GUPPY I program.

The prototype GUPPYs, and (both Portsmouth-built "Tench" boats), appeared in 1947. Externally, they featured improved streamlining of the bridge and shears structures, and periscope and radar mast supports. To reduce hydrodynamic drag, one of the periscopes was deleted. No snorkel was fitted, due to difficulties in adapting the snorkel to the fleet boat. Deck guns and their associated containers were removed. An SV radar aerial was added to the top of the sail, creating a distinctive side bulge. All capstans, cleats, and rail stanchion supports were redesigned so they could be retracted or removed when rigged for dive. Most notably, the sharp V-shaped "fleet boat bow" was replaced with a distinctive rounded "Guppy bow" that improved submerged performance.  These modifications changed not only the boats' appearance, but also their terminology: After a GUPPY conversion, the faired structure around the boat's conning tower and mast supports was called the "sail".  Internally, the boats underwent considerable rearrangement to accommodate larger battery wells and batteries of greatly increased electrical power. The batteries were of a new design. Compared with the original Sargo battery, the Guppy battery used a greater number of thinner plates that would generate higher current for a longer time. However, these batteries had a shorter life, 18 months versus the five years of the Sargo battery, and took longer to charge. They also required ventilation to remove hydrogen gas, and required cooling water to the battery terminals and termination bars. Four 126-cell batteries were installed in enlarged battery wells that replaced former storage, ammunition, and refrigeration spaces. These four batteries could be connected in series or parallel, providing a wide range of voltages and currents, and thus a wide range of speeds.  In the maneuvering room, two or four of the earlier high-speed motors and reduction gears were replaced by slow-speed motors. All open-front switchboards were replaced with enclosed splash-proof cabinets. Lighting and other "hotel" electrical loads were converted to use 120 volt 60 hertz alternating current, and ship electronics to use 120 volt 400 hertz AC. A new air conditioning system of greatly increased capacity was also installed.  In service, these boats offered greatly improved underwater performance. "Pomodon" reached 17.8 knots surfaced and submerged as compared to the previous performance of 20.25 knots surfaced and submerged, "Odax" slightly less.

GUPPY II program.

The GUPPY II conversion (SCB 47), implemented from 1947 to 1951, was generally similar to the GUPPY I, except for retention of both periscopes and introduction of the recently perfected snorkel. The addition of three new masts—snorkel induction, snorkel exhaust, and ESM mast—required more room in the upper portion of the sail. BuShips approved two different sail designs:  Some boats with a Portsmouth Sail had an SV radar and needed extra room to house the aerial, thus had a bulge at the sail top. Later modifications put the SS or SS2 radars on these and other boats that had a smaller aerial and had an indicator with interlocks, allowing the mast to be housed only with the aerial in certain angular positions. Also, some GUPPY II and GUPPY III boats had their sails extended higher above the waterline, the "Northern Sail", to raise the bridge, allowing it to be manned in more severe weather.  All boats converted during the GUPPY II program that originally had high-speed drive motors with reduction gears had these replaced with low-speed direct-drive motors, producing 2500 horsepower (1.9 MW) per shaft.  The two GUPPY I boats, "Odax" and "Pomodon", were modified to GUPPY II standard.

GUPPY IA program.

BuShips devised the GUPPY IA (SCB 47A) program of 1951 as a cheaper alternative to the GUPPY II conversion. While the GUPPY IA conversion included most features of the GUPPY II, it omitted the four-well battery configuration and extensive internal rearrangement associated with it. Instead, the GUPPY IA retained the original battery wells, fitted with more powerful Sargo II batteries. The Sargo II was developed to be lower cost than the Guppy battery while providing most of the performance. It was intermediate in size between the Guppy and Sargo batteries. These batteries featured electrolyte agitation, battery cooling, and open tank ventilation. They also had a longer life than the Guppy batteries, though shorter than the original Sargo battery. The sonar room was relocated from the forward torpedo room to a space under the galley. Compared to the GUPPY II, the GUPPY IA offered lower cost, better habitability, and easier maintenance at the expense of underwater performance.

Fleet Snorkel Program.

When the navy realized that it would not be able to fund all the GUPPY conversions it desired, it devised the Fleet Snorkel Program (SCB 47B) as a means of adding the minimum necessary modifications to fleet boats. This modernization added a snorkel, a streamlined sail, a higher capacity air-conditioning system, and a more powerful electrical system. The deck guns and auxiliary diesel were removed. Unlike the GUPPY conversions, these boats retained their original deck structure, bow, and storage batteries. Submerged performance of the Fleet Snorkel boats was therefore significantly inferior to any GUPPY conversion. Despite their limited features, the Fleet Snorkel boats served almost as long as the more modern GUPPY boats. Three boats, "Piper", "Sea Owl", and "Sterlet", received a large BQR-4A bow sonar. The ex-USS Chub (S-329) and ex-USS Brill (S-330), both transferred to Turkey in 1948 as TCG Gür (S 334) and TCG 1. İnönü (S 330), were converted to a Fleet Snorkel Submarine in 1953, the work being done first in Turkey's Gölcük Navy Yard and completed in the United States.  The GUPPY IA program was succeeded by the nearly identical GUPPY IIA program (SCB 47C), implemented from 1952 to 1954. The GUPPY IIA, however, further alleviated the cramped internal conditions of earlier conversions by removing one forward engine and replacing it with pumps and air conditioning machinery. Some boats had the high-pressure air compressors relocated to the lower level of the forward engine room. The freezer and refrigerator units were moved to the space under the galley, and the sonar room was relocated to the forward end of the pump room. Sargo II batteries were installed in the existing battery wells.  Externally, the GUPPY IIA differed from the GUPPY II and IA by having only three diesel exhaust outlets, whereas the earlier conversions had four.

GUPPY IB program.

GUPPY IB was an informal designation for a limited upgrade and modernization given to four boats for transfer to foreign navies. These boats had snorkels and were generally similar to the GUPPY IA, except that they were not equipped with the modern sonar, fire control systems, or ESM. The two Italian boats were of the thin-skinned "Gato"-class.

GUPPY III program.

The GUPPY II conversions suffered from very cramped internal conditions due to the four-battery configuration. The GUPPY III program (SCB 223) was devised to address this problem. In 1959, became the prototype conversion. It was cut in half and lengthened with a 12.5 foot (3.8 m) section forward of the control room to create space for a new sonar room, berthing, electronics, and storerooms. The removal of the sonar room from the forward torpedo spaces allowed an increase in the number of reloads. Crew spaces were also refurbished. As in the GUPPY IIA conversion, one diesel engine was removed. The tall sail (or "North Atlantic Sail", as they were sometimes called) was a singular characteristic of the GUPPY III boats, distinct from the so-called "step sail" of all of the other GUPPY submarine classes.  From 1961 to 1963, eight more GUPPY II boats were upgraded to GUPPY III standard. These boats differed from "Tiru" by adding a 15-foot (4.6 m) section forward of the control room. They also retained all four diesel engines. This increased the boat's length to and raised surfaced displacement to approximately 1,975 tons.  All boats received the BQG-4 PUFFS passive ranging sonar, identifiable by the three shark fin-like sonar domes added to the topside superstructure. The conning tower in the sail gained an additional five-foot (1.5 m) section to accommodate the Mk 101 fire control system and Mk 37 director. All GUPPY III boats received a plastic sail.  The fire control upgrades allowed GUPPY III submarines to fire the Mark 45 nuclear torpedo.  The GUPPY III conversion was part of the Fleet Rehabilitation and Modernization (FRAM) program. All 24 GUPPY II boats were originally slated to receive the GUPPY III upgrade, but budgetary constraints limited the program to a total of nine boats. Despite their extensive modifications and upgrades, the GUPPY III boats served only slightly longer than the rest of the GUPPY fleet.

The Greater Underwater Propulsion Power Program (GUPPY) was initiated by the United States Navy after World War II to improve the submerged speed, maneuverability, and endurance of its submarines. (The "Y" in the acronym was added for pronounceability.)

GUPPY (Greater Underwater Propulsion Power Program) byl americký zbrojní program modernizace vybraných druhoválečných ponorek tříd "Gato", "Balao" a "Tench" s cílem zvýšení jejich výkonů při plavbě pod hladinou (větší rychlost a kapacita akumulátorů). Ponorky se měly svými výkony přiblížit německým ponorkám typu XXI.


Types.

Stone-Vapor.

One of the best-known designs is the "Stone-Vapor". The inner casing of the boiler forms a vertical bell, with an outer airtight cylindrical casing. The oil or gas burner is mounted at the top, above the coils, and facing downwards. The heating element is a single tube, arranged into a number of helical cylinders. The first helices (in the flow direction) are small-diameter tubes, wrapped in large diameter turns. Succeeding turns are coiled inside this and the tube is of progressively increasing diameter, to allow for a constant flow rate as the water evaporates into steam and forms bubbles. The steam outlet is from the final turn at the bottom of the inner helix. The outlet is approximately 90% steam (by mass) and residual water is separated by passing it through a steam-water separator. The exhaust gases turn upwards and flow over the outside of the bell, usually passing additional helices that are used as an initial feedwater heater.

Clayton.

The Clayton steam generator is similar to the Stone-Vapor, but the burner and flow directions are reversed. The heating coil is mounted within a simple cylindrical casing. Rather than helical, cylindrical layers, the Clayton coils are arranged as layers of flat spirals. Water is pumped into the top layers and forced downwards. Again, the tube diameter increases in steps, as evaporation takes place. The final turns form a single closely spaced helical cylinder around the burner as a water-wall furnace and is heated by radiant heat. The steam output is passed through a centrifugal separator and a dry steam quality of 99.5% is claimed.

A steam generator is a form of low water-content boiler, similar to a flash steam boiler. The usual construction is as a spiral coil of water-tube, arranged as a single, or monotube, coil. Circulation is once-through and pumped under pressure, as a forced-circulation boiler. The narrow-tube construction, without any large-diameter drums or tanks, means that they are safe from the effects of explosion, even if worked at high pressures. The pump flowrate is adjustable, according to the quantity of steam required at that time. The burner output is throttled to maintain a constant working temperature. The burner output required varies according to the quantity of water being evaporated: this can be either adjusted by open-loop control according to the pump throughput, or by a closed-loop control to maintain the measured temperature.

Parogenerátor (parní generátor) je zařízení, které slouží k předávání tepla mezi jednotlivými okruhy jaderné elektrárny. Toto zařízení se používá zejména v některých druzích jaderných elektráren pro předávání tepla z primárního okruhu s jaderným reaktorem do sekundárního okruhu s parní turbínou. Podobné zařízení se nachází v uhelných elektrárnách, zde se ovšem nazývá parní buben. Teplo z primární části je vedeno chladicím mediem do trubek v parogenerátoru. Toto teplo trubky ohřeje na vysokou teplotu. Voda v sekundární části parogenerátoru je již vypařována těmito trubkami podobným způsobem, jako voda v rychlovarné konvici. Poté se pára přes různé separátory vede potrubím do turbíny v sekundárním okruhu.


Education.

Gowers attended King's College School, Cambridge, as a choirboy in the King's College choir, and then Eton College as a King's Scholar, where he was taught mathematics by Norman Routledge. He completed his PhD, with a dissertation on "Symmetric Structures in Banach Spaces" at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1990, supervised by Béla Bollobás. In 1981, Gowers won a gold medal at the International Mathematical Olympiad with a perfect score.

Career and research.

After his PhD, Gowers was elected to a Junior Research Fellowship at Trinity College. From 1991 until his return to Cambridge in 1995 he was lecturer at University College London. He was elected to the Rouse Ball Professorship at Cambridge in 1998. During 2000–2 he was visiting professor at Princeton University. In May 2020 it was announced that he would be assuming the title chaire de combinatoire at the College de France beginning in October 2020, though he intends to continue to reside in Cambridge and maintain a part-time affiliation at the University, as well enjoy the privileges of his life Fellowship of Trinity College.  Gowers initially worked on Banach spaces. He used combinatorial tools in proving several of Stefan Banach's conjectures in the subject, in particular constructing a Banach space with almost no symmetry, serving as a counterexample to several other conjectures. With Bernard Maurey he resolved the "unconditional basic sequence problem" in 1992, showing that not every infinite-dimensional Banach space has an infinite-dimensional subspace that admits an unconditional Schauder basis.  After this, Gowers turned to combinatorics and combinatorial number theory. In 1997 he proved that the Szemerédi regularity lemma necessarily comes with tower-type bounds.  In 1998, Gowers proved the first effective bounds for Szemerédi's theorem, showing that any subset formula_1 free of "k"-term arithmetic progressions has cardinality formula_2 for an appropriate formula_3. One of the ingredients in Gowers's argument is a tool now known as the Balog–Szemerédi–Gowers theorem, which has found many further applications. He also introduced the Gowers norms, a tool in arithmetic combinatorics, and provided the basic techniques for analysing them. This work was further developed by Ben Green and Terence Tao, leading to the Green–Tao theorem.  In 2003, Gowers established a regularity lemma for hypergraphs, analogous to the Szemerédi regularity lemma for graphs.  In 2005, he introduced the notion of a quasirandom group.  More recently, Gowers has worked on Ramsey theory in random graphs and random sets with David Conlon, and has turned his attention to other problems such as the P versus NP problem. He has also developed an interest, in joint work with Mohan Ganesalingam, in automated problem solving.  Gowers has an Erdős number of three.

Popularisation work.

Gowers has written several works popularising mathematics, including "Mathematics: A Very Short Introduction" (2002), which describes modern mathematical research for the general reader. He was consulted about the 2005 film "Proof", starring Gwyneth Paltrow and Anthony Hopkins. He edited "The Princeton Companion to Mathematics" (2008), which traces the development of various branches and concepts of modern mathematics. For his work on this book, he won the 2011 Euler Book Prize of the Mathematical Association of America.. In May 2020 he was made a professor at the Collège de France, an historic institution dedicated to popularising science.

Blogging.

After asking on his blog whether "massively collaborative mathematics" was possible, he solicited comments on his blog from people who wanted to try to solve mathematical problems collaboratively. The first problem in what is called the Polymath Project, Polymath1, was to find a new combinatorial proof to the density version of the Hales–Jewett theorem. After seven weeks, Gowers wrote on his blog that the problem was "probably solved".  In 2009, with Olof Sisask and Alex Frolkin, he invited people to post comments to his blog to contribute to a collection of methods of mathematical problem solving. Contributors to this Wikipedia-style project, called Tricki.org, include Terence Tao and Ben Green.

Elsevier boycott.

In 2012, Gowers posted to his blog to call for a boycott of the publishing house Elsevier. A petition ensued, branded the Cost of Knowledge project, in which researchers commit to stop supporting Elsevier journals. Commenting on the petition in "The Guardian", Alok Jha credited Gowers with starting an Academic Spring.  In 2016, Gowers started Discrete Analysis to demonstrate that a high-quality mathematics journal could be inexpensively produced outside of the traditional academic publishing industry.

Awards and honours.

In 1996, Gowers received the Prize of the European Mathematical Society, and in 1998 the Fields Medal for research on functional analysis and combinatorics. In 1999 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 2012 was knighted by the British monarch for services to mathematics. He also sits on the selection committee for the Mathematics award, given under the auspices of the Shaw Prize. He was listed in Nature's 10 people who mattered in 2012.

Personal life.

Gowers's father was Patrick Gowers, a composer; his great-grandfather was Sir Ernest Gowers, a British civil servant who was best known for guides to English usage; and his great-great-grandfather was Sir William Gowers, a neurologist. He has two siblings, the writer Rebecca Gowers, and the violinist Katharine Gowers. He has five children and plays jazz piano.  In November 2012, Gowers opted to undergo catheter ablation to treat a sporadic atrial fibrillation, after performing a mathematical risk–benefit analysis to decide whether to have the treatment.  In 1988, Gowers married Emily Thomas, a historian and Cambridge academic: they divorced in 2007. Together they had three children. In 2008, he married for a second time, to Julie Barrau. They have two children together.

Sir William Timothy Gowers, (; born 20 November 1963) is a British mathematician. He is a Royal Society Research Professor at the Department of Pure Mathematics and Mathematical Statistics at the University of Cambridge, where he also holds the Rouse Ball chair, and is a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1998, he received the Fields Medal for research connecting the fields of functional analysis and combinatorics.

William Timothy Gowers (* 20. listopadu 1963 Marlborough, Wiltshire, Anglie, Spojené království), známý také jako Tim Gowers, je anglický matematik a profesor matematiky na Cambridgeské univerzitě. V roce 1998 získal Fieldsovu medaili za svou práci, která dala do souvislosti funkcionalní analýzu a kombinatoriku. Byl také pořizovatelem známého díla "The Princeton Companion to Mathematics", které bylo publikováno v roce 2008.


Early Irish music.

By the High and Late Medieval Era, the Irish annals were listing native musicians, such as the following:

Modern interpretation.

Early Irish poetry and song has been translated into modern Irish and English by notable Irish poets, song collectors and musicians. The 6th century hymn "Rop tú mo baile" by Dallán Forgaill for example, was published in 1905 in English by Mary Elizabeth Byrne, and is widely known as "Be Thou My Vision". "The Blackbird of Belfast Lough" (; ) has been notably translated by poets such as Seamus Heaney, Ciaran Carson and Frank O'Connor. Notable recordings of modern interpretations of early Irish music include Pádraigín Ní Uallacháin's "Songs of the Scribe", various music albums by choral group Anúna, and the recordings of Caitríona O'Leary with Dúlra and the eX Ensemble.

Early Irish musicians abroad.

Some musicians were acclaimed in places beyond Ireland. Cú Chuimne (died 747) lived much of his adult life in Gaelic Scotland, and composed at least one hymn. Foillan, who was alive in the seventh century, travelled through much of Britain and France; around 653 at the request of St. Gertrude of Brabant, taught psalmody to her nuns at Nievelle. Tuotilo (c.850–c. 915), who lived in Italy and Germany, was noted both as a musician and a composer.  Helias of Cologne (died 1040), is held to be the first to introduce Roman chant to Cologne. His contemporary, Aaron Scotus (died 18 November 1052) was an acclaimed composer of Gregorian chant in Germany.  Donell Dubh Ó Cathail (c. 1560s-c.1660), was not only musician of Viscount Buttevant, but, with his uncle Donell Óge Ó Cathail, harper to Elizabeth I.

Early Modern times.

Up to the seventeenth century, harp musicians were patronised by the aristocracy in Ireland. This tradition died out in the eighteenth century with the collapse of Gaelic Ireland. Turlough Carolan (1670–1738) is the best known of those harpists, and over 200 of his compositions are known. Some of his pieces use elements of contemporary baroque music, but his music has entered the tradition and is played by many folk musicians today. Edward Bunting collected some of the last-known Irish harp tunes at the Belfast Harp Festival in 1792. Other important collectors of Irish music include Francis O'Neill and George Petrie.  Other notable Irish musicians of this era included Cearbhall Óg Ó Dálaigh (fl. c. 1630); Piaras Feiritéar (1600?–1653); William Connellan (fl. mid-17th century) and his brother, Thomas Connellan (c. 1640/1645–1698), composers; Dominic Ó Mongain (alive 18th century); Donnchadh Ó Hámsaigh (1695–1807); poet and songwriter Eoghan Rua Ó Súilleabháin (1748–1782); Arthur O'Neill (fl. 1792); Patrick Byrne (c.1794–1863); world-renowned piper Tarlach Mac Suibhne (c. 1831–1916); poet and songwriter Colm de Bhailís (1796–1906).

Traditional music.

Irish traditional music includes many kinds of songs, including drinking songs, ballads and laments, sung unaccompanied or with accompaniment by a variety of instruments. Traditional dance music includes reels (4/4), hornpipes and jigs (the common double jig is in 6/8 time). The polka arrived at the start of the nineteenth century, spread by itinerant dancing masters and mercenary soldiers, returning from Europe. Set dancing may have arrived in the eighteenth century. Later imported dance-signatures include the mazurka and the highlands (a sort of Irished version of the Scottish strathspey).  The Irish fiddle has been played in Ireland since the 8th century. The bagpipes have a long history of being associated with Ireland Great Irish warpipes were once commonly used in Ireland especially in battle as far back as the 15th century.  A revival of Irish traditional music took place around the turn of the 20th century. The button accordion and the concertina were becoming common. Irish stepdance was performed at céilís, organised competitions and at some country houses where local and itinerant musicians were welcome. Irish dancing was supported by the educational system and patriotic organisations. An older style of singing called "sean-nós" ("in the old style"), which is a form of traditional Irish singing was still found, mainly for very poetic songs in the Irish language.  From 1820 to 1920 over 4,400,000 Irish emigrated to the US, creating an Irish diaspora in Philadelphia, Chicago (see Francis O'Neill), Boston, New York and other cities. O'Neill made the first recordings of Irish music on Edison wax cylinders. Later, Irish musicians who were successful in the USA made commercial recordings which found their way around the world and re-invigorated musical styles back in the homeland. For example, American-based fiddlers like Michael Coleman, James Morrison and Paddy Killoran did much to popularise Irish music in the 1920s and 1930s, while Ed Reavy composed over a hundred tunes that have since entered the tradition in both Ireland and the diaspora. After a lull in the 1940s and 1950s, when (except for Céilidh bands) traditional music was at a low ebb, Seán Ó Riada's Ceoltóirí Chualann, The Chieftains, The Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem, The Irish Rovers, The Dubliners, Ryan's Fancy and Sweeney's Men were in large part responsible for a second wave of revitalisation of Irish folk music in the 1960s. Several of these were featured in the 2010 TV movie "My Music: When Irish Eyes are Smiling". Sean O'Riada in particular was singled out as a force who did much for Irish music, through programming on Radio Éireann in the late 1940s through the 1960s. He worked to promote and encourage the performing of traditional Irish music, and his work as a promoter and performer led directly to the formation of the Chieftains. His work inspired the likes of Planxty, The Bothy Band and Clannad in the 70s. Later came such bands as Stockton's Wing, De Dannan, Altan, Arcady, Dervish and Patrick Street, along with a wealth of individual performers.  More and more people play Irish music and many new bands emerge every year Téada, Gráda, The Bonny Men, Caladh Nua, Cran, Dervish, Lúnasa being some (to name a few).

Classical music in Ireland.

There is evidence of music in the "classical" tradition since the early 15th century when a polyphonic choir was established at Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin, and "city musicians" were employed in the major cities and towns, who performed on festive occasions. In the 18th century, Dublin was known as the "Second City" of the British Isles, with an active musical life culminating in, among other events, the first performance of Handel's famous oratorio "Messiah". The Ballad Opera trend, caused by the success of the Beggar's Opera, has left noticeable traces in Ireland, with many works that influenced the genre in England and on the continent, by musicians such as Charles Coffey and Kane O'Hara.

Composers of note.

Apart from the harper-composers of the 16th century, composers in the 16th and 17th century usually came from a Protestant Anglo-Irish background, as due to the discrimination of Catholics no formal musical education was available to them. Composers were often associated with either Dublin Castle or one of the Dublin cathedrals (St Patrick's and Christ Church). These include immigrants such as Johann Sigismund Cousser, Matthew Dubourg, and Tommaso Giordani. Thomas Roseingrave and his brother Ralph were prominent Irish baroque composers. Among the next generation of composers were the Cork-born Philip Cogan (1750–1833), a prominent composer of piano music including concertos, John Andrew Stevenson (1761–1833), who is best known for his publications of "Irish Melodies" with poet Thomas Moore, who also wrote operas, religious music, catches, glees, odes, and songs. In the early 19th century Irish-born composers dominated English-language opera in England and Ireland, including Charles Thomas Carter (c.1735–1804), Michael Kelly (1762–1826), Thomas Simpson Cooke (1782–1848), William Henry Kearns (1794–1846), Joseph Augustine Wade (1801–1845) and, later in the century, Michael W. Balfe (1808–1870) and William Vincent Wallace (1812–1865). John Field (1782–1837) has been credited with the creation of the Nocturne form, which influenced Frédéric Chopin. John William Glover (1815–1899), Joseph Robinson (1815–1898) and Robert Prescott Stewart (1825–1894) kept Irish classical music in Dublin alive in the 19th century, while mid-19th-century emigrants include George William Torrance and George Alexander Osborne. Charles Villiers Stanford (1852–1924) and Hamilton Harty (1879–1941) were among the last emigrants in Irish music, combining a late romantic musical language with Irish folklorism. Their contemporary in Ireland was the Italian immigrant Michele Esposito (1855–1929), a figure of seminal importance in Irish music who arrived in Ireland in 1882. The years after Irish independence were a difficult period in which composers tried to find an identifiable Irish voice in an anti-British climate, which included ressentiments against classical music as such. The development of Irish broadcasting in the 1920s and the gradual enlargement of the Radio Éireann Orchestra in the late 1930s improved the situation. Important composers in these years were John F. Larchet (1884–1967), Ina Boyle (1889–1967), Arthur Duff (1899–1956), Aloys Fleischmann (1910–1992), Frederick May (1911–1985), Joan Trimble (1915–2000), and Brian Boydell (1917–2000). The middle decades of the 20th century were also shaped by A.J. Potter (1918–1980), Gerard Victory (1921–1995), James Wilson (1922–2005), Seán Ó Riada (1931–1971), John Kinsella (b. 1932), and Seóirse Bodley (b. 1933). Prominent names among the older generation of living composers in Ireland today are Frank Corcoran (b. 1944), Eric Sweeney (b. 1948), John Buckley (b. 1951), Gerald Barry (b. 1952), Raymond Deane (b. 1953), Patrick Cassidy (b. 1956), and Fergus Johnston (b. 1959) (see also List of Irish classical composers).

Performers of note.

Performers of note in classical music include Catherine Hayes (1818–1861), Ireland's first great international "prima donna" and the first Irish woman to perform at La Scala in Milan; tenor Barton McGuckin (1852–1913), a much-demanded singer in the late 19th century; tenor Joseph O'Mara (1864–1927), a very prominent singer around the turn of the century; tenor John McCormack (1884–1945), the most celebrated tenor of his day; opera singer Margaret Burke-Sheridan (1889–1958); pianist Charles Lynch (1906–1984); tenor Josef Locke (1917–1999) achieved global success and was the subject of the 1991 film "Hear My Song"; the concert flautist Sir James Galway and pianist Barry Douglas. Douglas achieved fame in 1986 by claiming the International Tchaikovsky Competition gold medal. Mezzo-sopranos Bernadette Greevy and Ann Murray have also had success internationally.

Choral music.

Choral music has been practiced in Ireland for centuries, initially at the larger churches such as Christ Church Cathedral, St Patrick's Cathedral, and St Mary's Pro-Cathedral, as well as the University of Dublin Choral Society (founded in 1837).  Founded and directed by composer Michael McGlynn in 1987, Anúna contributed significantly to raising the profile of choral music, particularly through their contributions to Riverdance which they were a part of from 1994–1996. They were nominated for a Classical Brit Award in the UK and appeared at the BBC Proms series in the Royal Albert Hall in 1999. In 2012 they featured as the voices of Hell in the video game Diablo III. In February 2018 the group won the Outstanding Ensemble category of the Annual Game Music Awards 2017 for their contributions to the video game Xenoblade Chronicles 2.  The Chamber Choir Ireland, formerly National Chamber Choir of Ireland, is principally funded by the Arts Council of Ireland. Their artistic director is Paul Hillier. The choir has produced a number of CDs with international (including Irish) repertoire. There are many semi-professional choirs in Ireland at local level, too. Many perform and compete at the annual Cork International Choral Festival (since 1954).

Opera.

Although Ireland has never had a purpose-built opera house (the Cork Opera House is a multi-purpose theatre), opera has been performed in Ireland since the 17th century. In the 18th century, Ireland was a centre for ballad opera and created important works that helped to develop the genre in the direction of operetta, with works by Charles Coffey and Kane O'Hara. Nationally identifiable Irish operas have been written by immigrants such as Tommaso Giordani and Johann Bernhard Logier as well as by native composers such as John Andrew Stevenson and Thomas Simpson Cooke, continued in the 19th century with works by John William Glover and Paul McSwiney. Michael William Balfe and Vincent Wallace were the most prominent representatives of mid-19th-century English-language operas.  The Celtic Renaissance after 1900 created works such as "Muirgheis" (1903) by Thomas O'Brien Butler, "Connla of the Golden Hair" (1903) by William Harvey Pélissier, "Eithne" (1909) by Robert O'Dwyer, and "The Tinker and the Fairy" (1910) by Michele Esposito. "Muirgheis" and "Eithne" have librettos in Irish, as have a number of 1940s and '50s works by Éamonn Ó Gallchobhair. Most of the Irish operas written since the 1960s have a contemporary international outlook, with important works by Gerard Victory, James Wilson, Raymond Deane, Gerald Barry, and a number of young composers since the turn of the century.  There have been subsequent attempts to revive the Irish-language tradition in opera. A brother-sister team previewed sections of the opera "Clann Tuireann" publicly, and in 2017 musician John Spillane told the Evening Echo that he was then working on a Gaelic opera to be titled "Legends of the Lough".  Wexford Festival Opera is a major international festival that takes place every October and November.

Popular music.

Early popular performers.

Performers of popular music began appearing as early as the late 1940s; Delia Murphy popularised Irish folk songs that she recorded for HMV in 1949; Margaret Barry is also credited with bringing traditional songs to the fore; Donegal's Bridie Gallagher shot to fame in 1956 and is considered 'Ireland's first international pop star'; Belfast-born singer Ruby Murray achieved unprecedented chart success in the UK in the mid-1950s; Dublin native Carmel Quinn emigrated to the US and became a regular singer on Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts and appeared frequently on other TV variety shows in the 1950s and '60s. The Bachelors were an all-male harmony group from Dublin who had hits in the UK, Europe, US, Australia and Russia; Mary O'Hara was a soprano and harpist who was successful on both sides of the Atlantic in the 1950s and early 1960s; Waterford crooner Val Doonican had a string of UK hits and presented his own TV show on the BBC from 1965 to 1986.

Showbands in Ireland.

Irish Showbands were a major force in Irish popular music, particularly in rural areas, for twenty years from the mid-1950s. The showband played in dance halls and was loosely based on the six or seven piece Dixieland dance band. The basic showband repertoire included standard dance numbers, cover versions of pop music hits, ranging from rock and roll, country and western to jazz standards. Key to the showband's success was the ability to learn and perform songs currently in the record charts. They sometimes played Irish traditional or Céilidh music and a few included self-composed songs.

Country and Irish.

With the rise in popularity of American country music, a new subgenre developed in Ireland known as 'Country and Irish'. It was formed by mixing American Country music with Irish influences, incorporating Irish folk music. This often resulted in traditional Irish songs being sung in a country music style. It is especially popular in the rural Midlands and North-West of the country. It also remains popular among Irish emigrants in Great Britain. Big Tom and The Mainliners were the first major contenders in this genre, having crossed over from the showband era of the 1960s. Other major artists were Philomena Begley and Margo, the latter even being bestowed the unofficial title of "Queen of Country & Irish". The most successful performer in the genre today is Daniel O'Donnell, who has garnered success in the UK, US and Australia. O'Donnell's frequent singing partner Mary Duff has also had success in this genre and most recently County Carlow native Derek Ryan has enjoyed Irish chart hits doing this type of music.

Fusion.

Traditional music played a part in Irish popular music later in the century, with Clannad, Van Morrison, Hothouse Flowers and Sinéad O'Connor using traditional elements in popular songs. Enya achieved international success with New Age/Celtic fusions. The Afro-Celt Sound System achieved fame adding West African influences and electronic dance rhythms in the 1990s while bands such as Kíla fuse traditional Irish with rock and world music representing the Irish tradition at world music festivals across Europe and America. The most notable fusion band in Ireland was Horslips, who combined Irish themes and music with heavy rock. The Shamrock Wings is a Colombian band that fuses Irish music with Caribbean rhythms.  "Riverdance" is a musical and dancing interval act which originally starred Michael Flatley and Jean Butler and featuring the choir Anúna. It was performed during the Eurovision Song Contest 1994. Popular reaction to the act was so immense that an entire musical revue was built around the act.

Pop/Rock.

The 1960s saw the emergence of major Irish rock bands and artists, such as Them, Van Morrison, Emmet Spiceland, Eire Apparent, Skid Row, Taste, Rory Gallagher, Dr. Strangely Strange, Thin Lizzy, Gary Moore, Mellow Candle.  In 1970 Dana put Ireland on the pop music map by winning the Eurovision Song Contest with her song All Kinds of Everything. She went to number one in the UK and all over Europe and paved the way for many Irish artists. Gilbert O'Sullivan went to the top of the charts on both sides of the Atlantic in 1972 with a string of hits, and the all-sister line-up of The Nolans gained international chart success in the late 1970s. Chris de Burgh achieved international acclaim with his 1986 hit "Lady in Red".  Groups who formed during the emergence of Punk rock in the mid-late 1970s included U2, Virgin Prunes, The Boomtown Rats, The Undertones, Aslan, Gavin Friday, and Stiff Little Fingers. Later in the 80s and into the 90s, Irish punk fractured into new styles of alternative rock, which included That Petrol Emotion, In Tua Nua, Fatima Mansions, My Bloody Valentine and Ash. In the 1990s, pop bands like The Corrs, B*Witched, Boyzone, Westlife and The Cranberries emerged. In the same decade, Ireland also contributed a subgenre of folk metal known as Celtic metal with exponents of the genre including Cruachan, Primordial, Geasa, and Waylander. Bands like Moxie lead the wave of Neo-Irish music in the new millennium with "fluidity, cross-pollination, and innovation."  In recent decades Irish music in many different genres has been very successful internationally; however, the most successful genres have been rock, popular and traditional fusion, with performers such as (in alphabetical order): Altan, The Answer, Ash, Aslan, Axis Of, B*Witched, Bell X1, Frances Black, Mary Black, The Blizzards, The Bothy Band, Brendan Bowyer, Boyzone, Paul Brady, Chris de Burgh, Paddy Casey, The Cast of Cheers, Celtic Thunder, Celtic Woman, The Chieftains, The Clancy Brothers, Clannad, Codes, Rita Connolly, The Coronas, The Corrs, Phil Coulter, Nadine Coyle (of Girls Aloud), The Cranberries, Peter Cunnah (of D:Ream), Dana, De Dannan, Cathy Davey, Damien Dempsey, The Divine Comedy, Joe Dolan, Val Doonican, Ronnie Drew, The Dubliners, Mary Duff, Duke Special, EDEN, Enya, Julie Feeney, Fight Like Apes, Mick Flannery, The Frames, Bridie Gallagher, Rory Gallagher, Lisa Hannigan, Glen Hansard of The Frames, Gemma Hayes, The High Kings, Niall Horan (of One Direction), Horslips, The Hothouse Flowers, Hozier, In Tua Nua, Andy Irvine, Laura Izibor, Gavin James, Jape, Jerry Fish & The Mudbug Club, Siva Kaneswaran (of The Wanted), Dolores Keane, Luke Kelly, Keywest, Kíla, James Kilbane, Kodaline, Jack L, Johnny Logan, Dónal Lunny, Phil Lynott and Thin Lizzy, Tommy Makem, Imelda May, Eleanor McEvoy, Christy Moore, Gary Moore, Van Morrison, Moving Hearts, Samantha Mumba, Mundy, Roisin Murphy, Ruby Murray, My Bloody Valentine, Declan Nerney, Maura O'Connell, Sinéad O'Connor, Daniel O'Donnel, Annmarie O'Riordan, Declan O'Rourke, Gilbert O'Sullivan, Picturehouse, Pillow Queens, Planxty, Carmel Quinn, Republic of Loose, Damien Rice, The Riptide Movement, Dickie Rock, Derek Ryan, RUN iN RED, The Saw Doctors, The Script, Sharon Shannon, Snow Patrol, Something Happens, Davy Spillane, Stiff Little Fingers, Stockton's Wing, The Strypes, Yasha Swag, Therapy?, The Thrills, The Undertones, The Wolfe Tones, Time Is A Thief, Two Door Cinema Club, U2, VerseChorusVerse, Villagers, Westlife, Bill Whelan, Finbar Wright, achieving success nationally and internationally.

Top 5'most standout' Irish acts of all time.

In 2010, PRS for Music conducted research to show which five Irish musicians or bands the public considered to be the'most standout'. U2 topped the list with sixty-eight percent while Westlife, Van Morrison, Boyzone and The Cranberries came in 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th, respectively. The research also suggested that the 'top-five' had sold over 341 million albums up to March 2010.

Irish music is music that has been created in various genres on the island of Ireland. The indigenous music of the island is termed Irish traditional music. It has remained vibrant through the 20th and into the 21st century, despite globalising cultural forces. In spite of emigration and a well-developed connection to music influences from Britain and the United States, Irish traditional music has kept many of its elements and has itself influenced many forms of music, such as country and roots music in the United States, which in turn have had some influence on modern rock music. It has occasionally been fused with rock and roll, punk rock, and other genres. Some of these fusion artists have attained mainstream success, at home and abroad.

Irská hudba je hudba více žánrů vzniklá na irském ostrově, nebo mající irský (keltský) původ – jde o oblast Irska, Skotska, Walesu a Bretaně. Irskou hudbou se běžně označuje i hudba různých interpretů či skupin nejen z Irska, které hrají hudbu, nápadně připomínající tradiční irskou hudbu nebo písně.


Etymology.

The word "širk" comes from the Arabic root Š-R-K (), with the general meaning of "to share". In the context of the Quran, the particular sense of "sharing as an equal partner" is usually understood, so that polytheism means "attributing a partner to Allah". In the Quran, "shirk" and the related word "mušrikūn" ()—those who commit shirk and plot against Islam—often refer to the enemies of Islam (as in At-Tawbah verses 9:1–15)

Quran.

Islamic commentators on the Quran have emphasized that pre-Islamic Arabic idolatry made a number of godlings, most memorably the three goddesses Manāt, Al-Lāt and Al-‘Uzzá, equal associates of Allah (as the Quran discusses in the 53rd surat) and the word "mushrikūn" (singular: "mushrik") is often translated into English as "polytheists".  The Quran and what the people of Nuh's community would say in an effort by the idolaters to ignore and mock Nuh. "They (idolaters) have said: "You shall not leave your gods nor shall you leave Wadd, nor Suwa', nor Yaghuth, nor Ya'uq nor Nasr." (Quran An-Nisa 71:23)  Other forms of "shirk" include the worship of wealth and other material objects. This is pointed out in the Quran in Al-A'raf in one of the stories of the Children of Israel, when they took a calf made of gold for worship, and for which Moses ordered them to repent.  Another form of shirk mentioned in the Quran At-Tawbah is to take scholars of religion, monks, divines, or religious lawyers as Lord(s) in practice by following their doctrines, and/or by following their rulings on what is lawful when it is at variance to the law or doctrines prescribed by Allah's revelation.

Theological interpretation.

Medieval Muslim and Jewish philosophers identified belief in the Trinity with the heresy of "shirk", in Arabic, (or "shituf" in Hebrew), meaning "associationism", in limiting the infinity of God by associating his divinity with physical existence.  In a theological context one commits "shirk" by associating some lesser being with Allah. This sin is committed if one imagines that there is a partner with "Allah" whom it is suitable to worship. It is stated in the Quran: "Allah forgives not that partners should be set up with Him, but He forgives anything else, to whom He pleases, to set up partners with Allah is to devise a sin most heinous indeed" (Quran An-Nisa 4:48).  Some followers of a sufistic interpretation of Islam tend to regard the belief in any other power than God as a type of polytheism ("shirk"). This does not only include false gods, but also the belief in other sources of existence. Beliefs usually accepted by monotheism, such as a devil as a source of evil or free-will as source for God's creation's own responsibilities, are equated with beliefs in other powers than God, and therefore denounced.  The status of the People of the Book ("ahl al-kitab"), particularly Jews and Christians, with respect to the Islamic notions of unbelief is not clearcut. Charles Adams writes that the Quran reproaches the People of the Book with "kufr" for rejecting Muhammad's message when they should have been the first to accept it as possessors of earlier revelations, and singles out Christians for disregarding the evidence of God's unity. The Quranic verse Al-Ma'idah 5:73 ("Certainly they disbelieve ["kafara"] who say: God is the third of three"), among other verses, has been traditionally understood in Islam as rejection of the Christian Trinity doctrine, though modern scholarship has suggested alternative interpretations. Other Quranic verses strongly deny the deity of Jesus Christ, son of Mary and reproach the people who treat Jesus as equal with God as disbelievers who will be doomed to eternal punishment in Hell. The Quran also does not recognize the attribute of Jesus as the Son of God or God himself, it respects Jesus as a prophet and messenger of God sent to children of Israel. Some Muslim thinkers such as Mohamed Talbi have viewed the most extreme Quranic presentations of the dogmas of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus (Al-Ma'idah 5:19, 5:75-76, 5:119) as non-Christian formulas that were rejected by the Church.  Cyril Glasse criticizes the use of "kafirun" [pl. of "kafir"] to describe Christians as "loose usage". According to the Encyclopedia of Islam, in traditional Islamic jurisprudence, "ahl al-kitab" are "usually regarded more leniently than other "kuffar" [pl. of "kafir"]..." and "in theory" a Muslim commits a punishable offense if he says to a Jew or a Christian: "Thou unbeliever".  Historically, People of the Book permanently residing under Islamic rule were entitled to a special status known as "dhimmi", while those visiting Muslim lands received a different status known as "musta'min".  After the eighteenth century, with the rise of Wahhabism, shirk was applied to a far wider range, when before, such as participating in political affairs alien to Islam, or to adhere to religious customs, believed not to root in Islam.

Wahabism - Greater and lesser shirk.

While some argue that there is only one type of "shirk", it has been classified into two categories according to Salafism/Wahabism:

Greater shirk.

Greater "shirk" or "Shirke-al-Akbar" means open polytheism and has been described in two forms:  Other interpretations divide "shirk" into three main categories. "Shirk" can be committed by acting against the three different categories.

Rubūbīyah (Lordship).

This category of "shirk" refers to either the belief that others share Allah's lordship over creation as his equal or near equal, or to the belief that there exists no lord over creation at all.

al-Asma wa's-Sifat (names and attributes).

"Shirk" in this category includes both the non-believer practices of giving Allah the attributes of his creation as well as the act of giving created beings Allah's names and attributes.

al-'Ibadah (worship).

In this category of "shirk", acts of worship are directed to others besides Allah and the reward for worship is sought from the creation instead of the creator. As in the case of the previous categories, "shirk" in "al-'Ibadah" has two main aspects.  This form of "shirk" occurs when any act of worship is directed to someone else besides Allah. It represents the most obvious form of idolatry, against which the prophets were specifically sent by Allah, calling the masses of mankind to give it up. Examples of this "shirk" are asking for forgiveness, admittance to paradise, etc. that only Allah can provide, from others besides Allah.

Lesser shirk.

Lesser "shirk" or "Shirke-e-Asghar" means hidden polytheism. A person commits hidden polytheism when he professes "tawhid" (there is no god except Allah) but his thoughts and actions do not reflect his belief.  Mahmud ibn Lubayd reported, "Allah's messenger said: 'The thing I fear for you the most is ash-Shirk al-Asghar.'"  Mahmud ibn Lubayd also said, "The Prophet came out and announced, 'O people, beware of secret Shirk!'"  Umar Ibn Al-Khattab narrated that the Messenger of Allah said: "Whoever swears by other than Allah has committed an act of kufr or shirk." (graded "hasan" by Al-Tirmidhi and "saheeh" by Al-Hakim)  According to Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Ibn Mas’ood, one of Muhammad's companions, said: "That I should swear by Allah upon a lie is more preferable to me than that I should swear by another upon the truth."

In Islam, shirk ( "širk") is the sin of idolatry or polytheism ("i.e.", the deification or worship of anyone or anything besides Allah). It means ascribing to, or the establishment of, partners placed beside Allah. It is termed "Tawhid" (monotheism). "Mušrikūn" (pl. of "mušrik" ) are those who practice "shirk", which literally means "association" and refers to accepting other gods and divinities alongside God (as God's "associates").

Širk (, v češtině obvykle překládáno „přidružování (k Bohu)“ nebo volněji „modloslužba“ ) je v islámu označení pro zavrhované praktikování modloslužby či polyteismu. Širk doslovně znamená "partnerství", "sdílení" či "přidružování", ale v terminologii islámu to znamená akt přidružování společníků k Alláhovi v jakékoli formě. Širk je opakem či popřením víry v jedinečnost Alláha - "tauhídu".


Analysis of the libretto and music.

The libretto for this opera differs from those of Lully's earlier works with Philippe Quinault. Typically, Lully would begin his operas with a lively prologue, but this work has a somber prologue in which the Muses lament the king's desire for military expansion. Another difference is the tragic and somber ending of this opera in Act V. Lully usually ended his operas with a rousing ensemble number but this opera closes with the suicide of the heroine. The end of Act IV, the wedding scene, does contain a vibrant ensemble number at its close which would be more in keeping with a typical finale of one of Lully's operas.

Plot.

The Prologue is set in "A place once designed for spectacle, now only a shell of its former self." Mercure, messenger of the Gods, questions the Muses to find out why their spirits are downcast. Melpomene replies that the king (i.e. Louis XIV), in his desire for conquest, has plunged the country into war and ignored the Muses and their feasts. The other Muses agree and add: "he does not approve of anything we do; we are not worthy in his eyes." Mercure interrupts and insists that they put aside worry and concentrate on the charming spectacle to be performed before them. The scene is transformed, "as though its former glory had been restored." The Muses agree to pay careful attention to the forthcoming play and to try especially hard to enjoy it despite their misgivings. Jupiter descends and urges their particular contemplation of the Greek hero, Achille. The Muses agree and await the tale of the invincible Achille and his famous battles.  Act I opens on the Isle of Tenedos, Achille's refuge after a quarrel with Agamemnon. Patrocle asks Achille if Hector's bravery in past battles has made him jealous. Achille responds that only the losses sustained by the Greeks give him pleasure: Agamemnon, king of the Greeks, is the focus of his rage. In a rousing aria ("Je cours asseurer ma memoire"), Patrocle declares that he will defeat Hector. Achille, though concerned for his friend's safety, agrees, saying, "if your heart is strong, so too will be your arms." After Patrocle exits, Achille, left alone, entreats the gods to protect his friend in a moving soliloquy. Diomede approaches and announces that without Achille's help, the Greeks will not overcome the Trojans. Achille insists that he is happy here, out of contact with the quarrelsome Greeks. Diomede chastises the hero, suggesting that his bravery is shallow and that he loves vain pleasure. Venus and the Graces, descending from the heavens, remind Achille of the pleasure he experienced with them when he was not in battle. The act concludes as Arcas rushes in to announce that Patrocle is dead. Achille swears vengeance on Hector in an impassioned aria ("Manes de ce Guerrier, dont je pleure le sort").  Act II takes place in a Greek camp on the eve of battle with the Trojans. Diomede is certain that, with Achille's help, the Greeks under Agamemnon will be victorious. Agamemnon remains uncertain and, seeing the advancing Achille, decides to move back. A chorus of soldiers sing the praises of the victorious Achille. Arcas assures the Trojan prisoners that Achille is not without compassion--hope should replace their fears. King Priam of Troy, his daughter Polixene and his daughter-in-law Andromaque conspire to soften Achille's heart. Each appeals to Achille with stories of their losses suffered in the war with Greece. But it is the beautiful Polixene who breaks Achille's heart with her moving aria, "Vous le sçavez, Dieux que j'atteste!" The great warrior pledges eternal peace with the Greeks.  The Act III curtain rises on Achille's camp. Achille confesses his love for Polixene to Arcas, who reminds the hero that his original intent was to avenge their dead friend Patrocle. Achille counters that it is only Hector who deserves his wrath; the rest of the Trojans are not to blame. Agamemnon enters and also questions Achille's allegiance. Achille reminds him that it is for Patrocle, not the Greeks, that he engaged the Trojans. Agamemnon, realizing that Achille has fallen in love with the enemy princess, introduces the great hero to Briseis, a Greek princess whom he hopes will win Achille back to the side of the Greeks. Briseis confides to Achille the story of her capture and the loss of all she loved. Achille, as gallantly as possible, explains that he cannot love her. Furious, Briseis calls on the goddess Juno to avenge her broken heart. Juno accepts and promises that before the day is over, Briseis will see the result of her request. The act concludes with a chorus of shepherds offering thanks for the peace established by the "generous conqueror."  Priam's Palace provides the setting for Act IV. Polixene, alone and confused, questions the wisdom of marrying Achille, so recently the enemy of her people. She resigns herself to the inevitable, however, and awaits the ceremony. Andromaque, recognizing Polixene's despair, tries to comfort the bride-to-be, swearing "I will make my fidelity [to you] as famous as his [Achille's] glory." Priam enters and calls for his subjects to begin the wedding celebrations. Choirs of Trojans sing the praises of the beautiful princess and the heroic conqueror.  Act V takes place in Apollo's temple. As the Act opens, Achille asks his new bride why she turns away from him when he approaches. She replies, "the more I see you, the more I am troubled." Priam enters before the troops of Greeks and Trojans and commands that everyone, for the sake of peace, should surrender himself to love. He charges the lovers to swear an oath of tender and devoted love. Briseis is beside herself with anger when she witnesses the marriage of Achille and Polixene. She demands to know why Juno has not exacted revenge. The chorus of Greeks warn Achille to flee a certain death. He is struck down and Arcas rushes to his side, blaming the Trojan Paris for the treasonous act. Briseis allies herself with Polixene and swears that she will lead the forces to avenge Achille's death. Polixene sends everyone away, and, in "C'en est fait," a grief-stricken soliloquy, declares that she is unable to live without her husband. The opera ends with her suicide.

Recordings.

To date, this opera has not yet been recorded, although individual selections have been recorded by various artists.

Achille et Polyxène ("Achilles and Polyxena") is a tragédie lyrique containing a prologue and five acts based on Virgil's "Aeneid" with a French libretto by Jean Galbert de Campistron. The opera's overture and first act were composed by Jean-Baptiste Lully, who died from a conducting injury before he could complete the score. The prologue and the remaining acts are the work of his pupil Pascal Collasse who finished the work, eight months after Lully's death on March 22, 1687. The opera was first performed on November 7, 1687, by the Paris Opera at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal in Paris.

Achilles a Polyxena "(franc. Achille et Polyxène, LWV 74)" je opera "(tragédie lyrique)" od Jeana-Baptiste Lullyho a Pascala Collasseho. Libreto napsal Jean Galbert de Campistron, jehož předlohou se stal epos Aeneis od Publia Vergilia Mara. Opera měla premiéru 23. listopadu 1687 v Théâtre du Palais-Royal v Paříži.


Main work and publications.

In 2004, Lynas' "High Tide: The Truth About Our Climate Crisis" was published by Macmillan Publishers on its Picador imprint. He has also contributed to a book entitled "Fragile Earth: Views of a Changing World" published by Collins, which presents before-and-after images of some of the natural changes which have happened to the world in recent years, including the Indian Ocean tsunami and Hurricane Katrina, alongside a bleak look at the effects of mankind's actions on the planet.  In January 2007, Lynas published "Gem Carbon Counter," containing instructions to calculate people's personal carbon emissions and recommendations about how to reduce their impact on the atmosphere.  In 2007, he published "," a book detailing the progressive effect of global warming in several planetary ecosystems, from 1 degree to 6 degrees and further of average temperature rise of the planet. Special coverage is given to the positive feedback mechanisms that could dramatically accelerate the climate change, possibly putting the climate on a runaway path. As a possible end scenario the release of methane hydrate from the bottom of the oceans could replicate the end-Permian extinction event. This book won the Royal Society's science book of the year award in 2008.  In 2008, National Geographic released a documentary film based on Lynas's book, entitled "Six Degrees Could Change the World."  In 2010, Lynas published an article in the "New Statesman" entitled "Why We Greens Keep Getting It Wrong" and the same year was the main contributor to a UK Channel 4 Television programme called "What the Green Movement Got Wrong." In these he explained that he now felt that several of his previous strongly held beliefs were wrong. For example, he suggested that opposition by environmentalists, such as himself, to the development of nuclear energy had speeded up climate change, and that GM crops were necessary to feed the world.  This latter position was attacked as patronising and naive by some developing world commentators, including one featured in a Channel Four debate after the programme aired. A number of experts also criticised Lynas's factual errors in contributing to the film. British environmentalist George Monbiot wrote in the "Guardian" that '[Stewart] Brand and Lynas present themselves as heretics. But their convenient fictions chime with the thinking of the new establishment: corporations, thinktanks, neoliberal politicians. The true heretics are those who remind us that neither social nor environmental progress are possible unless power is confronted. Since writing this, George Monbiot is no longer opposed to nuclear power as an alternative to more polluting sources such as coal.  In July 2011, Lynas published in the U.K. the book entitled "The God Species: How the Planet Can Survive the Age of Humans". It was also published in the U.S. by National Geographic in October 2011 as "The God Species: Saving the Planet in the Age of Humans" (). Lynas argues that as Earth has entered the Anthropocene, and as such humanity is changing the planet's climate, its bio-geochemical cycles, the chemistry of the oceans and the colour of the sky, as well as reducing the number of species. Based on the planetary boundaries concept, he proposes several strategies that are controversial among the environmental community, such as using nuclear power and the Integral fast reactor to reduce carbon emissions and geoengineering to mitigate inevitable global warming; or genetic engineering (transgenics) to feed the world and reduce the environmental impact of agriculture. In 2012, Mark Lynas was bestowed the Paradigm Award by the Breakthrough Institute in recognition of his intellectual leadership on the Anthropocene.

"In defence of nuclear power".

In January 2012, Lynas published an article titled "In defence of nuclear power", in which he states that "nuclear provides the vast majority of the UK's current low-carbon electricity – as much as 70%, whilst avoiding the emission of 40 million tonnes of carbon dioxide per year. This is why I want to see more nuclear power in the UK and elsewhere, in order to avoid more carbon emissions". In September 2012, Lynas wrote a follow-up article in the Guardian entitled "Without nuclear, the battle against global warming is as good as lost."  In 2013, Lynas published Nuclear 2.0: Why A Green Future Needs Nuclear Power. Lynas is featured in the 2013 pro-nuclear documentary film Pandora's Promise. Generation IV reactor research programs are developing the type of nuclear power described in Pandora's Promise.

Conversion to support GMOs.

In a January 2013 lecture to the Oxford Farming Conference, Lynas detailed his conversion from an organizer of the anti-GMO food movement in Europe to becoming a supporter of the technology. He admitted "... in 2008, I was still penning screeds in the Guardian attacking the science of GM – even though I had done no academic research on the topic, and had a pretty limited personal understanding. I don't think I'd ever read a peer-reviewed paper on biotechnology or plant science..." He apologized for engaging in vandalism of field trials of genetically engineered crops, stating that "anti-science environmentalism became increasingly inconsistent with my pro-science environmentalism with regard to climate change." Lynas criticized organizations with which he was previously associated, including Greenpeace and organic trade groups like the U.K. Soil Association, for ignoring scientific facts about genetically modified crop safety and benefits because it conflicted with their ideologies and stated he "was completely wrong to oppose GMOs."

An Ecomodernist Manifesto.

In April 2015, Lynas joined with a group of scholars in issuing "An Ecomodernist Manifesto". The other authors were: John Asafu-Adjaye, Linus Blomqvist, Stewart Brand, Barry Brook. Ruth DeFries, Erle Ellis, Christopher Foreman, David Keith, Martin Lewis, Ted Nordhaus, Roger A. Pielke, Jr., Rachel Pritzker, Joyashree Roy, Mark Sagoff, Michael Shellenberger, Robert Stone, and Peter Teague

Appearances.

In 2017, Lynas appeared at the 17th European Skeptics Congress (ESC) in Old Town Wrocław, Poland. This congress was organised by the Klub Sceptyków Polskich (Polish Skeptics Club) and Český klub skeptiků Sisyfos (Czech Skeptic's Club). Here he was a speaker along with Marcin Rotkiewicz and Tomáš Moravec on the topic of genetically modified organisms.

Mark Lynas (born 1973) is a British author, journalist and environmental activist who focuses on climate change. He is a contributor to "New Statesman", "The Ecologist", "Granta "and "Geographical "magazines, and "The Guardian" and "The Observer" newspapers in the UK; he also worked on the film "The Age of Stupid". He was born in Fiji, grew up in Peru and the United Kingdom and holds a degree in history and politics from the University of Edinburgh. He lives in Oxford, England. He has published several books including "" (2007) and "The God Species: Saving the Planet in the Age of Humans" (2011). He has stated "I think there is a 50–50 chance we can avoid a devastating rise in global temperature."

Mark Lynas (* 1973 Fidži) je britský ekologický aktivista a publicista, absolvent politologie na Edinburské univerzitě. Píše pro tiskoviny jako "New Statesman", "Ecologist", "Granta", "Geographical", "The Guardian" nebo "The Observer". Napsal knihy "High Tide: The Truth About Our Climate Crisis" (2004) a "Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet" (2007), je také spoluautorem scénáře k filmu "The Age of Stupid" (režie Franny Armstrongová, 2009). Ve svých textech varuje před účinky, které může mít globální oteplování na lidskou civilizaci. Účastnil se Kodaňské konference v roce 2009. Na rozdíl od většiny environmentalistů podporuje výstavbu nových jaderných elektráren, což zdůvodňuje slovy: „Bez využívání nukleární energie je boj proti globálnímu oteplování předem ztracený.“ Býval kritikem geneticky upravených potravin, ale v lednu 2013 své názory odvolal a prohlásil, že GMO jsou jediným způsobem, jak nakrmit rostoucí světovou populaci. Radikálové jako Georges Monbiot kritizují Lynasův přístup k ekologii jako příliš technokratický a vstřícný vůči globálnímu kapitalismu.


Plot.

Four years after the events of, Alvin, Simon, and Theodore, along with the Chipettes – Brittany, Jeanette, and Eleanor – set up a surprise birthday bash for Dave that also serves as a good-luck and going-away party for the Chipettes, who are scheduled to be guest judges on "American Idol". Alvin invites and hires many people and celebrities to the dismay of Simon before Dave returns home in dissatisfaction. Nevertheless, Dave agrees to take them to mini-golf, and meet Samantha, the woman he has been dating for the past few months. While the Chipmunks like Samantha, her son Miles is a bully who physically abuses the trio. Later, the Chipmunks find an engagement ring in a bag Dave brought home and believe that he is going to propose to Samantha. They try to steal the ring, but are unsuccessful.  Dave has to produce a record for rising pop artist Ashley Grey in Miami, and decides to bring Samantha along with him. The Chipmunks and Miles are staying together, but they agree to head to Miami to sabotage the supposed proposal. The Chipmunks drug three squirrels and dress them up in their clothes to fool their hard-of-seeing neighbor Ms. Price, who was asked to look after them. The Chipmunks travel on a plane, but Theodore lets out a monkey, which then lets out several animals which cause an emergency landing and bring the ire of unscrupulous Air Marshal James Suggs, who resents the Chipmunks because Suggs' girlfriend left him just for being so into them at the time and they had ruined his perfect record of no incidences, effectively eliminating his shot of becoming an FBI agent. As a result, they are put on the No Fly List.  The Chipmunks head to a bar and perform, but this is interrupted by Suggs, and they cause a bar brawl as a diversion. They jump into a cab sitting outside. After the cab driver learns that they cannot pay him, he kicks the four out of the cab. The Chipmunks and Miles rest at an old tree, and he reveals that his dad left him when he was five years old, causing the four to bond and see each other in different lights. They raise money to take a bus to New Orleans, and sing "Uptown Funk" at the Mardi Gras parade, which gets the attention of Dave when it is broadcast on live television and allows for the Chipmunks to cause Suggs, who has followed them to New Orleans, to get drunk on moonshine.  Dave and Samantha meet Miles and the Chipmunks at Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport and ground them all, but are forced to take them to Miami. Because the Chipmunks are now on the No Fly List, Dave has to drive the boys over. When they get there, Alvin reveals that he stole the ring from the container, thus ruining the proposal. However, Miles had bonded with the Chipmunks during their trip and was upset that they were celebrating over this, thinking they just didn’t want to have him around. He crosses the street with his headphones on and is almost hit by a car, but the Chipmunks swing Theodore and push Miles out of the way, saving his life. They agree to give the ring back.  During the dinner, Suggs catches up with the Chipmunks, but they trap him in an elevator. Miles and the Chipmunks return the ring to Dave saying they accept Samantha and Miles into the family, but Dave reveals he never intended to propose to Samantha for the time being, and the ring belonged to his friend Barry, who was proposing to his girlfriend, Alice, who is disgusted to find a breath mint inside the container (which Alvin had placed there as a replacement for the ring). Dave is very disappointed in the Chipmunks, so they try to make it up to him by singing a new song to him at the launch party with the help of the Chipettes, Ashley and Miles. They also return the ring to Barry, who reattempts his proposal to Alice, and this time, Alice accepts. Having forgiven them, Dave returns to Los Angeles with the Chipmunks and officially adopts them. Dave says that nothing could ruin his day, but becomes frustrated after he realizes that the squirrels destroyed everything at their house and later screams Alvin’s name. Later, Suggs escapes the elevator and decides to relax by the pool. Since he refuses to move, two security guards carry him out of the hotel.

Production.

In June 2013, 20th Century Fox announced that a fourth installment, "Alvin and the Chipmunks 4", would be released on December 11, 2015. In August 2014, Randi Mayem Singer signed on to write the fourth installment. On December 18, 2014, it was announced that Walt Becker signed on to direct and that the film would be released on December 23, 2015. The movie was officially released on December 18, 2015. It was also announced that the film would be titled "Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Road Chip". In February 2015, Tony Hale joined the cast. On March 10, 2015, Kimberly Williams-Paisley joined the cast. On March 23, 2015, it was confirmed that Bella Thorne had joined the cast. Principal photography began on March 16, 2015, and ended on May 20, 2015.

Music.

Mark Mothersbaugh, who previously scored "", returned to score "The Road Chip".

Home media.

"Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Road Chip" was released on DVD and Blu-ray on March 15, 2016.

Soundtrack.

"Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Road Chip: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack" is the licensed soundtrack based on the film. It was released on December 11, 2015, by Republic Records.

Reception.

Box office.

"Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Road Chip" has grossed $85,886,987 in North America and $148,911,649 in other territories for a worldwide total of $234,798,636 against a budget of $90 million.  In the United States and Canada, "The Road Chip" was released on December 18, 2015 across 3,653 theaters. The film grossed $4,126,717 on its first day and $14,287,159 in its opening weekend, finishing second at the box office behind "" ($247,966,675).

Critical response.

On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 15% based on 67 reviews and an average rating of 3.42/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "In some respects, "Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Road Chip" is a marginal improvement over prior installments, although this in no way qualifies as a recommendation." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 33 out of 100 based on 21 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale.

Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Road Chip is a 2015 American live action computer animated family comedy film directed by Walt Becker and written by Randi Mayem Singer and Adam Sztykiel. The fourth and final installment in the "Alvin and the Chipmunks" film series, and the sequel to 2011's "," it stars Jason Lee, Tony Hale, Kimberly Williams-Paisley, Josh Green, and Bella Thorne, with the voices of Justin Long, Matthew Gray Gubler, Jesse McCartney, Kaley Cuoco (replacing Amy Poehler), Anna Faris and Christina Applegate.

Alvin a Chipmunkové: Čiperná jízda (v anglickém originále Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Road Chip) je americký rodinný komediální film z roku 2016. Režie se ujal Walt Becker a scénáře Randi Mayem Singer a Adam Sztykiel. Snímek je čtvrtým filmem série "Alvin a Chipmunkové". Hlavní role hrají Jason Lee, Tony Hale, Kimberly Williams-Paisley a Josh Green a své hlasy propůjčili Justin Long, Matthew Gray Gubler, Jesse McCartney, Kaley Cuoco, Anna Farisová a Christina Applegate.


Facts.

Benoit and Dassonville claimed that their prosecution for selling Scotch whisky without a certificate was contrary to the TEEC article 30 (now TFEU art 34). A Belgian law said Scotch whisky and other products that had a designation of origin could only be sold if accompanied with a certificate of origin. Competitors had exclusive dealing arrangements with UK exporters, and so they had acquired the whisky from France. However, in France, it was impossible to obtain a certificate because French law did not require certificates. Benoit and Dassonville were accused of forging a certificate and prosecuted. In response, they challenged the legality of the certificate law, based on the rule in article 30 that there should be no quantitative restrictions on trade, or measures of equivalent effect. The Belgian authorities, the Procureur du Roi contended that because the purpose was to protect consumers, not regulate trade, the measure fell outside TEEC article 30.  The Belgian court referred the case to the European Court of Justice, as is permitted under TEEC article 234 (now TFEU art 267).

Judgment.

The Court of Justice held that the requirement for a certificate in Belgian law was contrary to article 34 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union.

Significance.

Horspool and Humphreys note that this decision could include a "huge" range of restrictions and that the court has sought to limit the scope of the Dassonville decision, in cases such as Cassis de Dijon, which was decided a few years later.

Procureur du Roi v Benoît and Gustave Dassonville (1974) Case 8/74 is an EU law case of the European Court of Justice, in which a 'distinctly applicable measure of equivalent effect' to a quantitative restriction of trade in the European Union was held to exist on a Scotch whisky imported from France.

Dassonville, plným označením Procureur du Roi vs. Benoît and Gustave Dassonville (8/74), byl judikát Evropského soudního dvora z roku 1974. Soud podrobně definoval pojem "opatření s rovnocenným účinkem jako kvantitativní opatření".


ECMAScript, ECMA-262 and JavaScript.

ECMAScript is a programming language itself, specified in the document ECMA-262. Although ECMAScript is inspired by JavaScript, they are different programming languages, and ECMAScript is not the specification of the JavaScript.  ECMA-262 is the specification of the programming language ECMAScript.

History.

The ECMAScript specification is a standardized specification of a scripting language developed by Brendan Eich of Netscape; initially it was named Mocha, later LiveScript, and finally JavaScript. In December 1995, Sun Microsystems and Netscape announced JavaScript in a press release. In November 1996, Netscape announced a meeting of the Ecma International standards organization to advance the standardization of JavaScript. The first edition of ECMA-262 was adopted by the Ecma General Assembly in June 1997. Several editions of the language standard have been published since then. The name "ECMAScript" was a compromise between the organizations involved in standardizing the language, especially Netscape and Microsoft, whose disputes dominated the early standards sessions. Eich commented that "ECMAScript was always an unwanted trade name that sounds like a skin disease." ECMAScript has been formalized through operational semantics by work at Stanford University and the Department of Computing, Imperial College London for security analysis and standardization.  While both JavaScript and JScript aim to be compatible with ECMAScript, they also provide additional features not described in the ECMA specifications.

Versions.

There are ten editions of ECMA-262 published. Work on version 10 of the standard was finalized in June 2019.  In June 2004, Ecma International published ECMA-357 standard, defining an extension to ECMAScript, known as ECMAScript for XML (E4X). Ecma also defined a "Compact Profile" for ECMAScript – known as ES-CP, or ECMA 327 – that was designed for resource-constrained devices, which was withdrawn in 2015.

4th Edition (abandoned).

The proposed fourth edition of ECMA-262 (ECMAScript 4 or ES4) would have been the first major update to ECMAScript since the third edition was published in 1999. The specification (along with a reference implementation) was originally targeted for completion by October 2008. The first draft was dated February 1999. An overview of the language was released by the working group on October 23, 2007.  By August 2008, the ECMAScript 4th edition proposal had been scaled back into a project codenamed ECMAScript Harmony. Features under discussion for Harmony at the time included:  The intent of these features was partly to better support "programming in the large", and to allow sacrificing some of the script's ability to be dynamic to improve performance. For example, Tamarin – the virtual machine for ActionScript, developed and open-sourced by Adobe – has just-in-time compilation (JIT) support for certain classes of scripts.  In addition to introducing new features, some ES3 bugs were proposed to be fixed in edition 4. These fixes and others, and support for JSON encoding/decoding, have been folded into the ECMAScript, 5th Edition specification.  Work started on Edition 4 after the ES-CP (Compact Profile) specification was completed, and continued for approximately 18 months where slow progress was made balancing the theory of Netscape's JavaScript 2 specification with the implementation experience of Microsoft's JScript.NET. After some time, the focus shifted to the ECMAScript for XML (E4X) standard. The update has not been without controversy. In late 2007, a debate between Eich, later the Mozilla Foundation's CTO, and Chris Wilson, Microsoft's platform architect for Internet Explorer, became public on a number of blogs. Wilson cautioned that because the proposed changes to ECMAScript made it backwards incompatible in some respects to earlier versions of the language, the update amounted to "breaking the Web," and that stakeholders who opposed the changes were being "hidden from view". Eich responded by stating that Wilson seemed to be "repeating falsehoods in blogs" and denied that there was attempt to suppress dissent and challenged critics to give specific examples of incompatibility. He pointed out that Microsoft Silverlight and Adobe AIR rely on C# and ActionScript 3 respectively, both of which are larger and more complex than ECMAScript Edition 3.

5th Edition.

Yahoo, Microsoft, Google, and other 4th edition dissenters formed their own subcommittee to design a less ambitious update of ECMAScript 3, tentatively named ECMAScript 3.1. This edition would focus on security and library updates with a large emphasis on compatibility. After the aforementioned public sparring, the ECMAScript 3.1 and ECMAScript 4 teams agreed on a compromise: the two editions would be worked on, in parallel, with coordination between the teams to ensure that ECMAScript 3.1 remains a strict subset of ECMAScript 4 in both semantics and syntax.  However, the differing philosophies in each team resulted in repeated breakages of the subset rule, and it remained doubtful that the ECMAScript 4 dissenters would ever support or implement ECMAScript 4 in the future. After over a year since the disagreement over the future of ECMAScript within the Ecma Technical Committee 39, the two teams reached a new compromise in July 2008: Brendan Eich announced that Ecma TC39 would focus work on the ECMAScript 3.1 (later renamed to ECMAScript, 5th Edition) project with full collaboration of all parties, and vendors would target at least two interoperable implementations by early 2009. In April 2009, Ecma TC39 published the "final" draft of the 5th edition and announced that testing of interoperable implementations was expected to be completed by mid-July. On December 3, 2009, ECMA-262 5th edition was published.

6th Edition – ECMAScript 2015.

The 6th edition, initially known as ECMAScript 6 (ES6) then and later renamed to ECMAScript 2015, was finalized in June 2015. This update adds significant new syntax for writing complex applications, including class declarations (class Foo {... } ), ES6 modules like import * as moduleName from "..."; export const Foo, but defines them semantically in the same terms as ECMAScript 5 strict mode. Other new features include iterators and for...of loops, Python-style generators, arrow function expression (() => {...} ), codice_1 keyword for local declarations, codice_2 keyword for constant local declarations, binary data, typed arrays, new collections (maps, sets and WeakMap), promises, number and math enhancements, reflection, proxies (metaprogramming for virtual objects and wrappers) and template literals for strings. The complete list is extensive. As the first "ECMAScript Harmony" specification, it is also known as "ES6 Harmony."

7th Edition – ECMAScript 2016.

The 7th edition, officially known as ECMAScript 2016, was finalized in June 2016. The major standard language features include block-scoping of variables and functions, destructuring patterns (of variables), proper tail calls, exponentiation operator codice_3 for numbers, codice_4, codice_5 keywords for asynchronous programming.

8th Edition – ECMAScript 2017.

The 8th edition, officially known as ECMAScript 2017, was finalized in June 2017. Includescodice_6constructions, which work using generators and promises, and additional features for concurrency and atomics.

9th Edition – ECMAScript 2018.

The 9th edition, officially known as ECMAScript 2018, was finalized in June 2018. New features include rest/spread operators for variables (three dots: codice_7), asynchronous iteration, codice_8 and additions to RegExp.

10th Edition – ECMAScript 2019.

The 10th edition, officially known as ECMAScript 2019, was published in June 2019. Added features include, but are not limited to, codice_9, codice_10, changes to codice_11 and codice_12.

ES.Next.

ES.Next is a dynamic name that refers to whatever the next version is at the time of writing. ES.Next features are finished proposals (aka "stage 4 proposals") as listed at finished proposal that are not part of a ratified specification. The language committee follows a "living spec" model so these changes are part of the standard and ratification is a formality.

Features.

The ECMAScript language includes structured, dynamic, functional, and prototype-based features.

Imperative and structured.

ECMAScript JavaScript supports C style structured programming. However, there exist some dissimilarities between both languages implementation of scoping. Until ECMAScript 2015, JavaScript supported only function scoping using the keyword codice_13. ECMAScript 2015 added the keywords codice_1 and codice_2 allowing JavaScript to support both block scoping as well as function scoping. JavaScript supports automatic semicolon insertion, meaning that semicolons that are normally used to terminate a statement in C may be omitted in JavaScript.

Weakly typed.

ECMAScript JavaScript is weakly typed. This means that certain types are assigned implicitly based on the operation being performed. However, there are several quirks in JavaScript's implementation of the conversion of a variable from one type to another. These quirks have drawn criticism from many developers.

Dynamic.

ECMAScript JavaScript is dynamically typed. Thus, a type is associated with a value rather than an expression. ECMAScript JavaScript supports various ways to test the type of objects, including duck typing.

Transpiling.

Since ES 2015, transpiling JavaScript has become very common. Transpilation is a source-to-source compilation in which the newer versions of JavaScript are used in the user's source code and the transpiler rewrites them so that they are compliant with the current specification. Usually, transpilers transpile down to ES3 to maintain compatibility with all versions of browsers. The settings to transpiling to a specific version can be configured according to need. Transpiling adds an extra step to the build process and is sometimes done to avoid needing polyfills. Polyfills allow using functionalities from newer ECMA versions in older environments that lack them. Polyfills do this at runtime in the interpreter, such as the user's browser or on the server. Instead, transpiling rewrites the ECMA code itself during the build phase of development, before it reaches the interpreter.

Conformance.

In 2010, Ecma International started developing a standards test for Ecma 262 ECMAScript. Test262 is an ECMAScript conformance test suite that can be used to check how closely a JavaScript implementation follows the ECMAScript 5th Edition Specification. The test suite contains thousands of individual tests, each of which tests some specific requirements of the ECMAScript specification. The development of Test262 is a project of the Ecma Technical Committee 39 (TC39). The testing framework and individual tests are created by member organizations of TC39 and contributed to Ecma for use in Test262.  Important contributions were made by Google (Sputnik testsuite) and Microsoft who both contributed thousands of tests. The Test262 testsuite consisted of tests. ECMAScript specifications through ES7 are well-supported in major web browsers. The table below shows the conformance rate for current versions of software with respect to the most recent editions of ECMAScript.

ECMAScript (or ES) is a general-purpose programming language, standardized by Ecma International according to the document ECMA-262. It was created inspired on JavaScript and JScript to help foster multiple independent implementations. ECMAScript is commonly used for client-side scripting on the World Wide Web, and it is increasingly being used for writing server applications and services using Node.js.

ECMAScript je skriptovací jazyk normovaný neziskovou organizací ECMA International podle specifikace ISO/IEC 16262:2011. Tento jazyk je využíván především na webových stránkách pro vytváření skriptů na straně klienta. Nyní jsou využívány především jeho implementace jako např. JavaScript, JScript a ActionScript.


Genetics.

CHH is an autosomal recessive inherited disorder. It is a highly pleiotropic disorder. A rarely encountered genetic phenomenon, known as uniparental disomy (a genetic circumstance where a child inherits two copies of a chromosome from one parent, as opposed to one copy from each parent) has also been observed with the disorder.  An association between mutations near or within the ncRNA component of RNase MRP, RMRP, has been identified. The endoribonuclease RNase MRP is a complex of RNA molecule and several proteins and it participates in cleavage of mitochondrial primers responsible for DNA replication and in pre-rRNA processing in the nucleolus. The locus of the gene has been mapped to the short arm of chromosome 9.

Immunodeficiency.

Patients with CHH usually suffer from cellular immunodeficiency. In the study of 108 Finnish patients with CHH, there was detected mild to moderate form of lymphopenia, decreased delayed type of hypersensitivity and impaired responses to phytohaemagglutinin. This leads to susceptibility to and, in some more severe cases, mortality from infections early in childhood. There has also been detected combined immunodeficiency in some patients Patients with CHH often have increased predispositions to malignancies.

Treatment.

A verified treatment for this disease is yet to be discovered. Over the years, a number of treatments have been claimed to have been discovered in the east. Chinese medicines have claimed to be able to cure dwarfism for many years, but as of yet, not one verified case has been demonstrated of someone who is a dwarf or suffering from any other similar disability growing to a "normal" height.

Cartilage–hair hypoplasia (CHH) is a rare genetic disorder. Symptoms may include short-limbed dwarfism due to skeletal dysplasia, variable level of immunodeficiency, and predisposition to cancer. It was first reported in 1965 by McKusick.

Syndrom hypoplastických chrupavek a vlasů (Cartilage-hair hypoplasia, CHH), také známý jako McKusickův typ metafyzální chondrodysplázie, je vzácná, vysoce pleiotropní genetická porucha. Klinicky se projevuje jako forma nanismu s krátkými dolními končetinami, způsobeným skeletální dysplázií, variabilním stupněm imunodeficitu a v některých případech zvýšenou predispozicí pro nádorová bujení. Poprvé byl tento syndrom popsán v roce 1965 McKusickem et al. Touto poruchou byl postižen herec Verne Troyer a stejně tak byl herec Billy Barty, který proslul větou: "Jméno mého postižení je Syndrom hypoplastických chrupavek a vlasů, ale můžete mi říkat jenom Billy." "


Culture.

The Dom have an oral tradition and express their culture and history through music, poetry and dance. Initially, it was believed that they were a branch of the Romani people, but recent studies of the Domari language suggest that they departed from the Indian subcontinent earlier than the Romani, probably around the 6th century.  The name used worldwide by Gypsies to identify themselves is the term "Rrom" (or "Rom"), which in the Romani language means a man. The words Rom, Dom and Lom are used to describe Romani peoples who diverged in the 6th century. Several tribes moved as far as Western Europe and are called Rom, while the ones who remained in Persia and Turkey are called Dom.  Among the various Domari subgroups, the Ghawazi are the most famous for their dancing and music. The Ghawazi dancers have been associated with the development of the Egyptian raqs sharqi style.

Distribution.

The majority of the estimated population of 2.2 million live in Turkey, Egypt and Iran with significant numbers in Iraq. Smaller populations are found in Afghanistan, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Sudan, Jordan, Syria and other countries of the Middle East and North Africa.  The actual population is unknown as some Dom are excluded from national censuses and others label themselves in national terms rather than as Dom. Nowadays, they speak the dominant languages of their larger societies, but Domari, their national language, continues to be spoken by more insular communities. Iranians called them "gurbati" or "kouli", both meaning "foreigners".  There is a large concentration of Dom/Gypsies in Jordan. Researchers claim that "they accommodate Arab racism by hiding their ethnic identity," since they would not be accepted into Arabian society once their true identity is revealed. There is also a similar small community with some colonial Romanichal ancestors in Malta. That community is called the Maltese Romanichal.

References.

Tarlan, K. V (2018). Encouraging Integration and Social Cohesion of Syrian Dom Immigrants Proposal for a Regional Social Inclusion Strategy Turkey, Lebanon and Jordan. Gaziantep: Kırkayak Kültür http://www.middleeastgypsies.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/DOM-RAPOR-EN.pdf  Tarlan, K. V., Faggo, H (2018). The "Other" Asylum Seekers from Syria: Discrimination, Isolation, and Social Exclusion Syrian Dom Asylum Seekers in the Crossfire. Gaziantep: Kırkayak Kültür - Kemal Vural Tarlan, Hacer Foggo https://www.academia.edu/34780584/The_Dom_The_Other_Asylum_Seekers_from_Syria_Report.pdf

The Dom (also called Domi; / ALA-LC: ', /, Ḍom / or, or sometimes also called Doms) are a people with origins in the Indian subcontinent which through ancient migrations are found scattered across the Middle East, North Africa, Caucasus, Central Asia and still parts of the Indian subcontinent. The traditional language of the Dom is Domari, an endangered Indo-Aryan language, thereby making the Dom an Indo-Aryan ethnic group. They have been associated with another traditionally itinerant ethnic group of Indo-Aryans variously called the Rom/Roma/Romani people (also known in English as Gypsies): the two groups have been said to have separated from each other or, at least, to share a similar history. Specifically, the ancestors of both the Dom and the Rom/Roma/Romani left the Northern Indian subcontinent sometime between the 6th and 11th century.

Domové jsou indoevropská etnická skupina žijící především v severní Africe, na Blízkém a Středním Východě a v Indii. Celkový počet Domů je přes dva miliony, z toho asi jeden milion žije v Egyptě a půl milionu v Turecku. Původně žili v Indii, z níž odešli někdy v 6. století, tedy zřejmě dříve než Romové, s nimiž jinak sdílejí řadu podobností.