Plot.

Dr. Bill and Alice Harford live in New York City with their daughter Helena. They attend a Christmas party hosted by wealthy patient, Victor Ziegler, where Bill is reunited with Nick Nightingale, a medical school drop-out who now plays the piano professionally. An older Hungarian guest attempts to seduce Alice, and two young models attempt to seduce Bill. He is interrupted by his host who had been having sex with Mandy, a young woman who has overdosed on a speedball. Mandy recovers with Bill's aid.  The following evening, while smoking marijuana, Alice and Bill discuss their episodes of unfulfilled temptation. Bill tells Alice he is not jealous of other men's attraction to her because he deems women naturally inclined to fidelity. She then discloses that during their vacation in Cape Cod, she encountered a naval officer and fantasized about him enough to consider leaving Bill and their daughter, Helena. Bill is disturbed by Alice's revelation before being called to the house of a patient who has just died. The patient's distraught daughter, Marion, unsuccessfully tries to seduce Bill.  Upon leaving, he engages a prostitute named Domino. Alice phones when they start kissing, prompting Bill to have a change of heart. He pays Domino for the sexless encounter and meets Nick at a jazz club. Nick describes an engagement where he must play piano blindfolded in events featuring beautiful women. Invitees require a costume, a mask and a password. Bill goes to a costume shop and offers the owner, Milich, a generous amount of money to rent a costume. Inside the shop, Milich is outraged when he catches his teenage daughter with two men.  Bill takes a taxi to the country mansion mentioned by Nick. He gives the password and discovers a sexual ritual is taking place. One of the masked women

Production.

Development.

"Eyes Wide Shut" developed after Stanley Kubrick read Arthur Schnitzler's "Dream Story" in 1968, when Kubrick was looking for a project to follow "". Kubrick was interested in adapting the story, and with the help of journalist Jay Cocks, bought the filming rights to the novel. In the 1970s, Kubrick thought of Woody Allen as the Jewish protagonist. For the

Adaptation.

Arthur Schnitzler's 1926 novella "Dream Story" is set around Vienna after the turn of the century. The main characters are a couple named Fridolin and Albertina. The couple's home is a typical suburban middle-class home. Like the protagonist of the novel, Schnitzler was Jewish, lived in Vienna, and was a medical doctor, although he left medicine to write.  Kubrick frequently removed references to the Jewishness of characters in the novels he adapted. In "Eyes Wide Shut", Frederic Raphael, who is Jewish, wanted to keep the Jewish background of the protagonists, but Kubrick disagreed

Casting.

When Warner Bros. president Terry Semel approved production, he asked Kubrick to cast a movie star as "you haven't done that since Jack Nicholson [in "The Shining"]". Cruise was in England because his wife Nicole Kidman was there shooting "The Portrait of a Lady", and eventually Cruise decided to visit Kubrick's estate with Kidman. After that meeting, the director awarded them the roles. Kubrick also managed to make both not

Filming.

Principal photography began in November 1996. Kubrick's perfectionism led to script pages being rewritten on the set, and most scenes requiring numerous takes. The shoot went much longer than expected; Vinessa Shaw was initially contracted for two weeks but ended up working two months, while Alan Cumming, who appears in one scene, auditioned six times before the filming process. The crew got exhausted and reported to have a low morale. Filming finally wrapped in June 1998. The "Guinness World Records" recognized "Eyes Wide Shut" as the longest constant movie shoot, "for over 15 months, a period that included an unbroken shoot of 46 weeks".  Given Kubrick's fear of flying, the entire film was shot in England. Sound-stage works were done at London's Pinewood Studios, which included a detailed recreation of Greenwich Village. Kubrick's perfectionism went as far as sending workmen to Manhattan to measure street widths and note newspaper vending machine locations. Real New York footage was also shot to be rear projected behind Cruise. Production was followed by a strong campaign of secrecy, helped by Kubrick always working with a

Music.

Jocelyn Pook wrote the original music for "Eyes Wide Shut" but, like other Kubrick movies, the film was noted for its use of classical music. The opening title music is Shostakovich's Waltz No. 2 from "Suite for Variety Stage Orchestra", misidentified as "Waltz 2 from Jazz Suite". One recurring piece is the second movement of György Ligeti's piano cycle "Musica ricercata". Kubrick originally intended to feature "Im Treibhaus" from Wagner's "Wesendonck Lieder", but the director eventually replaced it with Ligeti's tune feeling Wagner's song was "too beautiful". In the morgue scene, Franz Liszt's late solo piano piece, "Nuages Gris" ("Grey Clouds") (1881), is heard. "Rex tremendae" from Mozart's "Requiem" plays as Bill walks into the cafe and reads of Mandy's death.  Pook was hired after choreographer Yolande Snaith rehearsed the masked ball orgy scene using Pook's composition "Backwards Priests" – which features a Romanian Orthodox Divine Liturgy recorded in a church in Baia Mare, played backwards – as a reference track. Kubrick then called the composer and asked if she had

Themes and interpretation.

Genre.

The film was described by some reviewers, and partially marketed, as an erotic thriller, a categorization disputed by others. It is classified as such in the book "The Erotic Thriller in Contemporary Cinema", by Linda Ruth Williams, and was described as such in news articles about Cruise and Kidman's lawsuit over assertions they saw a sex therapist during filming. The positive review in "Combustible Celluloid" describes it as an erotic thriller upon first viewing, but actually a "complex story about marriage and sexuality". High-Def Digest also called it an erotic thriller.  However, reviewing the film

Christmas setting.

In addition to relocating the story from Vienna in the 1900s to New York City in the 1990s, Kubrick changed the time-frame of Schnitzler's story from Mardi Gras to Christmas. Michael Koresky believed Kubrick did this because of the rejuvenating symbolism of Christmas. Mario Falsetto, on the other hand, notes that Christmas lights allow Kubrick to employ some of his distinct methods of shooting including using source location lighting, as he also did in "Barry Lyndon". The "New York Times" notes that the film "gives an otherworldly radiance and personality to Christmas lights", and critic Randy Rasmussen notes that "colorful Christmas lights... illuminate almost every location in the film." "Harper"'s film critic, Lee Siegel, believes that the film's recurring motif is the Christmas

Use of Venetian masks.

Historians, travel guide authors, novelists, and merchants of Venetian masks have noted that these have a long history of being worn during promiscuous activities. Authors Tim Kreider and Thomas Nelson have linked the film's usage of these to Venice's reputation as a center of both eroticism and mercantilism. Nelson notes that the sex ritual combines elements of Venetian Carnival and Catholic rites, in particular, the character of "Red Cloak" who simultaneously serves as Grand Inquisitor and King of Carnival. As such, Nelson argues

Release.

Marketing.

Warner Bros. heavily promoted "Eyes Wide Shut", while following Kubrick's secrecy campaign – to the point that the film's press kits contained no production notes, nor even the director's suggestions to Semel regarding the marketing campaign, given one week prior

Box office.

"Eyes Wide Shut" opened on July 16, 1999, in the United States. The film topped the weekend box office, with $21.7 million from 2,411 screens. These numbers surpassed the studio's expectations of $20 million, and became both Cruise's sixth consecutive chart topper and Kubrick's highest opening weekend as well as the highest featuring Kidman and Cruise together. "Eyes Wide Shut" ended up grossing a total of $55,691,208 in the US. The numbers put it as Kubrick's second highest-grossing film in the country, behind

Critical reception.

"Eyes Wide Shut" received positive reviews from critics. It currently has an approval rating of 75% on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 154 reviews with an average rating of 7.48/10. The website's critical consensus states, "Kubrick's intense study of the human psyche yields an impressive cinematic work." The film also has a score of 68 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 33 critics, indicating "Generally favorable reviews". Over 50 critics listed the film among the best of 1999. French magazine "Cahiers du Cinema" named it the best film of the year in its annual "top ten" list.  In the "Chicago Tribune", Michael Wilmington declared the film a masterpiece, lauding it as "provocatively conceived, gorgeously shot and masterfully executed... Kubrick's brilliantly choreographed one-take scenes create a near-hypnotic atmosphere of commingled desire and dread." Nathan Rabin of "The A.V. Club" was also highly positive,

Home media.

"Eyes Wide Shut" was first released in VHS and DVD on March 7, 2000. The original DVD release corrects technical gaffes, including a reflected crew member, and altering a piece of Alice Harford's dialogue. Most home videos remove the verse that was claimed to be cited from the sacred Hindu scripture Bhagavad Gita (although it was Pook's reworking of "Backwards Priests" as stated above.)  On October 23, 2007, Warner Home Video

Controversies.

Debate over the film's state of completion.

Though Warner Bros. insisted that Kubrick had turned in his final cut before his death, the film was still in the final stages of post-production, which was therefore completed by the studio in collaboration with Kubrick's estate. Some have argued that the work which remained was minor and exclusively technical in nature, allowing the estate to faithfully complete the film based on the director's notes. However, decisions regarding sound mixing, scoring and color-correction would have necessarily been made without Kubrick's input. Furthermore, Kubrick had

Kubrick's opinion.

Jan Harlan, Kubrick's brother-in-law and executive producer, reported that Kubrick was "very happy" with the film and considered it to be his "greatest contribution to the art of cinema".  R. Lee Ermey, an actor in Kubrick's film "Full Metal Jacket", stated that Kubrick phoned him two weeks before his death to express his despondency over "Eyes Wide Shut". "He told me it was a piece of shit", Ermey said in "Radar" magazine, "and that he was disgusted with it and that the critics were going to 'have him for lunch'. He said Cruise and Kidman had their way with him – exactly the words he used."  According to Todd Field, Kubrick's friend and an actor in "Eyes Wide Shut", Ermey's claims do not accurately reflect Kubrick's essential attitude. Field's response appeared in an October 18, 2006 interview with Grouch Reviews:  The polite thing would be to say 'No

Studio censorship and classification.

Citing contractual obligations to deliver an R rating, Warner Bros. digitally altered the orgy for the film's American release by blocking out graphic sexuality using additional figures to obscure the view in order to avoid an adults-only NC-17 rating that limited distribution, due to some large American theaters and video store operators banning films with that rating. This alteration antagonized both film critics and cinephiles, who argued that Kubrick had never been shy about ratings ("A Clockwork Orange" was originally given an X-rating). The unrated version of "Eyes Wide Shut" was released in the United States

Eyes Wide Shut is a 1999 erotic mystery psychological drama film directed, produced and co-written by Stanley Kubrick. Based on the 1926 novella "Traumnovelle" ("Dream Story") by Arthur Schnitzler, the story is transferred from early 20th-century Vienna to 1990s New York City. The film follows the sexually charged adventures of Dr. Bill Harford, who is shocked when his wife, Alice, reveals that she had contemplated having an affair a year earlier. He embarks on a night-long adventure, during which he infiltrates a massive masked orgy of an unnamed secret society.

Spalující touha (v anglickém originále Eyes Wide Shut) je epický film s prvky psychologického thrilleru, dramatu, erotiky a mysteriozity v britsko–americké koprodukci. Film byl natočen v roce 1999 a vznikl na základě novely "Traumnovelle" z roku 1926 od Arthura Schnitzlera. Příběh je přenesen z Vídně počátku 20. století do New Yorku 90. let. Film sleduje sexuální dobrodružství dr. "Billa Harforda", který je šokován tím, když mu jeho manželka "Alice" odhalí, že o rok dříve uvažovala o milostné aféře. Dr. "Bill Harford" se vydává na noční dobrodružství, během které se dostane na sexuální orgie nejmenované tajné společnosti. V hlavních rolích se představil manželský pár Tom Cruise a Nicole Kidmanová.


Plot.

The story of the game takes place between "" and "". The game is set in Persia, India, and the fictional Aresura. Each of these places sends three generals to fight their wars.  The Prince finds out that he is being hunted by the Dahaka, an incarnation of fate, because he interfered with time and cheated his own death in the process. However, the Prince accidentally starts a conflict between Persia and India. Over the span of the game, the Prince fights the Deavas, a mythical race of demons contained in a box he opens, and Kalim, the Prince of India and brother of his long lost love Farah. Because of the wars the Prince becomes darker and matures. The game gives information as to what happens in between the two games in the "Sands of Time" trilogy.

Gameplay.

"Battles of Prince Of Persia" is a turn-based tactics game combined with collectible card game elements. The game involves a variety of playing cards which are characterized by a picture and a number, providing the card with its two uses. The first use is to play the magical effect on the card, the second use is to play the number on the card, which determines how many orders the player may give within the hour. Each battle is divided up into hours, which are then divided into turns. Each turn, a player either uses a card for effect or orders, or passes. An hour ends when both players are unable or unwilling to use any more cards and both pass.  The game includes tactical elements such as zone of control and directional facing, where attacking an enemy from behind will produce better results than from the front. Zone Of Control prevents players from moving their units right through an enemy's lines and directly to the goal or leader.

Reception.

"Battles of Prince of Persia" received mixed reviews; GameRankings gave it a score of 65.16%, while Metacritic gave it 64 out of 100.

Battles of Prince of Persia is a turn-based tactics video game for the Nintendo DS handheld console in which the player takes the role of different characters from the "Prince of Persia" world, including the titular Prince.

Battles of Prince of Persia je videohra vytvořená kanadskou vývojářskou společností Ubisoft Montreal v roce 2005. Je určená pouze pro konzole Nintendo DS. Žánrově jde o mix tahové strategie a sběratelské karetní hry.


Acute bronchitis.

Acute bronchitis, also known as a chest cold, is short term inflammation of the bronchi of the lungs. The most common symptom is a cough, that may or may not produce sputum. Other symptoms may include coughing up mucus, wheezing, shortness of breath, fever, and chest discomfort. Fever when present is mild. The infection may last from a few to ten days. The cough may persist for several weeks afterwards, with the total duration of symptoms usually around three weeks. Symptoms may last for up to six weeks.

Cause.

In more than 90% of cases, the cause is a viral infection. These viruses may spread through the air when people cough or by direct contact. Risk factors include exposure to tobacco smoke, dust, and other air pollutants. A small number of cases are due to bacteria such as "Mycoplasma pneumoniae" or "Bordetella pertussis".

Diagnosis.

Diagnosis is typically based on a person's signs and symptoms. The color of the sputum does not indicate if the infection is viral or bacterial. Determining the underlying organism is usually not required. Other causes of similar symptoms include asthma, pneumonia, bronchiolitis, bronchiectasis, and COPD. A chest X-ray may be useful to detect pneumonia.  Another common sign of bronchitis is a cough which lasts ten days to three weeks. If the cough lasts for longer than a month, it may become chronic bronchitis. In addition, a fever may be present. Acute bronchitis is normally caused by a viral infection. Typically, these infections are rhinovirus, parainfluenza, or influenza. No specific testing is normally needed in order to diagnose acute bronchitis.

Treatment.

One form of prevention is to avoid smoking and other lung irritants. Frequent hand washing may also be protective. Treatment for acute bronchitis usually involves rest, paracetamol (acetaminophen), and NSAIDs to help with the fever. Cough medicine has little support for its use, and is not recommended in children under the age of six. There is tentative evidence that salbutamol may be useful in treating wheezing; however, it may result in nervousness and tremors. Antibiotics should generally not be used. An exception is when acute bronchitis is due to pertussis. Tentative evidence supports honey and pelargonium to help with symptoms. Getting plenty of rest and drinking enough fluids are often recommended as well. Chinese medicinal herbs are of unclear effect.

Epidemiology.

Acute bronchitis is one of the most common diseases. About 5% of adults are affected, and about 6% of children have at least one episode a year. It occurs more often in the winter. More than 10 million people in the US visit a doctor each year for this condition, with about 70% receiving antibiotics which are mostly not needed. There are efforts to decrease the use of antibiotics in acute bronchitis. Acute bronchitis is the most common type of bronchitis.

Chronic bronchitis.

Chronic bronchitis is defined as a productive cough that lasts for three months or more per year for at least two years. When this occurs together with decreased airflow it is known as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Many people with chronic bronchitis have COPD however, most people with COPD do not have chronic bronchitis. Estimates of the number of people with COPD who have chronic bronchitis are 7 to 40%. Estimates of the number of people who smoke and have chronic bronchitis who also have COPD is 60%.  The term "chronic bronchitis" was used in previous definitions of COPD but is no longer included in the definition. The term is still used clinically. While both chronic bronchitis and emphysema are often associated with COPD, neither is needed to make the diagnosis. A Chinese consensus commented on symptomatic types of COPD that include chronic bronchitis and with frequent exacerbations.  Chronic bronchitis is a respiratory disease marked by overproduction of mucus and mucins. The excess mucus is produced by goblet cells and enlarged submucosal glands in response to long-term irritation. The mucous glands in the submucosa secrete more than the goblet cells. Mucins thicken mucus, and their concentration has been found to be high in cases of chronic bronchitis, and also to correlate with the severity of the disease. Excess mucus can narrow the airways, thereby limiting airflow and accelerating the decline in lung function, and result in COPD. Excess mucus shows itself as a chronic productive cough and its severity and volume of sputum can fluctuate in periods of acute exacerbations. In COPD, those with the chronic bronchitic phenotype with associated chronic excess mucus, experience a worse quality of life than those without.  The increased secretions are initially cleared by coughing. The cough is often worse soon after awakening, and the sputum produced may have a yellow or green color and may be streaked with specks of blood. In the early stages, a cough can maintain mucus clearance. However, with continued excessive secretion, mucus clearance is impaired and when the airways become obstructed a cough becomes ineffective. Effective mucociliary clearance depends on airway hydration, ciliary beating, and the rates of mucin secretion. Each of these factors is impaired in chronic bronchitis. Chronic bronchitis can lead to a higher number of exacerbations and a faster decline in lung function. The ICD-11 lists chronic bronchitis with emphysema (emphysematous bronchitis) as a "certain specified COPD".

Cause.

Most cases of chronic bronchitis are caused by tobacco smoking. Chronic bronchitis in young adults who smoke is associated with a greater chance of developing COPD. There is an association between smoking cannabis and chronic bronchitis. In addition, chronic inhalation of air pollution, or irritating fumes or dust from hazardous exposures in occupations such as coal mining, grain handling, textile manufacturing, livestock farming, and metal moulding may also be a risk factor for the development of chronic bronchitis. Bronchitis caused in this way is often referred to as industrial bronchitis, or occupational bronchitis. Rarely genetic factors also play a role.  Air quality can also affect the respiratory system with higher levels of nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide contributing to bronchial symptoms. Sulfur dioxide can cause inflammation which can aggravate chronic bronchitis and make infections more likely.  Air pollution in the workplace is the cause of several non-communicable diseases (NCDs) including chronic bronchitis.

Treatment.

Decline in lung function in chronic bronchitis may be slowed by stopping smoking. Chronic bronchitis may be treated with a number of medications and occasionally oxygen therapy. Pulmonary rehabilitation may also be used.  A distinction has been made between exacerbations (sudden worsenings) of chronic bronchitis, and otherwise stable chronic bronchitis. Stable chronic bronchitis can be defined as the normal definition of chronic bronchitis, plus the absence of an acute exacerbation in the previous four weeks. A Cochrane review found that mucolytics in chronic bronchitis may slightly decrease the chance of developing an exacerbation. The mucolytic guaifenesin is a safe and effective treatment for stable chronic bronchitis. This has an advantage in that it is available as an extended use tablet which lasts for twelve hours. Another mucolytic fudosteine may also be used. In those with chronic bronchitis and severe COPD, the phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor roflumilast may decrease significant exacerbations.

Epidemiology.

Chronic bronchitis affects about 3.4% to 22% of the general population. Individuals over 45 years of age, smokers, those that live or work in areas with high air pollution, and anybody with asthma all have a higher risk of developing chronic bronchitis. This wide range is due to the different definitions of chronic bronchitis that can be diagnosed based on signs and symptoms or the clinical diagnosis of the disorder. Chronic bronchitis tends to affect men more often than women. While the primary risk factor for chronic bronchitis is smoking, there is still a 4%-22% chance that never smokers can get chronic bronchitis. This might suggest other risk factors such as the inhalation of fuels, dusts, fumes and genetic factor. In the United States, in 2016, 8.6 million people were diagnosed with chronic bronchitis, and there were 518 reported deaths. Per 100,000 of population the death rate of chronic bronchitis was 0.2.

History.

The condition of bronchitis has been recognised for many centuries, in several different cultures including the Ancient Greek, Chinese, and Indian, with the presence of excess phlegm and cough noted in recognition of the same condition.  In Britain in 1808, a physician Charles Badham was the first person to describe the condition and name the acute form as "acute bronchitis". This was written of in a book entitled "Inflammatory conditions of the bronchia". In this book Badham distinguished three forms of bronchitis including acute and chronic. A second edition of this book was renamed "An Essay on Bronchitis" and published in 1814. Bradham used the term catarrh to refer to the cardinal symptoms of chronic cough and mucus hypersecretion of chronic bronchitis, and described chronic bronchitis as a disabling disorder.  In 1901 an article was published on the treatment of chronic bronchitis in the elderly. The symptoms described have remained unchanged. The cause was thought to be brought on by dampness, cold weather, and foggy conditions, and treatments were aimed towards various cough mixtures, respiratory stimulants, and tonics. It was noted that something other than the weather was thought to be at play. Exacerbations of the condition were also described at this time. Another physician Harry Campbell was referred to who had written in the British Medical Journal a week before. Campbell had suggested that the cause of chronic bronchitis was due to toxic substances, and recommended pure air, simple food, and exercise to remove them from the body.  A joint research programme was undertaken in Chicago and London from 1951 to 1953 in which the clinical features of one thousand cases of chronic bronchitis were detailed. The findings were published in the Lancet in 1953. It was stated that since its introduction by Badham, chronic bronchitis had become an increasingly popular diagnosis. The study had looked at various associations such as the weather, conditions at home, and at work, age of onset, childhood illnesses, smoking habits, and breathlessness. It was concluded that chronic bronchitis invariably led to emphysema, particularly when the bronchitis had persisted for a long time.  In 1957 it was noted that at the time there were many investigations being carried out into chronic bronchitis and emphysema in general, and among industrial workers exposed to dust. Excerpts were published dating from 1864 in which Charles Parsons had noted the occurring consequence of the development of emphysema from bronchitis. This was seen to be not always applicable. His findings were in association with his studies on chronic bronchitis among pottery workers.  A CIBA (now Novartis) meeting in 1959, and a meeting of the American Thoracic Society in 1962, defined chronic bronchitis as a component of COPD, in the terms that have not changed.

Eosinophilic bronchitis.

Eosinophilic bronchitis is a chronic dry cough, defined by the presence of an increased number of a type of white blood cell known as eosinophils. It has a normal finding on X-ray and has no airflow limitation.

Protracted bacterial bronchitis.

Protracted bacterial bronchitis in children, is defined as a chronic productive cough with a positive bronchoalveolar lavage that resolves with antibiotics. Protracted bacterial bronchitis is usually caused by "Streptococcus pneumoniae", non-typable "Haemophilus influenzae", or "Moraxella catarrhalis". Protracted bacterial bronchitis (lasting more than 4 weeks) in children may be helped by antibiotics.

Plastic bronchitis.

Plastic bronchitis is a rarely found condition in which thickened secretions plug the bronchi. The plugs are rubbery or plastic-feeling (thus the name). The light-colored plugs take the branching shape of the bronchi that they fill, and are known as "bronchial casts". When these casts are coughed up, they are firmer in texture from typical phlegm or the short, softer mucus plugs seen in some people with asthma. However, some people with asthma have larger, firmer, more complex plugs. These differ from the casts seen in people whose plastic bronchitis is associated with congenital heart disease or lymphatic vessel abnormalities mainly because eosinophils and Charcot–Leyden crystals are present in the asthma-associated casts but not in the others.  Casts obstruct the airflow, and can result in the overinflation of the opposite lung. Plastic bronchitis usually occurs in children. Some cases may result from abnormalities in the lymphatic vessels. Advanced cases may show imaging similarities to bronchiectasis.

Aspergillus bronchitis.

Aspergillus bronchitis is one of the "Aspergillosis" spectrum of diseases, in which the bronchi are specifically subject to a fungal infection. This differs from the other pulmonary aspergillosis conditions, in that it need not affect just the immunocompromised.

Bronchitis is inflammation of the bronchi (large and medium-sized airways) in the lungs that causes coughing. Symptoms include coughing up sputum, wheezing, shortness of breath, and chest pain. Bronchitis can be acute or chronic. Acute bronchitis usually has a cough that lasts around three weeks, and is also known as a chest cold. In more than 90% of cases the cause is a viral infection. These viruses may be spread through the air when people cough or by direct contact. A small number of cases are caused by a bacterial infection such as "Mycoplasma pneumoniae" or "Bordetella pertussis". Risk factors include exposure to tobacco smoke, dust, and other air pollution. Treatment of acute bronchitis typically involves rest, paracetamol (acetaminophen), and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to help with the fever. Chronic bronchitis is defined as a productive cough – one that produces sputum – that lasts for three months or more per year for at least two years. Many people with chronic bronchitis have chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Tobacco smoking is the most common cause, with a number of other factors such as air pollution and genetics playing a smaller role. Treatments include quitting smoking, vaccinations, rehabilitation, and often inhaled bronchodilators and steroids. Some people may benefit from long-term oxygen therapy. Acute bronchitis is one of the most common diseases. About 5% of adults are affected and about 6% of children have at least one episode a year. Acute bronchitis is the most common type of bronchitis. In the United States, in 2018, 9.3 million people were diagnosed with chronic bronchitis.

Bronchitida je zánět průdušek a tím pádem spadá mezi záněty dolních cest dýchacích. Jedná se o jeden z nejběžnějších patologických jevů postihující dýchací soustavu. Ve stěně průdušek dochází ke vzniku zánětlivého edému a tvorbě exsudátu.


In vision correction.

The fact that optical powers are approximately additive enables an eye care professional to prescribe corrective lenses as a simple correction to the eye's optical power, rather than doing a detailed analysis of the entire optical system (the eye and the lens). Optical power can also be used to adjust a basic prescription for reading. Thus an eye care professional, having determined that a myopic (nearsighted) person requires a basic correction of, say, −2 dioptres to restore normal distance vision, might then make a further prescription of 'add 1' for reading, to make up for lack of accommodation (ability to alter focus). This is the same as saying that −1 dioptre lenses are prescribed for reading.  In humans, the total optical power of the relaxed eye is approximately 60 dioptres. The cornea accounts for approximately two-thirds of this refractive power (about 40 dioptres) and the crystalline lens contributes the remaining one-third (about 20 dioptres). In focusing, the ciliary muscle contracts to reduce the tension or stress transferred to the lens by the suspensory ligaments. This results in increased convexity of the lens which in turn increases the optical power of the eye. The amplitude of accommodation is about 11 to 16 dioptres at age 15, decreasing to about 10 dioptres at age 25, and to around 1 dioptre above age 60.  Convex lenses have positive dioptric value and are generally used to correct hyperopia (farsightedness) or to allow people with presbyopia (the limited accommodation of advancing age) to read at close range. Concave lenses have negative dioptric value and generally correct myopia (nearsightedness). Typical glasses for mild myopia have a power of −0.50 to −3.00 dioptres, while over the counter reading glasses are rated at +1.00 to +4.00 dioptres. Optometrists usually measure refractive error using lenses graded in steps of 0.25 dioptres.

Curvature.

The dioptre can also be used as a measurement of curvature equal to the reciprocal of the radius measured in metres. For example, a circle with a radius of 1/2 metre has a curvature of 2 dioptres. If the curvature of a surface of a lens is "C" and the index of refraction is "n", the optical power is φ = ("n" − 1)"C". If both surfaces of the lens are curved, consider their curvatures as positive toward the lens and add them. This gives approximately the right result, as long as the thickness of the lens is much less than the radius of curvature of one of the surfaces. For a mirror the optical power is φ = 2"C".

Relation to magnifying power.

The "magnifying power" of a simple magnifying glass is related to its optical power by This is approximately the magnification observed when a person with normal vision holds the magnifying glass close to his or her eye.

A dioptre (British spelling) or diopter (American spelling) is a unit of measurement of the optical power of a lens or curved mirror, which is equal to the reciprocal of the focal length measured in metres. (1 dioptre = 1 m.) It is thus a unit of reciprocal length. For example, a 3-dioptre lens brings parallel rays of light to focus at metre. A flat window has an optical power of zero dioptres, and does not cause light to converge or diverge. Dioptres are also sometimes used for other reciprocals of distance, particularly radii of curvature and the vergence of optical beams.

Dioptrie je jednotka optické mohutnosti sférické čočky nebo zakřiveného zrcadla, definovaná jako převrácená hodnota ohniskové vzdálenosti. Má tedy rozměr m. Používá se hlavně v oční optice. V mezinárodní soustavě SI není uvedena a nemá mezinárodně stanovenou zkratku; často se však používá zkratka dpt nebo D.


History.

Background.

Edinburgh and Leith were originally served by horse-drawn coaches, and then from 1871 various companies and corporations ran trams that were horse-drawn, then cable driven and finally electric, until 16 November 1956. After that date, public transport consisted of buses and a limited network of commuter rail lines.  Towards the end of the 20th century, there was revived interest in trams in the United Kingdom and networks were reintroduced in Birmingham, Croydon, Manchester, Nottingham and Sheffield. Proposals for a network in Edinburgh were made in the 1990s, and a plan to build a line along Princes Street and Leith Walk to Newhaven was proposed in 1999 by the City of Edinburgh Council, Lothian and Edinburgh Enterprise and the New Edinburgh Tramways Company.

Proposals and agreement.

A 2001 proposal envisaged three routes, lines 1, 2 and 3. The first was a circular route around the northern suburbs, and the others were radial routes to Newbridge in the west and Newcraighall in the south. All lines would have passed through the city centre. In May 2004, a 15-year operating contract was awarded to Transdev, to operate and maintain the tram network. This contract was cancelled in 2009.  Two bills to reintroduce a tram network were passed by the Scottish Parliament in March 2006. Lines 1 and 2 received parliamentary permission, but funding the entire network was deemed impossible. Line 3, to be paid for by a proposed Edinburgh congestion charge, was scrapped when the charge was heavily defeated in a referendum and construction of the remaining two lines was split into four phases:  The future of the scheme came under threat in 2007, when the Scottish National Party (SNP) published its manifesto for the Scottish Parliamentary election. The party made clear its intention to cancel the scheme, along with the Edinburgh Airport Rail Link, to save £1.1 billion.  Following a lost vote in the Scottish Parliament, the SNP-led minority Scottish Government agreed to continue the line from the airport to Leith on condition that no more public money would be supplied. A report by Audit Scotland, commissioned by the Scottish Government, confirmed that the cost projections were sound. The cost of the scheme in 2003 was estimated at £498 million, £375 million in funding from the Scottish Government and £45 million from Edinburgh Council.  On 25 October 2007, the council approved the final business case. Approval was given on 22 December 2007 for TIE to sign contracts with CAF to supply vehicles and BBS (a consortium of Bilfinger Berger and Siemens) to design and construct the network. Contract negotiations finished in April 2008, and construction started in June 2008. By this stage the cost of the project was estimated at £521 million. Funding problems and political disputes led to the scaling back of the original plans. In April 2009, the council cancelled phase 1b, citing revenue shortfall created by the economic slowdown to save an estimated £75 million. The Granton extension was also cancelled.

Construction: 2007–2012.

Until August 2011, the project was overseen by Transport Initiatives Edinburgh (TIE), a company wholly owned by the City of Edinburgh Council, who were responsible for project-managing the construction of the tramway.  After the draft business case was accepted by the Scottish Government in March 2007, initial construction work commenced in July 2007, with the diversion of underground utilities in preparation for track-laying in Leith. These works followed a plan by System Design Services (SDS), a joint design team led by Parsons Brinckerhoff and Halcrow Group.  In May 2008, final contracts to build the tram system were awarded to BSC, a consortium of Bilfinger Berger, Siemens and Spanish tram builder Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles (CAF).  The tramway uses a mix of street running and segregated off-road track, with conventional tram stop platforms. Stops are fitted with shelters, ticket machines, lighting and CCTV. The network is operated from a depot in Gogar, close to the A8 roundabout, north of Gyle Centre tram stop.  The route of the line required the construction of bridges to cross railway lines at Edinburgh Park and Stenhouse, and a tunnel under the A8 near the Gogar roundabout. A bridge at Balgreen was widened. Works to build a tram interchange at Haymarket station involved the demolition of a Category C(S) listed building, the former Caledonian Alehouse on Haymarket Terrace.  Some on-street track was laid in a special foundation with cobbled road surfacing designed to be sympathetic with the style of Edinburgh streets but was removed in many places due to objections from cyclists. The trams are powered by overhead cables attached to purpose-built poles or mounted on the sides of buildings. Nine electrical sub-stations were planned for the line to Newhaven, both underground and above-ground but only five were built after the line was truncated at York Place.

Revisions and delays.

In 2008 and 2009, the project met with delays to work on tramway infrastructure. Phase 1b of the project was cancelled because of a funding shortfall in April 2009. Contractual disputes delayed track-laying in the city centre. In December 2009, media reported that the project budget was running over £545 million, and the system was unlikely to come into operation until February 2012 or later. The operating contract with Transdev was cancelled in December 2009 to reduce costs and it was announced that the trams would be operated by Edinburgh Trams Limited, a subsidiary of Transport for Edinburgh. In March 2010, Bilfinger Berger announced that the estimated completion date would be in 2014.

Contractual disputes.

In February 2009, work on the Princes Street section stopped due to contractual disagreements between TIE and BSC after the latter submitted a request for an additional £80 million of funding. Edinburgh Council believed the contractors' claims were unjustified as they had agreed to fixed-price contracts. After negotiations, BSC agreed to commence construction in March 2009 within the original budget, although disagreements remained. Work restarted and line construction went ahead.  In August 2009, TIE began legal proceedings against the BSC consortium over delays to the project, and track-laying on Leith Walk, Shandwick Place and Haymarket was suspended. At issue were alleged changes to BSC's work specification, including track works on Princes Street and £5 million additional costs for foundation work near Murrayfield Stadium. The BSC consortium alleged that TIE had not diverted the underground utilities in time for track-laying to begin, breaching contractual agreements and costing the consortium additional staffing expenditure.  In January 2010 the independent arbiter found in favour of TIE on some points, but on most of the disputed issues ruled in favour of BSC and awarded the consortium 90% of its additional costs, estimated to be up to £80m.  Delays in track laying and depot construction affected vehicle testing. By September 2009, construction was reported to be nine months behind schedule, and CAF was due to deliver the first trams from its factory in Spain. With key project dependency out of synchronisation, TIE held discussions with Transport for London about delivering the trams to Croydon to conduct operational tests on the Tramlink network. Tram vehicle testing commenced in March 2010 on the Siemens test track in Wildenrath, Germany. The tests included recreating the steep gradients of Leith Walk, and using weights to simulate the heavy passenger load expected during a Murrayfield match day.

Funding crisis.

Following further disputes and delays, it was reported in March 2010 that Edinburgh Council was considering cancelling the contract with Bilfinger Berger. By June 2010, the project's cost had risen to £600 million. Council project managers were reported to be in crisis talks, considering options including: borrowing £55 million to fund the increased costs; phasing the introduction of the tram line, so that trams would initially run between the airport and Haymarket; and terminating the contract with Bilfinger Berger. The council asked TIE to draw up costs for truncating the line at four places: Haymarket station, York Place, the foot of Leith Walk or Ocean Terminal.  Work resumed in May 2011 at priority locations, Haymarket Yards and Gogar, while the project's future was decided by the council. In August 2011 it was announced TIE would be disbanded and consultants Turner & Townsend would manage the project.  On 30 June 2011, Edinburgh Council voted to continue the line between Edinburgh Airport and St Andrew Square. Costs rose to an estimated £770m, leaving the council with a shortfall of more than £200m. The option to scrap the project was considered, but rejected. On 25 August 2011, the council voted to cut the line to run between the airport and Haymarket, reducing the expected cost to £715m. A week later, after the Scottish Government threatened to withhold £72 million of funding, the council reversed its decision, restoring the terminus at St Andrew Square. On 29 November 2011 it was announced that the eastern terminus would be at York Place instead of St Andrew Square; the intention had been to build the tracks to a reversing point at York Place (without a stop for passengers). Extending passenger services from St Andrew Square to York Place would enable Broughton Street, Picardy Place and the surrounding area to be better served at comparatively little additional cost.  The first electric wires were energised in October 2011 within the depot at Gogar. Testing trams began in December 2011 near the depot at Gogar, on a length of track. On 15 December 2011, the contractors handed the depot to the City of Edinburgh Council.  The first completed section of line, between the depot and Edinburgh Airport, was used to test a tram at full speed on 19 December 2012.  With extra interest payments factored in, the cost of the line was expected to exceed £1 billion.

Criticism.

Delays in construction were criticised by businesses, who claimed their income was damaged by long-term road closures in the centre of the city, and also by some residents.  Cycling groups voiced safety concerns after people were injured as their bicycle wheels became caught in the track. They reported the road surface around the tracks was crumbling, raising further safety problems. In response, TiE promised to carry out repairs and Edinburgh Trams agreed to fund special training for cyclists., but the repairs were insufficient: in 2017, a woman was crushed to death by a passing bus when her bicycle wheel was caught in the tracks. Further safety concerns were raised by residents along the routes about the suspension of overhead electric cables from residential buildings, and some property owners refused permission for cables to be attached.  To remedy crumbling tarmac along the tracks on Princes Street, the road was closed in September 2011 and remained closed for ten months. A road closure between Haymarket and Shandwick Place in March 2012 led to complaints from businesses and residents. It remained closed until October 2013. Originally to open as "Shandwick Place" tram stop, it was renamed "West End - Princes Street" prior to opening at the request of local traders, who felt the new name had greater associations to the city centre and would encourage more tourists to get off there. The stop was renamed again in August 2019 as "West End".

Completion: 2013–2014.

From late 2012, work continued mostly on schedule. More than of flawed concrete trackbed had to be replaced between Shandwick Place and Haymarket. In June 2013, overhead electric wires were installed on the city centre portion of the route. This was considered the last major step in the construction process.  Controversy erupted over concessionary travel for the elderly and disabled. Originally, it was planned that concessionary travel, that is the ability of those with a Scottish National Entitlement Card to travel on public transport free-of-charge, was not going to be offered on the tramway. This was despite the fact that Edinburgh Trams is to be run by Lothian Buses, who are mandated to offer free travel to those with concession cards on all their bus routes. This revelation quickly caused city leaders to support an "Edinburgh Evening News" campaign to ensure that concessionary travel would be offered on the new tramway. City transport convener Lesley Hinds stated "People in Edinburgh have paid through their council tax and their taxes for the trams to get up and running and it would be wrong for a large proportion of the population not to be allowed to use their concessionary bus pass".  Despite this, the Scottish Government refused to pay for concessionary travel for the tram scheme, as it does for all bus routes in Scotland. Talks between the Scottish Government and Edinburgh Council eventually decided that concession cards should be valid for tram travel, but that they should be paid for by the Council instead of the Government. It was revealed on 15 August 2013 that the cards would be valid, and that travel would be paid for by Edinburgh Council. However, only people with cards issued in Edinburgh would be able to use them. This compromise upset many people in the Lothians, who often commute or travel into Edinburgh.  Works were two months ahead of schedule by September 2013, when Edinburgh Council announced the tramway would open by May 2014. All tram and road works were completed by 19 October with testing of the trams between the depot and Edinburgh Park commencing on 8 October 2013. This was followed by the energising of tram wires from Bankhead tram stop to York Place on 19 November, marking the first time that the route was completely energised. Testing along the full length of the route began on 5 December.  The tramway opened to passengers on 31 May 2014.

Post-completion.

A non-statutory public inquiry to scrutinise the delivery of the project was announced on 5 June 2014. This was subsequently upgraded by the Scottish Government on 7 November 2014 to a statutory inquiry to ensure that key personnel would provide evidence. Edinburgh Council stated on 17 March 2014 that works would be conducted along Leith Walk to prepare it for a possible future extension of tram service. In December 2014, Edinburgh Council ordered a detailed business case for extending the line to Leith. The council said in July 2015 that three options for an extension to Leith had been costed. These were a £144.7 million extension to Newhaven, a £126.6 million extension to Ocean Terminal, or a £78.7 million extension to the Foot of Leith Walk.  In 2017 the business case to extend the system to Newhaven was approved. A final decision is expected in 2018 on the £165.2 million extension to Newhaven, which could be open by 2021.  In June 2018, Colin Beattie, the MSP for Midlothian North and Musselburgh backed plans to extend the tram system to Musselburgh.  In March 2019, Edinburgh Council approved extending the system from York Place to Newhaven, with the line due to be operational by early 2023. Preliminary works to Constitution Street and Leith Walk started in November 2019. Work was suspended in March 2020 due to the coronavirus pandemic but was restarted in June 2020.

Current network.

Route.

The single, route begins running on-street at York Place, in the city centre. It turns into North St Andrew Street, crosses St Andrew Square. From the square, it heads southeast into Princes Street, and west along the street toward Haymarket, via Shandwick Place, Atholl Place and West Maitland Street At Haymarket, the route heads onto a segregated track parallel to the Glasgow to Edinburgh mainline. It follows the railway line west for about, to Edinburgh Park railway station. There, it leaves the railway line on a segregated track and heads north to Gogar Roundabout from where it heads northwest via Ingliston Park and Ride to Edinburgh Airport, where it terminates.  An additional tram stop was opened in December 2016 in the Gogar area, between the Gyle Centre and Gogarburn tram stops. This stop, called Edinburgh Gateway, is built alongside a new railway station on the Fife Circle Line to form a transport interchange between Edinburgh Trams and the Fife Circle and Edinburgh to Aberdeen Lines.

Frequencies and journey times.

Services operate between 05:00 and midnight, at 7- to 10-minute intervals 7 days a week (the period during which the interval is every 7 minutes is shorter on Sunday than on other days). Journey times are approximately 40 minutes from the city centre to the airport. The first morning services commence at the Gyle Centre and the last evening services terminate at Edinburgh Airport from York Place and Edinburgh Gateway on city-bound services after 22:48 from the Airport. During the Festival, trams run later on Friday and Saturday nights.

Rolling stock.

Current fleet.

Edinburgh Trams currently operates a fleet of 27 trams, as follows:

CAF Urbos 3.

A £40 million contract to build 27 Urbos 3 trams, sufficient for phase 1a and (unbuilt) 1b lines, was awarded to CAF. When the line was cut back to York Place, only 17 trams would be needed. An unsuccessful attempt was made in 2011 to lease ten trams to Transport for London for use on Tramlink.  The trams are bi-directional, long and with low-floor access to meet UK Rail Vehicle Access Regulations for disabled people.  In April 2010, the first tram was delivered and displayed at the Princes Street stop at the bottom of The Mound, before being moved to open storage in Broxburn. The 27th tram was delivered in December 2012. The trams have wrapped advertisements for promoting local events and commercial advertising.

Fares and ticketing.

Fare structure.

Ticketing and fares are integrated with Lothian Buses. The single fare is the same as on Lothian Buses for most rides, and day tickets and Ridacards are valid on trams and buses. However the tram fare from the centre to the airport is more expensive than the bus.  The "Ridacard" is a smartcard season ticket issued by Transport for Edinburgh; it is valid on both Edinburgh Trams and Lothian Buses (available for 1 week, 4 weeks or annually). On 1 September 2014, a rechargeable pre-paid smartcard for single journeys on both buses and trams, called "Citysmart", was introduced.  Free travel is available to holders of City of Edinburgh Council-issued Scottish National Entitlement Cards which are eligible for concessionary travel, and for a companion travelling with the cardholder of National Entitlement Cards with a companion entitlement. Passengers with National Entitlement Cards eligible for concessionary travel but issued by other local authorities are not offered any fare concession, with the exception of blind or visually impaired cardholders.  An onboard fare is charged to passengers who have not pre-purchased a ticket or validated either a Ridacard, a National Entitlement Card or an m-ticket before boarding.

Ticket machines.

At the request of Lothian Buses, installation of 30 ticket machines at key bus stops began in 2007. Passengers had to purchase tickets before boarding the bus, reducing dwell times, but the machines were not popular with users and were scrapped in 2011. Consideration was given to installing similar on-street ticket machines, and new, advanced machines (capable of reading smartcards and accepting credit/debit cards) were installed in early 2014 at each tram stop. The new ticket machines are the Galexio-Plus type supplied by Flowbird Transport Ltd. however the option to accept banknotes or give change is not available. The minimum spend for a card transaction was originally £3 which was more than the cost for a single ticket. The minimum spend was scrapped in September 2019 following complaints from customers and negative press comments.

Services.

Bicycle policy.

In May and June 2015 cyclists were allowed to board the trams with their bikes, during a trial period which was supported by cycle campaign groups Spokes and Pedal on Parliament. Following this, Edinburgh trams became the first light rail network in the UK to permit the carriage of bikes on a permanent basis, with up to two bicycles being allowed per tram outwith peak hours (7.30 am to 9.30 am, and 4 pm to 6.30 pm) and excluding the festival period (7−31 August) and other large events.

Corporate affairs.

Ownership and structure.

Edinburgh Trams Limited is a wholly owned subsidiary company of Transport for Edinburgh Limited. By virtue of its controlling interest in the parent's equity capital, the City of Edinburgh Council is the ultimate controlling party.

Business trends.

The key trends for Edinburgh Trams Limited since it commenced operations in May 2014 are (years ending 31 December):  Edinburgh Trams made a pre-tax profit of £252,000 for 2016, against a predicted loss of £170,000, which meant that profitability had been achieved two years ahead of schedule.  From 2018, Edinburgh Trams became responsible for operating, maintenance and infrastructure costs (instead of just the operating costs); without the extra costs, operating profit for 2018 would have been in excess of £3m.

Staffing.

Fifty-two ticket inspectors have been recruited to prevent fare dodging. Edinburgh Council is aiming for a 3% fare evasion rate, lower than any other tramway in Britain. Thirty-two drivers were employed, after passing psychological tests designed to eliminate risk-takers.

Edinburgh Trams is a tramway in Edinburgh, Scotland, operated by Edinburgh Trams Ltd. it is a line between York Place in the New Town and Edinburgh Airport, with 16 stops.

Tramvajová doprava v Edinburghu je novodobý projekt schválený představiteli skotského města Edinburgh a skotského parlamentu, kteří se rozhodli vyřešit pomocí supermoderní tramvajové sítě dopravní problémy a posílit městskou veřejnou dopravu. Tento projekt má navázat na původní tramvajovou dopravu, která byla zrušena v roce 1956. Výstavba začala počátkem roku 2008 kabelizací a podpovrchovými úpravami na prvních úsecích a plně fungovat celá síť měla v roce 2011 a měla spojovat město s letištěm. Projekt se ovšem dle posledních zpráv zpozdí minimálně o tři roky a již stál nejméně o 400 milionů liber více.


Formation (1965–1966).

The Grateful Dead began their career as the Warlocks, a group formed in early 1965 from the remnants of a Palo Alto, California jug band called Mother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions. The band's first show was at Magoo's Pizza Parlor located at 639 Santa Cruz Avenue in suburban Menlo Park, on May 5, 1965. They continued playing bar shows as the Warlocks, but quickly changed its name after finding out that the Velvet Underground had put out a record under the same name. The first show under the name Grateful Dead was in San Jose on December 4, 1965, at one of Ken Kesey's Acid Tests. Earlier demo tapes have survived, but the first of over 2,000 concerts known to have been recorded by the band's fans was a show at the Fillmore Auditorium in San Francisco on January 8, 1966. Later that month, the Grateful Dead played at the Trips Festival, an early psychedelic rock concert.  The name "Grateful Dead" was chosen from a dictionary. According to Phil Lesh, "[Jerry Garcia] picked

Main career (1967–1995).

One of the group's earliest major performances in 1967 was the Mantra-Rock Dance—a musical event held on January 29, 1967, at the Avalon Ballroom by the San Francisco Hare Krishna temple. The Grateful Dead performed at the event along with the Hare Krishna founder Bhaktivedanta Swami, poet Allen Ginsberg, bands Moby Grape and Big Brother and the Holding Company with Janis Joplin, donating proceeds to the Krishna temple. The band's first LP, "The Grateful Dead", was released on Warner Brothers in 1967.  Classically trained trumpeter Phil Lesh performed on bass guitar. Bob Weir, the youngest original member of the group, played rhythm guitar. Ron "Pigpen" McKernan played keyboards and harmonica until shortly before his death in 1973 at the age of 27. Garcia, Weir, and McKernan shared the lead vocal duties more or less equally; Lesh only sang a few leads, but his tenor was a key part of the band's three-part vocal harmonies. Bill Kreutzmann played drums, and in September 1967 was joined by a second drummer, New York City native Mickey Hart, who also played a wide variety of other percussion instruments.  1970 included tour dates in New Orleans, Louisiana, where the band performed at The Warehouse for two nights. On January 31, 1970, the local police raided their hotel on Bourbon Street, and arrested and charged a total of 19 people with possession of various drugs. The second night's concert was performed as scheduled after bail was posted. Eventually, the charges were dismissed, except those against sound engineer Owsley Stanley, who was already facing charges in California for manufacturing LSD. This event was later memorialized in the lyrics of the song "Truckin'", a single from "American Beauty" which reached number 64 on the charts.  Mickey Hart took time off from the Grateful Dead beginning in February 1971, leaving Kreutzmann once again as the sole percussionist. Hart rejoined the Grateful Dead for good in October 1974. Tom "TC" Constanten was added as a second keyboardist from 1968 to 1970, while Pigpen also played various percussion instruments and sang.  After Constanten's departure, Pigpen reclaimed his position as sole keyboardist. Less than two

Aftermath (1995 to present).

Jerry Garcia died on August 9, 1995, and a few months later, the remaining members of the Grateful Dead decided to disband. Since that time, there have been a number of reunions by the surviving members involving various combinations of musicians. Additionally, the former members have also begun or continued their individual projects.  In 1998, Bob Weir, Phil Lesh, and Mickey Hart, along with several other musicians, formed a band called the Other Ones, and performed a number of concerts that year, releasing a live album, "The Strange Remain", the following year. In 2000, the Other Ones toured again, this time with Kreutzmann but without Lesh. After taking another year off, the band toured again in 2002 with Lesh. That year, the Other Ones then included all four living former Grateful Dead members who had been in the band for most or all of its history. At different times the shifting lineup of the Other Ones also included guitarists Mark Karan, Steve Kimock, and Jimmy Herring, keyboardists Bruce Hornsby, Jeff Chimenti, and Rob Barraco, saxophonist Dave Ellis, drummer John Molo, bassist Alphonso Johnson, and vocalist Susan Tedeschi.  In 2003, the Other Ones, still including Weir, Lesh, Hart, and Kreutzmann, changed their name to the Dead. The Dead toured the United States in 2003, 2004 and 2009. The band's lineups included Jimmy Herring and Warren Haynes on guitar, Jeff Chimenti and Rob Barraco on keyboards, and Joan Osborne on vocals. In 2008, members of the Dead played two concerts, called "Deadheads for Obama" and "Change Rocks".  Following the 2009 Dead tour, Lesh and Weir formed the band Furthur, which debuted in September 2009. Joining Lesh and Weir in Furthur were John Kadlecik (guitar), Jeff Chimenti (keyboards), Joe Russo (drums), Jay Lane (drums), Sunshine Becker (vocals), and Zoe Ellis (vocals). Lane and Ellis left the band in 2010, and vocalist Jeff Pehrson joined later that year. Furthur disbanded in 2014.  In 2010, Hart and Kreutzmann re-formed the Rhythm Devils, and played a summer concert tour.  Since 1995, the former members of the Grateful Dead have also pursued solo music careers. Both Bob Weir & RatDog and Phil Lesh and Friends have performed many concerts and released several albums. Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann have also each released a few albums. Hart has toured with his world music percussion ensemble Planet Drum as well as the Mickey Hart Band. Kreutzmann has led several different bands, including BK3, 7 Walkers (with Papa Mali), and Billy & the Kids. Donna Godchaux has returned to the music scene, with the Donna Jean Godchaux Band, and Tom Constanten also continues to write and perform music. All of these groups continue to play Grateful Dead music.  In October 2014, it was announced that Martin Scorsese would produce a documentary film about the Grateful Dead, to be directed by Amir Bar-Lev. David Lemieux supervised the musical selection, and Weir, Hart, Kreutzmann and Lesh agreed to new interviews for the film. Bar-Lev's four-hour documentary, titled "Long Strange Trip", was released in 2017.

Musical style.

The Grateful Dead formed during the era when bands such as the Beatles, the Beach Boys and the Rolling Stones were dominating the airwaves. "The Beatles were why we turned from a jug band into a rock 'n' roll band", said Bob Weir. "What we saw them doing was impossibly attractive. I couldn't think of anything else more worth doing." Former folk-scene star Bob Dylan had recently put out a couple of records featuring electric instrumentation. Grateful Dead members have said that it was after attending a concert by the touring New York City band the Lovin' Spoonful that they decided to "go electric" and look for a dirtier sound. Jerry Garcia and Bob Weir (each of whom had been immersed in the American folk music revival of the late 1950s and early 1960s), were open-minded to electric guitars.  The Grateful Dead's early music (in the mid-1960s) was part of the process of establishing what "psychedelic music" was, but theirs was essentially a "street party" form of it. They developed their "psychedelic" playing as a result of meeting Ken Kesey in Palo Alto, California, and subsequently becoming the house band for the Acid Tests he staged. They did not fit their music to an established category such as pop rock, blues, folk rock, or country & western. Individual tunes within their repertoire could be identified under one of these stylistic labels, but overall their music drew on all of these genres and, more frequently, melded several of them. Bill Graham said of the Grateful Dead, "They're not the best at what they do, they're the only ones that do what they

Merchandising and representation.

Hal Kant was an entertainment industry attorney who specialized in representing musical groups. He spent 35 years as principal lawyer and general counsel for the Grateful Dead, a position in the group that was so strong that his business cards with the band identified his role as "Czar".  Kant brought the band millions of dollars in revenue through his management of the band's intellectual property and merchandising rights. At Kant's recommendation, the group was one of the few rock 'n roll pioneers to retain ownership of their music masters and publishing rights.  In 2006, the Grateful Dead signed a ten-year licensing agreement with Rhino Entertainment to manage the band's business interests including the release of musical recordings, merchandising, and marketing. The band retained creative control and kept ownership of its music catalog.  A Grateful Dead video game titled "Grateful Dead Game – The Epic Tour" was released in April 2012 and was created by Curious Sense.

Sponsorship of 1992 Lithuanian Olympic Basketball Team.

After Lithuania gained its independence from the USSR, the country announced its withdrawal from the 1992 Olympics due to the lack of any money to sponsor participants. But NBA star Šarūnas Marčiulionis, a native Lithuanian basketball star, wanted to help his native team to compete. His efforts resulted in a call from representatives of

Live performances.

The Grateful Dead toured constantly throughout their career, playing more than 2,300 concerts. They promoted a sense of community among their fans, who became known as "Deadheads", many of whom followed their tours for months or years on end. Around concert venues, an impromptu communal marketplace known as 'Shakedown Street' was created by Deadheads to serve as centers of activity where fans could buy and sell anything from grilled cheese sandwiches to home-made t-shirts and recordings of Grateful Dead concerts.  In their early career, the band also dedicated their time and talents to their community, the Haight-Ashbury area of San Francisco, making available free food, lodging, music, and health care to all. It has been said that the band performed "more free concerts than any band in the history of music".  With the exception of 1975, when the band was on hiatus and played only four concerts together, the Grateful Dead performed many concerts every year, from their formation in April 1965, until July 9, 1995. Initially all their shows were in California, principally in the San Francisco Bay Area and in or near Los Angeles. They also performed, in 1965 and 1966, with Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters, as the house band for the Acid Tests. They toured nationally starting in June 1967 (their first foray to New York), with a few detours to Canada, Europe and three nights at the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt in 1978. They appeared at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967, the Woodstock Festival in 1969 and the Festival Express train tour across Canada in 1970. They were scheduled to appear as the final act at the infamous Altamont Free Concert on December 6, 1969 after the Rolling Stones but withdrew after security concerns. "That's the way things went at Altamont—so badly that the Grateful Dead, prime organizers and movers of the festival, didn't even get to play", staff at "Rolling Stone" magazine wrote in a detailed narrative on the event"  Their first UK performance was at the Hollywood Music Festival in 1970. Their largest concert audience came in 1973 when they played, along with the Allman Brothers Band and the Band, before an estimated 600,000 people at the Summer Jam at Watkins Glen. The 1998 edition of the Guinness Book of World Records recognized them with a listing under the heading, "most rock concerts performed" (2,318 concerts). They played to an estimated total of 25 million people, more than any other band, with audiences of up to 80,000 attending a single show. Many of these concerts were preserved in the band's tape vault, and several dozen have since been released on CD and as downloads. The Dead were known for the tremendous variation in their setlists from night to night—the list of songs documented to have been played by the band exceeds 500. The band has released four concert videos under the name "View from the Vault".  In the 1990s, the Grateful Dead earned a total of $285 million in revenue from their concert tours, the second-highest during the 1990s, with the Rolling Stones earning the most. This figure is representative of tour revenue through 1995, as touring stopped after the death of Jerry Garcia. In a 1991 PBS documentary, segment host Buck Henry attended an August 1991 concert at Shoreline Amphitheatre and gleaned some information from some band members about the Grateful Dead phenomenon and its success. At the time, Jerry Garcia stated, "We didn't really invent the Grateful Dead, the "crowd" invented the Grateful Dead, you know what I mean? We were sort of standing in line, and uh, it's gone way past our expectations, "way" past, so it's, we've been going along with it to see what it's gonna do next." Furthermore, Mickey Hart stated, "This is one of the last places in America that you can really have this kind of fun, you know, considering the political climate and so forth." Hart also stated that "the transformative power of the Grateful Dead is really the essence of it; it's what it can do to your consciousness. We're more into "transportation" than we are into music, "per se", I mean, the business of the Grateful Dead is transportation."  Their numerous studio albums were generally collections of new songs that they had first played in concert. The band was also famous for its extended musical improvisations, having been described as having never played the same song the same way twice. Their concert sets often blended songs, one into the next (a segue).

Artwork.

Over the years, a number of iconic images have come to be

Deadheads.

Fans and enthusiasts of the band are commonly referred to as Deadheads. While the origin of the term may be unclear, "Dead Heads" were made canon by the notice placed inside the "Skull and Roses" (1971)

Donation of archives.

On April 24, 2008, members Bob Weir and Mickey Hart, along with Nion McEvoy, CEO of Chronicle Books, UC Santa Cruz chancellor George Blumenthal, and UC Santa Cruz librarian Virginia Steel, held a press conference announcing UCSC's McHenry Library would be the permanent home of the Grateful Dead Archive, which includes a complete archival history from 1965 to the present. The archive includes correspondence, photographs, fliers, posters, and several other forms of memorabilia and records of the band. Also included are unreleased videos of interviews and TV appearances that will be installed for visitors to view, as well as stage backdrops and other props from the band's concerts.  Blumenthal

Awards.

In 2004, "Rolling Stone" ranked the Grateful Dead No. 57 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.  On February 10, 2007, the Grateful Dead received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. The award was accepted on behalf of the band by Mickey

Members.

Lead guitarist Jerry Garcia was often viewed both by the public and the media as the leader or primary spokesperson for the Grateful Dead, but was reluctant to be perceived that way, especially since he and the other group members saw themselves as equal participants and contributors to their collective musical and creative output. Garcia, a native of San Francisco, grew up in the Excelsior District. One of his main influences was bluegrass music, and he also performed—on banjo, one of his other great instrumental loves, along with the pedal steel guitar—in bluegrass bands, notably Old & In the Way with mandolinist David Grisman.  Bruce Hornsby never officially joined the band full-time because of his other commitments, but he did play keyboards at most Dead shows between September 1990 and March 1992, and sat in with the band over 100 times in all between 1988 and 1995. He added several Dead songs to his own live shows and Jerry Garcia referred to him as a "floating member" who could come and go as he pleased.  Robert Hunter and John Perry Barlow were the band's primary lyricists, starting in 1967 and 1971, respectively, and continuing until the band's dissolution. Hunter collaborated mostly with Garcia and Barlow mostly with Weir, though each wrote with other band members as well. Both are listed as official members at Dead.net, the band's website, alongside the performing members. Barlow was the only member not inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

The Grateful Dead was an American rock band formed in 1965 in Palo Alto, California. The band is known for its eclectic style, which fused elements of rock, folk, country, jazz, bluegrass, blues, gospel, and psychedelic rock; for live performances of lengthy instrumental jams; and for its devoted fan base, known as "Deadheads." "Their music," writes Lenny Kaye, "touches on ground that most other groups don't even know exists." These various influences were distilled into a diverse and psychedelic whole that made the Grateful Dead "the pioneering Godfathers of the jam band world". The band was ranked 57th by "Rolling Stone" magazine in its The Greatest Artists of All Time issue. The band was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994 and a recording of their May 8, 1977 performance at Cornell University's Barton Hall was added to the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress in 2012. The Grateful Dead have sold more than 35 million albums worldwide.

Grateful Dead byla americká rocková skupina založená v roce 1965 v San Franciscu. Kapela byla známá tím, že ve své hudbě kombinovala prvky rocku, folku, bluegrassu, blues, reggae, country, jazzu, psychedelického rocku, space rocku i gospelu. Jejich první album se stejnojmenným názvem vyšlo v roce 1967. Od té doby Grateful Dead vydali několik desítek studiových i živých alb. V roce 1995 se skupina po smrti Jerryho Garcii rozpadla.


Etymology.

The Spanish word is from Latin "mixticius", meaning mixed. Its usage has been documented as early as 1275, to refer to the offspring of an Egyptian/Afro/Hamite and a Semite/Afro Asiatic. This term was first documented in English in 1582.

Modern-day use.

In the United States, Canada and other English-speaking countries and cultures, "mestizo", as a loanword from Spanish, is used to mean a person of mixed European and American Indian descent exclusively, generally with connection to a Latin American culture or of Latin American descent, a concept much stricter than that found in Romance languages (especially Portuguese, possessing terms that are not cognate with "mestizo" for such admixture, and thus the concept of is not seen as particularly connected with Amerindian

Cognates.

Mestizo as a colonial-era category.

In the Spanish colonial period, the Spanish developed a complex set of racial terms and ways to describe difference. Although this has been conceived of as a "system," and often called the "sistema de castas" or "sociedad de castas", archival research shows that racial labels were not fixed throughout a person's life. Artwork created mainly in eighteenth-century Mexico, "casta paintings," show groupings of racial types in hierarchical order, which has influenced the way that modern scholars have conceived of difference in Spanish America.  There were three main categories of ethnicity during the initial period of colonization of the Americas by the Spanish: European white or Spaniard ("español"), Amerindian ("indio"), and African ("negro"). Throughout the territories of Spanish Empire in the Americas, ways of differentiating individuals in a racial hierarchy, often called in the modern era the "sistema de castas" or the "sociedad de castas" developed where society was divided based on color, "calidad" (status) and other factors. The main divisions were as follows:  In theory, and as depicted in eighteenth-century Mexican casta paintings, "español" status could also be restored to the offspring of a Castizo/a [mixed Spanish - Mestizo] and an Español/a.  Racial labels in a set of eighteenth-century Mexican casta paintings by Miguel Cabrera:  In the early colonial period, the offspring of Españoles and Indias were raised either in the Hispanic world, if the father recognized the offspring as his natural child; or the child was raised in the indigenous world of the mother if he did not. As early as 1533, Charles V mandated the high court (Audiencia) to take the children of Spanish men and indigenous women from their mothers and educate them in the Spanish sphere. This mixed group born out of Christian wedlock increased in numbers, generally living in their mother's indigenous communities.  Mestizos were the first group in the colonial era to be designated as a separate category from European whites (Españoles) and enslaved African blacks ("Negros") and were included in designation of "vagabonds" ("vagabundos") in 1543 in Mexico. Although mestizos were often classified as "castas", they had a higher standing than any mixed-race person since they did not have to pay tribute, the men could

Spanish-speaking North America.

Mexico.

The large majority of Mexicans can be classified as "Mestizos", meaning in modern Mexican usage that they identify fully neither with any indigenous culture nor with a particular non-Indigenous heritage, but rather identify as having cultural traits incorporating both indigenous and European elements. In Mexico, Mestizo has become a blanket term which not only refers to mixed Mexicans but includes all Mexican citizens who do not speak indigenous languages even Asian Mexicans and Afro-Mexicans. Sometimes, particularly outside of Mexico, the word "mestizo" is used with the meaning of Mexican persons with mixed Indigenous and European blood. This usage does not conform to the Mexican social reality where a person of pure indigenous genetic heritage would be considered mestizo either by rejecting his indigenous culture or by not speaking an indigenous language, and a person with none or very low percentage of indigenous genetic heritage would be considered fully indigenous either by speaking an indigenous language or by identifying with a particular indigenous cultural heritage. In the Yucatán peninsula the word mestizo has a different meaning to the one

Central America.

The Ladino people are a mix of mestizo or Hispanicized peoples in Latin America, principally in Central America. The demonym "Ladino" is a Spanish word that derives from "Latino". "Ladino" is an exonym invented of the colonial era to refer to those Spanish-speakers who were not colonial elites of Peninsulares, Criollos, or indigenous peoples.

Costa Rica.

most Costa Ricans are primarily of Spanish or mestizo ancestry with minorities of German, Italian, Jamaican and Greek ancestry.  European migrants used Costa Rica to get across the isthmus of Central America as well to reach the USA West Coast (California) in the late 19th century and until the 1910s (before the Panama Canal opened). Other ethnic groups known to live in Costa Rica include Nicaraguan, Colombians,Venezuelans, Peruvian, Brazilians, Portuguese, Palestinians, Caribbeans, Turks, Armenians and Georgians.  Many of the first Spanish colonists in Costa Rica may have been Jewish converts to Christianity who were expelled from Spain in

El Salvador.

In Central America, intermarriage by European men with the Native American Indigenous Lenca, Cacaopera and Pipil women of what is now El Salvador happened almost immediately after the arrival of the European Spaniards led by Pedro de Alvarado. Other indigenous groups in the country such as Maya Poqomam people, Maya Ch'orti' people, Alaguilac, Xinca people, Mixe and Mangue language people became culturally extinct due to the Mestizo process or diseases brought by the Spaniards. Mestizo culture quickly became the most successful and dominant culture

Guatemala.

The Ladino population in Guatemala is officially recognized as a distinct ethnic group, and the Ministry of Education of Guatemala uses the following definition: "The ladino population has been characterized as a heterogeneous population which expresses itself in the Spanish language as a maternal language, which possesses specific cultural traits of Hispanic origin mixed with indigenous cultural elements, and dresses in a style commonly considered as western."

Spanish-speaking South America.

Argentina and Uruguay.

Initially colonial Argentina and Uruguay had a predominately mestizo population like the rest of the Spanish colonies, but due to a flood of European migration in the 19th century and the repeated intermarriage with Europeans the mestizo population became a so-called population. With more Europeans arriving in the early 20th century, the majority of these immigrants

Chile.

In Chile, from the time the Spanish soldiers with Pedro de Valdivia entered northern Chile, a process of'mestizaje' began where Spaniards began to mate with the local bellicose Mapuche population of Amerindians to produce an overwhelmingly mestizo population during the first generation in all of the cities they founded. In Southern Chile, the Mapuche, were one

Colombia.

Colombia whose land was named after explorer Christopher Columbus is the product of the interacting and mixing of the European conquistadors and colonist with the different Amerindian peoples of Colombia. Later the African element was introduced into the coastal parts of Colombia as enslaved people.  Over time Colombia has become a primarily Mestizo country due to limited immigration from Europe in the 19th and 20th centuries, with the minorities being: the Mulattoes and

Ecuador.

During the colonial era, the majority of Ecuadorians were Amerindians and the minorities were the Spanish Conquistadors, who came with Francisco Pizarro and Sebastian de Benalcazar. With the passage of time these Spanish conquerors and succeeding Spanish colonists sired offspring with the local Amerindian population, since Spanish immigration did not initially include many White females to the colonies. In a couple of generations a predominately mestizo

Paraguay.

During the reign of José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, the first consul of Paraguay from 1811 to 1840, he imposed a law that no Spaniard may intermarry with another Spaniard, and that they may only wed mestizos or Indians. This was introduced to eliminate any sense of racial superiority, and also to end the predominantly Spanish influence in Paraguay. De Francia himself was not a mestizo (although his paternal grandfather was Afro-Brazilian), but feared that racial superiority would create class division which

Peru.

According to Alberto Flores Galindo, "By the 1940 census, the last that utilized racial categories, mestizos

Venezuela.

Mestizos are the majority in Venezuela, accounting for 51.6% of the country's population. According to D'Ambrosio 57.1% of mestizos have mostly European characteristics, 28.5% have mostly African characteristics and 14.2% have mostly Amerindian characteristics.

Notable mestizos migrating to Europe.

Martín Cortés, son of the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés and of the Nahuatl–Maya indigenous Mexican interpreter Malinche, was one of the first documented mestizos to arrive in Spain. His first trip occurred in 1528, when he accompanied his father, Hernán Cortés, who sought to have him legitimized by the Pope.  There is also verified evidence of the grandchildren of Moctezuma II, Aztec emperor, whose royal descent the Spanish crown acknowledged, willingly having set foot on European soil. Among these descendants are the Counts of Miravalle, and the Dukes of

Hispanic Asia and Oceania.

Philippines.

In the Philippines, the word "mestizo" is sometimes shortened to the diminutive "tisoy" in modern colloquial usage. In modern times, it generally denotes Filipinos of mixed Austronesian and any non-native, usually White, ethnicity.  Mestizos in the Philippines are traditionally a blend of Austronesian, Chinese, Spanish, or Latin American ancestry and are primarily descendants of "viajeros" (sailors who plied the Manila-Acapulco Galleon route), "soldados" (soldiers) and "negociantes" (merchants who were primarily Spanish, Chinese, or themselves mestizos). Because of this, most mestizos in the Philippines are concentrated in the urban areas and large towns of the islands such as Manila,

Guam and Northern Mariana Islands.

In Guam and Northern Mariana Islands, the term "mestizo" was borrowed from the Spanish language and was formerly used to identify people of mixed Pacific Islander and Spanish ancestry; however, as the United States gained control of these islands

Former Portuguese colonies.

Lusophone South America.

Brazilian mestiço.

In Brazil, the word is used to describe individuals born from any mixture of different ethnicity, not specifying any relation to Amerindian or European descent whatsoever. The Mixed Ethnicty Day, or Mestizo Day (Dia do Mestiço), on 27 June, is official event in States of Amazonas, Roraima e Paraíba and a holyday in two cities.  One of the most notorious group is the (brown people), also informally known as (tan skinned people; given its euphemism-like nature, it may be interpreted as offensive). They include mostly those of non-white skin color. Nevertheless, not all are. For example, an Amerindian (initially and most often, often more formally, rarely, an East Indian ()) or a Filipino may be initially described as (in opposition to, white,, Afro, and, yellow) if his or her ethnicity is unknown, and it is testified by the initial discovery reports of Portuguese navigators. In the same way,, a term used to describe anyone with any degree of miscegenation in one's blood line, may apply to all said groups (that in Portugal and its ex-colonies, always depended solely on phenotype, meaning a brown person may have a full sibling of all other basic phenotypes and thus ethnic

Lusophone Africa.

Angolan mestiço.

The are primarily of mixed European, native born indigenous Angolan or other indigenous African lineages. They tend to be Portuguese culturally and to have full Portuguese names.  Although they make up about two percent of the population, they are the socially elite and racially privileged group in the country. Historically, formed social and cultural allegiances with Portuguese colonists subsequently identifying with the Portuguese over and above their indigenous identities. Despite their loyalty, the ethnic group faced economic

Bissau-Guinean mestiço.

1% of the population is of mixed

Mozambican mestiço.

A minority population of

Mestiços of São Tomé and Príncipe.

Mestiços of São Tomé and Príncipe are descendants of Portuguese colonists and enslaved Africans brought to the islands during the early years of settlement from Benin, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Angola (these people also are known as or "children of the land").

Lusophone Asia.

Sri Lankan mestiço.

In Sri Lanka, the names "mestiços" (Portuguese for "mixed ethniicity") or "casados" ("married ones") were applied to people of mixed Portuguese and Sri Lankan (Sinhalese and Tamil) descent, starting in the 16th century.

French-speaking North America.

Métis of Canada.

A French Colonial empire in Canada, the Métis are regarded as an independent ethnic group. This community of descent consists of individuals descended from marriages of First Nation women, specifically Cree, Ojibway, and Saulteaux with Europeans, usually French, English, and Scottish laborers or merchants employed in the North American Fur Trade. Their history dates to the mid 17th century, and they have been recognized as a distinct people since the early 18th century.  Traditionally, the Métis spoke a mixed language called Michif (with various regional dialects). Michif (a phonetic spelling of the Métis pronunciation of "Métif", a variant of Métis) is also used as the name of the Métis people. The name is most commonly applied to descendants of communities in what is now southern Manitoba. The name is also applied to the descendants of similar communities in what are now Ontario, Quebec, Labrador, and the Northwest Territories,

Mestizo of Saint Barthélemy.

In Saint Barthélemy, the term mestizo refers

English-speaking North America.

Canada.

Anglo-Métis.

A 19th-century community of the Métis people of Canada, the "Anglo-Métis", more commonly known as "Countryborn", were children of fur traders; they typically had Orcadian, Scottish, or English fathers and Aboriginal mothers. Their first languages were generally those of their mothers: Cree, Saulteaux, Assiniboine, etc. and English. Some of their fathers spoke Gaelic or Scots, leading to the development of the dialect of English known as "Bungee".

United States.

The United States has a large mestizo population, as many Hispanic Americans of Mexican or Central American or South American descent are technically mestizo. However, the term "mestizo" is not used for

"Mestizaje" in Latin America.

() is a term that came into usage in twentieth century Latin America for racial mixing and was not a colonial-era term. In the modern era, it is used to denote the positive unity of race mixtures in modern Latin America. This ideological stance is in contrast to the term "miscegenation", which usually has negative connotations. The main ideological advocate of mestizaje was José Vasconcelos (1882–1959), the Mexican Minister of Education in the 1920s. The term was in circulation in Mexico in the late nineteenth century, along with similar terms, "cruzamiento" ("crossing") and "mestización" (process of "mestizo-izing"). In Spanish America, the colonial-era system of castas sought to differentiate between individuals and groups on the basis of a hierarchical classification by ancestry, skin color, and status ("calidad"), giving separate labels to the perceived categorical differences and privileging whiteness. In contrast, the idea of modern "mestizaje" is the positive unity of a nation's citizenry based on racial mixture. "Mestizaje placed greater emphasis [than the casta system] on commonality and hybridity to engineer order and unity... [it] operated within the context of the nation-state and sought to derive meaning from Latin America’s own internal experiences rather than the dictates and necessities of empire... ultimately [it] embraced racial mixture."

In post-revolution Mexico.

At independence in Mexico, the casta classifications were abolished, but discrimination based on skin color and socioeconomic status continued. Liberal intellectuals grappled with the “Indian Problem,” that is the Indians’ lack of cultural assimilation to Mexican national life as citizens of the nation rather than members of their indigenous communities. Urban elites spurned mixed-race urban plebeians and Indians along with their traditional popular culture. In the late nineteenth century during the rule of Porfirio Díaz, elites’ sought to be, act, and look like modern Europeans, that is, different from the majority of the Mexican population. Díaz was mixed race himself, but powdered his dark skin to hide his Mixtec indigenous ancestry. At the end of the nineteenth century, however, as social and economic tensions increased in Mexico, two major works by Mexican intellectuals sought to rehabilitate the assessment of the mestizo. Díaz’s Minister of Education, Justo Sierra published "The Political Evolution of the Mexican People" (1902), which situated Mexican identity in the mixing of European whites and Indians. Mexicans are "the sons of two peoples, of two races. [This

Elsewhere in Latin America.

There has been considerable work on race and race mixture

' (; ) (fem. ') is a term historically used in Spain and Hispanic America that originally referred to a person of combined European and Indigenous American descent, regardless of where the person was born. The term was used as an ethnic/racial category for mixed-race that evolved during the Spanish Empire. Although broadly speaking, means someone of mixed European/indigenous heritage, the term did not have a fixed meaning in the colonial period. It was a formal label for individuals in official documentation, such as censuses, parish registers, Inquisition trials, and other matters. Individuals were labeled by priests and royal officials as mestizos, but the term was also used for self identification.

Mestic je slovo pocházející ze španělštiny a znamená osobu, která je příslušníkem rasy, která vznikla zkřížením genů Evropana (nejčastěji Španěla) a původního domorodého obyvatele bývalých španělských kolonií, jako byla většina Jižní a Střední Ameriky, Guam a Filipíny. Jednoduše se definice používá pro míšence bělocha a Indiána.