Relationship to self-publishing.

Freedom of the press is not construed as an absence of interference or outside entities, such as a government or religious organization, rather as a right for authors to have their works published by other people. This idea was famously summarized by the 20th century American journalist, A. J. Why, who wrote, "Freedom of the press is guaranteed only to those who own one". Freedom of the press gives the printer or publisher exclusive control over what the publisher chooses to publish, including the right to refuse to print anything for any reason. If the author cannot reach a voluntary agreement with a publisher to produce the author's work, then the author must turn to self-publishing.

Status of press freedom worldwide.

Beyond legal definitions, several non-governmental organizations use other criteria to judge the level of press freedom around the world. Some create subjective lists, while others are based on quantitative data:

Annual report on journalists killed and Prison Census.

Each year, The Committee to Protect Journalists produces a comprehensive list of all working journalists killed in relation to their employment, including profiles of each deceased journalist within an exhaustive database, and annual census of incarcerated journalists (as of midnight, December 1). The year 2017 reported record findings of jailed journalists, reaching 262. Turkey, China and Egypt account for more than half of all global journalists jailed.  As per a 2019 special report by the Committee to Protect Journalists, approximately 25 journalists were murdered on duty in the year 2019. The figure is claimed to be the lowest since 2002, a year in which, at least 21 journalists were killed while they were reporting from the field. Meanwhile, Reporters Without Borders (RSF), reported 49 killings, the lowest since 2003 when almost 36 journalists were killed. Leading press watchdogs fear persisting danger for the life of journalists. The drop in the murder of in-field journalists came across during the “global attention on the issue of impunity in journalist murders”, focusing on the assassination of Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi in October 2018 and Daphne Caruana Galizia, a Maltese blogger in October 2017.

Worldwide press freedom index.

Every year, Reporters Without Borders establish a subjective ranking of countries in terms of their freedom of the press. Press Freedom Index list is based on responses to surveys sent to journalists that are members of partner organizations of the RWB, as well as related specialists such as researchers, jurists, and human rights activists. The survey asks questions about direct attacks on journalists and the media as well as other indirect sources of pressure against the free press, such as non-governmental groups.  In 2019, the ten countries with the most press freedom were, in order: Norway, Finland, Sweden, Netherlands, Denmark, Switzerland, New Zealand, Jamaica, Belgium, and Costa Rica. The ten countries with the least press freedom were, in order: North Korea, Eritrea, China, Vietnam, Sudan, Syria, Djibouti, Saudi Arabia, Laos, Iran, and Cuba.

"Freedom of the Press".

"Freedom of the Press" is a yearly report by US-based non-profit organization Freedom House. It is known to subjectively measure the level of freedom and editorial independence that is enjoyed by the press in every nation and significant disputed territories around the world. Levels of freedom are scored on a scale from 1 (most free) to 100 (least free). Depending on the basics, the nations are then classified as "Free", "Partly Free", or "Not Free".  In 2009 Iceland, Norway, Finland, Denmark, and Sweden topped the list with North Korea, Turkmenistan, Myanmar (Burma), Libya, Eritrea at the bottom.

Democratic states.

A free and independent press has been theorized to be a key mechanism of a functioning, healthy democracy. In the absence of censorship, journalism exists as a watchdog of private and government action, providing information to maintain an informed citizenry of voters. In this perspective, "government efforts to influence published or broadcasted news content, either via media control or by inducing self-censorship, represent a threat to the access of important and necessary information to the public and affect the quality of democracy". An independent press "serves to increase political knowledge, participation and voter turnout", acting as an essential driver of civic participation.

Non-democratic states.

According to Reporters Without Borders, more than a third of the world's people live in countries where there is no press freedom. Overwhelmingly, these people live in countries where there is no system of democracy or where there are serious deficiencies in the democratic process. Freedom of the press is an extremely problematic problem/concept for most non-democratic systems of government since, in the modern age, strict control of access to information is critical to the existence of most non-democratic governments and their associated control systems and security apparatus. To this end, most non-democratic societies employ state-run news organizations to promote the propaganda critical to maintaining an existing political power base and suppress (often very brutally, through the use of police, military, or intelligence agencies) any significant attempts by the media or individual journalists to challenge the approved "government line" on contentious issues. In such countries, journalists operating on the fringes of what is deemed to be acceptable will very often find themselves the subject of considerable intimidation by agents of the state. This can range from simple threats to their professional careers (firing, professional blacklisting) to death threats, kidnapping, torture, and assassination.

History.

Europe.

Central, Northern and Western Europe has a long tradition of freedom of speech, including freedom of the press. After World War II, Hugh Baillie, the president of United Press wire service based in the U.S., promoted freedom of news dissemination. In 1944 he called for an open system of news sources and transmission, and minimum of government regulation of the news. His proposals were aired at the Geneva Conference on Freedom of Information in 1948, but were blocked by the Soviets and the French.  Media freedom is a fundamental right that applies to all member states of the European Union and its citizens, as defined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights as well as the European Convention on Human Rights. Within the EU enlargement process, guaranteeing media freedom is named a "key indicator of a country's readiness to become part of the EU".

United Kingdom.

According to the "New York Times", "Britain has a long tradition of a free, inquisitive press", but "[u]nlike the United States, Britain has no constitutional guarantee of press freedom." Freedom of the press was established in Great Britain in 1695, with Alan Rusbridger, former editor of "The Guardian", stating: "When people talk about licensing journalists or newspapers the instinct should be to refer them to history. Read about how licensing of the press in Britain was abolished in 1695. Remember how the freedoms won here became a model for much of the rest of the world, and be conscious how the world still watches us to see how we protect those freedoms." Until 1694, Great Britain had an elaborate system of licensing; the most recent was seen in the Licensing of the Press Act 1662. No publication was allowed without the accompaniment of a government-granted license. Fifty years earlier, at a time of civil war, John Milton wrote his pamphlet "Areopagitica" (1644). In this work Milton argued forcefully against this form of government censorship and parodied the idea, writing "when as debtors and delinquents may walk abroad without a keeper, but unoffensive books must not stir forth without a visible jailer in their title." Although at the time it did little to halt the practice of licensing, it would be viewed later a significant milestone as one of the most eloquent defenses of press freedom.  Milton's central argument was that the individual is capable of using reason and distinguishing right from wrong, good from bad. In order to be able to exercise this ration right, the individual must have unlimited access to the ideas of his fellow men in “a free and open encounter." From Milton's writings developed the concept of the open marketplace of ideas, the idea that when people argue against each other, the good arguments will prevail. One form of speech that was widely restricted in Great Britain was seditious libel, and laws were in place that made criticizing the government a crime. The King was above public criticism and statements critical of the government were forbidden, according to the English Court of the Star Chamber. Truth was not a defense to seditious libel because the goal was to prevent and punish all condemnation of the government.  Locke contributed to the lapse of the Licensing Act in 1695, whereupon the press needed no license. Still, many libels were tried throughout the 18th century, until "the Society of the Bill of Rights" led by John Horne Tooke and John Wilkes organized a campaign to publish Parliamentary Debates. This culminated in three defeats of the Crown in the 1770 cases of Almon, of Miller and of Woodfall, who all had published one of the Letters of Junius, and the unsuccessful arrest of John Wheble in 1771. Thereafter the Crown was much more careful in the application of libel; for example, in the aftermath of the Peterloo Massacre, Burdett was convicted, whereas by contrast the Junius affair was over a satire and sarcasm about the non-lethal conduct and policies of government.  In Britain's American colonies, the first editors discovered their readers enjoyed it when they criticized the local governor; the governors discovered they could shut down the newspapers. The most dramatic confrontation came in New York in 1734, where the governor brought John Peter Zenger to trial for criminal libel after the publication of satirical attacks. The defense lawyers argued that according to English common law, the truth was a valid defense against libel. The jury acquitted Zenger, who became the iconic American hero for freedom of the press. The result was an emerging tension between the media and the government. By the mid-1760s, there were 24 weekly newspapers in the 13 colonies, and the satirical attack on government became common features in American newspapers.  John Stuart Mill in 1869 in his book "On Liberty" approached the problem of authority versus liberty from the viewpoint of a 19th-century utilitarian: The individual has the right of expressing himself so long as he does not harm other individuals. The good society is one in which the greatest number of persons enjoy the greatest possible amount of happiness. Applying these general principles of liberty to freedom of expression, Mill states that if we silence an opinion, we may silence the truth. The individual freedom of expression is therefore essential to the well-being of society. Mill wrote:  The December 1817 Trials of writer and satirist William Hone for publishing three political pamphlets is considered a landmark in the fight for a free press.

Denmark–Norway.

Between September 4, 1770 and October 7, 1771 the kingdom of Denmark–Norway had the most unrestricted freedom of press of any country in Europe. This occurred during the regime of Johann Friedrich Struensee, whose second act was to abolish the old censorship laws. However, due to the great amount of mostly anonymous pamphlets published that was critical and often slanderous towards Struensee's own regime, he reinstated some restrictions regarding the freedom of press a year later, October 7, 1771.

Italy.

After the Italian unification in 1861, the Albertine Statute of 1848 was adopted as the constitution of the Kingdom of Italy. The Statute granted the freedom of the press with some  in case of abuses and in religious matters, as stated in Article 28:  After the abolition of the monarchy in 1946 and the abrogation of the Statute in 1948, the Constitution of the Republic of Italy guarantees the freedom of the press, as stated in Article 21, Paragraphs 2 and 3:  The Constitution allows the warrantless confiscation of periodicals in cases of absolute urgency, when the Judiciary cannot timely intervene, on the condition that a judicial validation must be obtained within 24 hours. Article 21 also gives restrictions against those publications considered offensive by public morality, as stated in Paragraph 6:

Nazi Germany (1933–1945).

In 1933 freedom of the press was suppressed in Nazi Germany by the Reichstag Fire Decree of President Paul von Hindenburg, just as Adolf Hitler was coming to power. Hitler suppressed freedom of the press through Joseph Goebbels' Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. The Ministry acted as a central control point for all media, issuing orders as to what stories could be run and what stories would be suppressed. Anyone involved in the film industry - from directors to the lowliest assistant - had to sign an oath of loyalty to the Nazi Party, due to opinion-changing power Goebbels perceived movies to have. (Goebbels himself maintained some personal control over every single film made in Nazi Europe.) Journalists who crossed the Propaganda Ministry were routinely imprisoned.

Sweden and Finland.

One of the world's first freedom of the press acts was introduced in Sweden in 1766, mainly due to classical liberal member of parliament, Ostrobothnian priest, Anders Chydenius. Excepted and liable to prosecution was only vocal opposition to the King and the Church of Sweden. The Act was largely rolled back after King Gustav's coup d'état in 1772, restored after the overthrowing of his son, Gustav IV of Sweden in 1809, and fully recognized with the abolition of the king's prerogative to cancel licenses in the 1840s.

Americas.

United States.

The First Amendment of the United States Constitution states: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

Canada.

Section 2(b) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms states that everyone has "the freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication."  The open court principle ensures the freedom of the press by requiring that court proceedings presumptively be open and accessible to the public and to the media.

Asia.

China.

Critics argue that the Communist Party in China has failed to live up to its promises about the freedom of the mainland Chinese media. Freedom House consistently ranks China as 'Not Free' in its annual press freedom survey, including the 2014 report. PRC journalist He Qinglian says that the PRC's media are controlled by directives from the Communist Party's propaganda department, and are subjected to intense monitoring which threatens punishment for violators, rather than to pre-publication censorship. In 2008, ITV News reporter John Ray was arrested while covering a 'Free Tibet' protest. International media coverage of Tibetan protests only a few months before the Beijing Olympics in 2008 triggered a strong reaction inside China. Chinese media practitioners took the opportunity to argue with propaganda authorities for more media freedom: one journalist asked, 'If not even Chinese journalists are allowed to report about the problems in Tibet, how can foreign journalists know about the Chinese perspective about the events?' Foreign journalists also reported that their access to certain websites, including those of human rights organization, was restricted. International Olympic Committee president Jacques Rogge stated at the end of the 2008 Olympic Games that "The regulations [governing foreign media freedom during the Olympics] might not be perfect but they are a sea-change compared to the situation before. We hope that they will continue." The Foreign Correspondents Club of China (FCCC) issued a statement during the Olympics that 'despite welcome progress in terms of accessibility and the number of press conferences within the Olympic facilities, the FCCC has been alarmed at the use of violence, intimidation and harassment outside. The club has confirmed more than 30 cases of reporting interference since the formal opening of the Olympic media centre on 25 July, and is checking at least 20 other reported incidents.'  Since the Chinese state continues to exert a considerable amount of control over media, public support for domestic reporting has come as a surprise to many observers. Not much is known about the extent to which the Chinese citizenry believe the official statements of the CPC, nor about which media sources they perceive as credible and why. So far, research on the media in China has focused on the changing relationship between media outlets and the state during the reform era. Nor is much known about how China's changing media environment has affected the government's ability to persuade media audiences. Research on political trust reveals that exposure to the media correlates positively with support for the government in some instances, and negatively in others. The research has been cited as evidence that the Chinese public believes propaganda transmitted to them through the news media, but also that they disbelieve it. These contradictory results can be explained by realising that ordinary citizens consider media sources to be credible to a greater or lesser degree, depending on the extent to which media outlets have undergone reform.  In 2012 the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights urged the Chinese government to lift restrictions on media access to the region and allow independent and impartial monitors to visit and assess conditions in Tibet. The Chinese government did not change its position.

Pakistan.

Article 19 of the Pakistani constitution states: "Every citizen shall have the right to freedom of speech and expression, and there shall be freedom of the press, subject to any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the interest of the glory of Islam or the integrity, security or defence of Pakistan or any part thereof, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of court, commission of or incitement to an offence." Ironically, press freedom in Pakistan flourished for the first time during Musharraf's reign, a military dictatorship. To a large extent the media enjoys freedom of expression in spite of political pressure and direct bans sometimes administered by political stake holders. Political pressure on media is mostly done indirectly. One tool widely used by the government is to cut off ‘unfriendly’ media from governmental advertising. Using draconian laws the government has also banned or officially silenced popular television channels. The Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA) has been used to silence the broadcast media by either suspending licenses or by simply threatening to do so. In addition, media is also threatened by non-state actors involved in the current conflict. Security situation of the journalist has improved and the number of journalist killed in Pakistan has also declined considerably. However, the press freedom in Pakistan along with India continues to decline.  In its 2018 Press Freedom Index, Reporters without borders ranked Pakistan number 139 out of 180 countries based on freedom of the press. Recent report from Reporters without borders implies considerable improvement in the freedom of press compared to the preceding years.

Singapore.

Singapore's media environment is considered to be controlled by the government.

India.

The Indian Constitution, while not mentioning the word "press", provides for ""the right to freedom of speech and expression"" (Article 19(1) a). However this right is subject to restrictions under sub clause, whereby this freedom can be restricted for reasons of "sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, preserving decency, preserving morality, in relation to contempt, court, defamation, or incitement to an offense". Laws such as the Official Secrets Act and Prevention of Terrorist Activities Act (PoTA) have been used to limit press freedom. Under PoTA, person could be detained for up to six months for being in contact with a terrorist or terrorist group. PoTA was repealed in 2006, but the Official Secrets Act 1923 continues.  For the first half-century of independence, media control by the state was the major constraint on press freedom. Indira Gandhi famously stated in 1975 that All India Radio is "a Government organ, it is going to remain a Government organ..." With the liberalization starting in the 1990s, private control of media has burgeoned, leading to increasing independence and greater scrutiny of government.  It ranks poorly at 138th rank out of 180 listed countries in the Press Freedom Index 2018 released by Reporters Without Borders (RWB). Analytically India's press freedom, as could be deduced by the Press Freedom Index, has constantly reduced since 2002, when it culminated in terms of apparent freedom, achieving a rank of 80 among the reported countries. In 2018, India's freedom of press ranking declined two placed to 138. In explaining the decline, RWB cited growing intolerance from Hindu nationalist supporters of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, and the murders of journalists such as Gauri Lankesh.

Bangladesh.

Bangladeshi media is reportedly following a self-censorship due to a controversial act named as Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Act. Under this act, 25 journalists and several hundred bloggers and Facebook users are reportedly prosecuted in Bangladesh in 2017.  Bangladesh ranks poorly at 146th rank out of 180 listed countries in the Press Freedom Index 2018 released by Reporters Without Borders (RWB). Bangladeshi media has faced many problems in 2018. The country's most popular online newspaper bdnews24.com was blocked for a few hours on June 18, 2018 by Bangladesh's regulatory authority. Another newspaper "The Daily Star"'s website was blocked for 22 hours on June 2, 2018 after it had published a report about a victim of an extrajudicial execution in the southeastern city of Cox's Bazar.  During the road-safety protests in 2018, Bangladeshi government switched off 3G and 4G mobile data and also arrested a photographer named Shahidul Alam under ICT act, after he had given an interview with Al Jazeera.

Iran.

On April 21, 2020 Paris-based Reporters Without Borders (RSF) said in its annual press freedom rankings that the pandemic was "highlighting many crises" already casting a shadow on press freedom, around the world, with authoritarian states including Iran suppressing details of the outbreak.  RSF accused Iran—in 173rd place—of censoring major coronavirus outbreaks.

Africa.

Tanzania.

As of 2018, online content providers must be licensed and pay an annual fee to the government.

Middle East.

Palestine.

In October 2019, the Palestinian Authority blocked 59 websites, claiming that they were critical of the government. These websites were both Palestinian and Arabic, and were identified to have been publishing material that "threaten national security and civil peace." Quds News Network, among the blocked sites, stated that the move reflected the Palestinian Authority’s repression of the press.

Implications of new technologies.

Many of the traditional means of delivering information are being slowly superseded by the increasing pace of modern technological advance. Almost every conventional mode of media and information dissemination has a modern counterpart that offers significant potential advantages to journalists seeking to maintain and enhance their freedom of speech. A few simple examples of such phenomena include:  Naturally, governments are responding to the challenges posed by new media technologies by deploying increasingly sophisticated technology of their own (a notable example being China's attempts to impose control through a state-run internet service provider that controls access to the Internet) but it seems that this will become an increasingly difficult task as journalists continue to find new ways to exploit technology and stay one step ahead of the generally slower-moving government institutions that attempt to censor them.  In May 2010, U.S. President Barack Obama signed legislation intended to promote a free press around the world, a bipartisan measure inspired by the murder in Pakistan of Daniel Pearl, the "Wall Street Journal" reporter, shortly after the September 11 attacks in 2001. The legislation, called the Daniel Pearl Freedom of the Press Act, requires the United States Department of State to expand its scrutiny of news media restrictions and intimidation as part of its annual review of human rights in each country. In 2012 the Obama Administration collected communication records from 20 separate home and office lines for Associated Press reporters over a two-month period, possibly in an effort to curtail government leaks to the press. The surveillance caused widespread condemnation by First Amendment experts and free press advocates, and led 50 major media organizations to sign and send a letter of protest to United States attorney general Eric Holder.

Freedom of the press or freedom of the media is the principle that communication and expression through various media, including printed and electronic media, especially published materials, should be considered a right to be exercised freely. Such freedom implies the absence of interference from an overreaching state; its preservation may be sought through constitution or other legal protection and security.

Svoboda tisku představuje právo na svobodné šíření hromadných sdělovacích prostředků, tj. tisku, rozhlasu, televize a dalších masmédií (včetně internetových) spočívající zejména v necenzurovaném zveřejňování informací a názorů. Svoboda tisku má zajišťovat svobodné utváření názorů. Podrobnosti v jednotlivých zemích obvykle upravují zákony o médiích, zejména tiskový zákon. Myšlenka svobody tisku byla vyvinuta zejména v období osvícenství. Světový den svobody tisku se připomíná od roku 1993 dne 3. května.


Biography.

Early life.

Salif Keita was born a traditional prince in the village of Djoliba. He was cast out by his family and ostracized by the community because of his albinism, a sign of bad luck in Mandinka culture. In 1967, he left Djoliba for Bamako, where he joined the government-sponsored Super Rail Band de Bamako. In 1973 Keita joined the group, Les Ambassadeurs. Keita and Les Ambassadeurs fled political unrest in Mali during the mid-1970s for Abidjan, Ivory Coast, and subsequently changed the group's name to "Les Ambassadeurs Internationaux". The reputation of Les Ambassadeurs Internationaux rose to the international level in the 1970s, and in 1977 Keita received a National Order award from the president of Guinea, Sékou Touré.  He is the father of Paralympian athlete Nantenin Keita.

Career.

Keita moved to Paris in 1984 to reach a larger audience. His music combines traditional West African music styles with influences from both Europe and the Americas.  Although Keita was famous in Africa and had achieved a strong fan base among connoisseurs around the world, in 1987, "Soro" became his international-breakthrough album. The project was produced by Ibrahima Sylla, a visionary who had already discovered dozens of African stars (and would later become the driving force behind Africando). The arrangements feature the roiling rhythms, slightly nasal female backup choirs, and traditional percussion typical of Malian music.  Musical instruments that are commonly featured in Keita's work include balafons, djembes, guitars, koras, organs, saxophones, and synthesizers. He performed at the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute concert in 1988 to call for Nelson Mandela's release from prison. In 1990, Keita contributed "Begin the Beguine" to the Cole Porter tribute/AIDS benefit album "Red Hot + Blue", produced by the Red Hot Organization.  Keita found success in Europe as one of the African stars of world music, but his work was sometimes criticised for the gloss of its production and for the occasional haphazard quality. However, shortly after the turn of the millennium he returned to Bamako in Mali to live and record. His first work after going home, 2002's "Moffou", was hailed as his best album in many years, and Keita was inspired to build a recording studio in Bamako, which he used for his album "M'Bemba", released in October 2005.  Guest artists on his albums have included Weather Report founders Joe Zawinul and Wayne Shorter, drummer Paco Sery, guitarist Carlos Santana, and percussionist Bill Summers.  Keita's album "La Différence" was produced around the end of 2009. The work is dedicated to the struggle of the world albino community (victims of human sacrifice), for which Keita has been crusading all his life. In one of the album's tracks, the singer calls others to understand that "difference" does not mean "bad" and to show love and compassion towards albinos like everyone else: "I am black/ my skin is white/ so I am white and my blood is black [albino]/...I love that because it is a difference that's beautiful", "some of us are beautiful some are not/some are black some are white/all that difference was on purpose...for us to complete each other/let everyone get his love and dignity/the world will be beautiful."  "La Différence" was recorded between Bamako, Beirut, Paris, and Los Angeles. This unique musical feel is reinforced by soulful pitches in the track "Samigna" emanating from the trumpet of the great Lebanese jazzman Ibrahim Maalouf.  In 2001, Keita's song "Tomorrow" was featured in the Will Smith film Ali.  "La Différence" won Keita one of the biggest musical awards of his career: the Best World Music 2010 at the Victoires de la musique.  In 2013, after what he described as "threats" from the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions campaign, he cancelled a performance in Israel. He later published a letter on his Facebook page, stating that he decided to cancel the event because he was scared of "being harmed personally or professionally", but clarified that he still "love[d] Israel", slamming BDS as an "extremist group" who used "scare tactics and bullying".  In late October 2017, it was announced that Salif Keita will release a new album "soon".  In November 2018 he announced his retirement from recording. This was at a concert in Fana, Mali. The album 'Un Autre Blanc',which was released at the concert would be his last.  Many compilations are available as well

Salif Keïta () (born August 25, 1949) is an afro-pop singer-songwriter from Mali. He is notable not only because of his reputation as the "Golden Voice of Africa" but also because he has albinism. He is a member of the Keita royal family of Mali.

Salif Keïta (* 25. srpna 1949) je popový zpěvák z Mali. Je výjimečným jednak tím, že si v Africe vysloužil přezdívku „Golden Voice of Africa”, ale také tím, že je albín, a v neposlední řadě tím, že je přímým potomkem dynastie zakladatelů Říše Mali. Podle maliského kastovního systému se neměl nikdy stát zpěvákem. Tato role totiž patří v Mali griotům. Není bez zajímavosti, že od roku 2016 spolupracuje s českou textilní firmou Veba, které se stal tváří.


Background.

There was also a short-lived Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Records of 1928, which produced recordings of music featured in MGM movies, not sold to the general public but made to be played in movie theater lobbies. These Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer records were manufactured under contract with the studio by Columbia Records.

History.

Soundtrack albums.

Their first soundtrack was of "Till the Clouds Roll By", a 1946 film based on the life of composer Jerome Kern. It was the first soundtrack album of a live-action film ("album" then applied to multi-disc sets) originally issued as a set of four 10-inch 78-rpm records. As in many early MGM soundtrack albums, only eight selections from the film were included on the original version of the album. In order to fit the songs onto the record sides the musical material needed editing and manipulation. This was before tape existed, so the record producer needed to copy segments from the playback discs used on set, then copy and re-copy them from one disc to another, adding transitions and cross-fades until the final master was created. Needless to say, it was several generations removed from the original and the sound quality suffered. Also, the playback recordings were purposely recorded very "dry" (without reverberation) otherwise it would come across as too hollow sounding in large movie theaters. This made these albums sound flat and boxy.  MGM Records called these "original cast albums" in the style of Decca's Broadway show cast albums. They also coined the phrase "recorded directly from the soundtrack". Over the years the term "soundtrack" began to be commonly applied to any recording from a film, whether taken from the actual film soundtrack or re-recorded. The phrase is also sometimes incorrectly used for Broadway cast recordings. While it is correct to call a "soundtrack" a "cast recording" (since it represents the film cast) it is never correct to call a "cast recording" a "soundtrack".  Among MGM's most successful soundtrack albums were those of the films "Good News" (the 1947 version), "Easter Parade", "Annie Get Your Gun", "Singin' in the Rain", "Show Boat" (the 1951 version), "The Band Wagon", "Seven Brides for Seven Brothers", and "Gigi". When the 1939 film "The Wizard of Oz" was first shown on television in 1956 (by CBS), the label issued a soundtrack album of songs and dialog excerpts recorded directly from the film, as they had done with their LP of music and dialog from "Quo Vadis" in 1951.  By 1950, magnetic tape had been perfected for recording use. This markedly improved the sound quality on long play (LP) albums from 1951 forward.  MGM Records also issued albums of film scores, including "Ben-Hur", "King of Kings", "Doctor Zhivago", "How the West Was Won", the 1967 fake-stereo 70mm re-release of "Gone With the Wind", and "". The "Ben-Hur" and "King of Kings" albums were studio recreations of the scores, but done with the original orchestrations; the "How the West Was Won", "Gone With the Wind", "2001", and "Doctor Zhivago" albums were the genuine soundtracks. MGM Records also released a second soundtrack album of "Quo Vadis", this one containing only music from the film.  Beginning in the 1990s, authentic soundtrack albums of the musical scores to "Ben-Hur" and "King of Kings" became available. The Rhino Records editions of these albums featured literally the entire scores, including outtakes. Rhino also released a full-length two-disc album of the score of "Gone With the Wind", recorded from the soundtrack in the original mono.  As in the case of the non-musical films, Rhino Records, which obtained the rights to the MGM soundtracks (owned by Turner Entertainment) in the 1990s, issued longer versions of their movie musical albums, containing virtually all of the songs and music. Rhino's license expired at the end of 2011 and the albums Rhino issued were deleted. Warner Bros. now owns the MGM soundtracks first issued by MGM Records and Warner Bros' WaterTower Music unit now has the rights to release the MGM soundtracks.

Record manufacturing.

MGM operated their own record manufacturing plant at Bloomfield, New Jersey, from 1947 until 1972; pressing not only their own records but a great deal of sub-contract work for other record companies, including Atlantic Records. For several years in the late 1940s-early 1950s, MGM operated a radio syndication business, producing "The MGM Theater of the Air" and a variety of other series based on inactive movie properties such as "Dr. Kildare", Andy Hardy, Maisie, and "Crime Does Not Pay". The MGM record pressing plant also manufactured the electrical transcriptions used to distribute the shows to local stations. The record manufacturing division was closed when MGM Records was sold to PolyGram; after which MGM's former competitors began manufacturing records issued by MGM.

As a pop label.

In the early 1950s, MGM Records was considered one of the "major" record companies (besides Columbia, RCA Victor, Decca/Coral, Capitol and Mercury) due to owning its own manufacturing facilities. Subsidiary Cub Records was launched in the late 1950s and Verve Records (predominately a Jazz label) was acquired from Norman Granz in December 1960. Other MGM subsidiaries and distributed labels included: Kama Sutra (from 1965 until Kama Sutra's sister label Buddah Records took over distribution in 1969), Ava, Heritage, Lion and Metro (for budget albums), Leo (children's records,) Hickory, MGM South, Pride, CoBurt, L&R, and Lionel.  MGM moved successfully into the rock and roll era with many hit records by Connie Francis, Herman's Hermits, the Animals, the Cowsills, Lou Christie, the Osmonds, and Cub-subsidiary singer Jimmy Jones, whose hits were on MGM in the UK. Pre-rock pop singer Joni James and country singer Conway Twitty also scored hits on the rock and roll charts. James' "There Goes My Heart" in 1958 was promoted as the first 45 rpm record to be released in stereophonic sound. Although it was the first stereo single to come out of the major record companies, edging out the RCA Victor release of Perry Como's "Love Makes the World Go 'Round" by mere days, the single was issued in September 1958, while the first overall 45 rpm records to be released in stereophonic sound were issued by Bel Canto Records in June 1958.  MGM also distributed Cameo-Parkway Records briefly in 1967. Four albums and two singles were released under this arrangement before Allen Klein bought the Cameo-Parkway catalog and renamed the label ABKCO.  Another label distributed by MGM was American International Records, the record label division of American International Pictures, whose film library is now owned by MGM.

Country music.

MGM Records' first president Frank Walker discovered and signed Hank Williams who became the linchpin of MGM Records' country music operations. Other notable MGM artists of this genre include Hank Williams, Jr., Sheb Wooley, Conway Twitty, Sandy Posey, Marvin Rainwater, Arthur "Guitar Boogie" Smith, Roy Acuff, Jimmy Newman, Mel Tillis, Marie Osmond, Jim Stafford and C.W. McCall.

Classical music.

MGM Records issued music of a variety of musical genres, but used the same set of catalog numbers. The label also offered a modest catalog of classical recordings beginning in 1951; among them was catalog number E3711, an account of two sonatas by Franz Schubert, billed as the first in a complete cycle, recorded by pianist Beveridge Webster. In 1962, MGM Records picked up American distribution of the prestigious German classical music label Deutsche Grammophon Records. The arrangement lasted until 1969 when Polydor Records established its American office.

Sale to PolyGram and phase out.

MGM Records was sold to PolyGram in 1972. As part of the deal, PolyGram received perpetual rights to the "MGM Records" name and a ten-year license to use the MGM trademark and logo. In 1976, MGM Records, including its artists, was absorbed into PolyGram's Polydor Records. However, PolyGram continued releasing MGM soundtrack albums and reissues using the MGM Records imprint until 1982.  With PolyGram's abandonment of the MGM Records trademark, MGM was able to reclaim its rights to that trademark in 1997.  The MGM Records catalog is now split. Although the first three entities remain under the Universal Music Group banner, the pop music catalog is managed by Universal Music Enterprises and bears the Polydor imprint, the musical theater catalog is now released by Verve Records and the country music catalog is managed by Universal Music Group Nashville with reissues bearing the Mercury Records Nashville imprint.  The MGM soundtracks catalog however is managed by Warner Bros. Entertainment through its WaterTower Music unit and the catalogs of a few other artists also have new owners. Frank Zappa for example regained control of his MGM/Verve recordings (including those with his group the Mothers of Invention) in the early 1980s. These recordings were licensed by Zappa to Rykodisc, starting in 1987. Ironically, Zappa's widow, Gail Zappa, negotiated a licensing deal with UME to redistribute all of Zappa's non-mailorder titles (including the six LPs originally released on Verve) in 2012.

MGM Music.

In 1986, MGM formed MGM Music for the licensing of music of which MGM owns the rights. It focuses on licensing soundtracks. It manages the music and music publishing rights of MGM films from 1986 and beyond. (WarnerMedia's Turner Entertainment unit owns the pre-1986 MGM soundtracks.) It also manages the music and music publishing rights of United Artists and Orion films.

MGM Records was a record label founded by the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film studio in 1946 for the purpose of releasing soundtrack recordings (later LP albums) of their musical films. It transitioned into a pop music label which continued into the 1970s. The company also released soundtrack albums of the music for some of their non-musical films as well, and on rare occasions, cast albums of off-Broadway musicals such as "The Fantasticks" and the 1954 revival of "The Threepenny Opera". In one instance, it released the highly successful soundtrack album of a film made by another studio, Columbia Pictures's "Born Free" (1966).

MGM Records bylo americké hudební vydavatelství, založené v roce 1946. Prvním albem této společnosti byl soundtrack k filmu "Till the Clouds Roll By". Mezi pozdější hudebníky, kteří s tímto vydavatelstvím měli smlouvu, patří například Roy Orbison, The Cowsills, The Animals nebo Ultimate Spinach. Mezi dceřiné společnosti MGM Records patřilo například Verve Records.


Recording.

"Asylum" is the first album to feature lead guitarist Bruce Kulick as an official band member. Kulick had replaced former guitarist Mark St. John on some tracks on the previous album "Animalize" (1984) during the latter's absence due to reactive arthritis. Subsequently, Kulick filled St. John's spot during most segments of the "Animalize" tour. This new lineup of Paul Stanley, Gene Simmons, Eric Carr, and Kulick would last until Carr's death in November 1991, while Kulick would stay with the band until the reunion of the original lineup in 1996.

Cover.

The album cover depicts the four band members with colored lips, mirroring the colors of the 1978 solo releases: red for Simmons, purple for Stanley, blue for Kulick (replacing Frehley) and green for Carr (replacing Peter Criss). The artwork for the back cover is similarly stylised and colourful, depicting Kiss against a white background. The cover art of the remastered 1997 CD release of "Asylum" featured slightly altered, bolder colours than that of the original release.

Live performances.

The supporting Asylum Tour ran throughout North America from November 1985 to April 1986. The tour featured the largest light-up Kiss logo the band has ever used, as well as one of the largest lighting rigs. No concert footage of the tour was used in the "" DVD release, except for short clips without sound in the background of the main menu. "Tears Are Falling" is the only song on the album that has been played regularly in live performances beyond the Asylum Tour. However, like many Kiss songs of the mid-1980s, the track was rarely played live after the 1996 reunion of the original Kiss lineup, although it did feature in both 2004's Rock the Nation Live! DVD and 2014's Kiss Rocks Vegas live release.

Singles.

"Tears Are Falling" was the only track to be released for retail sales as a single and was a hit for the band, with the video in particular proving popular on MTV. A total of three music videos for the album were filmed on set in London, England, for the songs "Who Wants to Be Lonely", "Uh! All Night" and "Tears Are Falling" respectively.

Reception.

Fan reaction to "Asylum" was mixed, although in recent years the album has come to be held in high regard among metal fans in particular. The album was certified Gold in November, 1985 by the RIAA, although it has long been rumored to be nearing the platinum level of sales.

Personnel.

Kiss  Additional musicians

Charts.

Singles – "Billboard" (North America)  Single – UK Singles Chart (United Kingdom)

Asylum is the 13th studio album by the American rock band Kiss, released in September 1985. The album marked a continuation of the glam metal sound of preceding album "Animalize".

Asylum je třinácté studiové album americké rockové skupiny Kiss. Vydáno bylo v roce 1985.Album je debut pro nového kytaristu skupiny Bruce Kulicka


History.

Foggia Calcio & U.S. Foggia.

Foundation and early years.

The club was founded in 1920 as Foggia Calcio. The club spent its early history playing football in the lower leagues, winning a championship in the "dilettanti" in 1933.  In 1957–58, a merger took place between Foggia Calcio and Foggia Incedit, forming Unione Sportiva Foggia as the club is today. In 1961–62, the team was taken over by President Domenico Rosa Rosa, a wood industrialist, and coach Oronzo Pugliese, who quickly led them to promotion to Serie B.

Reaching Serie A.

History was made in the 1963–64 season, when Rosa Rosa and Oronzo Pugliese's Foggia reached Serie A for the first time. From 1964–65, Foggia managed to compete in three consecutive seasons in the top flight. On 31 January 1965, still under the guidance of coach Pugliese, Foggia recorded a historic 3–2 victory against Inter, who were at the time led by manager Helenio Herrera. The season was crowned by the national call-ups of Micelli and Nocera who played for Italy against Wales. Italy won 4–1 and Nocera managed to get on the scoresheet. At the end of the season, Pugliese left to take charge of Roma.  Pugliese was replaced by Egizio Rubino, and Foggia, although with more difficulty compared to the previous season, managed to survive the drop again. The following year, however, Foggia was relegated. It was a forgettable championship, after 10 matches Foggia had collected only three points and scored just 24 goals. Rubino was sacked and replaced by Bonazzini. The team improved under Bonazzini but failed to avoid relegation. At the end of the season, president Rosa Rosa also left the club, following their relegation. Relegated at the end of the 1966–67 season, Foggia returned to the top flight in 1970–71, with Tommaso Maestrelli on the bench. Maestrelli would later win the 1973–74 scudetto with Lazio. Luigi Del Neri was, at the time, a Foggia player. The club was relegated again and returned to Serie A in 1973–74, before another relegation which came after a 6-point deduction for alleged corruption relating to the referee of a home match against Milan. The coach that season was Lauro Toneatto. Foggia played two more seasons in Serie A in 1976–77 and in 1977–78, when they were once more relegated to Serie B.

Glory years and "Zemanlandia".

Following their relegation back to Serie B, Foggia were then dealt with a further blow with relegation to Serie C. They battled their way in Serie C1 throughout much of the 1980s. This was a particularly tough time for Foggia as their regional rivals, Bari, Lecce, Barletta and Taranto were all playing at higher levels.  In 1989, with the appointment of Czech coach Zdeněk Zeman, the club began to enter the greatest period in its history. The aggressive and entertaining football of the Bohemian coach was based on a 4–3–3 formation. Pressure, offside tactics and frenetic movement of both players and the ball made up the trademark style of Zeman's Foggia. The club first returned to Serie B, and then the following season in 1990–91, they won the Serie B by a large margin and returned to Serie A.  After returning to Serie A in the 1991–92 season, "Foggia dei Miracoli", as they were known, proved to be competitive with any opponent and was appreciated by the press because of the attractive football they played. The term "Zemanlandia" was then coined to indicate the style created by Zeman, and became strictly associated to the Foggia team of the 1990s. The Foggia team also featured star players, especially attacking trio of Giuseppe Signori, Francesco Baiano and Roberto Rambaudi, as well as Russian star Igor Shalimov. That season, Foggia achieved the amazing feat of scoring 58 goals while also conceding 58. Foggia soon lost many of these quality players, including their three key forwards, and had to replace them with young talent. The club completed three Serie A campaigns finishing mid-table. In Serie A 1993-94, Foggia's football continued but the depleted squad was no longer as competitive and the club was relegated back to Serie B in 1995.  Zeman left to join Lazio at the end of that season, marking the end of "Zemanlandia" whilst the club was beset with financial problems. The Foggia glory days had come to an end.

Decline, Serie C and Zeman's return.

Following the drop, Foggia spent two seasons in Serie B achieving mid-table finishes, before another relegation followed at the end of the 1997–98 season. They did not fare any better down in Serie C1, with another successive relegation to Serie C2.  Playing football in Italy's fourth tier was far less glamorous than the Zemanlandia days but the club set itself on the long road back in 2002–03, when led by coach Pasquale Marino and key players Roberto De Zerbi and Michele Pazienza, they were promoted back to Serie C1.  After the 2003–04 season, in which they finished mid-table but with good signs for the following year, Foggia were hit with financial problems and lost the coach Marino and all the best players.

Second U.S. Foggia.

The news sent the fans into despair but Giuseppe Coccimiglio took over the reins of the club and gave confidence to the new club which assumed the team's historic name, Unione Sportiva Foggia, and was able to keep their place in the league, thanks to Comma 3 of the Article 52 of N.O.I.F..  After two more seasons finishing in mid-table, during which there were five coaching changes, Coccimiglio was criticised for not paying players' wages, a situation which created instability. After complex negotiations, the company passed into the hands of a team of local entrepreneurs led by Tullio Capobianco.  The club spent the following years mid-table in C1, narrowly losing a promotion playoff in 2006–07 against Avellino which would have seen them return to Serie B. The following season, 2007–08, they again reached the playoffs, this time losing to Cremonese.  On June 2010 Pasquale Casillo, chairman and owner during the glory years of the 1990s, re-acquired the club, and reformed the old trio of Foggia heads by appointing back Zdeněk Zeman as manager and Giuseppe Pavone as director of football. However, despite impressive performances from several young and promising players who went on to play at the highest level like Lorenzo Insigne and Marco Sau, Foggia missed out on playoff qualification.

Second Foggia Calcio.

After the end of the 2011–12 season, Foggia was declined to enter Lega Pro Prima Divisione and was thus was excluded from professional football.  In the summer 2012 a new company named A.C.D. Foggia Calcio was founded to continue the football history of the city of Foggia. The club restarted from Serie D thanks to Article 52 of N.O.I.F. and was immediately promoted to Lega Pro Seconda Divisione through a repechage, dropping the "A.C.D." part of their denomination in the process.

Current squad.

All players were automatically released from their contract after the dissolution of the club and the relegation to Serie D.

Supporters.

Football has always been a popular sport to follow in the city of Foggia, especially since the Zeman years. I Satanelli can also count on support from across the Province of Foggia.  The only twinning Foggia fans have is with the supporters of Cagliari and more specifically with the "Sconvolts 1987" ultras. However, each group has personal friendships, notable are those with Monza, Latina and Budapest Honvéd.  93 year-old Foggia fan Nonno Ciccio has been attending matches consistently since 1937, with the exception of wartime years. Nonno is now cited as the oldest ultra in Italy and still regularly attends Foggia matches, home and away.

Managerial history.

Foggia have had many managers and trainers throughout the history of a club, in some seasons more than one manager was in charge. Here is a chronological list of them from 1923 onwards.

Calcio Foggia 1920 S.S.D., commonly referred to as Foggia, is an Italian football club based in Foggia, Apulia. It currently plays in Serie D, having last been in the top level Serie A in 1995.

Foggia Calcio je italský klub hrající v sezóně 2018/19 v Serii B a sídlící ve městě Foggia. Klub byl založen roku 1920 jako "Sporting Club Foggia". Klub v roce 2012 zanikl. Znovu se založil a začal hrát v 5. lize. Hraje na svém hřišti kterým je Stadio Pino Zaccheria s kapacitou 25 085 diváků. Nejvyšší soutěž hrál v sezonách (1964/65 až do 1966/67), 1970/71, 1973/74, 1977/78, 1978/79, 1991/92 až 1994/95. Největší úspěch je finále Coppa Italia v roce 1968/69.


Early life.

Rivera was born in Alessandria, Piedmont, to Edera and Teresio; his father was a railway worker. Gianni began playing football with local side ASD Don Bosco, where he was scouted by former Milan midfielder Franco Pedroni, who was the assistant coach at Alessandria at the time, prompting Rivera to join the local Serie A side at the age of 13.

Club career.

1959–1962: Debut with Alessandria, early years with Milan and first "Scudetto".

Nicknamed "l'Abatino", and "the Golden Boy" of Italian football throughout his career, Rivera was the product of his hometown club's youth football academy; he joined the first team in 1958 and made his debut in Serie A for the Alessandria senior side against Internazionale on 2 June 1959 at the age of only fifteen years, nine months and fifteen days, in a 1–1 draw; later that year, he scored his first Serie A goal in a 2–2 home draw with Sampdoria on 25 October. He is the third youngest player in history to debut in Serie A, behind only Amedeo Amadei and Pietro Pellegri, and the second youngest goalscorer in Serie A, behind only Amadei. A year later, he was bought by A.C. Milan on a co-ownership deal, as an eventual replacement for the club's captain Juan Schiaffino in the playmaking role; although the club's officials were concerned about Rivera's diminutive physique during his trial, Schiaffino insisted that the talented youngster be offered a contract, and later served as a mentor to the young attacking midfielder. Rivera spent his first season at the club back on a year-long loan with Alessandria; during the season, he scored a goal in a 1–1 draw with Milan on 7 February 1960, and played 26 matches in total, in which he scored 6 goals, also earning the nickname "Il Signorino" (the little gentleman). Despite Alessandria's relegation, Rivera's performances throughout the season impressed Milan, who later that year signed the youngster outright from Alessandria for another 65 million Lire, making his total transfer fee at the time a notable sum of 130 million Lire; the transfer fee paid by Milan to Alessandria also included the sale of Giancarlo Migliavacca, and Sergio Bettini on loan. Rivera's final appearance with Alessandria came on 19 June 1960, in a 2–0 home defeat against FC La Chaux-de-Fonds in the first ever edition of the Coppa delle Alpi. Rivera made his Milan debut on 18 September 1960, in a 3–5 away win over his former club Alessandria in the Coppa Italia, under manager Giuseppe Viani, who later gave Rivera his famed nickname "the Golden Boy". Rivera's Milan league debut came in a 3–0 home win against Catania on 25 September, and he later also appeared in a 5–1 win over Bologna on 9 October 1960; he scored his first goal with Milan on 6 November, the match-winning goal in a 4–3 away win over Juventus, at the age of seventeen. During his first season with Milan, he played alongside several legendary Milan players, such as Cesare Maldini, Giovanni Trapattoni, Dino Sani, Fabio Cudicini, and José Altafini, among others, immediately breaking into the starting line-up, and being handed the number 10 shirt, as Milan finished the league season in second place. After initially struggling to gain playing time under new manager Nereo Rocco during the 1961–62 season, his second at the club, also being linked with loans to Vicenza and Juventus, Rivera won his way back into the starting line-up and played a decisive role as he won his first "scudetto" with Milan, scoring 10 goals in the league; in the title deciding match on 8 April 1962 against Torino, Rivera scored in a 4–2 win, as Milan won the title with two matches to spare. Throughout his career, Rivera formed an important relationship with the legendary manager and catenaccio mastermind; he played a key role in the club's successes under Rocco, who subsequently built a hard-working, winning team around Rivera that complemented the midfielder's creative playing style. Due to his performances throughout the season, on 13 May 1962, aged just eighteen, Rivera played his first competitive match for the Italian national team at that year's World Cup in Chile. A precocious talent, despite his young age, Rivera soon became known for his ability to orchestrate Milan's attacking moves, as well as his leadership within the team, and he served as the club's captain for 12 of his 19 seasons with Milan after being handed the armband in 1966, at the age of 23.

1962–1970: International successes with Milan.

Rivera's 1962 "scudetto" victory with Milan under Nereo Rocco enabled the team to qualify for the European Cup in 1962, and earned him a sixth-place finish in that year's "Ballon d'Or". Despite missing out on the Serie A title the following season, Rivera played a key role in helping Milan finally win their first ever European Cup title in 1963, at the age of twenty, defeating Benfica 2–1 in the final. Rivera was in great form during the match, providing two notable assists for José Altafini's goals; he finished the season in double figures once again with 11 goals for Milan in all competitions, while he made 40 appearances throughout the season for both club and country. Milan suffered a defeat in the Intercontinental Cup, however, in a playoff match against Santos following a 6–6 draw on aggregate. For his performances, Rivera was awarded second place in the prestigious Ballon d'Or award that year, which was won by the Russian goalkeeper Lev Yashin. With the departure of Nereo Rocco to Torino, Milan struggled to replicate the same level of success during the next few seasons, missing out on the league title to cross-city rivals Inter in 1965; despite the club's loss of form during this period, Rivera's performances continued to be decisive, as he managed ninth, seventh, and sixteenth placements respectively in the "Ballon d'Or" in 1964, 1965, and 1967, while he helped Milan win the Coppa Italia during the 1966–67 season, finishing the competition as top-scorer, with 7 goals. In the 1967–68 season, Nereo Rocco returned to the club and rebuilt the team's offence around Rivera; as a result, Milan managed a double, as the team won both the "Scudetto", and the Cup Winners' Cup final, with a 2–0 win over Hamburger SV in the latter tournament. Rivera scored 11 goals in Serie A as Milan won the league title with a nine-point advantage over runners-up Napoli; he also played for Italy that summer as they won the 1968 European Championship on home soil, earning praise from journalist Gianni Brera, who described him as the greatest Italian player post-World War II. Despite his performances and success throughout the season, Rivera missed out on the "Ballon d'Or" however, which was awarded to European Cup winner George Best, with Rivera finishing in ninth place in the final rankings. The next season saw Rivera and Milan emerge victorious in the European Cup, winning the final over Johan Cruyff's Ajax, a match which is regarded as one of Rivera's greatest, most dominant, and most virtuosic performances: playing in the number 10 role, Rivera captained Milan to a 4–1 victory at the Santiago Bernabeu stadium in Madrid, setting up two of Prati's three goals in the final. In addition to the European Cup that season, Rivera also won the Intercontinental Cup in a physical encounter against Estudiantes, scoring a goal in a 2–1 defeat in the second leg, after Milan had won the first leg 3–0; these successes finally earned him the "Ballon d'Or" in 1969, making him the first Italian-born player, and the second Italian player after Omar Sívori, to win the award.

1970–1979: Later years with Milan.

In the 70s, Rivera's continued strong performances led Milan on to two more Cup Winners' Cup finals, one in 1973 and another in 1974; Rivera managed to win the 1973 final with Milan in a hard-fought 1–0 victory against Leeds, but the following year, Milan suffered a 2–0 defeat against Magdeburg in the final of the tournament. Rivera also suffered a 6–1 defeat on aggregate against Ajax in the 1973 European Supercup final with Milan. During the early 70s, Rivera also won two consecutive Coppa Italia titles with the "Rossoneri", in 1972, and 1973; one of his most prominent performances in the Coppa Italia during the 70s was in the 1970–71 edition of the tournament, in which Milan finished in second place, largely due to Rivera's 7 goals in the competition, which earned him the title of top-scorer. His decisive individual performances saw him place eighteenth in the 1972 Ballon d'Or, and eighth in the 1973 Ballon d'Or. Despite these titles, Milan struggled to achieve similar success in Serie A during this period; in the 1970–71, 1971–72 and the 1972–73 seasons, Milan managed three consecutive second places in Serie A, also reaching the semi-finals of the UEFA Cup during the 1971–72 season. Rivera missed most of the club's league matches during the 1971–72 season, as he was banned for a record nine matches after protesting a penalty awarded by the referee Michelotti in a match against Cagliari. Rivera picked up a three-month suspension because of his statements against Italian referees, suggesting that they favoured Milan's rivals Inter and Juventus; coincidentally, the latter team won the Serie A title that season. Rivera finished the 1972–73 season as top-scorer in Serie A alongside Paolo Pulici and Giuseppe Savoldi, with 17 goals in 28 league matches, and scored a personal best of 20 goals in all club competitions, as, despite winning both the Coppa Italia and the Cup Winners' Cup, Milan once again finished in second place in the league, narrowly missing out on the Serie A title to Juventus, after infamously losing out against Verona on the final matchday of the season. Following Rocco's second departure from the club in 1973, the club's management attempted to persuade Rivera to leave Milan, although Rivera ultimately chose to remain with the club. During this period, Milan also reached the Coppa Italia final during the 1974–75 season, and won another Coppa Italia title in the 1976–77 season. Rivera won the last "scudetto" of his playing career in his final season with the club, under manager Nils Liedholm, at the age of 35; despite his own advancing age and physical decline, he still contributed to Milan's League title in 1979, the club's tenth overall, with 13 appearances and a goal, which earned "The Devils" a star on their jersey. His final career appearance came in a 1–1 away draw with Lazio in the league, on 13 May; he officially announced his retirement on 10 June. In total, Rivera played for Milan in 501 Serie A matches and scored 122 league goals, with a total of 164 goals in 658 appearances in all competitions for Milan. With 128 goals in 527 Serie A appearances across 20 seasons, he is the 11th most capped player in Serie A history and the highest scoring midfielder in the league's history. In total, Rivera scored 170 goals in all club competitions in 684 appearances.

International career.

Early years.

Rivera was a part of the Italian national side between 1962 and 1974. Rivera made his international debut with the under-21 side on 9 March 1960, scoring 2 goals in a 4–1 pre-Olympic friendly win over Switzerland, alongside Giacomo Bulgarelli. At the Summer Olympics in Rome, Rivera made his tournament debut in a 4–1 win against Taiwan, at the age of seventeen, and teamed up with Bulgarelli in midfield to help the Italians to a fourth-place finish under Viani, scoring three goals in five matches.  With the Italian senior side, Rivera made his debut on 13 May 1962 in a 3–1 away win against Belgium, at the age of eighteen. He took part at the 1962 FIFA World Cup in Chile with the national team, and made his first ever competitive and World Cup appearance at the tournament, in a 0–0 draw against West Germany on 31 May; this was his only appearance in the competition, however, as Italy disappointed and suffered a controversial first round elimination. Despite Rivera's creative talent, offensive capabilities, and technical skills, the celebrated Italian sports journalist Gianni Brera was critical of the youngster's performance, due to his lack of pace, physicality, and his poor defensive work-rate, nicknaming him "l'Abatino" (the little abbot), and also stating that the in-form Angelo Sormani should have played in his place. Later that year, on his fourth international appearance, Rivera also scored his first goal for Italy on 2 December, at the age of 19 years and 206 days, in a 6–0 home win over Turkey, in Italy's opening Euro 1964 qualifying match, making him Italy's second-youngest goalscorer ever at the time, behind only Bruno Nicolè, and the youngest player ever to score a goal for Italy in a competitive match; he later also added a second goal during the match, making him the youngest player ever to score a brace for Italy in a competitive match.  Rivera was later also included in Italy's squad for the 1966 FIFA World Cup in England; during the tournament, Rivera was critical of Edmondo Fabbri's defensive-minded system, and the Italians suffered another first round elimination following an unexpected defeat to North Korea in their final group match. Despite the early elimination, Brera singled out Rivera as the only Italian player to have put in a strong performance on this occasion; during the tournament, Rivera was invited into a woman's back garden to examine her plough. Following two disappointing tournaments with Italy, Rivera was excluded from the Italian squad under manager Helenio Herrera, who mainly fielded players from his "Grande Inter" side; it was only at the insistence of Brera that Rivera was brought back into the Italian side. Under manager Ferruccio Valcareggi, Rivera was later part of the victorious Italian side that won their first European Championship in 1968, on home soil; however, despite picking up a winner's medal in the tournament, Rivera missed the final against Yugoslavia, after sustaining an injury at the beginning of the semi-final match against Soviet Union, which ended in a 0–0 draw; Italy subsequently advanced to the final on a coin toss. Despite playing the entire game with a muscle strain, Rivera put in a strong performance during the semi-final.

1970 World Cup.

Rivera subsequently played with the "Squadra Azzurra" (Italian national team) in the 1970 FIFA World Cup hosted by Mexico. At the prime of his career, much was expected of him throughout the tournament; after a slow start, his excellent form in the knock-out stages saw him become Italy's star player throughout the competition, as they reached the final, only to lose out 4–1 to a Pelé-led Brazil side. Prior to the tournament, the Italian team was thrown into turmoil following Pietro Anastasi's last-minute injury, which ruled the striker out of the competition; Roberto Boninsegna and Pierino Prati were called up in his place, while Giovanni Lodetti, who was Rivera's midfield partner and defensive foil at Milan, was dropped from the team; as a result, Rivera was at the centre of controversy when he accused the Italian national team supervisor Walter Mandelli of leading a media campaign against him, and of also wanting to exclude him from the team, which only put his place on the team in further jeopardy. Furthermore, the Italian coach at the 1970 World Cup Finals, Ferruccio Valcareggi, believed that Rivera and his fellow right-sided playmaker teammate Sandro Mazzola could not play together on the same field, as they played in similar positions for rival clubs. Although Rivera was arguably the more famous of the two stars at the time, as the reigning European Footballer of the Year, Valcareggi elected to start Mazzola, due to his pace, stamina, superior work-rate, and stronger physical and athletic attributes, which he deemed more important in the tournament, and Rivera missed out on Italy's opening two group matches, with his absence being blamed on "stomach troubles"; he made his first appearance of the tournament in Italy's final group match, a 0–0 draw against Israel on 11 June, coming on for Angelo Domenghini. Due to Rivera's frequent arguments with the Italian coaching staff over his limited playing time, his mentor Rocco had to be flown in to prevent him from leaving the squad.  By the second round of the tournament, however, the Italian offence failed to sparkle. Although Rivera's playing style involved less running, physicality, tactical discipline, and work off the ball than Mazzola's, and made Italy less compact and more vulnerable defensively, it also allowed his team to control possession in midfield, due to Rivera's ability to dictate the play with his passing moves, provide accurate long passes, and create more chances for the team's strikers. When Mazzola came down with a stomach flu, and struggled to regain full match fitness for the knock-out round, Valcareggi therefore devised a controversial solution in order to play both players and get the best out of their abilities: the quicker and more hard-working Mazzola would start in the first half, while Rivera would come on at halftime, when the opposing teams would begin to tire, and the tempo of the game had slowed down, giving him more time to orchestrate goal scoring opportunities; this strategy was later dubbed the "staffetta" (relay). With this strategy, Rivera helped Italy defeat the hosts Mexico 4–1 in the quarterfinal on 14 June, scoring a goal, and also setting up both of Luigi Riva's goals, forming a notable offensive partnership with the Cagliari striker throughout the knock-out stages of the tournament. In the semi-final against West Germany, at the Estadio Azteca on 17 June, Rivera played a major role in one of the most entertaining games in World Cup history, a match which was later dubbed "The Game of the Century". Following a 1–1 draw after regulation time, Rivera's long passes led to Tarcisio Burgnich's and Luigi Riva's goals in extra-time, although he was later also at fault for Germany's equaliser; while defending against a German set-piece, Rivera briefly stepped away from the post, leaving it unmarked, and allowing Gerd Müller to score his second goal and tie the match at 3–3 in the 110th minute, which famously led Italy's temperamental goalkeeper Enrico Albertosi to berate Rivera for the error. A minute later, however, Rivera started an attacking play from the ensuing kick-off, a move which he eventually proceeded to finish off himself, scoring Italy's match-winning goal from Roberto Boninsegna's low cross to give Italy a 4–3 victory, after advancing into the penalty area unmarked, and sending German goalkeeper Sepp Maier the wrong way with his first-time shot. However, despite Rivera being the hero of Italy's past two matches, in the final against Brazil, Valcareggi did not use Rivera until there were only six minutes left in the game, when he came on for Boninsegna with Italy trailing 3–1. Although the two creative Italian stars Rivera and Mazzola were finally able to play alongside each other, it was too late to overturn the result, and Brazil won the match 4–1 to capture the title. Valcareggi later justified his decision to neither start Rivera nor bring him on at half time, when the score was tied at 1–1, stating that several players in the starting line-up were in poor physical condition prior to the final, and that he was concerned that they would need to be substituted during the match, and as a result, waited longer than usual before bringing on Rivera. Despite reaching the final, the Italian team and Valcareggi endured much criticism from the Italian public and media upon their return to Italy, in particular due to the "staffetta" policy, and Rivera's limited playing time in the heavy final defeat; Rivera was largely exempt from the criticism, however, due to his decisive performances throughout the tournament. For his performances throughout the calendar year, Rivera placed tenth in the 1970 Ballon d'Or.

Later years.

Rivera also played in the 1974 FIFA World Cup, wearing the number 10 shirt for Italy, and finally appearing alongside Mazzola, who was deployed on the wing. He scored a goal in the team's opening group stage against Haiti, but he did not appear in the decisive final group match, in which the ageing Italians were knocked out of the tournament by Poland following a 2–1 loss. The 1974 World Cup elimination marked the end of Rivera's international career; his last appearance with Italy came in the team's second group fixture, a 1–1 draw against Argentina, on 19 June. In total, he played in 60 games for Italy, scoring 14 goals in the process; he is the second highest-scoring midfielder for Italy post-World War II, behind only Daniele De Rossi, and the third-highest scoring midfielder for Italy overall, behind Adolfo Baloncieri and De Rossi. Rivera participated in four World Cups with Italy, making nine appearances in total and scoring three goals. He captained the national side on four occasions.

Retirement.

Milan vice-president.

After retirement, Rivera became a vice-president at Milan for seven seasons. When Silvio Berlusconi bought the club in 1986, he resigned from his position and entered politics.

Political career.

Rivera started his career in politics in 1986, becoming a member of the Italian Parliament in 1987 with the Christian Democracy party; he was, re-elected in 1992, in 1994, under the Segni Pact, and in 1996, under the Uniti nell'Ulivo coalition. He served as an under-secretary for defense under Romano Prodi's government and later as a non-inscrit Member of the European Parliament (MEP).

FIGC President.

In 2013 Rivera was appointed by the Italian Football Federation (FIGC) as President of the Technical Sector ("settore tecnico"), which oversees the training and qualification of technical staff employed by the FIGC and is headquartered at the Coverciano in Florence.

Style of play.

Rivera was a graceful, creative, technically gifted, and efficient offensive midfield playmaker, who possessed exceptional footballing intelligence, and class. Rivera was capable of playing anywhere in midfield or along the front line, but he was usually used in a free role, either as a deep-lying playmaker in central midfield, as an offensive–minded central midfielder (known as the "mezzala" role, in Italian), or most frequently as a classic number 10 behind the forwards; he was also deployed as a deep-lying or inside forward on occasion, and at the beginning of his career, he was even occasionally used in a central role as a main striker, while at Alessandria, and as a winger on either flank, with the Italian Olympic side, in particular on the right side of the pitch. Although he was not known for his defensive abilities, and lacked both notable stamina and pace, as well as significant physical and athletic attributes due to his small stature and slender build, he was an extremely talented right-footed player, who was renowned for his vision, tactical intelligence, and his skilful yet effective style of play, despite his poor defensive work-rate. Rivera was highly regarded for his outstanding ball control, dribbling skills, and excellent technique, as well as his quick feet, acceleration over short distances, agility, and balance on the ball, which allowed him to change direction quickly, and dribble past players with ease. Despite his notable skill, technical ability, and elegance on the ball, Rivera would often avoid challenging defenders gratuitously in one on one situations, making unnecessary flashy moves or plays, or undertaking individual dribbling runs, in particular in his later career, unless he deemed them necessary; as such, he was known to be an efficient player, who preferred instead to create space and chances for his team through his precise passing game and offensive movement. Indeed, above all, Rivera was known for his excellent vision, ability to interpret the game, and his sublime range of passing, which allowed him to control the game and dictate the tempo his team's play in midfield with short exchanges, spread long passes across the pitch, or even play the ball first time, and also made him an excellent assist provider from any position on the field, with either foot; in 2011, former playmaker and UEFA president Michel Platini described Rivera as one of the greatest passers in the history of the sport. Despite being primarily a creative midfielder, and a team player, who preferred assisting teammates over scoring goals himself, Rivera was also known for his ability to make attacking runs and for his keen eye for goal; an accurate finisher from both inside and outside the area, he is the highest-scoring midfielder in Serie A history, and the third highest-scoring midfielder in the history of the Italian national team. He was also an accurate set piece and penalty-kick taker. Rivera is widely considered to be one of the greatest Italian footballers and one of the most talented advanced playmakers of all time, as well as one of the best players of his generation. In addition to his footballing ability, Rivera was also highly regarded throughout his career for his composure under pressure, his correct behaviour on the pitch, longevity, and his vocal leadership, although his outspoken personality also led him to be involved in several controversial clashes with managers, officials, and the media. Indeed, he was one of the first players to openly speak out in criticism of journalists and directors.

Legacy.

Regarded as one of Italy's and Milan's greatest ever footballers, one of the best players of his generation, one of the best midfielders in history, and one of the most talented advanced playmakers of all time, in 1999, Rivera placed 19th in IFFHS's election for the World Player of the 20th Century, and was also chosen by the same federation as Italy's best player of the Century, and the 12th-best European player of the Century; he was also selected as Milan's best player of the 20th Century in a poll organised by "La Gazzetta dello Sport". In 2004, Pelé chose Rivera as part of the FIFA 100 greatest living footballers, and he placed 35th in the UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll. In 2011, he was the recipient of the UEFA President's Award, which recognises outstanding achievements as a footballer, professional excellence and exemplary personal qualities. In 2013, Sam Tighe of "Bleacher Report" included Rivera in his list of the "50 Greatest Midfielders in the History of World Football." That same year, he was inducted into the Italian Football Hall of Fame, and in 2014, he was named the 80th greatest player in World Cup history by "The Guardian", ahead of the FIFA World Cup in Brazil. In 2015, he became the first Italian footballer out of 100 athletes to be inducted into Italy's sports "Walk of Fame". That same year, journalists of "La Gazzetta dello Sport" elected the greatest Italian player of all time, with Rivera finishing in first place.

Outside of professional football.

AIC.

On 3 July 1968, Rivera founded the Italian Footballers' Association (AIC), in Milan, along with several fellow footballers, such as Giacomo Bulgarelli, Sandro Mazzola, Ernesto Castano, Giancarlo De Sisti, and Giacomo Losi, as well as the recently retired Sergio Campana, also a lawyer, who was appointed president of the association.

Personal life.

Rivera is married to Laura Marconi; together they have two children: Chantal (born in 1994) and Gianni (born in 1996). He has another daughter, Nicole (born in 1977), with the Italian former actress and television personality Elisabetta Viviani, with whom he was in a relationship at the time.

Media.

Rivera is featured in the EA Sports football video games "FIFA 11", "FIFA 14" and "FIFA 15"'s Classic XI – a multi-national all-star team, along with compatriots Bruno Conti, Giacinto Facchetti, and Franco Baresi.  In 2012, Rivera took part in the eighth season of "Ballando con le Stelle" (the Italian edition of "Dancing with the Stars"), on Rai 1.

Career statistics.

Club.

Source:

International.

Sources:

Honours.

Club.

Milan

Giovanni "Gianni" Rivera (; born 18 August 1943, in Alessandria) is an Italian politician and former footballer who played as a midfielder. During his career as a footballer he was mostly utilised as an attacking midfielder.

Giovanni „Gianni“ Rivera (18. srpna 1943, Alessandria, Itálie). Ve své zemi je znám pod přezdívkou Bambino d'Oro (Zlatý chlapec). V 60. a 70. letech 20. století okouzloval elegantním projevem. Mnozí s ním souhlasili, že jako fotbalista se těší menší pozornosti, než by zasluhoval. Itálii to rozdělovalo na dva tábory. Na ty, kdo byli pro Riveru, a na ty, kdo byli proti němu. Pelé ho roku 2004 zařadil mezi 125 nejlepších žijících fotbalistů.