Narratives according to the four canonical Gospels.

Accounts of the Passion are found in the four canonical gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. Three of these, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, known as the Synoptic Gospels, give similar accounts. The Gospel of John account varies significantly.  Scholars do not agree on which events surrounding the death of Jesus should be considered part of the "Passion narrative", and which ones merely precede and succeed the actual Passion narrative itself. For example, Puskas & Robbins (2011) place the Passion after Jesus' arrest and before his resurrection, thus only including the trials, crucifixion and death of Jesus. In Pope Benedict XVI's "" (2011), the term "Passion" completely coincides with the crucifixion and death of Jesus; it doesn't include earlier events and specifically excludes the burial and resurrection. Others such as Matson & Richardson (2014) take a broader approach and consider the triumphal entry, the last supper, the trial before Pilate, the crucifixion, the burial, and the resurrection to be jointly constituting the so-called "Passion Week".

Basic storyline.

Depending on one's views, the "Passion" may include:

Differences between the canonical Gospels.

The Gospel of Luke states that Pilate sends Jesus to be judged by Herod Antipas because as a Galilean he is under his jurisdiction. Herod is excited at first to see Jesus and hopes Jesus will perform a miracle for him; he asks Jesus several questions but Jesus does not answer. Herod then mocks him and sends him back to Pilate after giving him an "elegant" robe to wear.  All the Gospels relate that a man named Barabbas was released by Pilate instead of Jesus. Matthew, Mark and John have Pilate offer a choice between Jesus and Barabbas to the crowd; Luke lists no choice offered by Pilate, but represents the crowd demanding his release.  In all the Gospels, Pilate asks Jesus if he is King of the Jews and Jesus replies "So you say". Once condemned by Pilate, he was flogged before execution. The Canonical Gospels, except Luke, record that Jesus is then taken by the soldiers to the Praetorium where, according to Matthew and Mark, the whole contingent of soldiers has been called together. They place a purple robe on him, put a crown of thorns on his head, and according to Matthew, put a rod in his hand. They mock him by hailing him as "King of the Jews", paying homage and hitting him on the head with the rod.  According to the Gospel of John, Pilate has Jesus brought out a second time, wearing the purple robe and the crown of thorns, in order to appeal his innocence before the crowd, saying "Ecce homo," ("Behold the man"). But, John represents, the priests urge the crowd to demand Jesus' death. Pilate resigns himself to the decision, washing his hands (according to Matthew) before the people as a sign that Jesus' blood will not be upon him. According to the Gospel of Matthew they replied, "His blood be on us and on our children!"  Mark and Matthew record that Jesus is returned his own clothes, prior to being led out for execution. According to the Gospel accounts he is forced, like other victims of crucifixion, to drag his own cross to Golgotha, the location of the execution. The three Synoptic Gospels refer to a man called Simon of Cyrene who is made to carry the cross (,, ), while in the Gospel of John () Jesus is made to carry his own cross. The Gospel of Mark gives the names of Simon's children, Alexander and Rufus. However, the Gospel of Luke refers to Simon carrying the cross "after" Jesus, in that it states: "they laid hold upon one Simon, a Cyrenian, coming out of the country, and on him they laid the cross, that he might bear it after Jesus". Luke adds that Jesus' female followers follow, mourning his fate, but that he responds by quoting Hosea 10:8.  The Synoptic Gospels state that on arrival at Golgotha, Jesus is offered wine laced with myrrh to lessen the pain, but he refuses it. Jesus is then crucified, according to Mark, at "the third hour" (9 a.m.) the morning after the Passover meal, but according to John he is handed over to be crucified at "the sixth hour" (noon) the day before the Passover meal, although many resolve this by saying that the Synoptics use Jewish time, and that John uses Roman time. Pilate has a plaque fixed to Jesus' cross inscribed, (according to John) in Hebrew, Greek and Latin – "Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudeorum", meaning "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews". Mark has the plaque say simply, "King of the Jews." The Gospels then state that the soldiers divide Jesus' clothes among themselves, except for one garment for which they cast lots. The Gospel of John claims that this fulfills a prophecy from. Some of the crowd who have been following taunt Jesus, saying "He trusts in God; let God deliver him now!", and suggest that Jesus might perform a miracle to release himself from the cross.  According to the Gospels, two thieves are also crucified, one on each side of him. According to Luke, one of the thieves reviles Jesus, while the other declares Jesus innocent and begs that he might be remembered when Jesus comes to his kingdom (see Penitent thief).  John records that Mary, his mother, and two other women stand by the cross as does a disciple, described as the one whom Jesus loved. Jesus commits his mother to this disciple's care. According to the synoptics, the sky becomes dark at midday and the darkness lasts for three hours, until the ninth hour when Jesus cries out "Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?" ("My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?"). The centurion standing guard, who has seen how Jesus has died, declares Jesus innocent (Luke) or the "Son of God" (Matthew, Mark).  John says that, as was the custom, the soldiers come and break the legs of the thieves, so that they will die faster, but that on coming to Jesus they find him already dead. A soldier pierces his side with a spear.  According to the Gospel of Matthew, Judas, the betrayer, is filled with remorse and tries to return the money he was paid for betraying Jesus. When the high priests say that that is his affair, Judas throws the money into the temple, goes off, and hangs himself. However, according to the Book of Acts, Judas was not remorseful, took the money and bought a field from it, whereupon he suddenly fell and died.

Narrative according to the Gospel of Peter.

Further claims concerning the Passion are made in some non-canonical early writings. Another passion narrative is found in the fragmentary "Gospel of Peter", long known to scholars through references, and of which a fragment was discovered in Cairo in 1884.  The narrative begins with Pilate washing his hands, as in Matthew, but the Jews and Herod refuse this. Joseph of Arimathea, before Jesus has been crucified, asks for his body, and Herod says he is going to take it down to comply with the Jewish custom of not leaving a dead body hung on a tree overnight. Herod then turns Jesus over to the people who drag him, give him a purple robe, crown him with thorns, and beat and flog him.  There are also two criminals, crucified on either side of him and, as in Luke, one begs Jesus for forgiveness. The writer says Jesus is silent as they crucify him, "...as if in no pain." Jesus is labeled the King of Israel on his cross and his clothes are divided and gambled over.  As in the canonical Gospels, darkness covers the land. Jesus is also given vinegar to drink. Peter has "My Power, My Power, why have you forsaken me?" as the last words of Jesus, rather than "My God, My God, why have you forsaken me?" as quoted in Mark. He is then "taken up", possibly a euphemism for death or maybe an allusion to heaven. Peter then has a resurrection, similar to the other books.  Serapion of Antioch urged the exclusion of the Gospel of Peter from the Church because Docetists were using it to bolster their theological claims, which Serapion rejected. Many modern scholars also reject this conclusion, as the statement about Jesus being silent "as if in no pain" seems to be based on Isaiah's description of the suffering servant, "as a sheep that before its shearers is silent, so he opened not his mouth." ().

The Trials of Jesus.

The gospels provide differing accounts of the trial of Jesus. Mark describes two separate proceedings, one involving Jewish leaders and one in which the Roman prefect for Judea, Pontius Pilate, plays the key role. Both Matthew and John's accounts generally support Mark's two-trial version. Luke, alone among the gospels, adds yet a third proceeding: having Pilate send Jesus to Herod Antipas. The non-canonical Gospel of Peter describes a single trial scene involving Jewish, Roman, and Herodian officials.

Biblical prophecies.

Old Testament prophecy.

Christians interpret at least three passages of the Old Testament as prophecies about Jesus’ Passion.  The first and most obvious is the one from (either 8th or 6th century BC). This prophetic oracle describes a sinless man who will atone for the sins of his people. By his voluntary suffering, he will save sinners from the just punishment of God. The death of Jesus is said to fulfill this prophecy. For example, "He had no form or comeliness that we should look at him, and no beauty that we should desire him. He was despised and rejected by men; a man of sorrows, and acquainted with grief; and as one from whom men hide their faces he was despised, and we esteemed him not. Surely he has borne our griefs and carried our sorrows; yet we esteemed him stricken, smitten by God, and afflicted. But he was wounded for our transgressions, he was bruised for our iniquities; upon him was the chastisement that made us whole, and with his stripes we are healed" ().  The second prophecy of Christ's Passion is the ancient text which Jesus himself quoted, while he was dying on the cross. From the cross, Jesus cried with a loud voice, "Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani?" which means, "My God, my God, why hast Thou forsaken me?" These words of Jesus were a quotation of the ancient. King David, in Psalm 22, foretold the sufferings of the messiah. For example, "I am a worm and no man, the reproach of men and the outcast of the people. All who see me, laugh me to scorn, they draw apart their lips, and wag their heads: ‘He trusts in the Lord: let him free him, let him deliver him if he loves him.’ Stand not far from me, for I am troubled; be thou near at hand: for I have no helper....Yea, dogs are round about me; a company of evildoers encircle me; they have pierced my hands and feet – I can count all my bones – they stare and gloat over me; they divide my garments among them, and for my raiment they cast lots" (). The words "they have pierced my hands and feet" are disputed, however.  The third main prophecy of the Passion is from the Book of the Wisdom of Solomon. Protestant Christians place it in the Apocrypha, Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox among the deuterocanonical books. But it was written about 150 BC, and many have understood these verses (12-20 of chapter 2) as a direct prophecy of Jesus’ Passion. For example, "Let us lie in wait for the just, because he is not for our turn....He boasteth that he hath the knowledge of God, and calleth himself the son of God... and glorieth that he hath God for his father. Let us see then if his words be true....For if he be the true son of God, he will defend him, and will deliver him from the hands of his enemies. Let us examine him by outrages and tortures....Let us condemn him to a most shameful death....These things they thought, and were deceived, for their own malice blinded them" (Wisdom 2:12-20).  In addition to the above, it deserves to be mentioned that at least three other, less elaborate messianic prophecies were fulfilled in Jesus’ crucifixion, namely, the following Old Testament passages:  "Many are the afflictions of the just man; but the Lord delivers him from all of them. He guards all his bones: not even one of them shall be broken" ().  "And they gave me gall for my food, and in my thirst they gave me vinegar to drink" ().  "And they shall look upon me whom they have pierced; and they shall mourn for him as one mourneth for an only son; and they shall grieve over him, as the manner is to grieve for the death of the firstborn" ().

New Testament prophecy.

The Gospel explains how these old prophecies were fulfilled in Jesus’ crucifixion.  "So the soldiers came and broke the legs of the first, and of the other who had been crucified with Jesus; but when they came to Jesus and saw that he was already dead, they did not break his legs. But one of the soldiers pierced his side with a spear, and at once there came out blood and water....For these things took place that the scripture might be fulfilled, ‘Not a bone of him shall be broken.’ And again another scripture says, ‘They shall look on him whom they have pierced’" ().  In the Gospel of Mark, Jesus is described as prophesying his own Passion and his Resurrection three times:  Christians argue that these are cases of genuine and fulfilled prophecy and many scholars see Semitic features and tradition in.  After the third prophecy, the Gospel of Mark states that the brothers James and John ask Jesus to be his left and right hand men, but Jesus asks if they can drink from the "cup" he must drink from. They say that they can do this. Jesus confirms this, but says that the places at his right and left hand are reserved for others. Many Christian see this as being a reference to the two criminals at Jesus' crucifixion, thus relating to the Passion. The "cup" is sometimes interpreted as the symbol of his death, in the light of Jesus' prayer at Gethsemane "Let this cup be taken from me!"

Liturgical use.

Holy Week.

Most Christian denominations will read one or more narratives of the Passion during Holy Week, especially on Good Friday. In the Roman Catholic church, a large cross depicting the crucified Christ is brought out into the church and each of the faithful come forward to venerate the cross. Rather than having the Gospel read solely by the priest, whole Roman Catholic congregations participate in the reading of the Passion Gospel during the Palm Sunday Mass and the Good Friday service. These readings have the Priest read the part of Christ, a narrator read the narrative, other reader(s) reading the other speaking parts, and either the choir or the congregation reading the parts of crowds (i.e.: when the crowd shouts "Crucify Him! Crucify Him!").  In the Eastern Orthodox and Greek-Catholic Churches, the Matins service for Good Friday is called "Matins of the Twelve Passion Gospels", and is remarkable for the interspersing of twelve readings from the Gospel Book detailing chronologically the events of the Passion – from the Last Supper to the burial in the tomb – during the course of the service. The first of these twelve readings is the longest Gospel reading of the entire liturgical year. In addition, every Wednesday and Friday throughout the year is dedicated in part to the commemoration of the Passion.  During Holy Week/Passion Week Congregations of the Moravian Church (Herrnhuter Bruedergemeine) read the entire story of Jesus' final week from a Harmony of the Gospels prepared for that purpose since 1777. Daily meetings are held, some times two or three times a day, to follow the events of the day. During the course of the reading, the Congregation sings hymn verses to respond to the events of the text.  Most liturgical churches hold some form of commemoration of the Crucifixion on the afternoon of Good Friday. Sometimes, this will take the form of a vigil from noon to 3:00 pm, the approximate time that Jesus hung on the cross. Sometimes there will be a reenactment of the Descent from the Cross; for instance, at Vespers in the Byzantine (Eastern Orthodox and Greek-Catholic) tradition.

Reparation to Jesus.

The Roman Catholic tradition includes specific prayers and devotions as "acts of reparation" for the sufferings and insults that Jesus endured during his Passion. These "acts of reparation to Jesus Christ" do not involve a petition for a living or deceased beneficiary, but aim to "repair the sins" against Jesus. Some such prayers are provided in the Raccolta Catholic prayer book (approved by a Decree of 1854, and published by the Holy See in 1898) which also includes prayers as Acts of Reparation to the Virgin Mary.  In his encyclical "Miserentissimus Redemptor" on reparations, Pope Pius XI called acts of reparation to Jesus Christ a duty for Catholics and referred to them as "some sort of compensation to be rendered for the injury" with respect to the sufferings of Jesus.  Pope John Paul II referred to acts of reparation as the "unceasing effort to stand beside the endless crosses on which the Son of God continues to be crucified".

Devotions.

Several non-liturgical devotions have been developed by Christian faithful to commemorate the Passion.

The Stations of the Cross.

The Stations of the Cross are a series of religious reflections describing or depicting Christ carrying the cross to his crucifixion. Most Roman Catholic churches, as well as many Anglican, Lutheran. and Methodist parishes, contain Stations of the Cross, typically placed at intervals along the sidewalls of the nave; in most churches, they are small plaques with reliefs or paintings, although in others they may be simple crosses with a numeral in the center. The tradition of moving around the Stations to commemorate the Passion of Christ began with Francis of Assisi and extended throughout the Roman Catholic Church in the medieval period. It is most commonly done during Lent, especially on Good Friday, but it can be done on other days as well, especially Wednesdays and Fridays.

The Passion Offices.

The Passion Offices were the special prayers said by various Roman Catholic communities, particularly the Passionist fathers to commemorate the Passion of Christ.

The Little Office of the Passion.

Another devotion is the Little Office of the Passion created by Francis of Assisi (1181/82–1226). He ordered this office around the medieval association of five specific moments in Jesus' Passion with specific hours of the day. Having then attributed these to hours of the Divine Office, he arrived at this schema:

In the arts.

Visual art.

Each episode of the Passion, such as the Flagellation of Christ or Entombment of Christ, has been represented thousands of times and has developed its own iconographic tradition; the Crucifixion is much the most common and important of these subjects. The Passion is often covered by a cycle of depictions; Albrecht Dürer's print cycles were so popular that he produced three different versions. Andachtsbilder is a term for devotional subjects such as the Man of Sorrows or Pietà, that may not precisely represent a moment in the Passion but are derived from the Passion story. The "Arma Christi", or "Instruments of the Passion" are the objects associated with Jesus' Passion, such as the cross, the Crown of Thorns and the Spear of Longinus. Each of the major Instruments has been supposedly recovered as relics which have been an object of veneration among many Christians, and have been depicted in art. Veronica's Veil is also often counted among the Instruments of the Passion; like the Shroud of Turin and Sudarium of Oviedo it is a cloth relic supposed to have touched Jesus.  In the Roman Catholic Church (and some Anglo-Catholic and Western Rite Orthodox churches), the Passion story is depicted in the Stations of the Cross ("via crucis", also translated more literally as "Way of the Cross"). These 14 stations depict the Passion from the sentencing by Pilate to the sealing of the tomb, or with the addition of a 15th, the resurrection. Since the 16th-century representations of them in various media have decorated the naves of most Catholic churches. The Way of the Cross is a devotion practiced by many people on Fridays throughout the year, most importantly on Good Friday. This may be simply by going round the Stations in a church, or may involve large-scale re-enactments, as in Jerusalem. The Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy are similar schemes on a far larger scale than church Stations, with chapels containing large sculpted groups arranged in a hilly landscape; for pilgrims to tour the chapels typically takes several hours. They mostly date from the late 16th to the 17th century; most depict the Passion, others different subjects as well.

Music.

The main traditional types of church music sung during Holy Week are "Passions", musical settings of the Gospel narratives, both a Catholic and Lutheran tradition, and settings of the readings and responses from the Catholic Tenebrae services, especially those of the "Lamentations of Jeremiah the Prophet". The many settings of the "Stabat Mater" or musical settings of sayings of Jesus on the cross are also commonly performed.  The reading of the Passion section of one of the Gospels during Holy Week dates back to the 4th century. It began to be intoned (rather than just spoken) in the Middle Ages, at least as early as the 8th century. Ninth-century manuscripts have "litterae significativae" indicating interpretive chant, and later manuscripts begin to specify exact notes to be sung. By the 13th century, different singers were used for different characters in the narrative, a practice which became fairly universal by the 15th century, when polyphonic settings of the "turba" passages began to appear also. ("Turba", while literally meaning "crowd", is used in this case to mean any passage in which more than one person speaks simultaneously.)  In the later 15th century a number of new styles began to emerge:  In the 16th century, settings like these, and further developments, were created for the Catholic Church by Victoria, William Byrd, Jacobus Gallus, Francisco Guerrero, Orlando di Lasso, and Cypriano de Rore.  Martin Luther wrote, "The Passion of Christ should not be acted out in words and pretense, but in real life." Despite this, sung Passion performances were common in Lutheran churches right from the start, in both Latin and German, beginning as early as Laetare Sunday (three weeks before Easter) and continuing through Holy Week. Luther's friend and collaborator Johann Walther wrote responsorial Passions which were used as models by Lutheran composers for centuries, and ""summa Passionis"" versions continued to circulate, despite Luther's express disapproval. Later 16th-century passions included choral ""exordium"" (introduction) and ""conclusio"" sections with additional texts. In the 17th century came the development of "oratorio" passions which led to J.S. Bach's Passions, accompanied by instruments, with interpolated texts (then called "madrigal" movements) such as sinfonias, other Scripture passages, Latin motets, chorale arias, and more. Such settings were created by Bartholomäus Gesius and Heinrich Schütz. Thomas Strutz wrote a Passion (1664) with arias for Jesus himself, pointing to the standard oratorio tradition of Schütz, Carissimi, and others, although these composers seem to have thought that putting words in Jesus’ mouth was beyond the pale. The practice of using recitative for the Evangelist (rather than plainsong) was a development of court composers in northern Germany and only crept into church compositions at the end of the 17th century. A famous musical reflection on the Passion is Part II of "Messiah", an oratorio by George Frideric Handel, though the text here draws from Old Testament prophecies rather than from the gospels themselves.  The best known Protestant musical settings of the Passion are by Johann Sebastian Bach, who wrote several Passions, of which two have survived, one based on the Gospel of John (the "St John Passion"), the other on the Gospel of Matthew (the "St Matthew Passion"). His "St Mark Passion" was reconstructed in various ways. The Passion continued to be very popular in Protestant Germany in the 18th century, with Bach's second son Carl Philipp Emanuel composing over twenty settings. In the 19th century, with the exception of John Stainer's "The Crucifixion" (1887), Passion settings were less popular, but in the 20th century they have again come into fashion. Two notable settings are the "St. Luke Passion" (1965) by Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki and the "Passio" (1982) by Estonian composer Arvo Pärt. Recent examples include "The Passion According to St. Matthew" (1997), by Mark Alburger, and "The Passion According to the Four Evangelists", by Scott King. Andrew Lloyd Webber's "Jesus Christ Superstar" (book and lyrics by Tim Rice) and Stephen Schwartz's "Godspell" both contain elements of the traditional passion accounts. Choral meditations on aspects of the suffering through which Christ humbled himself on the cross include arrangements such as Buxtehude's 1680 composition Membra Jesu Nostri, the first such Lutheran treatment, incorporating lyrics excerpted from a medieval Latin poem and featuring Old Testament verses that prefigure the Messiah as suffering servant: see Passion cantata.

Drama and processions.

Non-musical settings of the Passion story are generally called Passion plays; these have been very widely performed in traditionally Catholic countries, often in churches as liturgical dramas – for versions with musical settings, see the previous section. One famous cycle is performed at intervals at Oberammergau Germany, another in Sordevolo one of the most important in Italy, and another in the Brazilian state of Pernambuco uses what is considered the largest open-air theater in the world. The Passion figures among the scenes in the English mystery plays in more than one cycle of dramatic vignettes. In the Chester Mystery Plays' portrayal of Christ's Passion, specifically his humiliation before his sentence to crucifixion, the accounts of the Gospels concerning the physical violence visited on Jesus during his trial before the Sanhedrin, and the humiliating crowning of thorns visited upon him in Pilate's palace (or by Herod's soldiers, according to Luke), is further confused by showing both actions as being carried out by jeering Jews.  Processions on Palm Sunday commonly re-enact to some degree the entry of Jesus to Jerusalem, traditional ones often using special wooden donkeys on wheels. Holy Week in Spain retains more traditional public processions than other countries, with the most famous, in Seville, featuring floats with carved tableaux showing scenes from the story.

In Latin America.

During the Passion week many towns in Mexico have a representation of the passion.

In Spain.

During the Passion week many cities and towns in Spain have a representation of the Passion.  Many Passion poems and prose text circulated in the fifteenth-century Castile, among which there were the first modern translations of earlier Latin Passion texts and "Vitae Christi", and also a popular "Monotessaron" or "Pasión de l'eterno principe Jesucristo" attributed to a pseudo-Gerson. It was most likely written by Thomas à Kempis, whose "Imitation of Christ" mentions the Passion a few times, uniquely when talking about the Eucharist.

Film.

There have also been a number of, with a prominent example being Mel Gibson's 2004 "The Passion of the Christ."

In Christianity, the Passion (from the Latin verb: "patior, passus sum" ("to suffer, bear, endure", from which also "patience, patient", etc.) is the short final period in the life of Jesus.

Pašije (z lat. "passio" – „utrpení“) je v původním významu vyprávění o utrpení a smrti Ježíše Krista. Označují se tak buď přímo evangelní vyprávění nebo příběhy, dramatické hry, liturgická čtení či hudební skladby, které se jimi inspirují a toto téma zpracovávají. Název pochází z prvního slova při předčítání či zpěvu evangelních pasáží při liturgii ("Passio Domini nostri Iesu Christi secundum..." „Utrpení našeho Pána Ježíše Krista podle...“).


History.

The International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) was established in June 1973 by accountancy bodies representing ten countries. It devised and published International Accounting Standards (IAS), interpretations and a conceptual framework. These were looked to by many national accounting standard-setters in developing national standards.  In 2001 the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) replaced the IASC with a remit to bring about convergence between national accounting standards through the development of global accounting standards. During its first meeting the new Board adopted existing IAS and Standing Interpretations Committee standards (SICs). The IASB has continued to develop standards calling the new standards "International Financial Reporting Standards" (IFRS).  In 2002 the European Union (EU) agreed that, from 1 January 2005, International Financial Reporting Standards would apply for the consolidated accounts of the EU listed companies, bringing about the introduction of IFRS to many large entities. Other countries have since followed the lead of the EU.

Adoption.

IFRS Standards are required in more than 140 jurisdictions and permitted in many parts of the world, including South Korea, Brazil, the European Union, India, Hong Kong, Australia, Malaysia, Pakistan, GCC countries, Russia, Chile, Philippines, South Africa, Singapore and Turkey.  To assess progress towards the goal of a single set global accounting standards, the IFRS Foundation has developed and posted profiles about the use of IFRS Standards in individual jurisdictions. These are based on information from various sources. The starting point was the responses provided by standard-setting and other relevant bodies to a survey that the IFRS Foundation conducted. As of August 2019, profiles are completed for 166 jurisdictions, with 144 jurisdictions requiring the use of IFRS Standards.  Due to the difficulty of maintaining up-to-date information in individual jurisdictions, three sources of information on current worldwide IFRS adoption are recommended:  Ray J. Ball described the expectation by the European Union and others that IFRS adoption worldwide would be beneficial to investors and other users of financial statements, by reducing the costs of comparing investment opportunities and increasing the quality of information. Companies are also expected to benefit, as investors will be more willing to provide financing. Companies that have high levels of international activities are among the group that would benefit from a switch to IFRS Standards. Companies that are involved in foreign activities and investing benefit from the switch due to the increased comparability of a set accounting standard. However, Ray J. Ball has expressed some scepticism of the overall cost of the international standard; he argues that the enforcement of the standards could be lax, and the regional differences in accounting could become obscured behind a label. He also expressed concerns about the fair value emphasis of IFRS and the influence of accountants from non-common-law regions, where losses have been recognised in a less timely manner.

US GAAP.

US GAAP remains separate from IFRS. The Securities Exchange Committee (SEC) requires the use of US GAAP by domestic companies with listed securities and does not permit them to use IFRS; US GAAP is also used by some companies in Japan and the rest of the world.  In 2002 IASB and the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), the body supporting US GAAP, announced a programme known as the Norwalk Agreement that aimed at eliminating differences between IFRS and US GAAP. In 2012 the SEC announced that it expected separate US GAAP to continue for the foreseeable future but sought to encourage further work to align the two standards.  IFRS is sometimes described as principles-based, as opposed to a rules-based approach in US GAAP; so in US GAAP there is more instruction in the application of standards to specific examples and industries.

Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting.

The Conceptual Framework serves as a tool for the IASB to develop standards. It does not override the requirements of individual IFRSs. Some companies may use the Framework as a reference for selecting their accounting policies in the absence of specific IFRS requirements.

Objective of financial statements.

The Conceptual Framework states that the primary purpose of financial information is to be useful to existing and potential investors, lenders and other creditors when making decisions about the financing of the entity and exercising rights to vote on, or otherwise influence, management's actions that affect the use of the entity's economic resources.  Users base their expectations of returns on their assessment of:

Qualitative characteristics of financial information.

The Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting defines the fundamental qualitative characteristics of financial information to be:  The Framework also describes and qualitative characteristics:

Elements of financial statements.

The Conceptual Framework defines the elements of financial statements to be:-

Recognition of elements of financial statements.

An item is recognized in the financial statements when:  In some cases specific standards add additional conditions before recognition is possible or prohibit recognition altogether.  An example is the recognition of internally generated brands, mastheads, publishing titles, customer lists and items similar in substance, for which recognition is prohibited by IAS 38. In addition research and development expenses can only be recognised as an intangible asset if they cross the threshold of being classified as 'development cost'.  Whilst the standard on provisions, IAS 37, prohibits the recognition of a provision for contingent liabilities, this prohibition is not applicable to the accounting for contingent liabilities in a business combination. In that case the acquirer shall recognise a contingent liability even if it is not probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required.

Concepts of capital and capital maintenance.

Concepts of capital maintenance are important as only income earned in excess of amounts needed to maintain capital may be regarded as profit. The Conceptual Framework describes the following concepts of capital maintenance:  Most entities adopt a financial concept of capital maintenance. However, the Conceptual Framework does not prescribe any model of capital maintenance.

Requirements.

Presentation of financial statements.

IFRS financial statements consist of:  Comparative information is required for the prior reporting period.

General features.

The following are the general features in IFRS:

Cash flow statements.

Cash flow statements in IFRS are presented as follows:

Criticisms.

In 2012, staff of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) issued a report setting out observations on a potential adoption of IFRS in the United States. This included the following criticisms:-  IASB staff have responded to these observations and concluded that there were no insurmountable obstacles for the adoption of IFRS by the United States. In 2013 IASB member Philippe Danjou listed ten common criticisms of IFRS. He sought to counter these, describing them as misconceptions Charles Lee, professor of accounting at Stanford Graduate School of Business, has also criticised the use of fair values in financial reporting. H David Sherman and S David Young have criticised the current state of financial reporting under IFRS and US GAAP:-

Consequences of adopting IFRS.

Many researchers have studied the effects of IFRS adoption, and there are debates on whether the effects can be attributed solely to IFRS mandate adoption. For example, one study uses data from 26 countries to study the economic consequences of mandatory IFRS adoption. It shows that, on average, even though market liquidity increases around the time of the introduction of IFRS, it is unclear whether IFRS mandate adoption is the sole reason of observed market effects. Firms’ reporting incentives, law enforcement, and increased comparability of financial reports can also explain the effects.  The latest IFRS news and resources from the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW)

International Financial Reporting Standards, commonly called IFRS, are accounting standards issued by the IFRS Foundation and the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). They constitute a standardised way of describing the company’s financial performance so that company financial statements are understandable and comparable across international boundaries. They are particularly relevant for companies with shares or securities listed on a public stock exchange.

Mezinárodní standardy účetního výkaznictví (IFRS), anglicky "International Financial Reporting Standards", je soubor standardů vydávaných Radou pro mezinárodní účetní standardy (IASB), anglicky "International Accounting Standards Board", upravující sestavování a prezentaci finančních výkazů účetní závěrky.


In plants.

Plastids that contain chlorophyll can carry out photosynthesis and are called chloroplasts. Plastids can also store products like starch and can synthesize fatty acids and terpenes, which can be used for producing energy and as raw material for the synthesis of other molecules. For example, the components of the plant cuticle and its epicuticular wax are synthesized by the epidermal cells from palmitic acid, which is synthesized in the chloroplasts of the mesophyll tissue. All plastids are derived from proplastids, which are present in the meristematic regions of the plant. Proplastids and young chloroplasts commonly divide by binary fission, but more mature chloroplasts also have this capacity.  In plants, undifferentiated plastids (proplastids) may differentiate into several forms, depending upon which function they perform in the cell. They may develop into any of the following variants:  Depending on their morphology and function, plastids have the ability to differentiate, or redifferentiate, between these and other forms.  Each plastid creates multiple copies of a circular 75–250 kilobase plastome. The number of genome copies per plastid is variable, ranging from more than 1000 in rapidly dividing cells, which, in general, contain few plastids, to 100 or fewer in mature cells, where plastid divisions have given rise to a large number of plastids. The plastome contains about 100 genes encoding ribosomal and transfer ribonucleic acids (rRNAs and tRNAs) as well as proteins involved in photosynthesis and plastid gene transcription and translation. However, these proteins only represent a small fraction of the total protein set-up necessary to build and maintain the structure and function of a particular type of plastid. Plant nuclear genes encode the vast majority of plastid proteins, and the expression of plastid genes and nuclear genes is tightly co-regulated to coordinate proper development of plastids in relation to cell differentiation.  Plastid DNA exists as large protein-DNA complexes associated with the inner envelope membrane and called 'plastid nucleoids'. Each nucleoid particle may contain more than 10 copies of the plastid DNA. The proplastid contains a single nucleoid located in the centre of the plastid. The developing plastid has many nucleoids, localized at the periphery of the plastid, bound to the inner envelope membrane. During the development of proplastids to chloroplasts, and when plastids convert from one type to another, nucleoids change in morphology, size and location within the organelle. The remodelling of nucleoids is believed to occur by modifications to the composition and abundance of nucleoid proteins.  Many plastids, particularly those responsible for photosynthesis, possess numerous internal membrane layers.  In plant cells, long thin protuberances called stromules sometimes form and extend from the main plastid body into the cytosol and interconnect several plastids. Proteins, and presumably smaller molecules, can move within stromules. Most cultured cells that are relatively large compared to other plant cells have very long and abundant stromules that extend to the cell periphery.  In 2014, evidence of possible plastid genome loss was found in "Rafflesia lagascae", a non-photosynthetic parasitic flowering plant, and in "Polytomella", a genus of non-photosynthetic green algae. Extensive searches for plastid genes in both "Rafflesia" and "Polytomella" yielded no results, however the conclusion that their plastomes are entirely missing is still controversial. Some scientists argue that plastid genome loss is unlikely since even non-photosynthetic plastids contain genes necessary to complete various biosynthetic pathways, such as heme biosynthesis.

In algae.

In algae, the term leucoplast is used for all unpigmented plastids. Their function differs from the leucoplasts of plants. Etioplasts, amyloplasts and chromoplasts are plant-specific and do not occur in algae. Plastids in algae and hornworts may also differ from plant plastids in that they contain pyrenoids.  Glaucophyte algae contain muroplasts, which are similar to chloroplasts except that they have a peptidoglycan cell wall that is similar to that of prokaryotes. Red algae contain rhodoplasts, which are red chloroplasts that allow them to photosynthesize to a depth of up to 268 m. The chloroplasts of plants differ from the rhodoplasts of red algae in their ability to synthesize starch, which is stored in the form of granules within the plastids. In red algae, floridean starch is synthesized and stored outside the plastids in the cytosol.

Inheritance.

Most plants inherit the plastids from only one parent. In general, angiosperms inherit plastids from the female gamete, whereas many gymnosperms inherit plastids from the male pollen. Algae also inherit plastids from only one parent. The plastid DNA of the other parent is, thus, completely lost.  In normal intraspecific crossings (resulting in normal hybrids of one species), the inheritance of plastid DNA appears to be quite strictly 100% uniparental. In interspecific hybridisations, however, the inheritance of plastids appears to be more erratic. Although plastids inherit mainly maternally in interspecific hybridisations, there are many reports of hybrids of flowering plants that contain plastids of the father. Approximately 20% of angiosperms, including alfalfa ("Medicago sativa"), normally show biparental inheritance of plastids.

DNA damage and repair.

Plastid DNA of maize seedlings is subject to increased damage as the seedlings develop. The DNA is damaged in oxidative environments created by photo-oxidative reactions and photosynthetic/respiratory electron transfer. Some DNA molecules are repaired while DNA with unrepaired damage appears to be degraded to non-functional fragments.  DNA repair proteins are encoded by the cell's nuclear genome but can be translocated to plastids where they maintain genome stability/integrity by repairing the plastid's DNA. As an example, in chloroplasts of the moss "Physcomitrella patens", a protein employed in DNA mismatch repair (Msh1) interacts with proteins employed in recombinational repair (RecA and RecG) to maintain plastid genome stability.

Origin.

Plastids are thought to be endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. This primary endosymbiotic event is hypothesized to have occurred around 1.5 billion years ago and enabled eukaryotes to carry out oxygenic photosynthesis. Three evolutionary lineages have since emerged in which the plastids are named differently: chloroplasts in green algae and plants, rhodoplasts in red algae and muroplasts in the glaucophytes. The plastids differ both in their pigmentation and in their ultrastructure. For example, chloroplasts in plants and green algae have lost all phycobilisomes, the light harvesting complexes found in cyanobacteria, red algae and glaucophytes, but instead contain stroma and grana thylakoids. The glaucocystophycean plastid—in contrast to chloroplasts and rhodoplasts—is still surrounded by the remains of the cyanobacterial cell wall. All these primary plastids are surrounded by two membranes.  In contrast to primary plastids derived from primary endosymbiosis of a prokaryoctyic cyanobacteria, complex plastids originated by secondary endosymbiosis in which a eukaryotic organism engulfed another eukaryotic organism that contained a primary plastid. When a eukaryote engulfs a red or a green alga and retains the algal plastid, that plastid is typically surrounded by more than two membranes. In some cases these plastids may be reduced in their metabolic and/or photosynthetic capacity. Algae with complex plastids derived by secondary endosymbiosis of a red alga include the heterokonts, haptophytes, cryptomonads, and most dinoflagellates (= rhodoplasts). Those that endosymbiosed a green alga include the euglenids and chlorarachniophytes (= chloroplasts). The Apicomplexa, a phylum of obligate parasitic protozoa including the causative agents of malaria ("Plasmodium" spp.), toxoplasmosis ("Toxoplasma gondii"), and many other human or animal diseases also harbor a complex plastid (although this organelle has been lost in some apicomplexans, such as "Cryptosporidium parvum", which causes cryptosporidiosis). The 'apicoplast' is no longer capable of photosynthesis, but is an essential organelle, and a promising target for antiparasitic drug development.  Some dinoflagellates and sea slugs, in particular of the genus "Elysia", take up algae as food and keep the plastid of the digested alga to profit from the photosynthesis; after a while, the plastids are also digested. This process is known as kleptoplasty, from the Greek, "kleptes", thief.

Paulinella chromatophora.

Paulinella has a similar organelle which does not belong to the plastids discussed in this text. It is a chromatophore, which is a more recently acquired endosymbiotic β-Cyanobacteria. This endosymbiosis event occurred much more recent, and is only the second known primary endosymbiosis event of cyanobacteria.

The plastid (Greek: πλαστός; plastós: formed, molded – plural plastids) is a membrane-bound organelle found in the cells of plants, algae, and some other eukaryotic organisms. They are considered endosymbiotic Cyanobacteria, related to the Gloeomargarita. Plastids were discovered and named by Ernst Haeckel, but A. F. W. Schimper was the first to provide a clear definition. Plastids are the site of manufacture and storage of important chemical compounds used by the cells of autotrophic eukaryotes. They often contain pigments used in photosynthesis, and the types of pigments in a plastid determine the cell's color. They have a common evolutionary origin and possess a double-stranded DNA molecule that is circular, like that of the circular chromosome of prokaryotic cells.

Plastid je eukaryotická semiautonomní organela přítomná v buňkách rostlin a některých dalších eukaryotických organismů (zejména různých řas). V typickém případě slouží k fotosyntéze a nazývají se chloroplasty. V mnohých případech však plastidy ztrácí tuto funkci a přizpůsobují se k funkcím jiným. Mohou pak sloužit jako zásobní organela nebo odpovídat za určité zabarvení buňky.


Grinding laws.

In spite of a great number of studies in the field of fracture schemes there is no formula known which connects the technical grinding work with grinding results. To calculate the needed grinding work against the grain size changing three semi-empirical models are used. These can be related to the Hukki relationship between particle size and the energy required to break the particles. In stirred mills, the Hukki relationship does not apply and instead, experimentation has to be performed to determine any relationship.  with "W" as grinding work in kJ/kg, "c" as grinding coefficient, "d" as grain size of the source material and "d" as grain size of the ground material. A reliable value for the grain sizes "d" and "d" is "d". This value signifies that 80% (mass) of the solid matter has a smaller grain size. The Bond's grinding coefficient for different materials can be found in various literature. To calculate the KICK's and Rittinger's coefficients following formulas can be used  formula_4  formula_5  with the limits of Bond's range: upper "d" = 50 mm and lower "d" = 0.05 mm.  To evaluate the grinding results the grain size disposition of the source material (1) and of the ground material (2) is needed. Grinding degree is the ratio of the sizes from the grain disposition. There are several definitions for this characteristic value:

Grinding machines.

In materials processing a grinder is a machine for producing fine particle size reduction through attrition and compressive forces at the grain size level. See also crusher for mechanisms producing larger particles. In general, grinding processes require a relatively large amount of energy; for this reason, an experimental method to measure the energy used locally during milling with different machines was recently proposed.

Ball mill.

A typical type of fine grinder is the ball mill. A slightly inclined or horizontal rotating cylinder is partially filled with balls, usually stone or metal, which grind material to the necessary fineness by friction and impact with the tumbling balls. Ball mills normally operate with an approximate ball charge of 30%. Ball mills are characterized by their smaller (comparatively) diameter and longer length, and often have a length 1.5 to 2.5 times the diameter. The feed is at one end of the cylinder and the discharge is at the other. Ball mills are commonly used in the manufacture of Portland cement and finer grinding stages of mineral processing, one example being the Sepro tyre drive Grinding Mill. Industrial ball mills can be as large as 8.5 m (28 ft) in diameter with a 22 MW motor, drawing approximately 0.0011% of the total world's power (see List of countries by electricity consumption). However, small versions of ball mills can be found in laboratories where they are used for grinding sample material for quality assurance.  The power predictions for ball mills typically use the following form of the Bond equation: where

Rod mill.

A rotating drum causes friction and attrition between steel rods and ore particles. But note that the term 'rod mill' is also used as a synonym for a slitting mill, which makes rods of iron or other metal. Rod mills are less common than ball mills for grinding minerals.  The rods used in the mill, usually a high-carbon steel, can vary in both the length and the diameter. However, the smaller the rods, the larger is the total surface area and hence, the greater the grinding efficiency

Autogenous mill.

Autogenous or autogenic mills are so-called due to the self-grinding of the ore: a rotating drum throws larger rocks of ore in a cascading motion which causes impact breakage of larger rocks and compressive grinding of finer particles. It is similar in operation to a SAG mill as described below but does not use steel balls in the mill. Also known as ROM or "Run Of Mine" grinding.

SAG mill.

SAG is an acronym for semi-autogenous grinding. SAG mills are autogenous mills that also use grinding balls like a ball mill. A SAG mill is usually a primary or first stage grinder. SAG mills use a ball charge of 8 to 21%. The largest SAG mill is 42' (12.8m) in diameter, powered by a 28 MW (38,000 HP) motor. A SAG mill with a 44' (13.4m) diameter and a power of 35 MW (47,000 HP) has been designed.  Attrition between grinding balls and ore particles causes grinding of finer particles. SAG mills are characterized by their large diameter and short length as compared to ball mills. The inside of the mill is lined with lifting plates to lift the material inside the mill, where it then falls off the plates onto the rest of the ore charge. SAG mills are primarily used at gold, copper and platinum mines with applications also in the lead, zinc, silver, alumina and nickel industries.

Pebble mill.

A rotating drum causes friction and attrition between rock pebbles and ore particles. May be used where product contamination by iron from steel balls must be avoided. Quartz or silica is commonly used because it is inexpensive to obtain.

High pressure grinding rolls.

A high pressure grinding roll, often referred to as HPGRs or roller press, consists out of two rollers with the same dimensions, which are rotating against each other with the same circumferential speed. The special feeding of bulk material through a hopper leads to a material bed between the two rollers. The bearing units of one roller can move linearly and are pressed against the material bed by springs or hydraulic cylinders. The pressures in the material bed are greater than 50 MPa (7,000 PSI). In general they achieve 100 to 300 MPa. By this the material bed is compacted to a solid volume portion of more than 80%.  The roller press has a certain similarity to roller crushers and roller presses for the compacting of powders, but purpose, construction and operation mode are different.  Extreme pressure causes the particles inside of the compacted material bed to fracture into finer particles and also causes microfracturing at the grain size level. Compared to ball mills HPGRs achieve a 30 to 50% lower specific energy consumption, although they are not as common as ball mills since they are a newer technology.  A similar type of intermediate crusher is the edge runner, which consists of a circular pan with two or more heavy wheels known as mullers rotating within it; material to be crushed is shoved underneath the wheels using attached plow blades.

Buhrstone mill.

Another type of fine grinder commonly used is the French buhrstone mill, which is similar to old-fashioned flour mills.

Vertical shaft impactor mill (VSI mill).

A VSI mill throws rock or ore particles against a wear plate by slinging them from a spinning center that rotates on a vertical shaft. This type of mill uses the same principle as a VSI crusher.

Tower mill.

Tower mills, often called vertical mills, stirred mills or regrind mills, are a more efficient means of grinding material at smaller particle sizes, and can be used after ball mills in a grinding process. Like ball mills, grinding (steel) balls or pebbles are often added to stirred mills to help grind ore, however these mills contain a large screw mounted vertically to lift and grind material. In tower mills, there is no cascading action as in standard grinding mills. Stirred mills are also common for mixing quicklime (CaO) into a lime slurry. There are several advantages to the tower mill: low noise, efficient energy usage, and low operating costs.

A mill is a device that breaks solid materials into smaller pieces by grinding, crushing, or cutting. Such comminution is an important unit operation in many processes. There are many different types of mills and many types of materials processed in them. Historically mills were powered by hand (e.g., via a hand crank), working animal (e.g., horse mill), wind (windmill) or water (watermill). Today they are usually powered by electricity.

Mlýn je budova a technologické zařízení, sloužící k mletí obilí na mouku a ostatní produkty nebo k mletí rudy (kulový mlýn), popřípadě jiných potravinářských či průmyslových surovin. Uvnitř této budovy je umístěn mlecí stroj, který tuto činnost vykonává, zpravidla válcové stolice nebo mlýnské kameny, používané v minulosti. Ve mlýně, pro dosažení požadované kvality a typu výsledných produktů musí být kromě pohonného zařízení a rozvodů také ostatní mlýnské stroje. Jedná se o stroje na čištění zrna (aspiratér, tarár, žejbro, koukolník – trieur ad.) na loupání zrna – loupačky, třídění rozemletých produktů – vysévače, dále pak čištění a třídění krupice – reforma. K dopravě slouží kapsové a šnekové dopravníky nebo pneumatické – vzduchové zařízení. Mlecí proces ve mlýně lze velmi zjednodušeně zařadit do těchto okruhů: čištění zrna, loupání zrna, mletí (rozemílání, šrotování, vymílání, domílka), třídění (vysévání), čištění krupice a popřípadě ještě dodatečné úpravy např. míchání.


History.

The injector was invented by Henri Giffard in 1858, for use on steam locomotives, and patented in the United Kingdom by Messrs Sharp Stewart & Co. of Glasgow.  After some initial scepticism resulting from the unfamiliar and superficially paradoxical mode of operation, the injector became widely adopted for steam locomotives as an alternative to mechanical pumps.

Operation.

The injector consists of a body filled with a secondary fluid, into which a motive fluid is injected. The motive fluid induces the secondary fluid to move. Injectors exist in many variations, and can have several stages, each repeating the same basic operating principle, to increase their overall effect.  It uses the Venturi effect of a converging-diverging nozzle on a steam jet to convert the pressure energy of the steam to velocity energy, reducing its pressure to below that of the atmosphere, which enables it to entrain a fluid (eg. water). After passing through the convergent "combining cone", the mixed fluid is fully condensed, releasing the latent heat of evaporation of the steam which imparts extra velocity to the water. The condensate mixture then enters a divergent "delivery cone" which slows the jet, converting kinetic energy back into static pressure energy above the pressure of the boiler enabling its feed through a non-return valve.  Most of the heat energy in the condensed steam is returned to the boiler, increasing the thermal efficiency of the process. Injectors are therefore typically over 98% energy-efficient overall; they are also simple compared to the many moving parts in a feed pump. The motive fluid may be a liquid, steam or any other gas. The entrained suction fluid may be a gas, a liquid, a slurry, or a dust-laden gas stream.

Key design parameters.

Fluid feed rate and operating pressure range are the key parameters of an injector, and vacuum pressure and evacuation rate are the key parameters for an ejector.  Compression ratio and the entrainment ratio may also be defined:  The compression ratio of the injector, formula_1, is defined as ratio of the injector's outlet pressure formula_2 to the inlet pressure of the suction fluid formula_3.  The entrainment ratio of the injector, formula_4, is defined as the amount formula_5 (in kg/h) of suction fluid that can be entrained and compressed by a given amount formula_6 (in kg/h) of motive fluid.

Lifting properties.

Other key properties of an injector include the fluid inlet pressure requirements i.e. whether it is lifting or non-lifting.  In a non-lifting injector, positive inlet fluid pressure is needed e.g. the cold water input is fed by gravity.  The steam-cone minimal orifice diameter is kept larger than the combining cone minimal diameter. The non-lifting Nathan 4000 injector used on the Southern Pacific 4294 could push 12,000 US gallons (45,000 L) per hour at 250 psi (17 bar).  The lifting injector can operate with negative inlet fluid pressure i.e. fluid lying below the level of the injector. It differs from the non-lifting type mainly in the relative dimensions of the nozzles.

Overflow.

An overflow is required for excess steam or water to discharge, especially during starting. If the injector cannot initially overcome boiler pressure, the overflow allows the injector to continue to draw water and steam.

Check valve.

There is at least one check valve (called a "clack valve" in locomotives because of the distinctive noise it makes) between the exit of the injector and the boiler to prevent back flow, and usually a valve to prevent air being sucked in at the overflow.

Exhaust steam injector.

Efficiency was further improved by the development of a multi-stage injector which is powered not by live steam from the boiler but by exhaust steam from the cylinders, thereby making use of the residual energy in the exhaust steam which would otherwise go to waste. However, an exhaust injector also cannot work when the locomotive is stationary; later exhaust injectors could use a supply of live steam if no exhaust steam was available.

Problems.

Injectors can be troublesome under certain running conditions, such as when vibration causes the combined steam and water jet to "knock off". Originally the injector had to be restarted by careful manipulation of the steam and water controls, and the distraction caused by a malfunctioning injector was largely responsible for the 1913 Ais Gill rail accident. Later injectors were designed to automatically restart on sensing the collapse in vacuum from the steam jet, for example with a spring-loaded delivery cone.  Another common problem occurs when the incoming water is too warm and is less effective at condensing the steam in the combining cone. That can also occur if the metal body of the injector is too hot, e.g. from prolonged use.

Vacuum ejectors.

An additional use for the injector technology is in vacuum ejectors in continuous train braking systems, which were made compulsory in the UK by the Regulation of Railways Act 1889. A vacuum ejector uses steam pressure to draw air out of the vacuum pipe and reservoirs of continuous train brake. Steam locomotives, with a ready source of steam, found ejector technology ideal with its rugged simplicity and lack of moving parts. A steam locomotive usually has two ejectors: a large ejector for releasing the brakes when stationary and a small ejector for maintaining the vacuum against leaks. The exhaust from the ejectors is invariably directed to the smokebox, by which means it assists the blower in draughting the fire. The small ejector is sometimes replaced by a reciprocating pump driven from the crosshead because this is more economical of steam and is only required to operate when the train is moving.  Vacuum brakes have been superseded by air brakes in modern trains, which allow the use of smaller brake cylinders and/or higher braking force due to the greater difference from atmospheric pressure.

Earlier application of the principle.

An empirical application of the principle was in widespread use on steam locomotives before its formal development as the injector, in the form of the arrangement of the blastpipe and chimney in the locomotive smokebox. The sketch on the right shows a cross section through a smokebox, rotated 90 degrees; it can be seen that the same components are present, albeit differently named, as in the generic diagram of an injector at the top of the article. Exhaust steam from the cylinders is directed through a nozzle on the end of the blastpipe, to reduce pressure inside the smokebox by entraining the flue gases from the boiler which are then ejected via the chimney. The effect is to increase the draught on the fire to a degree proportional to the rate of steam consumption, so that as more steam is used, more heat is generated from the fire and steam production is also increased. The effect was first noted by Richard Trevithick and subsequently developed empirically by the early locomotive engineers; Stephenson's Rocket made use of it, and this constitutes much of the reason for its notably improved performance in comparison with contemporary machines.

Modern uses.

The use of injectors (or ejectors) in various industrial applications has become quite common due to their relative simplicity and adaptability. For example:

Well pumps.

Jet pumps are commonly used to extract water from water wells. The main pump, often a centrifugal pump, is powered and installed at ground level. Its discharge is split, with the greater part of the flow leaving the system, while a portion of the flow is returned to the jet pump installed below ground in the well. This recirculated part of the pumped fluid is used to power the jet. At the jet pump, the high-energy, low-mass returned flow drives more fluid from the well, becoming a low-energy, high-mass flow which is then piped to the inlet of the main pump.  Shallow well pumps are those in which the jet assembly is attached directly to the main pump and are limited to a depth of approximately 5-8m to prevent cavitation.  Deep well pumps are those in which the jet is located at the bottom of the well. The maximum depth for deep well pumps is determined by the inside diameter of and the velocity through the jet. The major advantage of jet pumps for deep well installations is the ability to situate all mechanical parts (e.g., electric/petrol motor, rotating impellers) at the ground surface for easy maintenance. The advent of the electrical submersible pump has partly replaced the need for jet type well pumps, except for driven point wells or surface water intakes.

Multi-stage steam vacuum ejectors.

In practice, for suction pressure below 100 mbar absolute, more than one ejector is used, usually with condensers between the ejector stages. Condensing of motive steam greatly improves ejector set efficiency; both barometric and shell-and-tube surface condensers are used.  In operation a two-stage system consists of a primary high-vacuum (HV) ejector and a secondary low-vacuum (LV) ejector. Initially the LV ejector is operated to pull vacuum down from the starting pressure to an intermediate pressure. Once this pressure is reached, the HV ejector is then operated in conjunction with the LV ejector to finally pull vacuum to the required pressure.  In operation a three-stage system consists of a primary booster, a secondary high-vacuum (HV) ejector, and a tertiary low-vacuum (LV) ejector. As per the two-stage system, initially the LV ejector is operated to pull vacuum down from the starting pressure to an intermediate pressure. Once this pressure is reached, the HV ejector is then operated in conjunction with the LV ejector to pull vacuum to the lower intermediate pressure. Finally the booster is operated (in conjunction with the HV & LV ejectors) to pull vacuum to the required pressure.

Construction materials.

Injectors or ejectors are made of carbon steel, stainless steel, brass, titanium, PTFE, carbon, and other materials.

An injector is a system of ducting and nozzles used to direct the flow of a high-pressure fluid in such a way that a lower pressure fluid is entrained in the jet and carried through a duct to a region of higher pressure. It is a fluid-dynamic pump with no moving parts, excepting a valve to control inlet flow. A steam injector is a typical application of the principle used to deliver cold water to a boiler against its own pressure, using its own live or exhaust steam, replacing any mechanical pump. When first developed, its operation was intriguing because it seemed paradoxical, almost like perpetual motion, but it was later explained using thermodynamics. Other types of injector may use other pressurised motive fluids such as air.

Injektor nebo též napaječ je speciální druh parního čerpadla, založený na využití Bernoulliho jevu. Používá se na doplňování vody do parního kotle. Vynalezl jej Henri Giffard.


Renaissance intermezzo.

The Renaissance intermezzo was also called the intermedio. It was a masque-like dramatic piece with music, which was performed between the acts of a play at Italian court festivities on special occasions, especially weddings. By the late 16th century, the intermezzo had become the most spectacular form of dramatic performance, and an important precursor to opera. The most famous examples were created for Medici weddings in 1539, 1565, and 1589. In Baroque Spain the equivalent entremés or paso was a one-act comic scene, often ending in music and dance, between "jornadas" (acts) of a play.

Opera intermezzo.

The intermezzo, in the 18th century, was a comic operatic interlude inserted between acts or scenes of an "opera seria". These intermezzi could be substantial and complete works themselves, though they were shorter than the "opera seria" which enclosed them; typically they provided comic relief and dramatic contrast to the tone of the bigger opera around them, and often they used one or more of the stock characters from the opera or from the commedia dell'arte. In this they were the reverse of the Renaissance intermezzo, which usually had a mythological or pastoral subject as a contrast to a main comic play. Often they were of a burlesque nature, and characterized by slapstick comedy, disguises, dialect, and ribaldry. The most famous of all intermezzi from the period is Pergolesi's "La serva padrona", which was an "opera buffa" that after the death of Pergolesi kicked off the Querelle des Bouffons.  In some cases the intermezzo repertory spread more quickly than did the "opera seria" itself; the singers were often renowned, the comic effects were popular, and intermezzi were relatively easy to produce and stage. In the 1730s the style spread around Europe, and some cities—for example Moscow—recorded visits and performances by troupes performing intermezzi years before any actual "opera seria" were done.  The intermède (the French equivalent of the intermezzo) was the single most important outside operatic influence in Paris in the mid-18th century, and helped create an entire new repertory of opera in France (see "opéra comique").  The word was used (with a hint of irony) as the title of Richard Strauss's two-act opera, "Intermezzo" (1924), the scale of which far exceeds the intermezzo of tradition.  Many of the most celebrated intermezzi are from operas of the verismo period: Mascagni's "Cavalleria rusticana" and "L'amico Fritz", Leoncavallo's "Pagliacci", Puccini's "Manon Lescaut" and "Suor Angelica", Giordano's "Fedora", Cilea's "Adriana Lecouvreur", and especially that from Massenet's "Thais", which became known as the "Méditation".

Instrumental intermezzo.

In the 19th century, the intermezzo acquired another meaning: an instrumental piece which was either a movement between two others in a larger work, or a character piece which could stand on its own. These intermezzi show a wide variation in the style and function: in Mendelssohn's incidental music to "A Midsummer Night's Dream" the intermezzo serves as musical connecting material for action in Shakespeare's play; in chamber music by Mendelssohn and Brahms, the intermezzi are names for interior movements which would otherwise be called scherzi; and the piano intermezzi by Brahms, some of his last compositions, are sets of independent character pieces not intended to connect anything else together. Stylistically, intermezzi of the 19th century are usually lyrical and melodic, especially compared to the movements on either side, when they occur in larger works. The Brahms piano intermezzi in particular have an extremely wide emotional range, and are often considered some of the finest character pieces written in the 19th century.  Opera composers sometimes wrote instrumental intermezzi as connecting pieces between acts of operas. In this sense, an intermezzo is similar to the entr'acte. The most famous of this type of intermezzo is probably the intermezzo from Mascagni's "Cavalleria rusticana". Puccini also wrote intermezzi for "Manon Lescaut" and "Madama Butterfly", and examples exist by Wolf-Ferrari, Delius and others.  Also, incidental music for plays usually contained several intermezzi. Schubert's "Rosamunde" music as well as Grieg's "Peer Gynt" contained several intermezzi for the respective plays.  In the 20th century, the term was used occasionally. Shostakovich named one movement of his dark String Quartet No. 15 "intermezzo"; Bartók used the term for the fourth movement (of five) of his "Concerto for Orchestra".

In music, an intermezzo (,, plural form: intermezzi), in the most general sense, is a composition which fits between other musical or dramatic entities, such as acts of a play or movements of a larger musical work. In music history, the term has had several different usages, which fit into two general categories: the opera intermezzo and the instrumental intermezzo.

Pojem intermezzo pochází z italštiny a označuje pauzu, vložku, vsuvku – něco „vložené mezi“. Obvykle se používá v hudbě či v literatuře, kde má následující významy: