mirrors, 40 feet each, on near Saguache, Colorado. At issue was the noise expected to be generated by the numerous stirling engine generators, and the wisdom of industrial solar facilities in general. The application for a permit was withdrawn on 11 July 2011. There has also been controversy regarding proposed transmission lines over both Poncha and La Veta passes, which would open the door to much more industrial solar development. Opposition to a proposed transmission line has resulted in possible delays in development of solar facilities by Xcel Energy which together with Tri-State Generation and Transmission Association serves the valley. In 2012, the United States Department of Interior designated several Solar Energy Zones on BLM lands in the valley, although no projects have yet been announced to be in development.

Demography.

A significant portion of the residents of the San Luis Valley are Hispanic with historic populations in Costilla and Conejos counties which were settled by early migrants from New Mexico. There are small Amish communities which were recently established.

Higher education.

Adams State University, a four-year state college at Alamosa, with approximately 2,500 resident students, is the major educational institution in the Valley. It is supplemented by a campus of Trinidad State Junior College in Alamosa.

Health.

San Luis Valley Regional Medical Center is a full service Acute-Care hospital and specialty physician clinic.  A locally conducted survey of public health statistics showed a considerable deficiency with respect to most measures of public health. There is a deficiency of medical providers, for example, 106 physicians per 100,000 compared to the Colorado average of 278.

The San Luis Valley is a region in south-central Colorado with a small portion overlapping into New Mexico. It is the headwaters of the Rio Grande. It contains 6 counties and portions of 3 others. The San Luis Valley was ceded to the United States by Mexico following the Mexican–American War. Hispanic settlers began moving north and settling in the valley after the United States made a treaty with the Utes and established a fort. Prior to the Mexican war the Spanish and Mexican governments had reserved the valley to the Utes, their allies. During the 19th century Anglo settlers settled in the valley and engaged in mining, ranching, and irrigated agriculture. Today the valley has a diverse Anglo and Hispanic population.

San Luis Valley je nejrozsáhlejší mezihorská sníženina Jižních Skalnatých hor. Leží na jihu Colorada a zasahuje i na sever Nového Mexika, ve Spojených státech amerických. Má délku přibližně 250 kilometrů a šířku 80 kilometrů. Zaujímá plochu okolo 21 000 km. Průměrná nadmořská výška údolí je 2 330 metrů. Západně leží pohoří San Juan Mountains, východně pohoří Sangre de Cristo Mountains. V severovýchodní části údolí se nachází jeden z národních parků Great Sand Dunes.


Geography.

Peshtera (461 m asl) is located in the foothills of the Rhodope Mountains, at 18 km from Pazardzhik and 38 km from Plovdiv and 125 km from the national capital Sofia.  The local climate is temperate and sudden temperature fluctuations are uncommon. Peshtera average annual temperature is 12.6° C. Rainfall is relatively high - from 670 to 680 l/m2 year.

Population.

The population of Peshtera includes several ethnic communities. Bulgarians are prevailing, but there are also Turks, Roma, Vlachs (Armani). The latter have their own cultural tradition. The number of Roma in the municipality is approximately 4000. Different ethnic groups in the town have always lived in harmony and tolerance. Peshtera presents an example of integration and understanding of all ethnic groups.

History.

The first traces of human presence in the area date from the Neolithic. The Thracian tribe of the Bessi inhabited the area in Antiquity and the settlement in the Peshtera Valley emerged in the fourth century BC.  The earliest piece of writing documenting the town's name dates from 1479, when Peshtera was part of the fief of a certain Mustafa in the Ottoman Empire. During the Bulgarian National Revival, many churches, bridges, fountains, schools and houses were built. The first secular school in Peshtera was opened in 1848, while the Nadezhda ('hope') community centre emerged in 1873. Many local residents took part in the armed struggle for the Liberation of Bulgaria. Peshtera was liberated during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 on 6 January 1878.  In 1876, the town had 800 households, of which 500 Bulgarian, 60 Aromanian and about 250 Turkish and Romani. The first official Bulgarian census in 1880 stated 758 households and 3,871 inhabitants, of which 2,618 Bulgarians, 856 Turks, 341 Greeks (most Aromanians), 53 Roma and a single Karakachan. Five years later, in 1885, Peshtera had a population of 4,704 and 876 households.

Economy.

Industry is the most important sector of the town's economy. The two largest factories are "Biovet Peshtera", producing antibiotics and medicines, and "Vinprom Peshtera", producing alcoholic beverages. A number of smaller plants produce metal constructions, footwear and food.

Honour.

Peshtera Glacier on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Peshtera.

Peshtera (, sometimes transliterated as "Peštera") is a town in the Rhodope Mountains, southern Bulgaria. It is located in Pazardzhik Province near the towns of Batak and Bratsigovo. The town is the third largest in the province after Pazardzhik and Velingrad and is the forty-fifth largest in Bulgaria. It is the administrative center of the municipality Peshtera. As of September 2014, Peshtera has a population of 20 493 inhabitants. At about 5 km to the south, along the road to Batak, is one of the most visited caves in Bulgaria — Snezhanka. Near the town is located the Peshtera Hydroelectric Power Station. The town is well known for producing the alcohol beverage mastika under the brand "Peshterska".

Peštera ( "Пещера") je město ležící ve středním Bulharsku, v údolí na severovýchodních svazích Západních Rodopů. Je správním střediskem stejnojmenné obštiny a má necelých 20 tisíc obyvatel.


Early life.

Ball was born in the Los Angeles metropolitan area in Anaheim, California, to LaVar and Tina Ball, who were both former college basketball players. The LaVar played at Washington State before transferring to Cal State Los Angeles, where the Tina was also playing. A two-sport athlete, LaVar also played American football professionally for the London Monarchs in the World League of American Football.  Ball started playing basketball at the age of two. He idolized LeBron James, who he began following around age six and when James was a first-year NBA player with Cleveland. Ball grew up with his younger brothers, LiAngelo and LaMelo. Until they reached high school, the trio played together on teams coached by their father. Ball played basketball at Chino Hills High School in Chino Hills, California. As a junior in 2014–15, he averaged 25 points, 11 rebounds, 9.1 assists, 5 blocks, and 5 steals. In his senior year, he led the school to a 35–0 record and a state title, and the Huskies were ranked the consensus No. 1 team in the nation. His younger brothers, junior LiAngelo and freshman LaMelo, were also on the team, as well as his cousin Andre. Ball averaged a triple-double with averages of 23.9 points, 11.3 rebounds, and 11.7 assists per game. He received national honors including the Naismith Prep Player of the Year, Morgan Wootten National Player of the Year, "USA Today" Boys Basketball Player of the Year, and Mr. Basketball USA.

College career.

Ball was rated as a consensus five-star recruit by major scouting services. He was ranked No.4 overall recruit and No.1 point guard in the 2016 high school class. In November 2015, he signed a National Letter of Intent to attend the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), and play for the Bruins. As a freshman in 2016–17, he was one of 50 players named to the preseason watch list for the John R. Wooden Award, given annually to the top college player in the nation. Ball's vision and passing skills led UCLA's rise up the national rankings, as he and fellow freshman T. J. Leaf helped the Bruins bounce back from a 15–17 record from the year before. Ball led the nation in assists and transformed the Bruins into the top scoring offense in the country. In his first collegiate game against Pacific, he had 19 points, 11 assists, and eight rebounds. Later in the year, Ball was named the MVP of the Wooden Legacy tournament, after he led UCLA to a win over Texas A&M in the championship game. He remained on the Wooden Award list in midseason, when he was also joined by Leaf, as UCLA was one of just five schools with two candidates on the list.  In a 107–66 blowout win against the Washington Huskies, Ball had 22 points, six rebounds, and five assists. With close to two dozen NBA executives in attendance, the game matched Ball against the Huskies' Markelle Fultz, who were among the nation's top point guards and projected to be among the top picks in the 2017 NBA draft. Fultz scored 25 points in an even matchup between the two freshmen. In the Bruins' regular season finale, Ball had a career-high 14 assists in a 77–68 win over Washington State, when he also broke Gary Payton's 30-year-old Pac-12 season record for assists by a freshman. UCLA was seeded No. 3 in the NCAA Tournament, and won their opening game 97–80 over Kent State. Ball had 15 points and three assists to surpass Larry Drew II's school record for most assists in a season. In the second round, he flirted with a triple-double with 18 points, seven rebounds, and nine assists in a 79–67 win over Cincinnati. All of his assists came in the second half, when UCLA overcame a three-point halftime deficit after scoring a season-low 30 points in the first half. The Bruins were eliminated in the Sweet 16, losing 86–75 to Kentucky. Ball had 10 points, eight assists, and four turnovers in the loss, while Wildcats point guard De'Aaron Fox scored 39 points for an NCAA tournament freshman record. Ball strained his hamstring in the game and was limping in the second half, but did not offer it as an excuse for being outplayed. After the game, he announced that he would declare for the 2017 NBA draft, where he was generally projected to be a top-3 pick.  For the season, Ball averaged 14.6 points, 7.6 assists, and 6.0 rebounds. He was the only player in the nation to average at least 14 points, six assists, and six rebounds, and was the first player in the conference since California's Jason Kidd in 1993–94 to average at least 14 points, seven assists, and six rebounds. His 274 assists also passed Kidd (272) for the second-most in a season by a Pac-12 player, behind only Ahlon Lewis (294) of Arizona State in 1997–98. Ball made 55.1 percent of his field goal attempts and 41.2 of his three-point attempts to become the first NCAA Division I player since 1992–93 to make at least 70 percent from 2-point range and 40 percent from 3-point range. He was a unanimous first-team All-American, earning honors from the Associated Press, United States Basketball Writers Association (USBWA), National Association of Basketball Coaches (NABC), and "Sporting News". Additionally, he was awarded the Wayman Tisdale Award by the USBWA as the top freshman in the nation. Ball was the only freshman to be a finalist for the Wooden Award, Naismith College Player of the Year, and Oscar Robertson Trophy. He was also voted Pac-12 Freshman of the Year and was named first-team All-Pac-12 along with teammates Leaf and Bryce Alford. He also received honorable mention for the Pac-12 All-Defensive Team.

Professional career.

Los Angeles Lakers (2017–2019).

Rookie season (2017–18).

Ball was selected with the second overall pick of the 2017 NBA draft by the Los Angeles Lakers. It was the third straight year they had the No. 2 pick. He and Brandon Ingram, their second overall pick from the previous year, headlined a young core for the Lakers. D'Angelo Russell, their No. 2 pick in 2015, was traded days earlier, partly to clear the way for their newly drafted point guard. Lakers president of basketball operations Magic Johnson billed Ball as "the new face of the Lakers." During the 2017 NBA Summer League in Las Vegas, Ball was named the league MVP after averaging 16.3 points, 9.3 assists, 7.7 rebounds, 2.5 steals, and 1.0 blocks per game. He had two triple-doubles, the first in Vegas since 2008 and the first ever in Vegas by a rookie. He had four games with 10 or more assists, becoming the first in league history to have more than 10 assists in more than one game; his 9.3 assist average was also a league record.  As a rookie in 2017–18, Ball played in 52 games, missing 30 games due to shoulder and knee injuries. In the second game of the season on October 20, 2017, he scored a career-high 29 points, to go along with 11 rebounds and 9 assists in a 132–130 win against the Phoenix Suns, falling one assist shy of becoming the youngest player to notch a triple double in NBA history. In the following contest, he had eight points, eight rebounds, and 13 assists in a 119–112 loss to the New Orleans Pelicans, becoming the youngest player in franchise history to get at least 10 assists in a game. On November 11, he recorded 19 points, 13 assists, and 12 rebounds in a 98–90 loss against the Milwaukee Bucks, becoming the youngest player at the time to achieve a triple-double at the age of 20 years and 15 days old, breaking James's record by five days. Leading up to the game, Bucks' coach Jason Kidd, who Ball is often compared to, had called it "a stretch" to compare the two since it was too early in Ball's career. Ball, who had been struggling with his shooting, made over 50% of his field goals in a game for the first time in his career. On November 19, he recorded his second triple-double with 11 points, 16 rebounds, and 11 assists in a 127–109 win over the Denver Nuggets. It was the most rebounds by an NBA rookie guard since Steve Francis had 17 in 1999–2000. He also joined fellow NBA rookie Ben Simmons, as well as Magic Johnson, Connie Hawkins, Art Williams, and Oscar Robertson as the only players to record multiple triple-doubles within the first 20 games of their NBA careers.  Ball missed the team's Christmas game after spraining his left shoulder in the previous contest against the Portland Trail Blazers. His shooting had improved to 34.9 percent from the field and 29.7 percent on three-pointers after having made 44 percent of his field goals and 44.2 percent of his three-pointers in the seven games prior to the injury. He returned after missing six games, playing in five games before spraining the medial collateral ligament (MCL) in his left knee against the Dallas Mavericks on January 13, 2018. Originally, he was expected to be sidelined for one to three weeks. Ball was selected to play in the Rising Stars Challenge during NBA All-Star Weekend, but withdrew because of the injury. He returned after the All-Star break after missing 15 games. On February 23, he played 17 minutes and had nine points, seven rebounds and six assists in a 124–102 victory against the Mavericks. It was the first game he played all season that he did not start. He was also on a minutes restriction, and the Lakers held him out of their following contest to limit his back-to-back games during his return. Ball missed the final eight games of the season due to a knee contusion. He ended the season with averages of 10.2 points, 7.2 assists and 6.9 rebounds, but made only 36 percent of his field goals. He was named to the NBA All-Rookie Second Team, while fellow rookie teammate Kyle Kuzma exceeded expectations and earned first-team honors.

2018–19 season.

On July 17, 2018, Ball underwent an arthroscopic surgery on his left knee to repair a torn meniscus. The surgery limited him from working on his game; however, he increased his strength, particularly in his upper body, amidst the Lakers front office challenge for him to improve his durability. Ball set a goal to play all 82 games as a sophomore in 2018–19. During the offseason, the Lakers signed the four-time NBA Most Valuable Player James, which shifted the spotlight away from Ball. They also signed veteran point guard Rajon Rondo to mentor and compete with the youngster. A week before camp, Lakers coach Luke Walton stated that Ball would be eased back and not participate in full-contact practices initially.  Ball's added bulk made him better on defense, and he became one of the Lakers' most dynamic defenders during the season as he picked up point guards full-court to create turnovers in the backcourt. On offense, he had to adjust to playing off the ball more with James often handling the ball. On December 15, in a 128–100 win against the Charlotte Hornets, the duo became the first teammates to achieve a triple-double in the same game since Jason Kidd and Vince Carter did it in 2007, with Ball posting 16 points, 10 rebounds, and 10 assists, while James had 24 points, 12 rebounds, and 11 assists. The last Lakers' teammates to accomplish the feat were Johnson and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar in 1982. It was Ball's third triple-double of his career and his first in over a year. On January 19, 2019, he had a career-high seven assists in a quarter to help the Lakers build a 13-point lead over Houston after the first period. In the third quarter, he collided with the Rockets' James Ennis III and suffered a Grade 3 left ankle sprain, which included a torn ligament. Ball left the contest with 11 assists in 22 minutes and the team up by 18 points, but the Lakers lost the game in overtime 138–134. He had suffered two other ankle injuries earlier in the season, but had been able to play in all of the team's first 47 games. Ball had been playing some of the best basketball of his career at that point. Since Walton called him out for being passive after a 108–86 loss against Minnesota, he had been averaging 13 points, 6.4 rebounds and 8.4 assists with nearly two steals over seven games before the injury. Ball was selected again for the Rising Stars game, but he was ruled out again because of his ankle injury. In late February, he traveled to Ohio to potentially undergo surgery that had not been authorized by the Lakers, before the team informed him that his contract could be voided if he proceeded, and successfully talked him out of it. Originally expected to be sidelined for four to six weeks, he was shut down for the rest of the season in March.

New Orleans Pelicans (2019–present).

On July 6, 2019, the Lakers traded Ball, Ingram, Josh Hart, the draft rights to De'Andre Hunter, two first round picks, a first-round pick swap and cash to New Orleans for All-Star Anthony Davis. Ball debuted for the Pelicans on October 22, registering eight points, five rebounds and five assists in a 130–122 overtime loss to the defending champion Toronto Raptors. On December 29, he hit a career-high seven three-pointers, and scored a season-high 27 points, to go with 10 rebounds and eight assists in a 127–112 win over the Houston Rockets. On January 18, 2020, Ball recorded his first triple-double of the season with 18 points, 10 rebounds and 11 assists in a 133–130 loss to the Los Angeles Clippers. On March 3, he matched his career-high seven three-pointers, while recording 26 points and eight assists in a 139–134 loss to the Minnesota Timberwolves. He also made seven three-pointers the following day, finishing with 25 points, 11 rebounds and six assists in a 127–123 overtime loss to the Dallas Mavericks.

Player profile.

Ball used to have an unorthodox jump shot whereby he moves the ball from his left hip to the left of his forehead. He rotates his right elbow in toward his chest until it reaches a 45-degree angle, when he shoots the ball towards the basket. He prefers to shoot jumpers while moving towards his left. During the off-season of the 2019–20 NBA season, videos of Ball's new shooting form emerged. He is now shooting into a more conventional form with the ball squared up to his forehead.  Ball began shooting in games from deep since he was a pre-teen. In college, he shot three-pointers from beyond the NBA line, which is longer than the college line. His go-to shot with time expiring was a step-back 3-pointer from deep. Though praised for his defensive instincts and effort Ball has been criticized for being injury prone, missing already 40% of the games in his young NBA career.

Endorsements.

Ball began his pro career using sports apparel from his father LaVar's Big Baller Brand instead of signing with any of the major apparel companies. His father had insisted that he not sign with a company unless they agreed to license merchandise from Big Baller Brand. In May 2017, Big Baller Brand announced the release of Ball's first shoe, the ZO2. The $495 price tag on the shoe sparked wide criticism from celebrities and on social media. In response to his critics, LaVar tweeted on May 4, "If you can't afford the ZO2S, you're NOT a BIG BALLER!" It was later revealed that despite not being a founder of the company, Lonzo owned 51% of the Big Baller Brand, while his father owned 16.4% of the business and both his mother and Alan Foster owned 16.3% of the business. On April 6, 2018, Jordan Crawford became the first player besides Ball to wear the ZO2s during a game.  On December 20, 2017, Ball was announced as the logo for the Junior Basketball Association (JBA), a league his father LaVar planned to establish for high-school basketball players who have finished high school but want an alternative option to the NCAA.  In March 2019, Ball told ESPN.com that he had cut his ties with BBB's manager and co-founder Alan Foster, accusing him of "[using] his access to my business and personal finances to enrich himself". In particular, he stated that $1.5 million of his personal money had gone missing. In addition, the Lakers showed concerns for the quality of BBB's shoes – believing it was a potential factor in his ankle injuries. Shortly afterward, Ball stripped references to BBB from his social media pages, changed his avatar to a childhood photo of himself wearing a Nike-branded T-shirt, permanently covered up his BBB tattoo, and posted a photograph of himself on Instagram with the caption "Moving on to bigger and better #MyOwnMan" [sic]. Ball and his family also discussed the idea of folding the Big Baller Brand altogether in the aftermath of Alan Foster's firing.

Music career.

In September 2017, Ball released his first rap single, "Melo Ball 1", an ode to his youngest brother, LaMelo. Not long after, during that same month, he released the song "ZO2", a dedication to his own brand of shoes. It would later be his lead single for his upcoming debut album. The following month, Ball released another rap single titled "Super Saiyan", which is a nod to the anime and manga series "Dragon Ball Z". In the track, he compares himself to Goku, the main protagonist of "DBZ". On February 15, 2018, Ball and his father would participate in the "Lip Sync Battle" as competitors. That same day, Ball released his debut album, "Born 2 Ball", under the name Zo. The album would be released under the Big Baller Music Group, a subsidiary of the Big Baller Brand, run by a close friend of his father. In March, "Born 2 Ball" peaked at No. 42 on "Billboard" Independent Albums chart and No. 13 on its Heatseekers Albums chart.

Personal life.

In February 2017, Ball's mother Tina suffered a stroke and was hospitalized for two months.  Ball had previously been in a long-term relationship with Denise Garcia, whom he met in high school, but they later split up in summer 2018. They have a daughter.  Ball is a rap music enthusiast; in his spare time he writes lyrics on his phone, He also frequently goes to a studio to record music. He has said that he would be a rapper if he was not an NBA player. In August 2017, Ball and his family premiered in their Facebook Watch reality show, "Ball in the Family".

Lonzo Anderson Ball (born October 27, 1997) is an American professional basketball player for the New Orleans Pelicans of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for one season with the UCLA Bruins, earning consensus first-team All-American honors before the Los Angeles Lakers selected him with the second overall pick of the 2017 NBA draft. He was named to the NBA All-Rookie Second Team in 2018.

Lonzo Anderson Ball (* 27. října 1997, Anaheim, USA) je americký basketbalista, hráč týmu Los Angeles Lakers, bývalý lídr týmu UCLA Bruins. Získal řadu basketbalových ocenění; v červnu 2017 tak byl draftován do NBA jako druhý v pořadí. Za sezónu 2017/2018 byl zvolen do druhého týmu nejlepších nováčků NBA.


Technical knockout.

A technical knockout (TKO or T.K.O.), or stoppage, is declared when the referee decides during a round that a fighter cannot safely continue the match for any reason. Certain sanctioning bodies also allow the official attending physician at ringside to stop the fight as well. In many regions, a TKO is declared when a fighter is knocked down three times in one round.  In MMA bouts, the referee may declare a TKO if a fighter cannot intelligently defend him/herself while being repeatedly struck.

Double knockout.

A double knockout, in both real-life combat sports and fighting-based video games, is when both fighters trade blows and knock each other out simultaneously, and are both unable to continue fighting. In such cases, the match is declared a draw. In fighting games such as "Street Fighter" and "Tekken", a draw is counted as a loss for both players.

Physical characteristics.

Little is known about what exactly causes one to be knocked unconscious, but many agree it is related to trauma to the brain stem. This usually happens when the head rotates sharply, often as a result of a strike. There are three general manifestations of such trauma:  A basic principle of boxing and other combat sports is to defend against this vulnerability by keeping both hands raised about the face and the chin tucked in. That could still be ineffective if the opponent punches effectively to the solar plexus.  A fighter who becomes unconscious from a strike with sufficient knockout power is referred to as having been "knocked out" or "KO'd" ("kay-ohd"). Losing balance without losing consciousness is referred to as being "knocked down" ("down but not out"). Repeated blows to the head, regardless whether they cause loss of consciousness, are known to gradually cause permanent brain damage. In severe cases this may cause strokes or paralysis. This loss of consciousness is commonly known as becoming "punch drunk" or "shot". Because of this, many physicians advise against sports involving knockouts.

Knockdown.

A knockdown occurs when a fighter touches the floor of the ring with any part of the body other than the feet following a hit, but is able to rise back up and continue fighting. The term is also used if the fighter is hanging on to the ropes, caught between the ropes, or is hanging over the ropes and is unable to fall to the floor and cannot protect himself. A knockdown triggers a count by the referee (normally to 10); if the fighter fails the count, then the fight is ended as a KO.  A flash knockdown is a knockdown where the fighter hits the canvas but recovers quickly enough that a count is not started.

Knockout records.

Top 10 boxing champions (including interims) by KO %.

Inactive National Boxing Association, World Colored Boxing Championship as well as list on List of current world boxing champions and European Boxing Union.

Top 10 MMA (Champions, Challengers) Fighters by KO %.

Fighters from inactive Pride Fighting Championships and active UFC/Bellator plus champions and former champions from other organizations.

A knockout (abbreviated to KO or K.O.) is a fight-ending, winning criterion in several full-contact combat sports, such as boxing, kickboxing, muay thai, mixed martial arts, karate, some forms of taekwondo and other sports involving striking, as well as fighting-based video games. A full knockout is considered any legal strike or combination thereof that renders an opponent unable to continue fighting.

Knockout, počeštěně knokaut, zkráceně K. O., je způsob předčasného ukončení utkání v boxu, kickboxu, muay thai, taekwondu a karate. Postižený zápasník obdrží úder na hlavu (nejčastěji na spodní čelist) natolik silný, že mu způsobí otřes mozku – v důsledku toho ztrácí orientaci a nemůže se udržet na nohou (tzv. "knockdown"). Rozhodčí pak musí posoudit, zda je sportovec schopen znovu se zapojit do zápasu. V boxu se tradičně používá hlasité odpočítávání do deseti sekund, pokud se boxer do té doby nestačí zvednout (nesmí se opírat o podlahu ani o provazy), je prohlášen za poraženého. V mixed martial arts se za knockout označuje ztráta vědomí po úderu či kopu automaticky, bez odpočítávání.


Biography.

Her work contributed in important ways to the exploration of developmental and regenerative processes in the nervous system. With her husband and scientific collaborator, Dr. Vaclav Ourednik, she worked for over three decades at renowned universities and institutions such as Harvard University and ETH Zürich. Together, they published in high-profile scientific journals like Science, Nature and PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences). Their work described plastic processes governing the development and regeneration of the central nervous system (CNS) and the design of innovative therapeutic approaches towards injury and degenerative disease of the spinal cord and brain. During the International Year of Astronomy 2009, the two researchers founded the Alpine Astrovillage, a center for astrophotography and stargazing. It is situated in the Eastern Swiss Alps, in the UNESCO Biosphere Reserve Val Müstair-Swiss National Park. For her scientific, educative, and popularizing work, Jitka Ourednik received many credits and recognitions. She organized scientific congresses and chaired talk sessions during national and international events. Her neuroscientific research focused on the induction of then still unexplored regenerative capacities of the CNS in relation to transplantation of embryonic neural tissue and of neural stem cells. In 2005, the scientist couple was invited to present their new ideas and findings during the prestigious Nobel-Forum lectures for young investigators at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm. Since 2009, the two have dedicated themselves exclusively to their popular science and educative work and the running of their AAV Center in Switzerland. For her long and internationally recognized work as a born Czech living abroad, the Czech Embassy in Switzerland nominated Jitka Ourednik already twice as candidate for the prize Gratias Agit.

Scientific work: Developmental and regenerative neuroscience, selected publications.

"Source:" "US National Library of the National Institute of Health, PubMed"

Jitka Ourednik born Hanzíková (* April 19, 1955 in Prague) is a natural scientist of Czech origin now living in Switzerland. She is a daughter of the Czech contemporary sculptor Stanislav Hanzik.

Jitka Ourednik rozená Hanzíková (* 19. dubna 1955 Praha) je vědkyně českého původu, která přispěla k základním otázkám vývojové a regenerativní neurovědy. Je dcerou českého sochaře Stanislava Hanzíka.


Location.

The Molucca Sea borders the Banda Sea to the south and the Celebes Sea to the west. To the north is Philippine Sea and to the east is Halmahera Sea.  The islands bordering the Molucca Sea include Halmahera to the north east, Buru and Ceram in the centre, and Sulawesi to the west. The Talaud Islands to the north are considered to be the northern border the sea, though the Molucca Sea Plate, the tectonic plate named after the sea, extends further north.  The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the "Molukka Sea" as being one of the waters of the East Indian Archipelago. The IHO defines its limits as follows:  "On the North." By a line from the Northeast extreme of Celebes <nowiki>[</nowiki>Sulawesi<nowiki>]</nowiki> through the Siau Islands to the South point of Sangi () thence to the Southern extreme of the Talaud Group, through these islands to their Northeastern extreme () and thence a line to Tanjong Sopi, the Northern point of Morotai Island.  "On the East." By the West coast of Morotai from Tanjong Sopi as far south as Wajaboela (), thence a line to the Northern point of Halmahera and down its West coast to Tanjong Libolo, its Southern extreme.  "On the South." A line from the Southern extreme of Halmahera to the North point of Bisa (Setile) Island, thence to the Northern extreme of Obi Major, through this island to Tanjong Ake Lamo, its Southwestern point, thence to Tanjong Dehekolano, the Eastern extremity of the Soela <nowiki>[</nowiki>Sula<nowiki>]</nowiki> Islands, along their Northern coasts to Tanjong Marikasoe, the Western extreme, thence a line to the Southeast point of Banggai Island ().  "On the West." The East coasts of Banggai and Peleng Islands to North Bangkalan () thence a line to Tg. Botok (Celebes) () round the coast to Tg. Pasir Pandjang () and across to Tg. Tombalilatoe () on the opposite coast, thence up the East coast to Tg. Poeisan, the Northeastern extreme of Celebes.

History.

The Portuguese, Dutch, British, and Spanish Empires fought each other for control of the spice islands that can only be accessed through the Molucca Sea.

Earthquakes.

January 6, 2019, measuring 7.0, with no tsunamis resulting.  The sea is a very seismically active area due to the Molucca Sea Plate.

The Molucca Sea (Indonesian: "Laut Maluku") is located in the western Pacific Ocean, around the vicinity of Indonesia, specifically bordered by the Indonesian Islands of Celebes (Sulawesi) to the west, Halmahera to the east, and the Sula Islands to the south. The Molucca Sea has a total surface area of 77,000 square miles (200,000 square km). The Molucca Sea is rich in coral and has many diving sites due to the deepness of its waters. The deepness of the water explains the reasoning behind dividing the sea into three zones, which functions to transport water from the Pacific Ocean to the shallower seas surrounding it. The deepest hollow in the Molucca Sea is the 15,780-foot (4,810-meter) Batjan (Indonesian: "Bacan") basin. This region is known for its periodic experiences of earthquakes, which stems from the sea itself being a micro plate, in which the Molucca Sea is being subducted in two opposite directions: one in the direction of the Eurasian Plate to the west and the other in the direction of the Philippines Sea Plate to the east.

Molucké moře, indonésky Laut Maluku, je okrajové moře Tichého oceánu. Leží blízko rovníku, je ohraničeno indonéskými ostrovy Celebes, Halmahera, Sula a Talaudskými ostrovy. Má rozlohu 291 000 km2 a maximální hloubku 4 970 m.


Family background.

Castelo Branco was born in a wealthy Northeastern Brazilian family. His father, Cândido Borges Castelo Branco, was a general. His mother, Antonieta Alencar Castelo Branco, came from a family of intellectuals (which included the writer José de Alencar).  He was married to Argentina Vianna, and had two children, Nieta and Paulo.

Military career.

Castelo Branco joined the Brazilian Army at Rio Pardo Military School in Rio Grande do Sul. In 1918, he joined the Military School of Realengo in Rio de Janeiro, as an Infantry cadet, and was declared second lieutenant in 1921, being assigned to the 12th Infantry Regiment in Belo Horizonte. In 1923 he reached the rank of first lieutenant. In 1924, still as lieutenant, he completed the Infantry Advanced Course and, upon returning to the 12th RI, was assigned the task of commanding a detachment from the unit and integrating legal forces that would come to grips with and overcome revolts interns hatched in São Paulo in the year 1925. He then returned to the Military School of Realengo as an infantry instructor in 1927. He participated, like many other lieutenants of his time, in the Brazilian Revolution of 1930.  As Captain, the intellectual value of Castello Branco stood out and, in 1931, he attended the Command and General Staff College (ECEME), in which he was the first placed of his class. Promoted to Major in 1938, he was enrolled in the French War College and upon returning to Brazil, he served as an instructor at the Realengo Military School.  He was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1943 and attended the Command and General Staff College in the United States. Then he was head of the 3rd. Section (Operations) of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force (FEB) during World War II, in Italy, remaining for three hundred days on the battle fields. He sent sixty letters to his wife, Argentina Viana Castelo Branco, and his two sons. At FEB, he planned and implemented military maneuvers in combat in Italy, especially at the Battle of Monte Castello. According to Marshal Cordeiro de Farias, Castello won exceptional prestige at FEB, for being a great strategist and having a privileged head.  Promoted to Colonel in 1945, Castelo Branco returned to Brazil with the firm intention of transmitting his professional experiences to the officers of the Army. In this way, it assumed the position of Director of Studies of the ECEME, and transformed this School into a true center of doctrinal investigations. Castelo Branco systematized, mainly between 1946 and 1947, the reasoning method for the study of decision factors, recommended by the French Military Mission, with a structure of work within the command, better disciplining the activities of the Commander and his Staff Officers.  In 1955, he helped with the Army's administrative reshaping and supported the military movement headed by the Minister of War, General Henrique Teixeira Lott, who secured the inauguration of President-elect Juscelino Kubitschek, who at that time was threatened with a military coup.  Months later, when trade union organizations resolved to hand over to the Minister a golden sword, Castelo severely broke with General Lott. The press recorded a few moments of this misunderstanding.  As General, he commanded ECEME, between September 15, 1954 and January 3, 1956. During this period, he perfected his Command Work of 1948, seeking to better suit him characteristics of Brazilian Chiefs and Staff Officers. Conferences such as "The War Doctrine and the Modern War" and "Security Problems", held in ECEME, are milestones in the evolution of the doctrinal thinking of this School.  He also commanded the 8th Military Region in Belém, the 10th Military Region in Fortaleza and the IV Army in Recife. At the time he reached the Presidency of the Republic he was Chief of Staff of the Army, a position he held from September 13, 1963 to April 14, 1964.

Political career.

Castelo Branco became one of the leaders of the 1964 Brazilian coup d'état that overthrew Goulart and ended the Fourth Brazilian Republic. On April 11, Congress chose him to serve out the remainder of Goulart's term and he took the oath of office on April 15, 1964. Castelo Branco was the second Brazilian Field Marshal to become President of the nation through a coup d'état, the first was Deodoro da Fonseca, who deposed Emperor Pedro II of Brazil in 1889, ended the Brazilian Empire and established the First Brazilian Republic. Castelo Branco was vested with emergency powers under the First Institutional Act, which among other things allowed him to cancel the political rights of "subversive elements" for ten years. He was otherwise committed to permitting normal political activities while carrying out reform through legislation. In March 1965 municipal elections were held as planned. Castelo Branco had every intention of turning over power to a civilian president when his term was due to run out in 1966. However, the hard-line officers within the regime (known as "linha-dura") with the support of War Minister Artur da Costa e Silva, wanted to stay in power for a greater period of time in order to achieve their political goals. Events reached a breaking point in October 1965, when opposition candidates won the governorships of the major states of Minas Gerais and Guanabara. Hard-liners demanded that Castelo Branco annul the results, but he refused. Another coup was averted after Costa e Silva persuaded hard-liners to recognize the election results in return for Castelo Branco's promise to implement a tougher policy. Thereafter, Castelo Branco dropped all pretense of democracy. On October 27, 1965 he issued the Second Institutional Act, which abolished all existing political parties, restored his emergency powers, and extended his term to 1967. The numerous political parties were replaced with only two: the pro-government National Renewal Alliance Party (ARENA) and the opposition Brazilian Democratic Movement (MDB). In 1967, he convened an extraordinary commission of jurists that drafted a highly authoritarian constitution.  Castelo Branco issued many repressive laws, most notably a highly draconian press law ("Lei de Imprensa") near the end of his term. This law continued to be valid in Brazil until 2009, when it was struck down by Brazil’s Supreme Federal Court.  He was succeeded in Presidency by Costa e Silva at midnight on March 15, 1967.  Castelo Branco promoted government intervention into the economy (e.g., shutting down by decree the country's flag carrier, Panair do Brasil). Castelo Branco’s government, unlike previous directly elected Presidents Juscelino Kubitschek, Jânio Quadros and João Goulart, was bankrolled from the start by the credits and loans from World Bank, International Monetary Fund and massive investment from multinational American companies, which saw the Brazilian right-wing military dictatorship as a new, economically stable Western ally against international communism in Latin America during the Cold War.

Death.

Four months after leaving the Presidency, Castelo Branco died in a midair collision of small aircraft near Fortaleza.

Marshal Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco () (September 20, 1897 – July 18, 1967) was a Brazilian military leader and politician. He served as the first President of the Brazilian military dictatorship after the 1964 military coup d'etat. Castelo Branco was killed in an aircraft collision in July 1967, soon after the end of his Presidency.

Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco (20. prosince 1900 Messejana – 18. července 1967 Ceará) byl brazilský voják a politik, prezident republiky v letech 1964–1967.