Career.

Christo and Jeanne-Claude met in October 1958 when he was commissioned to paint a portrait of her mother, Précilda de Guillebon. Their first show, in Cologne, 1961, showcased the three types of artworks for which they would be known: wrapped items, oil barrels, and ephemeral, large-scale works. Near Christo's first solo show in Paris, in 1962, the pair blocked an alley with 240 barrels for several hours in a piece called "Iron Curtain", a poetic reply to the Berlin Wall.  They developed consistent, longtime terms of their collaboration. They together imagined projects, for which Christo would create sketches and preparatory works that were later sold to fund the resulting installation. Christo and Jeanne-Claude hired assistants to do the work of wrapping the object at hand. They originally worked under the name "Christo" to simplify dealings and their brand, given the difficulties of establishing an artist's reputation and the prejudices against female artists, but they would later retroactively credit their large-scale outdoor works to both "Christo and Jeanne-Claude". They eventually flew in separate planes such that, in case one crashed, the other could continue their work.  The couple relocated to New York City, the new art world capital, in 1964. Christo began to make "Store Fronts", wooden facades made to resemble shop windows, which he continued for four years. His largest piece was shown in the 1968 Documenta 4. In the mid-1960s, they also created "Air Packages", inflated and wrapped research balloons. In 1969, they wrapped the Chicago Museum of Contemporary Art while it remained open. It was panned by the public and ordered to be undone by the fire department, which went unenforced. With the help of Australian collector John Kaldor, Christo and Jeanne-Claude and 100 volunteers wrapped the coast of Sydney's Little Bay as "Wrapped Coast", the first piece for Kaldor Public Art Projects.

1970s.

Within a year of "Wrapped Coast", Christo began work on "Valley Curtain": an orange curtain of fabric to be hung across the mountainous Colorado State Highway 325. They simultaneously worked on "Wrapped Walk Ways" (Tokyo and Holland) and "Wrapped Island" (South Pacific), neither of which came to fruition. The artists formed a corporation to benefit from tax and other liabilities, a form they used for later projects. Following a failed attempt to mount the curtain in late 1971, a new engineer and builder-contractor raised the fabric in August 1972. The work only stood for 28 hours before the wind again destroyed the fabric. This work, their most expensive to date and first to involve construction workers, was captured in a documentary by David and Albert Maysles. "Christo's Valley Curtain" was nominated for Best Documentary Short in the 1974 Academy Awards. The Maysles would film many of the artists' later projects.  Inspired by a snow fence, in 1972, Christo and Jeanne-Claude began preparations for "Running Fence": a 24.5-mile fence of white nylon, supported by steel posts and steel cables, running through the Californian landscape and into the ocean. In exchange for temporary use of ranch land, the artists agreed to offer payment and use of the deconstructed building materials. Others challenged its construction in 18 public hearings and three state court sessions. The fence began construction in April 1976 and the project culminated in a two-week display in September, after which it was deconstructed.  Their 1978 "Wrapped Walk Ways" covered paths within Kansas City, Missouri's Loose Park in fabric.

1980s.

Christo and Jeanne-Claude planned a project based on Jeanne-Claude's idea to surround eleven islands in Miami's Biscayne Bay with of pink polypropylene floating fabric. "Surrounded Islands" was completed on May 7, 1983, with the aid of 430 workers and could be admired for two weeks. The workers were outfitted with pink long sleeve shirts with pale blue text written on the back reading “Christo Surrounded Islands”, and then in acknowledging the garment's designer, "designed and produced by Willi Smith".  Jeanne-Claude became an American citizen in March 1984. The couple received permission to wrap the Pont Neuf, a bridge in Paris, in August and the wrapped the bridge in for two weeks in August 1985. "The Pont Neuf Wrapped" attracted three million visitors. Wrapping the Pont Neuf continued the tradition of transforming a sculptural dimension into a work of art. The fabric maintained the principal shapes of the "Pont Neuf" but it emphasized the details and the proportions. As with "Surrounded Islands," workers who assisted with the installation and deinstallation of "Pont Neuf Wrapped" wore uniforms designed by Willi Smith.

1990s.

Their 1991 "The Umbrellas" involved the simultaneous setup of blue and gold umbrellas in Japan and California, respectively. The 3,100-umbrella project cost US$26 million and attracted three million visitors. Christo closed the exhibition early after a woman was killed by a windblown umbrella in California. Separately, a worker was killed during the deconstruction of the Japanese exhibit.  Christo and Jeanne-Claude wrapped the Berlin Reichstag building in 1995 following 24 years of governmental lobbying across six Bundestag presidents. "Wrapped Reichstag" 100,000 square meters of silver fabric draped the building, fastened with blue rope. Christo described the Reichstag wrapping as autobiographical based on his Bulgarian upbringing. The wrapping became symbolic of unified Germany and marked Berlin's return as a world city. "The Guardian" posthumously described the work as their "most spectacular achievement".  In 1998, the artists wrapped trees at the Beyeler Foundation and its nearby Berower Park. Prior attempts had failed to secure government support in Saint Louis, Missouri, and Paris. The work was self-funded through sale of photographic documentation and preparatory works, as had become standard for the couple.

"The Gates".

Work began on the installation of the couple's most protracted project, "The Gates," in New York City's Central Park in January 2005. Its full title, "The Gates," "Central Park, New York, 1979–2005", refers to the time that passed from their initial proposal until they were able to go ahead with it with the permission of the new mayor Michael R. Bloomberg. "The Gates" was open to the public from February 12–27, 2005. A total of 7,503 gates made of saffron-colored fabric were placed on paths in Central Park. They were high and had a combined length of. The mayor presented them with the Doris C. Freedman Award for public art. The project cost an estimated US$21 million, which the artists planned to recoup by selling project documentation.

"Big Air Package".

Christo filled the Gasometer Oberhausen from March 16 until December 30, 2013 with the installation "Big Air Package". After "The Wall" (1999) as the final installation of the Emscher Park International Building Exhibition, "Big Air Package" was his second work of art in the Gasometer. The ""Big Air Package" – Project for Gasometer Oberhausen, Germany" was conceived by Christo in 2010 (for the first time without his wife Jeanne-Claude). The sculpture was set up in the interior of the industrial monument and was made of of translucent fabric and of rope. In the inflated state, the envelope, with a weight of, reached a height of more than, a diameter of and a volume of. The monumental work of art was, temporarily, the largest self-supporting sculpture in the world. In the accessible interior of "Big Air Package", the artist generated a unique experience of space, proportions, and light.

"The Floating Piers".

"The Floating Piers" were a series of walkways installed at Lake Iseo near Brescia, Italy. From June 18 to July 3, 2016, visitors were able to walk just above the surface of the water from the village of Sulzano on the mainland to the islands of Monte Isola and San Paolo. The floating walkways were made of around 200,000 polyethene cubes covered with of bright yellow fabric: of piers moved on the water; another of golden fabric continued along the pedestrian streets in Sulzano and Peschiera Maraglio. After the exhibition, all components were to be removed and recycled. The installation was facilitated by the Beretta family, owners of the oldest active manufacturer of firearm components in the world and the primary sidearm supplier of the U.S. Army. The Beretta family owns the island of San Paolo, which was surrounded by "Floating Piers" walkways. The work was a success with the Italian public and critics as well.

"The London Mastaba".

"The London Mastaba" was a temporary floating installation exhibited from June to September 2018 on The Serpentine in London. The installation consisted of 7,506 oil barrels, in the shape of a mastaba, a form of an early bench in use in ancient Mesopotamia, with a flat roof and inward sloping sides. It sat on a floating platform of high-density polyethene, held in place by 32 anchors. It was in height and weighed. The vertical ends were painted in a mosaic of red, blue and mauve, whilst the sloping sides were in red with bands of white.  Simultaneously with the display of "The London Mastaba", the nearby Serpentine Gallery presented an exhibition of the artists' work, entitled "Christo and Jeanne-Claude: Barrels and The Mastaba 1958–2018". The exhibition comprised sculptures, drawings, collages, scale-models and photographs from the last 60 years of the artists' work.  Another "Mastaba" of over 400,000 oil barrels is intended to be built at Al Gharbia, from the city Abu Dhabi.

"Over the River".

Christo and Jeanne-Claude announced plans for a future project, titled "Over The River", to be constructed on the Arkansas River between Salida, Colorado, and Cañon City, Colorado, on the eastern slope of the Rocky mountains. Plans for the project call for horizontally suspending of reflective, translucent fabric panels high above the water, on steel cables anchored into the river's banks. Project plans called for its installation for two weeks during the summer of 2015, at the earliest, and for the river to remain open to recreation during the installation. Reaction among area residents was intense, with supporters hoping for a tourist boom and opponents fearing that the project would ruin the visual appeal of the landscape and inflict damage on the river ecosystem. One local rafting guide compared the project to "hanging pornography in a church." The U.S. Bureau of Land Management released a Record of Decision approving the project on November 7, 2011. Work on the project cannot begin, however, until the Bureau of Land Management issues a Notice to Proceed. A lawsuit against the Colorado Division of Parks and Wildlife was filed on July 22, 2011, by Rags Over the Arkansas River (ROAR), a local group opposed to the project. The lawsuit is still awaiting a court date.  Christo and Jeanne-Claude's inspiration for "Over the River" came in 1985 as they were wrapping the Pont-Neuf and a fabric panel was being elevated over the Seine. The artists began a three-year search for appropriate locations in 1992, considering some eighty-nine river locations. They chose the Arkansas River because its banks were high enough that recreational rafters could enjoy the river at the same time.  Christo and Jeanne-Claude spent more than $6 million on environmental studies, design engineering, and wind tunnel testing of fabrics. As with past projects, "Over The River" would be financed entirely by Christo and Jeanne-Claude, through the sale of Christo's preparatory drawings, collages, scale models, and early works of the 1950s/1960s. On July 16, 2010, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management released its four-volume Draft Environmental Impact Statement, which reported many potentially serious types of adverse impact but also many proposed "mitigation" options. In January 2017, after the election of President Trump, Christo canceled the controversial project citing protest of the new administration as well as tiring from the hard-fought legal battle waged by local residents.

"L'Arc de Triomphe, Wrapped".

Continuing their series of monumental "wrapping" projects, the Arc de Triomphe in Paris is to be wrapped in 30,000 square meters of recyclable polypropylene fabric in silvery blue, and 7,000 meters (23,000 feet) of red rope in the Autumn of 2020. This was postponed a year to Saturday, September 18 to Sunday, October 3, 2021, due to the COVID-19 pandemic in France and its impact on the arts and cultural sector worldwide. Following Christo's death, his office stated that the project would nevertheless be completed.

Reception.

Christo and Jeanne-Claude's work is held by many major public collections. The artists received the 1995 Praemium Imperiale, the 2006 Vilcek Prize, and the 2004 International Sculpture Center's Lifetime Achievement in Contemporary Sculpture Award. Art critic David Bourdon described Christo's wrappings as a "revelation through concealment." Unto his critics Christo replied, "I am an artist, and I have to have courage... Do you know that I don't have any artworks that exist? They all go away when they're finished. Only the preparatory drawings, and collages are left, giving my works an almost legendary character. I think it takes much greater courage to create things to be gone than to create things that will remain." Jeanne-Claude was a firm believer in the aesthetic beauty of works of art; she said, "'We want to create works of art of joy and beauty, which we will build because we believe it will be beautiful.'"

Lives.

Christo.

Christo Vladimirov Javacheff (, ) was born on June 13, 1935, in Gabrovo, Bulgaria, as the second of three sons to Tzveta Dimitrova and Vladimir Javacheff, who worked at a textile manufacturer. Christo was shy and had a predilection for art. He received private art instruction at a young age and the support of his parents, who invited visiting artists to their house. Christo was particularly affected by events from World War II and his country's fluid borders. During evacuations, he and his brothers stayed with a family in the rural hills outside town, where Christo connected with nature and handicraft.  While Bulgaria was under repressive totalitarian rule, and Western art was suppressed, Christo pursued realistic painting through the mid-1950s. He was admitted into the Sofia Academy of Fine Arts in 1953 but found the school dull and stifling. Instead, he found inspiration in Skira art books, and visiting Russian professors who were older than he and once active in Russian modernism and the Soviet avant-garde. On the weekends, academy students were sent to paint propaganda and Christo unhappily participated. He found work as a location scout for the state cinema and served three tours of duty during summer breaks. In 1956, he used an academy connection to receive permission to visit family in Prague, where the theater of Emil František Burian reinvigorated him. Amid fears of further Russian suppression in Hungary, Christo decided to flee to Vienna as a railcar stowaway. He had little money after paying the bribe, did not speak the language, had deserted during his Bulgarian military service, and feared being trapped in a refugee camp.  In Vienna, he stayed with a family friend (who had not expected him), studied at the Vienna Fine Arts Academy, and surrendered his passport to seek political asylum as a stateless person. There, he supported himself with commissions and briefly visited Italy with the academy, whose program he found equally unhappy as the one before it. At the behest of a friend relocated from Sofia, he saved up to visit Geneva in late 1957. In violation of his visa, he continued to pursue commissions (whose works he would sign with his family name, reserving his given name for more serious work) and was transformed after visiting the Kunstmuseum Basel and Kunsthaus Zürich. In January 1958, he first began to wrap things, as would become his trademark, starting with a paint can. His collection of wrapped household items would be known as his "Inventory". In February 1958, Christo left for Paris, having received a visa with the assistance of a Sofia academy connection.  In 1973, after 17 stateless years, Christo became a United States citizen. He died at his home in New York City on May 31, 2020, at 84. No cause of death was specified. "L’Arc de Triomphe, Wrapped", a planned work by Christo and Jeane-Claude, is to go ahead posthumously in Paris in September 2021.

Jeanne-Claude.

Jeanne-Claude Denat de Guillebon () was born in Casablanca, Morocco, where her father, an army officer, was stationed. Her mother, Précilda, was 17 when she married Jeanne-Claude's father, Major Léon Denat. Précilda and Léon Denat divorced shortly after Jeanne-Claude was born, and Précilda remarried three times. Jeanne-Claude earned a baccalauréat in Latin and philosophy in 1952 from the University of Tunis. After Précilda married the General Jacques de Guillebon in 1947, the family lived in Bern (1948–1951) and Tunisia (1952–1957) before returning to Paris.  Jeanne-Claude was described as "extroverted" and with natural organizational abilities. Her hair was dyed red, which she claimed was selected by her husband. She took responsibility for overseeing work crews and for raising funds.  Jeanne-Claude died in New York City on November 18, 2009, from complications due to a brain aneurysm. Her body was to be donated to science, one of her final wishes. When she died, she and Christo were at work on "Over the River" and the United Arab Emirates project, "The Mastaba". She said, "Artists don't retire. They die. That's all. When they stop being able to create art, they die."

Marriage.

Christo and Jeanne-Claude met in October 1958 when he was commissioned to paint a portrait of her mother, Précilda de Guillebon. Initially, Christo was attracted to Jeanne-Claude's half-sister, Joyce. Jeanne-Claude was engaged to Philippe Planchon. Shortly before her wedding, Jeanne-Claude became pregnant by Christo. Although she married Planchon, Jeanne-Claude left him immediately after their honeymoon. Christo and Jeanne-Claude's son, Cyril, was born on May 11, 1960.

Christo Vladimirov Javacheff (1935–2020) and Jeanne-Claude Denat de Guillebon (1935–2009), known as Christo and Jeanne-Claude, were artists noted for their large-scale, site-specific environmental installations, often large landmarks and landscape elements wrapped in fabric, including the "Wrapped Reichstag", "The Pont Neuf Wrapped", "Running Fence" in California, and "The Gates" in New York City's Central Park.

Christo (13. června 1935 Gabrovo, Bulharsko – 31. května 2020 New York, USA), bulharsky Христо Владимиров Явашев, a Jeanne-Claude (13. června 1935 Casablanca, Maroko – 18. listopadu 2009 New York, USA) jako Jeanne-Claude Denat de Guillebon tvořili manželský umělecký pár. Proslavili se zejména instalacemi příbuznými uměleckému směru land art, při nichž balili či zahalovali předměty denní potřeby, přírodní objekty a budovy. Ve své tvorbě zdůrazňují kategorii dočasnosti, protože všechny zahalované objekty či krajiny jsou po krátké době několika dní či týdnů vraceny do původního stavu.


History.

In 1705, English colonists purchased the Townsite from the Pohtatuck Indians, a branch of the Pasgussett. It was originally known as Quanneapague. Settled by migrants from Stratford and incorporated in 1711, Newtown residents had many business and trading ties with the English. It was a stronghold of Tory sentiment during the early Revolutionary War. Late in the war, French General Rochambeau and his troops encamped there in 1781 during their celebrated march on their way to the siege of Yorktown, Virginia, which ended the Revolution.  An important crossroads throughout its early history, the village of Hawleyville briefly emerged as a railroad center. The town's population grew to over 4,000 circa 1881. In the following decades, the population dwindled to a low of 2,635 in 1930 before again growing.  Local industry has included the manufacture of furniture, tea bags, combs, fire hoses, folding boxes, buttons, and hats, as well as farming, and mica and feldspar mining. The game of "Scrabble" was developed here by James Brunot.  From the period of highway development and suburbanization following World War II, the town has developed as a suburb of Danbury, with many people also commuting to Norwalk, Stamford, and Bridgeport.  In November 1986, Helle Crafts was killed by her husband Richard Crafts in the infamous "Woodchipper Murder".

"Newtown Bee".

The local newspaper, the "Newtown Bee" has been in continuous publication under the ownershop of the Smith family since it was founded in 1877.

Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting.

, Adam Lanza shot and killed his mother at her home and then drove to Sandy Hook Elementary School where he killed 20 children and six adult staff. Adam committed suicide as police arrived at the school. Lanza suffered from severe mental health issues which were left untreated. The event reignited a debate regarding access to firearms by people with mental illness and gun laws in the United States.

Geography.

The northeastern border of the town is a natural border that follows the Housatonic River.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of, of which is land and, or 2.22%, is water. Newtown is located in northern Fairfield County, about southwest of Hartford and about northeast of New York City. The state's fifth largest town in area, it is bordered by Bethel, Bridgewater, Brookfield, Easton, Monroe, Oxford, Redding and Southbury.  Smaller communities include Camelot, Head of Meadow (not necessarily related to Head O'Meadow Elementary School), Hopewell, Huntingtown, Lands End, Middle Gate, Palestine, and Taunton.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 25,031 people, 8,325 households, and 6,776 families residing in the town. The population density was 433.4 people per square mile (167.3/km2). There were 8,601 housing units at an average density of 148.9 per square mile (57.5/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 95.14% White, 1.75% Black or African American, 0.14% Native American, 1.40% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.64% from other races, and 0.89% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.36% of the population.  There were 8,325 households out of which 44.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 73.3% were married couples living together, 5.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18.6% were non-families. 14.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.90 and the average family size was 3.24.  In the town, the population was spread out with 29.3% under the age of 18, 4.4% from 18 to 24, 32.5% from 25 to 44, 25.1% from 45 to 64, and 8.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.5 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $90,193, and the median income for a family was $99,192 (these figures had risen to $101,937 and $119,175 respectively as of a 2007 estimate). Males had a median income of $68,965 versus $42,217 for females. The per capita income for the town was $37,786. About 2.2% of families and 3.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.0% of those under age 18 and 3.9% of those age 65 or over.

Parks and recreation.

The town of Newtown offers many programs for area residents. Numerous parks and fields offer playgrounds, swimming, tennis, softball, baseball, volleyball, lacrosse, soccer, as well as a nature center and trails. Prominent Newtown parks include Treadwell Park, Dickinson Park, and Collis P. Huntington State Park. Treadwell Park, named after former selectman Timothy Treadwell, contains recreation facilities and the town pool. Dickinson park used to contain a swimming pool, which was a large asphalt-lined bowl-shaped depression surrounded by a grass "beach". It was a uniquely safe design for children because there was no "deep end"; however, it lacked a formal filtration system and required attendants to periodically row out and manually add chlorine to the water. The asphalt was removed and the pond pool filled with earth in 2006.

Government.

In Connecticut politics, the town of Newtown is required to have both a Democratic and a Republican Town Committee. The Town Committee members vote on which candidates to endorse for public elections. Elected to a two-year term, the Board of Selectmen supervise the administration of the affairs of the town, except those matters which by the General Statute or Town Charter are exclusively committed to the Board of Education or other departments. They are led by a First Selectman, who is the Chief Executive and Administrative Officer of the town. The Board of Selectmen, with the assistance of the departments and boards and commission, prepares the annual budget for the town in February. The Board of Education prepares and passes an education budget for the town schools at the same time. Both budgets then proceed to the Board of Finance, who reviews the town budget and education budget before being sent to the Legislative Council. The Legislative Council of 12 members (elected to the same two-year terms) acts as the legislative body of the town and has the power to pass ordinances and approve budgets for referenda. Final budget approval is subject to a town-wide referendum. These procedures are set forth in the Town Charter adopted and reviewed by the citizens.  The Borough of Newtown occupies about (or roughly two square miles) in the central part of town. Incorporated in 1824 by an act of the Connecticut General Assembly, it is one of only nine boroughs in the state. The borough adopted zoning for the town center long before the rest of the community. The lot sizes are smaller than the minimum lots of the rest of the community. The borough also has running public water provided by the Water & Sewer Authority. Much of the borough is sewered, whereas most of the rest of the town have wells and septic systems.

Law enforcement.

The Newtown Police Department has existed since 1971. It is located at 3 Main Street (Town Hall South). The police chief is James Viadero and the Captain of the department is Christopher Vanghele. The department has 45 sworn officers in uniform.

Landmarks.

Newtown has a number of local landmarks. The flagpole, first erected in 1876, now stands in the center of Main Street. The "Newtown Bee", the local weekly newspaper, has been serving the area since 1877, and has been owned and operated by the Smith family since 1881. Across from the flagpole is Newtown Meeting House, which served as the town's Congregational church for many years. The rooster weather vane (a town symbol), located atop the meeting house, is said to have been used as a target by French soldiers encamped here in 1781 during the Revolutionary War.  Hawley School is a landmark constructed in the 1920s. It has been used as a whole-town school, a high school, and an elementary school. It is currently used as an elementary school. Though it has served many different school functions, its original section has remained much the same. Two additions have been added.  Newtown is the site of the Fairfield Hills State Hospital, an asylum constructed in the 1930s and closed in 1995. The hospital was used as the set of the juvenile facility in the film "Sleepers" in 1995.  In the 21st century, Newtown purchased the property and, as of 2007, was considering a controversial plan for redevelopment. In 2008, the NYA (Newtown Youth Academy) began to operate there; extracurricular amenities include a fitness section, basketball courts, and a turf field.

Edmond Town Hall.

Constructed in 1930 by a private benefactress for the community, the Town Hall is used for public-private purposes. Offices for the town are located there. The facility also has available for private rental the Alexandria Room for weddings, parties and recitals; and smaller meeting rooms that can be reserved by community groups. A gymnasium is used for community sports events, as well as private parties, and art or craft shows.  The Edmond Town hall is notable for its cinema. The theater shows popular films shortly after they leave mainstream theaters. It is the only $3 film theater in Connecticut. It is a popular spot for middle school and high school students.  The theater has been the primary venue for the Newtown Friends of Music chamber music concerts, the Flagpole Radio Café productions, and several others. The "Live at the Edmond Town Hall" concert series was created by Newtown resident Hayden Bates in 2009. All proceeds are put towards aiding the Edmond's theater upgrades. Headliners have included The Low Anthem, The Bill Frisell and Sam Amidon Duo, Brown Bird and Phosphorescent. In 2014, the theater began showing classic films through the Sunday Cinema Series, later changed to the Someday Cinema Series. A dozen films from 1939 were selected to celebrate The Greatest Year in Film, most sponsored by community members and local businesses, and presented by the Newtown Cultural Arts Commission.  The Board of Managers of the Hall is composed of six members serving six-year terms. At each regular Town Election, two members are elected, who must represent different political parties. According to Town Charter, the Board "shall have the exclusive care and maintenance of Edmond Town Hall and all grounds and buildings appurtenant thereto, together with all powers and duties prescribed for said Board by Special Act No. 98 of the 1931 session by which it was created, as amended by Special Act No. 517 of the 1953 session".  The architect was Philip Sutherland, who also designed Cyrenius H. Booth Library. The Town Hall was constructed for the community by a local benefactress Mary Elizabeth Hawley and dedicated in 1930. The building was named for Miss Hawley’s maternal great-grandfather Judge William Edmond.

Cyrenius H. Booth Library.

Newtown's public library was opened December 17, 1932, with a capacity for 25,000 volumes. The library is a posthumous gift of Mary Elizabeth Hawley. She named it for her maternal grandfather, a doctor in town from 1820 until his death in 1871. Hawley's gift paid for construction of the building, and an endowment, a trust fund of about $250,000. As a result, the town did not have to provide any financial support to the library until the 1980s.  Designed by Philip Sutherland, the building was considered one of the most modern libraries of its time, with several innovative features. The building was fireproof, had cork floors and acoustic ceiling tiles to deaden sound, and had a built-in humidifying unit and a centralized vacuum cleaner.  In January 1998 an addition to the rear of the building was completed and officially opened. The expansion doubled the available floor space. It provides areas for meetings and displays of art and local historical artifacts from the library's large collection.

Economy.

Of the residents of Newtown, many commute to jobs in Manhattan, Hartford, and Stamford.

Major employers.

According to the Newtown Connecticut Economic Development Commission, the top employers in the Newtown and Sandy Hook area are:

Education.

The Newtown Public Schools district operates four elementary schools (Hawley Elementary School, Head O'Meadow Elementary School, Middle Gate Elementary School, and Sandy Hook Elementary School) that serve grades K-4, Reed Intermediate School serving grades 5–6, Newtown Middle School serving grades 7–8, and Newtown High School serving grades 9–12.  Newtown also has several private and parochial schools, including St. Rose of Lima Roman Catholic School, the Fraser-Woods Montessori School, and the Housatonic Valley Waldorf School. In 2010, six educators made the top salary list in Newtown, Connecticut.

Notable people.

Notable residents have included James Purdy, who ministered to smallpox victims during the American Civil War; Mary Elizabeth Hawley, Newtown's benefactress; Joseph F. Engelberger, an engineer and entrepreneur who is often credited with being the "Father of Robotics" – the Robotics Industries Association annually presents the Joseph F. Engelberger Awards to "persons who have contributed outstandingly to the furtherance of the science and practice of robotics."; and Caitlyn Jenner (then Bruce), 1976 Summer Olympics decathlon gold medalist, attended Newtown High School. This list includes individuals who were born, died, resided (for all or part of their lives), worked, and/or attended school in Newtown, CT or one of its communities.  Other notable residents (in alphabetical order):

Newtown is a town in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. It is part of the greater Danbury metropolitan area as well as the New York metropolitan area. Newtown was founded in 1705, and later incorporated in 1711. As of the 2010 census, its population was 27,560. The western half of Newtown (ZIP Code 06470) is one of the most affluent areas in Connecticut.

Newtown je město v okresu Fairfield County ve státě Connecticut ve Spojených státech amerických. V roce 2011 zde žilo 27 829 obyvatel. S celkovou rozlohou 153,1 km2 byla hustota zalidnění 180 obyvatel na km2.


History.

The club had its origins in the Cordeliers district, a famously radical area of Paris called, by Camille Desmoulins, "the only sanctuary where liberty has not been violated". Under the leadership of Georges Danton, this district had played a significant role in the Storming of the Bastille and was home to several notable figures of the Revolution, including Danton himself, Desmoulins and Jean-Paul Marat—on whose behalf the district placed itself in a state of civil rebellion, when in January 1790 it refused to allow the execution of a warrant for his arrest that had been issued by the Châtelet.  Having issued in November 1789 a declaration affirming its intent to "oppose, as much as we are able, all that the representatives of the Commune may undertake that is harmful to the general rights of our constituents", the Cordeliers district remained in conflict with the Parisian government throughout the winter and spring of 1790. In May and June 1790, the previous division of Paris into 60 districts was by decree of the National Assembly replaced by the creation of 48 sections. This restructuring abolished the Cordeliers district.  Anticipating this dissolution, the leaders of the Cordeliers district founded in April 1790 the "Société des Amis des droits de l’homme et du citoyen", a popular society which would serve as an alternative means of pursuing the goals and interests of the district. This society held its meetings in the Cordeliers Convent and quickly became known as the "Club des Cordeliers". It took as its motto the phrase "Liberté, égalité, fraternité".  The membership fees of this society were fixed low and thus affordable to a more diverse range of citizens than those of many other political clubs at the time, including the Jacobin Club. There were no other restrictions on membership. The Cordeliers presented themselves as exceptionally populist and they prided themselves on counting working men and women among their members. A contemporary account describes one meeting: About three hundred persons of both sexes filled the place; their dress was so unkempt and so filthy that one would have taken them for a gathering of beggars. The Declaration of the Rights of Man was stuck on the wall, crowned by crossed daggers. Plaster busts of Brutus and William Tell were placed on each side, as if expressly to guard the Declaration. Facing, behind the tribune, as supporters, there appeared busts of Mirabeau and Helvétius, with Jean-Jacques Rousseau in the middle.  However, the preponderance of Cordeliers were members of the bourgeoisie and its leadership was largely drawn from the educated middle classes.  On 21 June 1791, following an attempt by the royal family to flee Paris, the Cordeliers moved to draft a petition which offered the National Assembly a choice between the immediate deposition of Louis XVI or a national referendum on the future of the monarchy. The Cordeliers actively moved against the majority interests in this case. Large demonstrations in support of this and similar petitions led to civil unrest, and culminated in the Champ de Mars Massacre on 17 July. The National Guard, led by the Marquis de Lafayette, fired on the protestors, resulting in the deaths of at least dozen of them. Subsequent action taken against the Cordeliers included the closing of the Cordeliers Convent to them and the issuing of arrest warrants for Danton and Desmoulins. Despite these measures, the society remained a highly influential force in Parisian politics.  The Cordeliers participated significantly in the planning and execution of the 10 August 1792 insurrection. Danton, at this time perhaps the most powerful figure within the Cordeliers Club, acted—in Hilaire Belloc's words—as "the organizer and chief of the insurrection" and was appointed Minister of Justice in the government that resulted, with Desmoulins and Fabre d'Églantine—both prominent members of the Cordeliers Club—as his secretaries.  Subsequent to this insurrection and to the September Massacres that followed closely on its heels, the Cordeliers Club became increasingly the province of ultra-revolutionary factions, particularly the Hébertists, who advocated extreme measures to intensify the Terror.  In December 1793, Desmoulins began publishing a journal entitled the "Vieux Cordelier" or "Old Cordelier", which attempted to reclaim the title of the society from those who had associated it with extremism. In the seven numbers of the journal, Desmoulins attacked the Hébertists and called for an end to the Terror, comparing revolutionary Paris to Rome under the tyrants. The Hébertists were arrested and on 24 March 1794 and executed, but Desmoulins, Danton and the "Old Cordeliers" of the Indulgent Dantonist faction quickly followed them to the guillotine, effectively ending the era of the Cordeliers Club.

Bibliography.

The papers emanating from the Cordeliers are enumerated in Jean Maurice Tourneux, "Bibliographie de l'histoire de Paris pendant la Révolution" (1894), i. (on the trial of the Hébertists) Nos. 4204–4210, ii. Nos. 9795–9834 and 11,813. See also A. Bougeart "Les Cordeliers, documents pour servir a l'histoire de la Révolution" (Caen, 1891); G. Lenotre, "Paris révolutionnaire" (Paris, 1895); G. Tridon, "Les Hébertistes, plainte contre une calomnie de l'histoire" (Paris, 1864). The last-named author was condemned to four months' prison; his work was reprinted in 1871. The inventory of the pictures found in 1790 in the Cordeliers Convent was published by J. Guiffrey in "Nouvelles archives de l’art français", viii., 2nd series, iii. (1880).

The Society of the Friends of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (), mainly known as Cordeliers Club (), was a populist political club during the French Revolution from 1790 to 1794, when the Reign of Terror ended and the Thermidorian Reaction began. The club campaigned for universal suffrage and direct democracy, including the referendum. It energetically served as a watchdog looking for signs of abuse of power by the men in power. By 1793, it was challenging the centralization of power by Robespierre and his Committee of Public Safety. They responded by arresting the leadership, charging them with conspiring to overthrow the Convention. The leaders were guillotined and the club disappeared.

Kordeliéři či Klub kordeliérů (fr. "Club des Cordeliers", oficiální název "Société des droits de l'homme et du citoyen" neboli "Společnost práv člověka a občana") byl politický klub během Velké francouzské revoluce. K jeho vůdčím osobnostem patřili Jean Paul Marat, Georges Danton, Camille Desmoulins, Jacques-René Hébert a Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette. Označení klubu je odvozeno od místa schůzek jeho členů, kterým byl zrušený minoritský klášter v Paříži, jehož mniši se ve Francii nazývali "cordeliers".


History.

In the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth realms, the term is to turn Queen's or King's evidence, depending on the gender of the reigning monarch. The term "turning approver" or "turn king's approver" was also historically used, and is still used in India and Pakistan; an approver "not only admitted his own guilt to a crime but also incriminated his accomplices both past and present" in exchange for avoiding a death sentence (and obtaining a lesser penalty, such as life imprisonment or abjuration of the realm) or improving prison conditions.  In American parlance, a defendant who agrees to cooperate with prosecutors and give information against co-conspirators (often those with greater culpability) is also said to flip.  Witnesses who have turned state's evidence have been important in organized crime cases in the United States, such as those against the American Mafia. The first "mafiosi" who turned state's evidence, such as Joseph Valachi and Jimmy Fratianno, did so in response to threats on their life from Mafia associates; later cooperators were motivated to cooperate in order to avoid heavy sentences, such as those provided for under the RICO Act. Some who turned state's evidence were permitted to participate in the Witness Security Program (WITSEC). Among the highest-ranking Mafia members to ever turn state's evidence was Salvatore Gravano ("Sammy the Bull"), an underboss of the Gambino crime family who pleaded guilty to 19 murders and agreed to testify against family boss John Gotti. (Gravano was sentenced to 20 years; Gotti was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1992). Joseph Massino was also the first boss of one of the Five Families in New York City to turn state's evidence.  The incentives to turn state's evidence, or to not to do so, are explored in the famous prisoner's dilemma, created by Merrill Flood and Melvin Dresher.

A criminal turns state's evidence by admitting guilt and testifying as a witness for the state against his/her associate(s) or accomplice(s), often in exchange for leniency in sentencing or immunity from prosecution. The testimony of a witness who testifies against co-conspirator(s) may be important evidence.

Korunní svědek je pachatel trestného činu, který usvědčí své spolupachatele a díky tomu bude na základě dohody s orgány činnými v trestním řízení potrestán výrazně mírněji, nebo nebude dokonce stíhán vůbec. Tento institut se vyskytuje především v případech závažné kriminality v angloamerickém právním systému.


Structure.

Adult.

Schistosomes, unlike other trematodes, are long and cylindrical worms. The male "S. mansoni" is approximately 1 cm long (0.6–1.1 cm) and is 0.1 cm wide. It is white, and it has a funnel-shaped oral sucker at its anterior end followed by a second pediculated ventral sucker. The external part of the worm is composed of a double bilayer, which is continuously renewed as the outer layer, known as the membranocalyx, and is shed continuously. The tegument bears a large number of small tubercules. The suckers have small thorns in their inner part as well as in the buttons around them. The male genital apparatus is composed of 6 to 9 testicular masses, situated dorsally. There is one deferent canal beginning at each testicle, which is connected to a single deferent that dilates into a reservatory, the seminal vesicle, located at the beginning of the gynaecophoric canal. The copula happens through the coaptation of the male and female genital orifices.  The female has a cylindrical body, longer and thinner than the male's (1.2 to 1.6 cm long by 0.016 cm wide). It has the general appearance of a roundworm. The female parasite is darker, and it looks gray. The darker color is due to the presence of a pigment (hemozoin) in its digestive tube. This pigment is derived from the digestion of blood. The ovary is elongated and slightly lobulated and is located on the anterior half of the body. A short oviduct conducts to the ootype, which continues with the uterine tube. In this tube it is possible to find 1 to 2 eggs (rarely 3 to 4) but only 1 egg is observed in the ootype at any one time. The genital pore opens ventrally. The posterior two-thirds of the body contain the vittelogenic glands and their winding canal, which unites with the oviduct a little before it reaches the ootype.  The digestive tube begins at the anterior extremity of the worm, at the bottom of the oral sucker. The digestive tube is composed of an esophagus, which divides in two branches (right and left) and that reunite in a single cecum. The intestines end blindly, meaning that there is no anus.

Egg.

The eggs are oval-shaped, measuring 115-175 μm long and 45-47 μm wide, and ~150 μm diameter on average. They have pointed spines towards the broader base on one side, i.e. lateral spines. This is an important diagnostic tool because co-infection with "S. haematobium" (having a terminal-spined eggs) is common, and they are hard to distinguish. When the eggs are released into the water, a lot of them are immature and unfertilised so that they do not hatch. When the eggs are larger than 160 μm in diameter, they also fail to hatch.

Larva.

The miracidium (from the Greek word μειράκιον, "meirakion", meaning youth) is pear-shaped, and gradually elongates as it ages. It measures about 136 μm long and 55 μm wide. The body is covered by anucleate epidermal plates separated by epidermal ridges. The epidermal cells give off numerous hair-like cilia on the body surface. There are 17-22 epidermal cells. Epidermal plate is absent only at the extreme anterior called apical papilla, or terebratorium, which contains numerous sensory organelles. Its internal body is almost fully filled with glycogen particles and vesicles.  The ceraria has a characteristic bifurcated tail, classically called furcae (Latin for fork); hence, the name (derived from a Greek word κέρκος, "kerkos", meaning tail). The tail is highly flexible and its beating propels the ceracaria in water. It is about 0.2 mm long and 47 μm wide, somewhat loosely attached to the main body. The body is pear-shaped and measures 0.24 mm in length and 0.1 mm in width. Its tegument is fully covered with spine. A conspicuous oral sucker is at the apex. As a non-feeding larva, there are no elaborate digestive organs, only oesophagus is distinct. There are three pairs of mucin glands connected to laterally to the oral sucker at the region of the ventral sucker.

Physiology.

Feeding and nutrition.

Developing "Schistosoma mansoni" worms that have infected their definitive hosts, prior to the sexual pairing of males and females, require a nutrient source in order to properly develop from cercariae to adults. The developing parasites lyse host red blood cells to gain access to nutrients and also makes its own fungi from its waste it is hard to detect; the hemoglobin and amino acids the blood cells contain can be used by the worm to form proteins. While hemoglobin is digested intracellularly, initiated by salivary gland enzymes, iron waste products cannot be used by the worms, and are typically discarded via regurgitation.  Kasschau et al. (1995) tested the effect of temperature and pH on the ability of developing "S. mansoni" to lyse red blood cells. The researchers found that the parasites were best able to destroy red blood cells for their nutrients at a pH of 5.1 and a temperature of 37 °C.

Locomotion.

"S. mansoni" is locomotive in primarily two stages of its life cycle: as cercariae swimming freely through a body of freshwater to locate the epidermis of their human hosts, and as developing and fully-fledged adults, migrating throughout their primary host upon infection. Cercariae are attracted to the presence of fatty acids on the skin of their definitive host, and the parasite responds to changes in light and temperature in their freshwater medium to navigate towards the skin. Ressurreicao et al. (2015) tested the roles of various protein kinases in the ability of the parasite to navigate its medium and locate a penetrable host surface. Extracellular signal-regulated kinase and protein kinase C both respond to changes in medium temperature and light levels, and the stimulation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, associated with recognition of parasite host surface, results in a glandular secretion that deteriorates the host epidermis, and allows the parasite to burrow into its host.  The parasite's nervous system contains bilobed ganglia and several nerve cords which splay out to every surface of the body; serotonin is a transmitter distributed widely throughout the nervous system and plays an important role in nervous reception, and stimulating mobility.

Life cycle.

Intermediate host.

After the eggs of the human-dwelling parasite are emitted in the faeces and into the water, the ripe miracidium hatches out of the egg. The hatching happens in response to temperature, light and dilution of faeces with water. The miracidium searches for a suitable freshwater snail belonging to the genus "Biomphalaria". In South America, the principal intermediate host is "Biomphalaria glabrata", while "B. straminea" and "B. tenagophila" are less common. A land snail "Achatina fulica" was reported in 2010 to act as a host in Venezuela. In Africa, "B. glabratra", "B. pfeifferi", "B. choanomphala" and "B. sudanica" act as the hosts; but in Egypt, the main snail host is "B. alexandrina".  Miracidia directly penetrate the soft tissue of snail. Inside the snail, they lose their cilia and develop into mother sporocysts. The sporocysts rapidly multiply by asexual reproduction, each forming numerous daughter sporocysts. The daughter sporocysts move to the liver and gonads of the snail, where they undergo further growth. Within 2–4 weeks, they undergo metamorphosis and give rise to fork-tailed cercariae. Stimulated by light, hundreds of cercariae penetrate out of the snail into water.

Definitive host.

The cercaria emerge from the snail during daylight and they propel themselves in water with the aid of their bifurcated tail, actively seeking out their final host. In water, they can live for up to 12 hours, and their maximum infectivity is between 1 and 9 hours after emergence. When they recognise human skin, they penetrate it within a very short time. This occurs in three stages, an initial attachment to the skin, followed by the creeping over the skin searching for a suitable penetration site, often a hair follicle, and finally penetration of the skin into the epidermis using cytolytic secretions from the cercarial post-acetabular, then pre-acetabular glands. On penetration, the head of the cercaria transforms into an endoparasitic larva, the schistosomule. Each schistosomule spends a few days in the skin and then enters the circulation starting at the dermal lymphatics and venules. Here, they feed on blood, regurgitating the haem as hemozoin. The schistosomule migrates to the lungs (5–7 days post-penetration) and then moves via circulation through the left side of the heart to the hepatoportal circulation (>15 days) where, if it meets a partner of the opposite sex, it develops into a sexually mature adult and the pair migrate to the mesenteric veins. Such pairings are monogamous.  Male schistosomes undergo normal maturation and morphological development in the presence or absence of a female, although behavioural, physiological and antigenic differences between males from single-sex, as opposed to bisex, infections have been reported. On the other hand, female schistosomes do not mature without a male. Female schistosomes from single-sex infections are underdeveloped and exhibit an immature reproductive system. Although the maturation of the female worm seems to be dependent on the presence of the mature male, the stimuli for female growth and for reproductive development seem to be independent from each other.  The adult female worm resides within the adult male worm's gynaecophoric canal, which is a modification of the ventral surface of the male, forming a groove. The paired worms move against the flow of blood to their final niche in the mesenteric circulation, where they begin egg production (>32 days). The "S. mansoni" parasites are found predominantly in the small inferior mesenteric blood vessels surrounding the large intestine and caecal region of the host. Each female lays approximately 300 eggs a day (one egg every 4.8 minutes), which are deposited on the endothelial lining of the venous capillary walls. Most of the body mass of female schistosomes is devoted to the reproductive system. The female converts the equivalent of almost her own body dry weight into eggs each day. The eggs move into the lumen of the host's intestines and are released into the environment with the faeces.

Genome.

"Schistosoma mansoni" has 8 pairs of chromosomes (2n = 16)—7 autosomal pairs and 1 sex pair. The female schistosome is heterogametic, or ZW, and the male is homogametic, or ZZ. Sex is determined in the zygote by a chromosomal mechanism. The genome is approximately 270 MB with a GC content of 34%, 4–8% highly repetitive sequence, 32–36% middle repetitive sequence and 60% single copy sequence. Numerous highly or moderately repetitive elements are identified, with at least 30% repetitive DNA. Chromosomes range in size from 18 to 73 MB and can be distinguished by size, shape, and C banding.  In 2000, the first BAC library of Schistosome was constructed. In June 2003, a ~5x whole genome shotgun sequencing project was initiated at the Sanger Institute. Also in 2003, 163,000 ESTs (expressed sequence tags) were generated (by a consortium headed by the University of São Paulo) from six selected developmental stages of this parasite, resulting in 31,000 assembled sequences and an estimated 92% of the 14,000-gene complement.  In 2009 the genomes of both "S. mansoni" and "S. japonicum" were published, with each describing 11,809 and 13,469 genes, respectively. "S. mansoni" genome has increased protease families and deficiencies in lipid anabolism; which are attributed its parasitic adaptation. Portease included the invadolysin (host penetration) and cathepsin (blood-feeding) gene families.  In 2012, an improved version of the "S. mansoni" genome was published, which consisted of only 885 scaffolds and more than 81% of the bases organised into chromosomes.

Pathology.

Schistosome eggs, which may become lodged within the hosts tissues, are the major cause of pathology in schistosomiasis. Some of the deposited eggs reach the outside environment by passing through the wall of the intestine; the rest are swept into the circulation and are filtered out in the periportal tracts of the liver, resulting in periportal fibrosis. Onset of egg laying in humans is sometimes associated with an onset of fever (Katayama fever). This "acute schistosomiasis" is not, however, as important as the chronic forms of the disease. For "S. mansoni" and "S. japonicum", these are "intestinal" and "hepatic schistosomiasis", associated with formation of granulomas around trapped eggs lodged in the intestinal wall or in the liver, respectively. The hepatic form of the disease is the most important, granulomas here giving rise to fibrosis of the liver and hepatosplenomegaly in severe cases. Symptoms and signs depend on the number and location of eggs trapped in the tissues. Initially, the inflammatory reaction is readily reversible. In the latter stages of the disease, the pathology is associated with collagen deposition and fibrosis, resulting in organ damage that may be only partially reversible.  Granuloma formation is initiated by antigens secreted by the miracidium through microscopic pores within the rigid egg shell, and the immune response to granuloma, rather than the direct action of egg antigens, causes the symptoms. The granulomas formed around the eggs impair blood flow in the liver and, as a consequence, induce portal hypertension. With time, collateral circulation is formed and the eggs disseminate into the lungs, where they cause more granulomas, pulmonary arteritis and, later, cor pulmonale. A contributory factor to portal hypertension is Symmers' fibrosis, which develops around branches of the portal veins. This fibrosis occurs only many years after the infection and is presumed to be caused in part by soluble egg antigens and various immune cells that react to them.  Recent research has shown that granuloma size is consistent with levels of IL-13, which plays a prominent role in granuloma formation and granuloma size. IL-13 receptor α 2 (IL-13Rα2) binds IL-13 with high affinity and blocks the effects of IL-13. Thus, this receptor is essential in preventing the progression of schistosomiasis from the acute to the chronic (and deadly) stage of disease. Synthetic IL-13Rα2 given to mice has resulted in significant decreases in granuloma size, implicating IL-13Rα2 as an important target in schistosomiasis.  "S. mansoni" infection often occurs alongside those of viral hepatitis, either hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV). This is due to high prevalence of schistosomiasis in areas where chronic viral hepatitis is prevalent. One important factor was the development of large reservoir of infection due to extensive schistosomiasis control programs that used intravenously administered tartar emetic since the 1960s. Co-infection is known to cause earlier liver deterioration and more severe illness.

Evasion of host immunity.

Adult and larval worms migrate through the host's blood circulation avoiding the host's immune system. The worms have many tools that help in this evasion, including the tegument, antioxidant proteins, and defenses against host membrane attack complex (MAC). The tegument coats the worm and acts as a physical barrier to host antibodies and complement. Host immune defenses are capable of producing superoxide, but these are counterattacked by antioxidant proteins produced by the parasite. Schistosomes have four superoxide dismutases, and levels of these proteins increase as the schistosome grows. Antioxidant pathways were first recognised as a chokepoints for schistosomes, and later extended to other trematodes and cestodes. Targeting of this pathway with different inhibitors of the central antioxidant enzyme thioredoxin glutathione reductase (TGR) results in reduced viability of worms. Decay accelerating factor (DAF) protein is present on the parasite tegument and protects host cells by blocking formation of MAC. In addition, schistosomes have six homologues of human CD59 which are strong inhibitors of MAC.

Diagnosis.

The presence of "S. mansoni" is detected by microscopic examination of parasite eggs in stool. A staining method called Kato-Katz technique is used for stool examination. It involves methylene blue-stained cellophane soaked in glycerine or glass slides. A bit costlier technique called formalin-ether concentration technique (FECT) is often used in combination with the direct faecal smear for higher accuracy. Serological and immunological tests are also available. Antibodies and antigens can be detected in the blood using ELISA to identify infection. Adult worm antigens can be detected by indirect haemagglutination assays (IHAs). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is also used for detecting the parasite DNA. Circulating cathodic antigen (CCA) in urine can be tested with lateral flow immune-chromatographic reagent strip and point-of-care (POC) tests.  Egg detection and immunologic tests are not that sensitive. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based testing is accurate and rapid. They, however, are not frequency used in countries were the disease is common due to the cost of the equipment and the technical experience required to run them. Using a microscope to detect eggs costs about US$0.40 per test well PCR is about $US7 per test as of 2019. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) are being studied as they are lower cost. LAMP testing is not commercially available as of 2019.

Treatment.

The standard drug for "S. mansoni" infection is praziquantel at a dose of 40 mg/kg. Oxamniquine is also used.

Epidemiology.

As of WHO report in 2016, 206.5 million people worldwide are having schistosomiasis due to different species of "Schistosoma". More than 88 million people were given medical treatment. "S. mansoni" is the major species. It is endemic in 55 countries and most prevalent in Africa, the Middle East, the Caribbean, Brazil, Venezuela and Suriname. About 80-85% of schistosomiasis is found in sub-Saharan Africa, where "S. haematobium", "S. intercalatum" and "S. mansoni" are endemic. Approximately 393 million Africans are at risk of infection from "S. mansoni", of which about 55 million are infected at any moment. Annual death due to "S. mansoni" is about 130,000. The prevalence rate in different countries of Africa are: 73.9% in northern Ethiopia, 37.9% in western Ethiopia, 56% in Nigeria, 60.5% in Kenya, 64.3% in Tanzania, 19.8% in Ghana, and 53.8% in Côte d'Ivoire. In Egypt, 60% of the population in the Northern and Eastern parts of the Nile Delta and only 6% in the Southern part are infected.  "S. mansoni" is commonly found in places with poor sanitation. Because of the parasite's fecal-oral transmission, bodies of water that contain human waste can be infectious. Water that contains large populations of the intermediate host snail species is more likely to cause infection. Young children living in these areas are at greatest risk because of their tendency to swim and bathe in cercaria-infected waters longer than adults. Anyone travelling to the areas described above, and who is exposed to contaminated water, is at risk of schistosomiasis.

History.

The intermediate hosts "Biomphalaria" snails are estimated to originate in South America 95-110 million years ago. But the parasites "Schistosoma" originated in Asia. In Africa, the progenitor species evolved into modern "S. mansoni" and "S. haematobium" around 2-5 million years ago. It reached Egypt via infected slaves and baboons from the Land of Punt through migrations that occurred possibly as early as the V Dynasty ("c". 2494–2345 BCE).  A German physician Theodor Maximillian Bilharz was the first to discover the parasite in 1851, while working at Kasr el-Aini Hospital, a medical school in Cairo. Bilharz recovered them from autopsies of dead soldiers, and noticed two distinct parasites. He described one of them as "Distomum haematobium" (now "S. haematobium") in 1852, but failed to identify the other. In one of his letters to his mentor Karl Theordor von Siebold, he mentioned some of the eggs were different in having terminal spines while some had lateral spines. Terminal-spined eggs are unique to "S. haematobium", while lateral spines are found only in "S. mansoni". Bilharz also noted that the adult flukes were different in anatomy and number eggs they produced. He introduced the terms bilharzia and bilharziasis for the name of the infection in 1856. A German zoologist David Friedrich Weinland corrected the genus name to "Schistosoma" in 1858; and introduced the disease name as schistosomiasis.  The species distinction was first recognised by Patrick Manson at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. Manson identified lateral-spined eggs in the faeces of a colonial officer earlier posted to the West Indies, and concluded that there were two species of "Schistosoma". An Italian-British physician Louis Westenra Sambon gave the new names "Schistosomum haematobium" and "Schistosomum mansoni" in 1907, the latter to honour Manson. Sambon only gave partial description using a male worm. In 1908, a Brazilian physician Manuel Augusto Pirajá da Silva gave a complete description of male and female worms, including the lateral-spined eggs. Pirajá da Silva obtained specimens from three necropsies and eggs from 20 stool examinations in Bahia. He gave the name "S. americanum". The species identity was confirmed in 1907 by British parasitologist Robert Thomson Leiper, identifying the specific snail host, and distinguishing the egg structure, thereby establishing the life cycle.

Schistosoma mansoni is a water-borne parasite of humans, and belongs to the group of blood flukes ("Schistosoma"). The adult lives in the blood vessels (mesenteric veins) near the human intestine. It causes intestinal schistosomiasis (similar to "S. japonicum", "S. mekongi", "S. guineensis", and "S. intercalatum"). Clinical symptoms are caused by the eggs. As the leading cause of schistosomiasis in the world, it is the most prevalent parasite in humans. It is classified as a neglected tropical disease. As of 2016, 206.5 million people have schistosomiasis and "S. mansoni" is the major parasite. It is found in Africa, the Middle East, the Caribbean, Brazil, Venezuela and Suriname.

Krevnička střevní ("Schistosoma mansoni") je parazitický helmint z čeledi Schistosomatidae, který způsobuje tzv. střevní schistosomózu. Při onemocnění jsou většinou zasažena játra a tlusté střevo. Mezi definitivní hostitele patří hlavně člověk, ale také další primáti a hlodavci. Mezihostitelem jsou plži z rodu "Biomphalaria". Krevnička střevní se vyskytuje v Africe (včetně Madagaskaru a Středního Východu) a v Jižní Americe. Byla pojmenována podle skotského lékaře sira Patricka Mansona.


History.

The first airport on the site of MIA opened in the 1920s and was known as Miami City Airport. Pan American World Airways opened an expanded facility adjacent to City Airport, Pan American Field, in 1928. Pan American Field was built on 116 acres of land on 36th Street and was the only mainland airport in the eastern United States that had port of entry facilities. Its runways were located around the threshold of today's Runway 26R. Eastern Airlines began to serve Pan American Field in 1931, followed by National Airlines in 1936. National used a terminal on the opposite side of LeJeune Road from the airport, and would stop traffic on the road in order to taxi aircraft to and from its terminal. Miami Army Airfield opened in 1943 during the Second World War to the south of Pan American Field: the runways of the two were originally separated by railroad tracks, but the two airfields were listed in some directories as a single facility. Following World War II in 1945, the City of Miami established a Port Authority and raised bond revenue to purchase Pan American Field, which had been since renamed 36th Street Airport, from Pan Am. It merged with the former Miami Army Airfield, which was purchased from the United States Army Air Force south of the railroad in 1949 and expanded further in 1951 when the railroad line itself was moved south to make more room. The old terminal on 36th Street was closed in 1959 when the center modern passenger terminal (since greatly expanded) opened. United States Air Force Reserve troop carrier and rescue squadrons also operated from the airport from 1949 through 1959, when the last unit relocated to nearby Homestead Air Force Base, (now Homestead Air Reserve Base).  Nonstop flights to Chicago and Newark Liberty International Airport in northeast New Jersey started in late 1946, but nonstops didn't reach west beyond St. Louis and New Orleans until January 1962. Nonstop transatlantic flights to Europe began in 1970. In the late 1970s and early 1980s Air Florida had a hub at MIA, with a nonstop flight to London, England which it acquired from National upon the latter's merger with Pan Am. Air Florida ceased operations in 1982 after the crash of Air Florida Flight 90. British Airways

Future.

MIA is projected to process 77 million passengers and 4 million tons of freight annually by 2040. To meet such a demand, the Miami-Dade Board of

Operations.

In the year ending December 31, 2018 the airport had 416,032 aircraft operations, average 1,139 per day: 86% scheduled commercial, 10% air taxi, 4% general aviation and <1% military. The budget for operations was $600 million in 2009.

Facilities and aircraft.

Miami International Airport covers and has four runways:  28 aircraft are based at this airport: 46% multi-engine and 54% jet.  MIA has a number of air cargo facilities. The largest cargo complex is located on the west side of the airport, inside the triangle formed by Runways 12/30 and 9/27. Cargo carriers such as LAN Cargo, Atlas Air, Southern Air, Amerijet International and

Terminals and concourses.

The airport has 131 gates in total. The main terminal at MIA dates back to 1959, with several new additions. Semicircular in shape, the terminal has one linear concourse (Concourse D) and five pier-shaped concourses, lettered counter-clockwise from E to J (Concourse A is now part of Concourse D; Concourses B and C were demolished so that Concourse D gates could be added in their place; naming of Concourse I was skipped to avoid confusion with the number 1.). From the terminal's opening until the mid-1970s the concourses were numbered clockwise from 1 to 6.  Level 1 of the terminal contains baggage carousels and ground transportation access. Level 2 contains ticketing/check-in, shopping and dining, and access to the concourses. The airport currently has three immigration and customs facilities (FIS), located in Concourse D, Level 3, Concourse E, Level 3, and in Concourse J, Level 3. The Concourse D FIS and Concourse E FIS can be utilized by flights arriving at all gates in Concourse D, all gates in Concourse E, and most gates in Concourse F. The Concourse J FIS can be utilized by flights arriving at some gates in Concourse H and all gates in Concourse J. However, all gates in Concourse G and some gates in Concourses F and H do not have the facilities to route passengers to any FIS, and therefore can only be used for domestic arrivals. MIA is unique among American airports in that all of its facilities are common-use, meaning that they are assigned by the airport and no one airline holds ownership or leases on any terminal space or gates, thus giving the airport much more flexibility in terminal and gate assignments and allowing it to make full use of existing facilities. The entire airport became common-use by the 1990s. The single terminal facility is divided into three sections known as the North Terminal, Central Terminal, and South Terminal.  The free MIA Mover connects the airport with the Miami Intermodal Center, where the car rental facility and bus terminal has relocated. The MIC also houses the airport Metrorail station and Tri-Rail terminal.  The airport has four parking facilities: a two-level short-term parking lot directly in front of Concourse E, two seven-story parking garages (Dolphin and Flamingo) located within the terminal's curvature and connected to the terminal via overhead walkways on Level 3, and a surface parking lot (South Parking Lot) east of the Flamingo Garage. The parking areas were originally numbered, with the short-term lot known as Park 1, and the parking garages were originally four separate structures numbered Park 2–5. In the 1990s, the parking garages were combined, with Park 3 and 5 becoming the Dolphin Garage, which was simultaneously expanded to accommodate the new Concourse A, and Park 2 and 4 became the Flamingo Garage. The two parking garages are connected via a bridge at the top level.

Airlines and destinations.

Cargo.

The airport is one of the largest in terms of cargo in the United States, and is the primary connecting point for cargo between Latin America and the world. In 2018, Miami International Airport served 2.3 million tons of freight. Ninety-six different carriers are involved in shifting over two million tons of freight annually and ensuring the safe travel of over

Ground transportation.

Miami International Airport has direct public transit service to Miami-Dade Transit's Metrorail, Metrobus network; Greyhound Bus Lines and to the Tri-Rail commuter rail system.  Miami International Airport uses the MIA Mover, a free people mover system to transfer passengers between MIA terminals and Miami Airport station that opened to the public on September 9, 2011. By 2015, the Station also provided direct service to Tri-Rail and Amtrak services.  On July 28, 2012, the Miami Airport station and the Metrorail Orange Line opened the over two mile segment between Earlington Heights and the MIC, providing rapid passenger rail service from Miami International Airport to downtown and points south.

To/from Metrorail, Downtown and South Beach.

Metrorail operates the Orange Line train from Miami International Airport to destinations such as Downtown, Brickell, Civic Center, Coconut Grove, Coral Gables,

To/from Tri-Rail/Amtrak, Fort Lauderdale and West Palm Beach.

MIA is served directly by Tri-Rail, Miami's commuter rail system, which began service on April 5, 2015. Tri-Rail connects MIA to northern Miami-Dade, Broward and Palm Beach counties. Tri-Rail directly serves points north such as: Boca Raton, Deerfield Beach, Delray Beach, Fort Lauderdale, Hollywood, Pompano Beach and West Palm Beach.  In the future, Amtrak will also serve

Taxis and shuttles.

Taxis and shuttles provide

Rental cars.

MIA has a newly completed

Miami International Airport, also known as MIA and historically as Wilcox Field, is the primary airport serving the Miami area, Florida, United States, with over 1,000 daily flights to 167 domestic and international destinations, and one of three airports serving this area. The airport is in an unincorporated area in Miami-Dade County, northwest of Downtown Miami, in metropolitan Miami, adjacent to the cities of Miami and Miami Springs, and the village of Virginia Gardens. Nearby are the cities of Hialeah and Doral, and the Census-designated place of Fontainebleau.

Mezinárodní letiště v Miami Miami International Airport (IATA: MIA, ICAO: KMIA) je mezinárodní letiště ve městě Miami na Floridě. Nachází se v nepřičleněném území okresu Miami-Dade a slouží jako primární mezinárodní letiště pro oblast jižní Floridy. Současně představuje hlavní letecké zařízení pro spojení Spojených států se zeměmi Latinské Ameriky.


Biosynthesis.

Carotenoids are the precursors of important fragrance compounds in several flowers. For example, a 2010 study of ionones in "Osmanthus fragrans" Lour. var. "aurantiacus" determined its essential oil contained the highest diversity of carotenoid-derived volatiles among the flowering plants investigated. A cDNA encoding a carotenoid cleavage enzyme, OfCCD1, was identified from transcripts isolated from flowers of "O. fragrans" Lour. The recombinant enzymes cleaved carotenes to produce α-ionone and β-ionone in "in vitro" assays.  The same study also discovered that carotenoid content, volatile emissions, and OfCCD1 transcript levels are subject to photorhythmic changes, and principally increased during daylight hours. At the times when OfCCD1 transcript levels reached their maxima, the carotenoid content remained low or slightly decreased. The emission of ionones was also higher during the day; however, emissions decreased at a lower rate than the transcript levels. Moreover, carotenoid content increased from the first to the second day, whereas the volatile release decreased, and the OfCCD1 transcript levels displayed steady-state oscillations, suggesting that the substrate availability in the cellular compartments is changing or other regulatory factors are involved in volatile norisoprenoid formation. The formation of ionones proceeds by a process mediated by the carotenoid dioxygenases.

Organic synthesis.

Ionone can be synthesised from citral and acetone with calcium oxide as a basic heterogeneous catalyst and serves as an example of an aldol condensation followed by a rearrangement reaction.  The nucleophilic addition of the carbanion 3 of acetone 1 to the carbonyl group on citral 4 is base catalysed. The aldol condensation product 5 eliminates water through the enolate ion 6 to form pseudoionone 7.  The reaction proceeds by acid catalysis where the double bond in 7 opens to form the carbocation 8. A rearrangement reaction of the carbocation follows with ring closure to 9. Finally a hydrogen atom can be abstracted from 9 by an acceptor molecule (Y) to form either 10 (extended conjugated system) or 11.

Genetic differences in odor perception.

A single-nucleotide polymorphism in the OR5A1 receptor (rs6591536) causes very significant differences in the odor perception of beta-ionone, both in sensitivity and also in subjective quality. Individuals who contain at least one G allele are sensitive to beta-ionone and perceive a pleasant floral scent, while individuals who are homozygous AA are ~100 times less sensitive and at higher concentrations perceive a pungent sour/vinegar odor instead.

The ionones are a series of closely related chemical substances that are part of a group of compounds known as rose ketones, which also includes damascones and damascenones. Ionones are aroma compounds found in a variety of essential oils, including rose oil. β-Ionone is a significant contributor to the aroma of roses, despite its relatively low concentration, and is an important fragrance chemical used in perfumery. The ionones are derived from the degradation of carotenoids.

Jonony ("angl. ionones") jsou navzájem blízce příbuzné chemické látky, které jsou součástí tzv. růžových ketonů ("rose ketones"), mezi které patří také damaskony a damaskenony. Jsou to produkty rozkladných procesů probíhajících na karotenoidech, kde vlastní rozklad je řízen karoten-dioxygenázou zejména Beta-karoten-9',10'-dioxygenázou (BCDO2). Jonony patří mezi aromatické sloučeniny, které lze nalézt v mnoha silicích (tedy esenciálních resp. éterických olejích) jako např. v růžovém oleji. "Beta"-jonon výrazně přispívá k typické vůni růží, a to navzdory jeho nízké koncentraci obsažené v jejích květech. Dále je tento "beta"-jonon významnou vonnou surovinou, která nachází své uplatnění v kosmetickém průmyslu (parfumerie). Podobně kombinace "alfa"-jononu s "beta"-jononem vytváří typickou fialkovou vůni, a proto je spolu s dalšími látkami tato kombinace rovněž využívána v kosmetickém průmyslu.


History.

This area of Solomon Islands has had a history of headhunting. According to local stories the Gizo tribe were notorious in this activity. As a consequence the surrounding local tribes took the unusual step of joining together to obliterate the Gizo tribe. The stories further relate that the only survivors were a Gizo woman and her son.  This event led to Ghizo island being declared as a property of the state, rather than the usual customary ownership prevalent in much of the rest of the Solomons. As a secondary consequence becoming an administrative and business centre because of the relative ease with which registered land titles could be obtained.  The Methodist Mission in the Western Province was established by Rev. John Frances Goldie in 1902. He dominated the mission and gained the loyalty of Solomon Islander members of his church. The relationship with the colonial administrators of the British Solomon Island Protectorate were also fraught with difficulty, at this time due to Goldie's effective control over the Western Solomon Islands.  From 1927 to 1934 Dr Edward Sayers worked at the Methodist mission where he established a hospital at Gizo and also at Munda and Vella Lavella, and carried out fieldwork in the treatment of malaria.

World War II.

In 1942, the islands were occupied by imperial Japanese troops.  "Gizo" was the operating base for Robert Ballard's "The Search for Kennedy's PT 109", which was a National Geographic Channel television special. The son of Eroni Kumana, who was one of the two natives that found the shipwrecked Lt. John F. Kennedy and his surviving men, lives on the island. The three islands, Plum Pudding, Olasana, and Naru, that were visited by the PT 109 survivors lie just to the southeast of Ghizo island.

The 2007 Solomon Islands earthquake.

On 2 April 2007 Gizo was hit by a tsunami caused by the 8.1 magnitude earthquake centred only 25 miles from the town. Now known as the 2007 Solomon Islands earthquake the final official death total throughout the Western Province and Choiseul was 52. The tsunami hit during daylight hours, giving people warning to seek higher ground, as the tide withdrew in advance of the wall of water. Ten metre-high waves hit nearby Sasamunga (to the north-east of Gizo on the island of Choiseul), destroying houses, food gardens and a hospital.

2010 earthquakes.

Magnitude 7.2 and 6.5 quakes hit near the Solomon Islands in the South Pacific less than an hour apart on January 4, 2010. The larger quake was centered 65 miles south-southeast of Gizo, Solomon Islands, and at a depth of 19 miles. The smaller quake was 55 miles south-southeast of Gizo at a depth of 6.2 miles.

2011 tsunami.

On March 11 Gizo was put under tsunami warning following a 9.0 magnitude earthquake off Japan's east coast.

Government.

Construction on the Correctional Services of Solomon Islands Gizo Correctional Centre in Gizo began in December 2010.

Gizo is the capital of the Western Province in Solomon Islands. With a population of 6,154 (2005 estimates), it is the second largest town in the country. It is situated on Ghizo Island approximately west-northwest of the capital, Honiara, and is just southwest of the larger island of Kolombangara.

Gizo je město na Šalomounových ostrovech. Je hlavní město Western Province a zároveň druhé nejvýznamnější město. Leží na ostrově Ghizo a 380 km SZ od Honiary. Má kolem 10 000 obyvatel a je plně elektrifikováno. Jsou zde i asfaltové silnice a samozřejmě je po celém ostrově i provoz automobilů. Na východ od města na malém ostrově leží letiště Gizo, na které jsou až několikrát denně provozovány lety z Honiary a zpět společností Solomon Airlines. Gizo je jinak turistickým cílem potápěčů a najdeme v něm i hotely.


Early life and ordination.

Born in Kikaikelaki a small village in the Nso klan, situated in the [Northwest Region, of Cameroon], Tumi studied at local seminaries in Cameroon and Nigeria. He trained as a teacher in Nigeria and London, then went on to earn a licentiate in theology in Lyon and a doctorate in philosophy at the University of Fribourg, Switzerland.  Ordained a priest on 17 April 1966, he served as a vicar in Soppo for a year before becoming a professor at Bishop Rogan College's seminary. After studying abroad from 1969 to 1973, he returned to his diocese and was named rector of the seminary in Bambui.

Bishop and Cardinal.

In 1979, Tumi was elected the first bishop of the diocese of Yagoua. In 1984, he was made archbishop, and in 1985, he was elected president of the National Episcopal Conference of Cameroon, a post he held until 1991.  Named Cardinal-Priest of "Santi Martiri dell'Uganda a Poggio Ameno" on 28 June 1988 by Pope John Paul II, Cardinal Tumi was named the Archbishop of Douala on 31 August 1991. He was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 2005 papal conclave that selected Pope Benedict XVI.

Views.

Abortion.

Cardinal Tumi led a pro-life march in the city of Douala in 2009.

Child sexual abuse.

In a 2007 speech, he denounced the negative effect of child sexual abuse on modern society.

HIV/AIDS and condoms.

In 2005, it was reported that Cardinal Tumi said in a press interview that the use of condoms should be possible as protection against AIDS within marriage.

Christian Wiyghan Tumi (born 15 October 1930) is a Cardinal Priest and the Archbishop Emeritus of Douala in the Catholic Church. He was succeeded as archbishop of Douala by Samuel Kleda, who had been Coadjutor Archbishop.

Christian Wiyghan kardinál Tumi (15. října 1930 Kikaikelaki) je kamerunský římskokatolický kněz, bývalý arcibiskup Doualy, kardinál. Studoval v seminářích v Kamerunu, Nigérii a na Teologické fakultě Univerzity v Lyonu. Na Katolické univerzitě ve Fribourgu získal doktorát z filozofie. Kněžské svěcení přijal 17. dubna 1966. Působil jako kněz v diecézi Kumbo, po návratu ze studií v Evropě byl mj. rektorem semináře a předsedou kněžské rady v arcidiecézi Bamenda.


Athletics career.

Alptekin won the gold medal in the 1500 m at the 2011 Summer Universiade held in Shenzen, China. She also won the bronze medal in the 1500 m event at the 2012 World Indoor Championships held in Istanbul. Both of these titles were later stripped off her upon failed doping tests.  Alptekin recorded her personal best in 1500m with 3:56.62 at the Diamond League meet in Paris on 6 July 2012. Six weeks later, she won the gold medal at the 2012 Olympics in the 1500 m event. Alptekin was also stripped of her Olympic title as a result of her use of banned substances and methods.

Doping cases.

Çakır Alptekin received a two-year ban from the track in September 2004 due to positive testing for illegal substances. The positive test came at the 2004 World Junior Championships, where she was the fastest in the heats of the steeplechase and placed sixth in the final.  On 22 March 2013, several news agencies reported that Çakır Alptekin was one of eight athletes who tested positive for banned substances. Çakır Alptekin faced a lifetime ban if the positive test was upheld. Neither the IAAF nor WADA officially commented on the doping allegation. On 3 December, the Turkish Athletic Federation announced that they had cleared her of the charges. The IAAF subsequently appealed the Turkish federation's decision to clear Çakır Alptekin to the Court of Arbitration for Sport and again suspended the athlete from competition.  On 17 August 2015, the Court of Arbitration for Sport says it approved a settlement agreed to by Alptekin and the IAAF. Alptekin agreed to give up her 1500 m Olympic title and serve an eight-year ban for blood doping. Alptekin forfeited all her results from 29 July 2010, including the 2012 Olympic gold and her 2012 European Championship title.  On 23 September 2017, the Former Olympic 1500m champion Asli Cakir Alptekin has been banned for life after a third doping offence.  She returned this year after the ban was halved and its start date backdated to 2013, but has since reoffended.  "We are never, ever going to allow doping," said Turkish Athletics Federation chief Fatih Cintimar.

Personal life.

Çakır Alptekin returned to the tracks in 2006, motivated by her future husband İhsan Alptekin, who gave up his athletics career early to coach her. The two married in 2011 in Aslı's hometown of Antalya.  Çakır Alptekin is a student of physical education and sports at the Dumlupınar University in Kütahya.

Aslı Çakır Alptekin (born 20 August 1985 in Antalya) is a former Turkish female middle-distance runner. A member of the Üsküdar Belediyespor in Istanbul, she is coached by her husband, runner Ihsan Alptekin. She is tall and.

Aslı Çakır Alptekinová, nepřechýleně Aslı Çakır Alptekin (* 20. srpna 1985, Antalya) je turecká atletka, běžkyně na 1500 metrů. Dříve se též specializovala na steeplechase a v začátcích své kariéry také na přespolní běh.


Plot.

Peter Colt, a British professional tennis player in his thirties whose ranking has slipped from 11th to 119th in the world, has never really had to fight for anything, as his wealthy family allowed him to easily pursue his tennis ambitions. Though he earns a wildcard spot to the Wimbledon tournament, he feels it's time to admit he's getting too old to compete with fitter up-and-coming younger players and intends, after this last Wimbledon, to take a job with a prestigious tennis club.  As Wimbledon begins, he bumps into Lizzie Bradbury, the American rising star of female tennis. They fall in love and her interest in him changes his entire perception, even giving him the strength to win again. As their love grows, Peter's game becomes better and better. Lizzie's overprotective father-manager Dennis Bradbury is determined to nip their relationship in the bud, believing it detrimental to her career. One day, Dennis comes to Peter's old flat and yells at him for spoiling his daughter's game. She overhears this and decides to leave him and focus on her game.  The night before their semi-final matches, Peter sneaks into Lizzie's hotel room and persuades her to have sex. The next day, he performs above expectations and wins in straight sets, but Lizzie loses. Lizzie angrily breaks up with Peter, claiming his selfishness made her lose, and she decides to immediately return to the United States to train.  Peter has to play the final match against Jake Hammond, an arrogant American star and world number 1. At the airport, Lizzie watches an interview on TV in which Peter apologizes and declares his love for her. She returns to Wimbledon.  As Lizzie reaches the stadium, Peter has lost two sets in the final and is behind in the third. When the game is suspended due to rain, Lizzie appears in the dressing room and forgives him. She tells him the secret of Jake's tricky serves and Peter fights back to win the title (3–6, 2–6, 6–4, 7–6, 6–4). Now a national hero in Britain, he and Lizzie get married. With his support, Lizzie goes on to win the U.S. Open and Wimbledon twice, ultimately achieving her dreams. In the last scene, Peter is with their youngest child, a boy, watching Lizzie and their eldest child, a girl, playing tennis together on a neighborhood court in New York City.

Production.

Writing.

In the original script, Lizzie steps nude out of the shower upon meeting Peter. Actress Kirsten Dunst filmed the initial meeting scene nude, but before the film's release she persuaded director Richard Loncraine to edit the scene so her nudity was removed. The result is a strange cut first showing Dunst behind the glass shower door, then suddenly cutting to a shoulders-up view of her standing outside the glass door. The film is dedicated to Mark McCormack, founder of International Management Group, a management firm for high level athletes, who died on 16 May 2003.

Casting.

The film used locally recruited Wimbledon residents as extras for the crowd scenes.

Filming.

The actors served with real tennis balls. All others were added digitally to make it appear like they were playing.

Locations.

Some scenes were filmed during the 2003 championships between matches. It is the only time in the history of the tournament that this has been allowed. Some of the grass court scenes with Paul Bettany were filmed at the Stoke Park Country Club, home of The Boodles Challenge. London Zoo's entrance was used for the entrance to Wimbledon. The beachfront scenes were filmed on location in Brighton.

Reception.

Critical reception.

Wimbledon received mixed reviews, with a 61% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 145 reviews with an average rating of 5.87/10. the consensus reads, " A predictable, bland rom-com, but Bettany proves to be an appealing lead." It received "average" of "mixed" reviews from Metacritic, which was a 59 out of 100 based on reviews from 35 critics.  Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" review stated that "Wimbledon" was a "much more conventional film", but with "cleverer-than-average dialogue and sharply drawn subsidiary characters". In Michael Charlotte's film review for "Empire", he gave the film three out of five stars, saying that, "In tennis parlance, this fires off more moonballs to stay in play than outright winning shots. But Bettany is charming, and thankfully he and Dunst are appealing together".  Roger Ebert gave the film a positive review: ""Wimbledon" is a well-behaved movie about nice people who have good things happen to them. That's kind of startling, in a world where movie characters, especially in sports movies, occupy the edge of human experience. What a surprise to hear conversation instead of dialogue, and to realize that the villain may actually be right some of the time". He ultimately gave the film three out of four stars.

Box office.

The film opened at number four, grossing US$7.1 million in its opening weekend at the North American box office.

Soundtrack.

The film's digital soundtrack uses the "Surround EX" format. The song that plays in the trailer of the film is "Everlasting Love" by U2. The film features two songs by the Sugababes: "Caught in a Moment" and "Sometimes", both from the album "Three".

Wimbledon is a 2004 romantic comedy film directed by Richard Loncraine. The film stars Paul Bettany as a washed-up tennis pro and Kirsten Dunst as an up-and-coming tennis star. Sam Neill and Jon Favreau co-star.

Wimbledon je britsko-francouzská romantická filmová komedie z roku 2004 z tenisového prostředí s Kirsten Dunstovou a Paulem Bettanym v hlavní roli. Režii filmu provedl Richard Loncraine. Jde o klasický milostný příběh jedné velké lásky (sportovní love-story) odehrávající se během fiktivního tenisového turnaje ve Wimbledonu.


Description.

This range forms the southeastern border of the large Mare Imbrium lunar mare and the northwestern border of the Terra Nivium highland region. It begins just to the west of the prominent crater Eratosthenes, which abuts against the southern face of the range. To the west of these mountains is a narrow gap where Mare Imbrium in the north joins Mare Insularum to the south. Further to the west are the Montes Carpatus mountains.  From Eratosthenes, the mountains form an arcing chain that gradually bends from east to northeast, ending at Promontorium Fresnel at about latitude 29.5° N. Here is another gap where the Mare Imbrium to the west joins the Mare Serenitatis to the east. At the north end of this gap lie the Montes Caucasus.  This range contains several mountains that have received names, listed below ranging from west to northeast:  The last two peaks are perhaps most famous for forming the valley where the Apollo 15 mission made its landing. This landing was considered one of the most scientifically successful missions of the Apollo program and started the last three J-Series missions that included the lunar rover and 3-day stays. Apollo 15 explored smaller peak Mons Hadley Delta (δ) and Rima Hadley rille. This was perhaps the most geologically diverse landing site of the program.  Much of this range forms a sharp, rugged rise at the edge of the Mare Imbrium, with a wide expanse of foothills on the far (southeastern) face. There are, however, some rugged foothills on the northwestern side along the section of the range to the southeast of Archimedes. The total length of the range is about, with some of the peaks rising as high as.

Montes Apenninus are a rugged mountain range on the northern part of the Moon's near side. They are named after the Apennine Mountains in Italy. With their formation dating back about 3.9 billion years, Montes Apenninus are still relatively young.

Montes Apenninus (česky Apeniny) je mohutné pohoří na jihovýchodním okraji Mare Imbrium (Moře dešťů) na přivrácené straně Měsíce. Je součástí vnitřního valu kotliny Mare Imbrium, na této straně jsou svahy relativně strmé (až 30°). Na opačné straně směrem k Mare Vaporum (Moře par) jsou svahy Apenin mírnější. Střední selenografické souřadnice jsou 19,9° S, 0° (nultý poledník), pojmenováno je podle pohoří Apeniny v Iálii.