Early life.

Gary Leonard Oldman was born in New Cross, London on 21 March 1958, the son of Leonard Bertram Oldman (1921–1985), a former sailor who also worked as a welder, and Kathleen (née Cheriton; 1919–2018). He has stated that his father was an alcoholic who left the family when Oldman was seven years old. His older sister, Maureen, is an actress better known as Laila Morse; she would go on to have a role in Oldman's directorial debut "Nil by Mouth" (1997), before taking on her most famous role of Mo Harris in the BBC soap opera "EastEnders". Oldman attended West Greenwich School in Deptford, leaving

Acting career.

Training.

Oldman studied with the Young People's Theatre in Greenwich during the mid-1970s, while working jobs on assembly lines, as a porter in an operating theatre, selling shoes and beheading pigs in an abattoir. He unsuccessfully applied to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA), which welcomed him to try again the following year, but

Theatre and early films (1979–1990).

After leaving drama school, Oldman was the first in his year to receive professional work; he stated that this was not a result of being the most talented actor, but rather diligence and application. In 1979, he starred in "Thark", opposite Annette Kerr, at York's Theatre Royal. Subsequent plays included "Cabaret", "Privates on Parade" and "Romeo and Juliet". In December 1979, Oldman appeared as Puss in "Dick Whittington and His Cat", staged at York. The play then ran in Colchester, then with Glasgow's Citizens Theatre; Oldman's work ethic and trademark intensity would make him a favourite with audiences in Glasgow during the 1980s. He also toured Europe and South America with the Citizens Theatre company.  From 1980 to 1981, Oldman appeared in "The Massacre at Paris" (Christopher Marlowe), "Desperado Corner" (Shaun Lawton), and Robert David MacDonald's plays "Chinchilla" and "A Waste of Time". He performed in a 6-month West End run

Mainstream success (1991–2001).

In 1991, Oldman began filming "Dylan Thomas", a biopic on Welsh poet Dylan Thomas, with his then-wife Uma Thurman as Caitlin Thomas, however production was shut down shortly after filming began. Later in 1991, Oldman starred in his first US blockbuster, playing Lee Harvey Oswald in Oliver Stone's "JFK". According to Oldman, very little was written about Oswald in the script. Stone gave him several plane tickets, a list of contacts and told him to do his own research. Oldman met with Oswald's wife, Marina, and her two daughters to prepare for the role. He filmed scenes for the 1992 neo-noir thriller "Final Analysis", however they were cut from the film.

Career slump (2002–2003).

Following his "Friends" appearance, Oldman did not appear in any major roles until 2004; it was suggested that he was blacklisted in Hollywood during this time, following the controversy that had surrounded the release of "The Contender". In 2002, he starred in the generally well-received "Interstate 60", and played the

Resurgence and franchise stardom (2004–2016).

In 2004, Oldman returned to prominence when he landed a starring role in the "Harry Potter" film series, playing Harry Potter's godfather Sirius Black. The following year, he starred as James Gordon in Christopher Nolan's commercially and critically successful "Batman Begins", a role that he reprised in the even more successful sequel "The Dark Knight" (2008) and once more in the conclusion, "The Dark Knight Rises" (2012). Prominent film critic Mark Kermode, in reviewing "The Dark Knight", downplayed claims that Heath Ledger's Joker was the highlight of the film, saying, "the best performance in the film, "by a mile", is [by] Gary Oldman...

Awards success (2017–present).

In 2017, Oldman played three film roles: a billionaire entrepreneur in "The Space Between Us", a dictatorial President in "The Hitman's Bodyguard", and former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in "Darkest Hour"—his portrayal of Churchill garnered critical acclaim. Oldman's transformation into the wartime Prime Minister took 200 hours in the makeup chair, 14 pounds of silicone rubber, and $20,000 worth of Cuban cigars, which gave him nicotine poisoning. In 2018, he won the Academy Award for Best Actor, Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama, Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actor, Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actor, and BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role. His Golden Globe win came despite Oldman having once been a critic of that award; he noted that

Other ventures.

Filmmaking.

In 1997, Oldman directed, produced, and wrote the award-winning "Nil by Mouth", a film partially based on his own childhood. "Nil by Mouth" went on to win the BAFTA Alexander Korda Award for Best British Film (shared with Douglas Urbanski and Luc Besson) and also the BAFTA Award for Best Screenplay, the Channel 4 Director's Award, and an "Empire" Award. In 1999, it was adjudged by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts as one of the hundred best British films of the

Music.

Oldman has had a keen interest in music from an early age. He is a proficient pianist and stated in a 1995 interview with Charlie Rose that he would rather be a musician than an actor. Oldman sang several tracks on the "Sid and Nancy" soundtrack, on which he performed alongside original Sex Pistols bassist Glen Matlock, and sang and played live

Voice acting.

Oldman participated in the creation of "The Legend of Spyro" games, produced by Sierra Entertainment. He provided the voice of the Fire Guardian, Ignitus. He voices Sergeant Viktor Reznov and scientist Daniel Clarke in the "Call of Duty" games.

Writing.

In 2015, Oldman and his manager Douglas Urbanski signed a deal

Acting style.

Oldman studied the teachings of Konstantin Stanislavski and Stella Adler while at drama school but went "off-book", drawing much of his inspiration from American cinema. As a screen actor, Oldman was almost typecast as an anti-social personality early in his career. The necessity to express villainous characters in an overtly physical manner led to the cultivation of a "big" acting style that incorporated projection skills acquired during his stage training. He further sought to develop a distinctive approach that would distance him from his "stuffy" and "often interchangeable" British peers.  Oldman has conceded that his performances often involve an element of overacting: "It's my influence on those roles that probably

Legacy.

Oldman has established a cult following among film fans. He is known for playing the primary antagonist in a number of popular motion pictures, which has seen him referenced in popular culture. At the peak of his popularity in the 1990s, Oldman was dubbed by "Empire" magazine Hollywood's "psycho deluxe", and was spoofed on popular television shows such as Fox comedy series "In Living Color" and MTV's "Celebrity Deathmatch", as well as drafted in to appear on the first ever cover of "Loaded" magazine. In 1993, he appeared prominently in the music video for Annie Lennox's international hit "Love Song for a Vampire", written for the soundtrack to "Bram Stoker's Dracula", and had a cameo role as the Devil in the video for Guns N' Roses single "Since I Don't Have You"—Oldman also played the Devil in the 2002 BMW short "Beat The Devil", alongside Clive Owen, James Brown and Marilyn Manson. He starred as a sleazy priest in the controversial religious-themed video for David Bowie's 2013 single "The Next Day". In contrast to his often dark on-screen roles, Oldman's affable real-life demeanour has been noted, and he was named as one of "Empire"s "100 Sexiest Stars in Film History" in 2007. In 2011, "Empire" readers voted him the recipient of the Empire Icon Award, which was presented by Colin Firth.  "Washington Post" and "Independent" writers noted that Oldman is regarded as one of the greatest actors of his generation. In 2012, "Globe and Mail" journalist Lynn Crosbie wrote, "Critics never fail to single Oldman out... he is one of a few truly great living actors – arguably, even, the best." Of his diversity, Yahoo! Movies noted that he had "gained a well-earned reputation as a brilliant chameleon"; the "Houston Chronicle" dubbed Oldman "the face of versatility". He is noted for his avoidance of the Hollywood celebrity scene, often being referred to as an "actor's actor". His work has been acclaimed by Hollywood figures: Tom Hardy has described Oldman as his "absolute complete and utter hero" and "hands down, the greatest actor that's ever lived"; Brad Pitt, Daniel Radcliffe and Ryan Gosling have also cited Oldman as their favourite actor. Hardy recalled Oldman's influence on students at drama school, stating that "everybody used to quote him in all of his films". Jessica Chastain, Jennifer Lawrence, Joseph Gordon-Levitt, Tom Hiddleston and Chris Pine have also named Oldman as one of their favourite actors.  Other actors such as Christian Bale, Hugh Jackman, Benedict Cumberbatch, Shia LaBeouf, Ben Mendelsohn, Johnny Depp, Jason Isaacs, and Michael Fassbender have cited Oldman as an influence; Bale called him "the reason I'm acting". Peers have praised his talents: Anthony Hopkins, Ralph Fiennes, Keanu Reeves and Ray Winstone have used the term "genius" in reference to Oldman. John Hurt

Personal life.

Views and lifestyle.

After establishing himself as an actor, Oldman moved to Los Angeles in the early 1990s. Despite numerous lead and supporting roles in major Hollywood films, he is protective of his private life and is known for his stance on celebrity culture and the ideals of Hollywood: "Being famous, that's a whole other career. And

Marriages and family.

Oldman has been married five times. He wed English actress Lesley Manville in 1987, and their son, Alfie, was born the following year. Oldman broke up with Manville in 1989, three months after their son was born. She stated in 2018 that they are on good terms, saying, "[H]e's got a new wife, and we all get on... Gary and I are friends." They have two grandchildren, Matilda and Ozzy Oldman, through Alfie.  Oldman met American actress Uma Thurman on the set of "State of Grace"; they were married in 1990, but divorced in 1992. From 1997 to 2001, Oldman was married to model Donya Fiorentino, with whom he had two sons: Gulliver (born 1997) and Charlie (born 1999).  On 31 December 2008, Oldman married English singer and actress Alexandra Edenborough in Santa Barbara, California. Edenborough filed for divorce on 9 January 2015; the divorce was finalized in September 2015. In August 2017, Oldman married writer and art curator Gisele Schmidt in a private ceremony at the home of his manager, Douglas Urbanski.

Legal disputes with third wife.

During their divorce in 2001, Donya Fiorentino accused Oldman of domestic assault in front of their children, Charlie and Gulliver, something he maintains never took place. The allegation prompted an extended investigation by authorities: Oldman was cleared of wrongdoing and awarded sole legal and physical custody of the pair's sons, with no arrest or charges pursued against him. Fiorentino, meanwhile, was granted limited, state-supervised contact dependent on her passing sobriety tests; the court ruled that monitors "be advised" of her "history including, but not limited to drug abuse and disparaging comments

Renewed attention.

Fiorentino resurrected the assault claim via tabloid news outlets in early 2018, before and after Oldman's Best Actor win at the 90th Academy Awards (for his performance in 2017's "Darkest Hour"), while referring to the Me Too movement. In a public statement, a representative of Oldman stressed that he had been cleared of the allegation, accused Fiorentino of abusing Me Too in pursuit of "convenient cover to further a personal vendetta", and noted that her previous marriage also ended with the husband receiving child custody. Gulliver issued an open letter in which he lamented the "pain and hardship" caused by his mother's "lies" over the years, and said of the purported assault, "I was there at the time of the 'incident', so I'd like to make this radiantly clear: it didn't happen." He also expressed disgust for "so-called 'journalists' " who had perpetuated an allegation that was "thrown away and discredited as false years ago".

Gary Leonard Oldman (born 21 March 1958) is an English actor and filmmaker. Among other accolades, he has won an Academy Award, three British Academy Film Awards, two Critics' Choice Awards, a Golden Globe Award, and a Screen Actors Guild Award. Known for his versatility and intense acting style, he is regarded as one of the greatest actors of his generation. His films have grossed over $11 billion worldwide, making him one of the highest-grossing actors of all time.

Gary Oldman (* 21. března 1958 Londýn) je britský herec, spisovatel, režisér a producent. Narodil se v chudé londýnské čtvrti jako syn svářeče, který od rodiny odešel, když bylo Garymu sedm. Jeho hereckým vzorem byl Malcolm McDowell.


Rivers.

There are three rivers that have their headwaters in the Serra da Estrela: the Mondego, which is the longest river entirely within Portuguese territory; and the Zêzere, which is a tributary of the Tagus; a tributary of the Mondego, the Alva also has its headwaters in the range. It is high.

Nature Park.

The mountain range is now part of the Serra da Estrela Natural Park and offers skiing opportunities in the ski resort of Loriga, Seia Municipality.

Serra da Estrela dog.

The Cão da Serra da Estrela ("Estrela Mountain Dog") is a breed of livestock guardian dog that takes its name from this region.

Serra da Estrela sheep and cheese.

"Queijo Serra da Estrela" (Serra da Estrela cheese) is a soft cheese from the region of Serra da Estrela. The recipe is more than 2000 years old. It is made from cardoon thistle, raw sheep's milk and salt. The cheese is soft and gooey. The cheese becomes harder and chewier as time goes by. The region's ancient "bordaleira" sheep are also prized for their wool.

Cuisine.

The region's cuisine is well-regarded and includes dishes such as breaded sweet sardines and Juniper beef stew. Though the reason has a very small local Jewish population, it has emerged as a center for Kosher food, with local producers launching kosher versions of their olive oil, wine and cheesemakers obtaining kosher certification for some products.

The Conchos dam.

The Serra da Estrela is also home to a hydroelectric system of dams, part of which is the Covão dos Conchos. The Covão dos Conchos looks like a natural sinkhole within the lake at first glance, but it was constructed as a spillway in 1955 and acts as a water diversion from Ribeira das Naves to Lagoa Comprida.

History, legends and myths.

A legend associated with the mountain is mentioned in chapter 41 of the American literary classic, Moby-Dick:  Archaeological investigations have allowed a picture of life during the fifth millennium BC, the Early Neolithic to emerge, where small communities sustained themselves by small game hunting, the gathering of acorn and other winter fruits, and migratory pastoralism. The raising of sheep and goats, introduced to the region by the first Neolithic settlers - suggests that spring and summer were spent on high ground pastures and winter on the lower grounds of the river valleys. The significance of the Serra da Estrela in Neolithic culture can be seen in the discovery that megaliths in the Mondego River basin were predominantly built with an alignment that allowed the mountain range to be seen from within the inner chamber. At the same time the rise of Aldebaran, the brightest star of Taurus, behind the mountains could also be seen and its Heliacal rising in late April/early May could have been used as a temporal marker for the movement to the high pastures of Serra da Estrela. This archaeological narrative closely mirrors the local folklore that explains the name of the mountain range.

Serra da Estrela (, "Star Mountain Range") is the highest mountain range in Continental Portugal. Together with the Serra da Lousã it is the westernmost constituent range of the Sistema Central and also one of the highest in the system. It includes mainland Portugal's highest point at above mean sea level (although the summit of Mount Pico in the Portuguese Azores islands is higher). This point is not a distinctive mountain summit, but rather the highest point in a plateau, being known as Torre ("Tower" in English). Torre is an unusual summit in that it is accessible by a paved road. The peak has a topographic prominence of and its parent peak is Pico Almanzor, in Spain.

Serra da Estrela, portugalská výslovnost "sera da eštrela"], v překladu Hvězdné hory, je pohoří ve středním Portugalsku - v regionu Centro. Jeho nejvyšším vrcholem je Torre (1993 m). Jedná se o nejvyšší pohoří pevninského Portugalska, celkově je v Portugalsku druhé nejvyšší po sopečném masivu Ponta do Pico na Azorských ostrovech. Serra de Estrela je západní součástí Kastilského pohoří (též používaný název „Sierra Central“ či „Cordillera Central“).


Discovery and naming.

During the late 1980s, a field crew from the Universidad Nacional Tucumán, led by Jaime Powell, uncovered forty kilometres south of Roca City, in Río Negro province, southern Argentina, the remains of a theropod near the Salitral Ojo de Agua. In 2001, Rodolfo Aníbal Coria named and described the type species "Quilmesaurus curriei". The genus name is derived from the Quilme, a Native American people, and the specific name honours Dr. Philip John Currie, a Canadian theropod specialist.  The holotype and currently only specimen was designated the collection number MPCA-PV-100, in the Museo Provincial "Carlos Ameghino". It consists of the distal (lower or outermost) half of the right femur (thighbone), and a complete right tibia (inner shinbone), collected from the Allen Formation of the Malargüe Group in the Neuquén Basin. These deposits date from the Campanian to Maastrichtian. The specimen came from the fluvial sandstones at the bottom of the Allen Formation. The taxon is notable as it represents one of the youngest records of a non-avian theropod from Patagonia.

Description.

The preserved portion of femur is robust and boxy in shape. The rear face of the tip of the bone possessed prominent condyles (joint bumps) for connecting to the tibia (on the inner face of the leg) and fibula (on the outer face of the leg). The lateral condyle (which connected to the fibula) is slightly lower from front-to-back compared to the medial condyle (which connected to the tibia), but it is also wider from side-to-side. An additional finger-like bone spur (an epicondyle) would have also been present on the lateral condyle, although this spur is broken off in the only known "Quilmesaurus" femur. Just above the medial condyle is a low yet noticeable ridge which juts away from the rest of the bone, towards the midline of the animal's body. This ridge is known as a mesiodistal crest. The area immediately above the condyles possesses a shallow yet wide lowered area known as an extensor groove. Overall the femur is almost identical to that of other abelisaurids. The proximal (upper or innermost) part of the tibia possesses a myriad of complex features. A large and hatchet-shaped structure known as a cnemial crest points forwards at the proximal portion of the tibia. The tip of the cnemial crest is hooked due to the presence of a downward pointing spur, known as a ventral process. Although Coria (2001) considered a hooked cnemial crest to be unique to "Quilmesaurus", Valieri "et al." (2007) noted that this structure was also possessed by "Aucasaurus" and "Majungasaurus", as well as the ambiguous abelisaurid "Genusaurus". The distal part of the tibia possesses its own projections for connecting to ankle bones, known as malleoli. This part has the form of an asymmetrical triangle when seen from the front, with the massive lateral malleolus projecting further distally than the smaller medial malleolus. This combination of distal tibia features was also once presumed to have been unique to "Quilmesaurus". However, Valieri "et al." (2007) note that the distal tibia of "Rajasaurus" was very similar to that of "Quilmesaurus". In 2016, "Quilmesaurus" was estimated to have measured in length. This would have made it among the smallest derived abelisaurids, although its legs were proportionally robust like those of "Pycnonemosaurus", one of the largest members of the family.

Classification.

When originally described, Coria could not find a more precise placement for "Quilmesaurus" than Theropoda. The presence of a notch in the distal articular surface of the tibia was cited by him as evidence of a possible relationship with basal Tetanurae, which would be surprising as "Quilmesaurus" lived during a time when South American theropod assemblages were dominated by abelisaurids and carcharodontosaurs. Other theropod material has been recovered from within these same strata and has in 2005 also provisionally been referred to the Tetanurae. However, in a 2004 abstract (and later a 2007 full paper), Rubén Juárez Valieri "et al." concluded that "Quilmesaurus", in view of the hatchet-shaped cnemial crest, was a member of the Abelisauridae.  Unlike members of Megalosauroidea, the tibia of "Quilmesaurus" does not possess a noticeable anteromedial buttress, and instead it includes a large cnemial crest. "Quilmesaurus" is also not a coelurosaur due to the distal part of the tibia being asymmetrical in shape as well as having a socket for the astragalus which is lower than that of coelurosaurs. Finally, the shallow and wide (rather than deep and thin) extensor groove excludes "Quilmesaurus" from Carnosauria, as does the possession of parallel upper and lower edges of the cnemial crest.  However, some features do support its placement within Ceratosauria. These include a pronounced cnemial crest of the tibia and large mesiodistal crest of the femur. The asymmetrical distal part of the tibia and small socket for the astragalus specifically place it within the family Abelisauridae. The preserved bones share features with various abelisaurid taxa throughout the family, although such similarities are widespread and seemingly pop up at random among the taxa, thus making more specific placement difficult. The hook-like shape of the cnemial crest suggests that "Quilmesaurus" was a member of the subfamily Carnotaurinae, which Sereno (1998) defined to include all abelisaurids closer to "Carnotaurus" than to "Abelisaurus".However, the validity of Carnotaurinae has been debated. Although Valieri "et al." (2007) considered the subfamily to include taxa such as "Majungasaurus", "Carnotaurus", "Aucasaurus", and "Rajasaurus", other studies have found different results. Tortosa "et al. ("2014) found that Carnotaurinae was an invalid group, as very few abelisaurids could actually apply to the definition set forth by Sereno. According to their analysis, "Aucusaurus" and "Carnotaurus" were actually closer to "Abelisaurus" than they were to "Majungasaurus" and "Rajasaurus", thus forcing the latter two taxa to be excluded from the subfamily. "Quilmesaurus" was retained as close to "Aucasaurus" and "Carnotaurus", although Sereno's name and definition of Carnotaurinae was completely demolished. In its place the tribe Carnotaurini was used, which includes all abelisaurids descended from the last common ancestor of "Aucusaurus" and "Carnotaurus". Tortosa "et al." (2014)'s result has largely been supported over that of Valieri et al. (2007). Filippi "et al." (2016) created a new clade, Furileusauria, to include abelisaurids more closely related to "Carnotaurus" than to "Ilokelesia", "Skorpiovenator", or "Majungasaurus". They included "Quilmesaurus" among the furileusaurians.  Valieri "et al." (2007) were unable to establish a single autapomorphy (distinctive or unique trait) of the taxon, concluding that "Quilmesaurus" were a "nomen vanum".

Paleoecology.

The Allen Formation is believed to have been a humid coastal environment which gradually transitioned from a freshwater floodplain to marshy estuaries and then shallow lagoons as sea levels rose. A diverse assemblage of aquatic life inhabited the area, including various fish, frogs, and turtles. More recent intervals of the formation even include a few marine reptiles, such as various plesiosaurs including elasmosaurids and polycotylids. Plant life includes palm trees and conifers of the family Podocarpeaceae ("plum pines"), which formed dense forests and wetlands. Remains of land animals were also common in this formation. An indeterminate rhynchocephalian is known, as well as numerous snake taxa including the madtsoiids "Patagoniophis" and "Alamitophis." Other non-dinosaur animals in the area include the pterosaur "Aerotitan" and a variety of mammals.  Dinosaur remains recovered from the Allen Formation include a diverse and abundant assortment of titanosaurs ("Saltasaurus, Aeolosaurus, Laplatasaurus, Rocasaurus," etc.) and a hadrosaurid of dubious validity ("Willinakaqe"). Theropods other than "Quilmesaurus" were also present; they include the large unenlagiine dromaeosaurid "Austroraptor", a basal ornithuran bird ("Limenavis"), and a cimolopterygid bird ("Lamarqueavis"). A tooth has been referred to the family Carcharodontosauridae; this tooth is one of the most recent carcharondontosaurid fossils found as more well known members of this family ("Giganotosaurus", "Mapusaurus") lived millions of years earlier in the Cretaceous. Indeterminate nodosaurid remains have also been found at this formation, consisting of vertebrae, osteoderms, a femur, and a tooth.  The Allen Formation is also notable for the high amount of sauropod eggs discovered there. Nesting grounds have been discovered in the bajo de Santa Rosa area of the upper Allen Formation. Some (but not all) of these eggs were designated as the oogenus "Sphaerovum". The structure of their eggshells indicate that they were laid in a very damp environment.

Quilmesaurus is a genus of carnivorous theropod dinosaur from the Patagonian Upper Cretaceous (Campanian stage) of Argentina. It was a member of Abelisauridae, closely related to genera such as "Carnotaurus". The only known remains of this genus are leg bones which share certain similarities to a variety of abelisaurids. However, these bones lack unique features, which may render "Quilmesaurus" a "nomen vanum" (more commonly known as a "nomen dubium", or "dubious name").

Quilmesaurus byl rodem dravého (teropodního) dinosaura z čeledi Abelisauridae, žijícího v období svrchní křídy (stupeň kampán až maastricht, asi před 83-71 miliony let) na území dnešní severní Argentiny. Tento středně velký teropod měřil na délku asi 5,3 až 6 metrů a patřil tak k menším abelisauridům.


First generation ("Typ" 8L; 1996–2003).

The original A3 (or "Type" 8L) was introduced in the European market in 1996, marking Audi's return to the production of smaller cars following the demise of the Audi 50 in 1978. This was the first Volkswagen Group model to use the "PQ34" or "A4" platform, bearing a close resemblance to the contemporary Volkswagen Golf Mk4, which arrived a year later. Within three years, this platform was used for total of seven cars.  The A3 was initially available only with a three-door hatchback body, to present a more sporty image than the Golf, in both front and four-wheel drive. The inline four-cylinder engines were transversely mounted. The Audi A3 was the eighth model in the Audi lineup to use five valves per cylinder.  The United Kingdom market first received the Audi A3 in November 1996.  In 1999, Audi expanded the range with the introduction of more powerful versions: a 1.8 turbo rated, and a 1.9 TDI diesel engine with unit injector "Pumpe Düse" (PD) technology and variable geometry turbocharger. The four-wheel-drive A3 1.8T quattro used either the or engine, and the same Haldex Traction-based four-wheel-drive system as the Audi S3 and the Audi TT. Also in 1999, Audi also introduced a five-door body.  In late 2000, the A3 range was revised with new headlights and rear lamps, other minor cosmetic changes, an improved interior, and the introduction of a six-speed manual gearbox, on the 1.8 Turbo and the new 1.9 TDI.  Audi's electronic stability control, traction-control, and brake force distribution computer became standard equipment in some countries.  Although the first-generation Audi A3 was replaced in Europe in 2003, the first generation model continued to be sold in some markets. Production of the first generation model stopped in Brazil in 2006.

Safety.

Euro NCAP rating of 4 out of 5 stars. Their evaluation concluded "the column lock, adjuster lever and bracket presented hazards in the knee impact area for the driver. These could cause high loads on his upper legs and damage to his knees." The A3 also provides almost no protection to pedestrians, giving it two stars out of a possible four.

S3 (1999–2003).

Audi released the A3-derived Audi S3 in 1999, only as a three-door hatchback. The inline-four 20v 1.8 L turbocharged petrol engine came in two versions: and. Early models (1999–2001) had. Later models (2001–2003) had variable valve timing and. The engine had a maximum of torque. This was the first time a small four-cylinder engine had been used in an Audi S-series car.  Although dubbed "quattro", the S3 uses a different four-wheel drive system. The Haldex Traction coupling adjusts the bias of torque distribution from the front to rear axle as grip requirements change – most of the time it operates as a front-wheel drive.  The S3 was sold in Europe, Japan, Mexico, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.  The S3 was given a facelift in 2002, where it was given one-piece headlights/indicator units, different front wings, rear lights clusters, and some minor upgrades to interior trim.  Standard features include xenon HID headlamps with high pressure washers and auto levelers, front fog lamps, 17" "Avus" alloy wheels with 225/45R17 tyres, electrically adjustable Recaro leather seats, climate control, alarm and electronic stability control with traction control.  Options include a Bose sound system, boot/trunk or in-dash mounted 6-disc CD changer, metallic paint, 18-inch 9-spoke RSTT wheels, glass sunroof, centre arm rest, privacy glass (B-pillar backwards), auto-dimming rear-view mirror, parking assist, luggage net, heated front seats, cruise control, aluminium door mirror casings and part leather/Alcantara (blue/silver/yellow) combination seat coverings. These items are standard in some export markets.

Engines.

The engines used are the same as those for many other cars in the Volkswagen Group.

Second generation ("Typ" 8P; 2003–2013).

Initial release.

At the 2003 Geneva Motor Show, Audi launched the second generation of the A3, the "Typ" 8P, designed by Gary Telaak during 2000 (however, the final design was frozen in 2001). Originally launched only as a three-door hatchback with four-cylinder engines, it featured a new automobile platform (the PQ35 platform), a redesigned and more spacious interior, new petrol engines with Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI), and standard six-speed manual gearboxes (except on the base 1.6).  In mid-2003, the line was updated with two sports-oriented models, a 2.0 Turbo-FSI version rated, and a 3.2 L VR6 engine (for the first time) with. Haldex Traction-based quattro on-demand four-wheel drive, and the S-Tronic semi-auto gearbox were introduced as options (quattro is standard on the VR6) on models with engines over.  In 2005, the "S line" trim level, offering new decorative elements, became available and the three-door A3 received the same front end styling features as the Sportback model. For the first time, the A3 became available in the North American market, exclusively with the Sportback body, with the base 2.0 inline-four FSI introduced in 2005 as a 2006 model, and the 3.2 VR6 quattro following.

A3 Sportback (2004–2013).

The five-door "Sportback" model was introduced in June 2004. The A3 Sportback is longer than the base three-door body, and includes improved rear cabin space and a larger luggage compartment (370 litres). It also received the new "single frame" front grille originally introduced in the A8 W12, which was later adopted across the whole A3 range.

S3 (2006–2013).

In August 2006, Audi announced the second generation S3. Offered in three- and five-door body styles, the second generation—"Typ" 8P—S3 is powered by a modified and uprated Volkswagen Group-sourced 2.0-litre turbocharged FSI petrol engine, with a maximum output of. As with all Audi S models, the design was done in-house by quattro GmbH. The engine features uprated high-performance pistons, revised boost/fuel mapping, increased turbocharger size (KKK K04) and larger intercooler. The most powerful form of this engine, and quattro four-wheel drive, makes for a time of 5.5 seconds, and an electronically limited top speed of. Audi offers both six-speed manual and six-speed S-Tronic automatic transmissions with the S3.  The spring ratings and dampers were revised, along with the body kit. Like its predecessor, although badged a "quattro" model, the S3 does not employ a Torsen centre differential (as in other common quattro models), but instead uses the Swedish Haldex Traction system in its on-demand four-wheel drive transmission, due to the transverse engine layout.

Safety.

Euro NCAP tested a second generation Audi A3 with front airbags, side airbags, seatbelt pretensioners and load limiters as standard. Despite Audi increasing the protection inside the car for the driver and passengers, pedestrian safety actually got 33% worse compared to the first generation and Euro NCAP gave criticism for the car offering virtually no protection at all on the front end and scoring just one star from a possible four. "A poor result for a new car" was the verdict given for pedestrian safety after the test.

2008 facelift.

Audi introduced a number of changes to the A3 and S3 in 2008. These include revised nose and tail styling, with a modified grille and daytime running lights, common rail 2.0 TDI engines, seven-speed S tronic dual clutch transmission availability for the smaller non-U.S. engines, and optional "magnetic ride" adaptive shock absorbers. In addition, the range now includes an S3 Sportback model.  Also, a cabriolet version was introduced. It was similar dimensions to the 3-door version, with a two-box design.

Audi A3 TDI Clubsport quattro (2008).

Audi A3 TDI Clubsport quattro is a concept car unveiled in 2008. Based on the Audi A3 three-door, it is an approach by Audi to address both performance and the environment.  The engine in the concept car is a turbocharged 2.0-litre diesel producing and. of torque. It produces per litre while meeting Euro 5 Diesel emission standards. It uses the quattro drive system with a six-speed manual transmission.  The chassis has Audi's Magnetic Ride Suspension system, lowering the vehicle from the base model. It also has ceramic front brakes, a four-link rear suspension and electro-mechanical servo assist for the rack and pinion steering.  Exterior modifications include the widening of the three-door's grill, modifying the odd, and enlarging air intakes. Bolt-on fender flares and a large rear spoiler have been added. The interior changes include sport seats and a flat-bottomed steering wheel.  Audi claims performance of in 6.6 seconds with a top speed of. It is expected to get approximately.

RS 3 Sportback (2011–2012).

The Audi RS 3 is derivative of the A3 Sportback with a 5-cylinder, turbocharged engine rated at and, vermicular-graphite cast iron crankcase, seven-speed S tronic transmission with two automatic modes and one manual mode, Quattro on-demand four-wheel drive system, widened track to, MacPherson strut in aluminum, lowered body by, 19-inch cast aluminum wheels in machine-polished titanium styling (optional black with a red rim flange) with 235/35 front and 225/35 rear tires, front and ventilated brake discs, aluminum brake disk covers, four-piston fixed calipers in high-gloss black with RS logos, electronic stabilization program with Sport mode, flared front fenders made of carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP), prominent sill panels and exterior-mirror casings in matte aluminum, roof spoiler, high-gloss black diffuser insert, two elliptical exhaust tailpipes on the left, black interior, sports seats upholstered in Nappa leather with silver contrasting stitching, inlays in Piano black finish or Aluminum Race colour, flat-bottomed leather multifunction sports steering wheel, choice of 5 body colors are available with an unlimited selection of custom paint finishes. Its acceleration is quoted as in 4.6 seconds, with an electronically limited top speed of. Optional features included front bucket seats, roof rails in matte aluminum look, styling packages in black or matte aluminum.  First deliveries started in early 2011.

A3 Cabriolet Sport and S line Final Edition (2013–).

The A3 Cabriolet Sport Final Edition is a version of the A3 Cabriolet Sport model for the UK market, commemorating the end of the A3 Cabriolet's production run. It included Vienna leather upholstery, front seat heating, rear parking sensors, automatic headlight and wiper activation, cruise control, a Bluetooth mobile phone interface.  S line Final Edition is based on the A3 Cabriolet Sport Final Edition model, with 18-inch S line alloy wheel with a new five-segment spoke design, full Vienna leather upholstery, S line safety and entertainment features with xenon plus headlights with LED daytime running lamps, DVD-based satellite-navigation, Audi Music Interface iPod connection, a BOSE sound system.

Engines.

In January 2007, the normally aspirated (non-turbo) 2.0 FSI was replaced by a new turbocharged 1.8 TFSI engine rated. It is available in front-wheel drive only.  In late 2007, Audi introduced a new 1.4 L TFSI engine for the A3, replacing the 1.6 L FSI engine, and a new diesel "e"-model. The "e"-model, Audi's equivalent of Volkswagen's BlueMotion, is available with the 1.9 L TDI engine, and offers a more ecological car, with a CO emission below 120 g/km.  In June 2009, Audi announced the release of two models of A3 1.6 TDI for European market. The first uses Audi's start/stop and energy recovery system, and will produce. This engine will achieve approximately. The second engine does not use the same efficiency systems and will produce will get. They went on sale in June 2009.  In August 2009, Audi announced that the 1.6 L eight-valve petrol engine would be replaced by a turbocharged 1.2 TFSI engine already found in VW's Polo and Golf models. This engine is rated at and, emitting 127 g/km of.  The A3 2.0 TDI clean diesel is a version of Audi's A3 2.0 TDI for the North American market, making it the second Audi TDI vehicle sold in North America, following the Audi Q7 TDI in 2008. It is a FWD vehicle with S-tronic transmission with Hill-hold assist, Sirius satellite radio, Leather seats and steering wheel, Auxiliary audio input, Dual-zone climate control, alloy wheels. The vehicle was unveiled at the 2009 North American International Auto Show. This US model would begin sale in the first quarter of 2010 as a 2010 model year vehicle.  In March 2011, the line-up was expanded with the introduction of a more powerful 2.0 TDI with.  The 2.0 TDI engine was included in the engines found by the United States Environmental Protection Agency to use software intentionally designed to turn off emission control systems except when undergoing emission testing. Models made from 2009 to 2015 were affected.

Third generation ("Typ" 8V; 2013–2020).

The vehicle was unveiled at the 2012 Geneva Motor Show and went on sale in Europe in September 2012.  First vehicle using the flexible modular Volkswagen Group MQB platform, the third generation is available as a three-door hatchback, a five-door "Sportback", a four-door saloon to directly rival the Mercedes-Benz CLA-Class, and a two-door Cabriolet.  The front suspension is a MacPherson strut set-up while the rear utilizes multi-link rear suspension.  The features include:  Early German models include 1.4 TFSI (122 PS), 1.8 TFSI (180 PS), and 2.0 TDI (150 PS). 1.2 TFSI (105 PS), 1.4 TFSI (140 PS), 1.8 TFSI quattro (180 PS), 1.6 TDI (105 PS), and 2.0 TDI quattro (150 PS) were added in 2013.  A3 1.2 TFSI (105 PS) was added to the UK market in 2013, followed by A3 1.4 TFSI (140 PS) in 2013.

A3 Sedan (2013–present).

The A3 Sedan includes a body wider and lower than that of the A3 Sportback. Other features include 16- to 18-inch-wheels (optional 19-inch wheels via quattro GmbH) and electronic stabilization control with electronic differential lock.  The vehicle was unveiled at the 2013 New York Auto Show.  The German model went on sale in late summer 2013. Early models include 1.4 TFSI (140 PS), 1.8 TFSI (180 PS), and 2.0 TDI (150 PS).  Delivery of the UK models began in autumn of 2013. Early models include 1.4 TFSI (140 PS), 1.8 TFSI (180 PS), and 2.0 TDI (150 PS).  In international markets like Pakistan, Audi has introduced it with a 1.2 TFSI engine. This has allowed Audi to bypass high import duties on larger displacement engine, offer the car at a competitive price and become a leader in imported luxury car segment. In Malaysia, the Audi A3 was launched in 2014 and sold as two models - a 1.4-liter with 7-speed S-tronic transmission, and a 1.8-liter with 6-speed DSG and Quattro all-wheel drive. The facelifted version has yet to be launched. In Singapore, the Audi A3 sedan and sportback are currently available as 1.0-liter turbo models only.

A3 Cabrio (2013–present).

The A3 cabriolet model was offered starting in 2014. It has a three-box bodystyle and a larger boot than the previous model (320 litres versus 260).

A3 Sportback (2013–present).

The Audi A3 Sportback includes a wheelbase over previous model, longer than that of the A3 and a front axle shifted forward by over the previous model. Other features include a choice of 13 body colours (three solid finishes, eight metallic finishes and two pearl-effect finishes), optional high-gloss package adding accents around the windows (standard with the Ambiente trim line), six-speed manual transmission (optional S tronic) for all engine models, 16 or 17-inch wheels depending on trim line (optional 18-inch wheels), Audi drive select (standard with Ambition) with optional S tronic, and optional electromagnetic damper control system.  German models went on sale in February 2013. Early models include 1.4 TFSI (122 PS), 1.8 TFSI (180 PS), 1.8 TFSI quattro (180 PS), and 1.6 TDI. 1.2 TFSI (105 PS), 1.4 TFSI (140 PS), 2.0 TDI (150 PS), 2.0 TDI quattro (150 PS), and 2.0 TDI (184 PS) were available in later date.

A3 Sportback g-tron (2013–present).

It is a version of the A3 Sportback with 1.4 TFSI (110 PS) engine powered by compressed natural gas or Audi e-gas synthetic methane; gas tank made of gas-impermeable polyamide polymer, carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP), glass fiber reinforced polymer; and an electronic gas pressure regulator. The synthetic methane was produced by waste product from a nearby Werlte biogas plant operated by power utility EWE.

A3 Sportback e-tron (2014–present).

The plug-in hybrid concept car was unveiled at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show. In May 2013 Audi confirmed its decision to produce a plug-in hybrid version of the A3, the Audi A3 Sportback e-tron, which was scheduled for retail sales in Europe by late 2013, and by mid 2014 in the U.S. and the UK. The A3 e-tron shares the same plug-in hybrid powertrain used in both the Volkswagen Golf GTE and Passat GTE. To charge the A3 e-tron, the Audi four rings logo is pulled along to reveal a charging socket.  The A3 Sportback e-tron is powered by a 1.4 L TSI gasoline engine that delivers and of torque, coupled with a electric motor, which is integrated into the car's six-speed dual-clutch automatic transmission, for a total combined output of and The plug-in hybrid has an 8.8 kWh battery pack that delivers an all-electric range of on the NEDC cycle, and a total of. The plug-in hybrid can reach a top speed of and can accelerate from 0- in 7.6 seconds. According to Audi the car has an average fuel efficiency of 188 mpg equivalent and CO2 emissions of 35 g/km.  In September 2013, at the Frankfurt Motor Show, Audi announced the Audi A3 Sportback e-tron would be available in Europe in the second quarter of 2014 at a price of Euros (, ), but it slipped to orders in the second quarter of 2014, with deliveries slated for the third quarter. On August 1, 2014, Audi announced the A3 Sportback e-Tron was on sale across Europe. The first 227 units were registered in Germany in August 2014., global sales totaled 12,994 units, of which, 12,945 units were registered in Europe, and 49 units in the United States, where deliveries began in December 2015.

S3 (2013–present).

The third generation Audi S3 is powered by a TFSI (turbo gasoline direct injection) inline-four engine, with an output of at 5,500 rpm and of torque at 1,800-5,500 rpm, with its redline at 6,800 rpm. It features new pistons with stronger bolts and new rings, as well as reinforced connecting rods with new mounts transferring the power to the crankshaft. The cylinder head is made of a new lightweight aluminium alloy designed with high strength and temperature resistance in mind. It has a combined fuel economy of manual; and with "S tronic".  The engine weighs in at, lighter than the previous generation. The S3 is capable of 0– in 4.8-5.2 seconds and has an electronically limited top speed of.

RS 3 (2015–present).

Details for the RS 3 Sportback were revealed in December 2014. It went on sale in the first quarter of 2015 and featured a straight-5 engine with and of torque. The RS 3 Sportback is equipped with 7-speed dual clutch S tronic transmission and quattro all-wheel drive system. Scott Keogh of Audi of America said in April 2015 that he's "confident" we'll see the car come to the United States.  In April 2015, the new 2015 RS 3 Sportback was promoted in the UK by a controversial commercial portraying an Audi R8 "giving birth" to it.  In 2017, the RS3 sedan or saloon was added into the line up. The RS3 can be ordered with a fixed suspension, or an adjustable magnetic damper. Depending on the country, the RS3 can be purchased with different optional packages. For example, the Black Optic package includes high-gloss black 19-inch wheels, high-gloss black outside mirror covers, and high-gloss black trunk lip spoiler, while the Dynamic package consists of titanium 19-inch wheels with summer performance tires, red brake calipers, and a sport exhaust system.

2017 facelift.

After four years, the third-generation Audi A3 was given a facelift for the model year 2017, which also coincided with the 20th anniversary of the A3 name. The facelifted model was first unveiled through a set of official images in April 2016. The new A3 sedan was given significant cosmetic updates, which were in-line with the automaker's new design philosophy. As a result, the 2017 Audi A3 sedan featured the Matrix LED headlamps that were earlier seen in the A8 flagship sedan and the R8 supercar. The front grille was also given a refreshed treatment that made the new A3 look like its elder siblings. Changes on the sides and rear were minimal, with only the taillights getting new LED treatment. There were multiple updates on the interiors as well, with a fully digital 12.3-inch instrument cluster screen placed behind the steering wheel available as an optional upgrade. Sold in Europe and released in the United States for the 2017 model year.

Safety.

Euro NCAP tested a third generation Audi A3, 3-door hatchback with front airbags, side airbags, seatbelt pretensioners and load limiters as standard and scored it accordingly:

Fourth generation ("Typ" 8Y; 2020–present).

The new Audi A3 was due to be revealed at the Geneva Motor Show in March 2020. However, due to the COVID-19 virus pandemic and Switzerland's self-imposed limit on gatherings of over 1,000 people, the event was cancelled. Instead, it was presented online, and also in Ingolstadt to be watched live.  It was presented on the Sportback version. It presented an all new styling, said by Audi to be inspired by Lamborghini, LED headlights and taillights, with the option of Matrix LED headlights. It shares the MQB platform with some other Audi models, and with the Volkswagen Golf Mk8, SEAT Leon Mk4, and Škoda Octavia Mk4.  It is 3 centimeters longer and wider (now 4.34 and 1.82 meters) compared to the outgoing model, keeps the wheelbase length (2.64 meters now), trunk cargo space of 380 liters with the sits on, and 1200 litres with the seats folded. With drag coefficient of 0.28, powered by 1.5-liter gasoline turbocharged with option of mild hybrid (1.4-liter TSI + electric motor + six-speed automatic gearbox) with 150 HP, 1.0-liter 3-cylinder with 110 HP, 2.0-liters TDI with 116 and 150 HP, or the RS3 with a 2.5 liter 5-cylinder with almost 400 HP. It gets a six-speed manual, seven-speed dual clutch automatic, or an electric S-Tronic gearboxes. It also gets the new MMI infotainment system, with a 10.25 to 12.3-inch digital instrument cluster, and a second screen of 10.1-inches that controls the other settings of the car.  The new A3 Sedan was revealed on 21 April 2020, with the front fascia similar to that of the A3 Sportback. Compared with its predecessor, the new A3 Sedan is 4 cm longer (4.50 meters), 2 cm wider (1.82 meters), and 1 cm taller (1.43 meters). However, the wheelbase remains unchanged.

Motorsport.

Münnich Motorsport used an S3 in the FIA World Rallycross Championship and the FIA European Rallycross Championship  Robb Holland used an S3 Saloon to compete in the 2014 British Touring Car Championship season under the NGTC regs. Currently AmD Tuning field two S3 Saloon's for Ant Whorton-Eales and Ollie Jackson.  In 2016, Audi's motorsports brand, Audi Sport announced that it would be producing a RS3 LMS beginning in 2017. The car is built to TCR International Series regulations.

The Audi A3 is a small family or subcompact executive car manufactured and marketed since the 1990s by the Audi subdivision of the Volkswagen Group, currently in its fourth generation.

Audi A3 je automobil nižší střední třídy, který od roku 1996 vyrábí německá automobilka Audi. Vyrábí se jako tří- nebo pětidveřový hatchback. Pětidveřová verze druhé generace se prodává pod názvem Sportback. K dispozici je pohon předních nebo všech kol. Momentálně se vyrábí jeho třetí generace.


History.

The area was first explored by the ill-fated Popham Colony in September 1607. It was first inhabited by English settlers from the Plymouth Colony in 1628 as a trading post on the Kennebec River. The settlement was known by its Native americans name—Cushnoc (or Coussinoc or Koussinoc), meaning "head of the tide." Fur trading was at first profitable, but with Natives uprisings and declining revenues, the Plymouth Colony sold the Kennebec Patent in 1661. Cushnoc would remain unoccupied for the next 75 years. This area was inhabited by the Kennebec Natives, a band of the larger Abenaki tribe. During the 17th century, they were on friendly terms with the English settlers in the region.  A hotbed of Abenaki hostility toward British settlements was located further up the Kennebec at Norridgewock. In 1722, the tribe and its allies attacked Fort Richmond (now Richmond) and destroyed Brunswick. In response, Norridgewock was sacked in 1724 during Dummer's War, when English forces gained tentative control of the Kennebec. During the height of the French and Indian War, a blockhouse named Fort Western (now the oldest wooden fort in America), was built at Cushnoc on the eastern bank of the Kennebec River in 1754. It was intended as a supply depot for Fort Halifax upriver, as well as to protect its own region from French attack. Later, during the American Revolutionary War Benedict Arnold and his 1,100 troops would use Fort Western as a staging area before continuing their journey up the Kennebec to the Battle of Quebec.  Cushnoc was incorporated as part of Hallowell in 1771. Known as "the Fort," it was set off and incorporated by the Massachusetts General Court in February 1797 as Harrington. In August, however, the name changed to Augusta after Augusta Dearborn, daughter of Henry Dearborn. In 1799, it became county seat for newly created Kennebec County. Maine became a state in 1820 and Augusta was designated its capital in 1827 over rival cities Portland, Brunswick and Hallowell. The Maine State Legislature continued meeting in Portland, however, until completion in 1832 of the new Maine State House designed by Charles Bulfinch. Augusta was ranked as a city in 1849. After being named the state capital and the introduction of new industry, the city flourished. In 1840 and 1850, the city ranked among the 100 largest urban populations. The next decade, however, the city was quickly bypassed by rapidly growing metropolises in the Midwest.  Excellent soil provided for agriculture, and water power from streams provided for the industry. In 1837, a dam was built across the Kennebec where the falls drop 15 feet at the head of a tide. By 1838, 10 sawmills were contracted. With the arrival of the Kennebec & Portland Railroad in 1851, Augusta became an even more productive mill town. In 1883, the property of A. & W. Sprague Company was purchased by the Edwards Manufacturing Company, which erected extensive brick mills for manufacturing cotton textiles. In the late 19th century, a paper and pulp plant was constructed. Other Augusta firms produced lumber, sash, doors, window shutters, broom handles, stone cutters' tools, shoes, headstones, ice and furniture. The city developed as a publishing and shipping center. Today, government and post-secondary education are important businesses.  Since the mid-eighteenth century, there has been a military presence in Augusta. Fort Western has not had troops garrisoned there since the 1790s, but in 1828, the U.S. Government built an arsenal to protect their interests from Britain. During the Civil War, Augusta was a rendezvous point for soldiers traveling to the front. Many of the soldiers camped on the green in front of the capitol building. In 1862, Camp E.D. Keyes was established in the northwestern portion of the city. During World War I, Camp Keyes was used as a mobilization and training camp for soldiers. The camp eventually became a headquarters for the Maine National Guard. In 1929, the state legislature approved the placement of the Augusta State Airport next to the camp. As the airport grew, the use of the camp as a training facility was no longer possible. Today, it is still used for administrative and logistical purposes by the National Guard.  In the 19th century, Augusta got a regular steamboat service and the railroad. The city installed gas lights in 1859. A telephone service was available in 1880 and a local hospital in 1898. In the early 20th century, Augusta built two movie houses and a film production studio.

Downtown revitalization.

For much of Augusta's history, the central business district was on and near Water Street on the west bank of the Kennebec River. The street, laid out in the late 1700s, was the location of the area's commercial and industrial life. Many fires damaged this concentrated area, including one in 1865 that destroyed nearly 100 buildings. In 1890, the first trolley line began operation down Water Street, connecting Augusta with Gardiner and Hallowell to the south. In 1932, buses replaced the trolley line. With the completion of the Maine Turnpike and Interstate 95 in 1955, local commercial developments began to move away from Water Street and closer to the highway. Among the results was a storefront vacancy rate downtown of about 60 percent.  Since the late 2000s, there has been a renewed and ongoing focus by city officials, the Augusta Downtown Alliance, and private developers to revitalize the downtown area.

Geography.

Augusta is located at, making it the easternmost state capital in the United States. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and is water. Augusta is drained by Bond's Brook, Woromontogus Stream and the Kennebec River.

Roads.

The city is crossed by Interstate 95, U.S. Route 201, State Route 11, U.S. Route 202, State Route 9, State Route 3, State Route 100, State Route 27, State Route 8, State Route 104, and State Route 105.

Bordering.

Augusta borders the towns of Manchester to its west, Sidney and Vassalboro to its north, Windsor to its east, Chelsea to its south, and the city of Hallowell to its southwest.

Climate.

Augusta's climate is classified as a humid continental climate (Köppen: "Dfb"). Summers are typically warm, rainy, and humid, while winters are cold, windy, and snowy. Spring and fall are usually mild, but conditions are widely varied, depending on wind direction and jet stream positioning. The hottest month is July, with an average high temperature of. The coldest month is January, with an average low of. Most snowfall occurs from December through March. There is usually little or no snow in April and November, and snow is rare in May and October.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 19,136 people, 8,802 households, and 4,490 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 9,756 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 94.1% White, 1.1% African American, 0.7% Native American, 1.5% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.4% from other races, and 2.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.8% of the population.  There were 8,802 households of which 23.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.2% were married couples living together, 11.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 49.0% were non-families. 39.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.08 and the average family size was 2.76.  The median age in the city was 43.2 years. 18.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26% were from 25 to 44; 29.4% were from 45 to 64; and 18% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.6% male and 51.4% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 18,560 people, 8,565 households, and 4,607 families residing in the city. The population density was 335.1 people per square mile (129.4/km2). There were 9,480 housing units at an average density of 171.2 per square mile (66.1/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 96.21% White, 0.50% Black or African American, 0.48% Native American, 1.35% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.16% from other races, and 1.3% from two or more races. 0.86% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 8,565 households out of which 24.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.1% were married couples living together, 10.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.2% were non-families. 38.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.10 and the average family size was 2.77.  In the city, the population was spread out with 20.5% under the age of 18, 8.7% from 18 to 24, 28.3% from 25 to 44, 24.8% from 45 to 64, and 17.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.5 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $29,921, and the median income for a family was $42,230. Males had a median income of $31,209 versus $22,548 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,145. About 11.4% of families and 15.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.2% of those under age 18 and 9.8% of those age 65 or over.

Government.

Local government.

Augusta is governed by a mayor and council-manager system. The City Council oversees all City government activities and establishes the legislative policies of the city, adopts and amends ordinances and local laws, appropriates municipal resources, and sets the tax rate. The City Manager serves as the chief executive officer and purchasing agent of the city. The mayor presides at all meetings of the council, and is recognized ceremonially as the official head of the city.  The city maintains a police department remarkable for having not had an officer killed in the line of duty for over a century.

Political makeup.

Augusta has historically been Democratic. In the 2012 presidential election, Barack Obama received 5,192 of the votes to Mitt Romney's 3,339. The city has not voted for a Republican presidential candidate since the Republican landslide of 1988. Democrats are the majority political affiliation in all four voting wards, and there are more unenrolled voters than Republicans in the City.

Education.

There are five public schools, one private school, one college (the University of Maine at Augusta), and two public libraries in Augusta. Farrington, Gilbert, Hussey, and Lincoln are the four public elementary schools that are spread throughout the city. Cony is the public school serving students in grades 7-12 from Augusta and the surrounding towns; Cony comprises Cony High School and Cony Middle School. St. Michaels is the private Catholic school that children from Augusta and surround towns may attend for tuition. The University of Maine at Augusta is third largest university in the University of Maine System. The Maine State Library and Lithgow Public Library are both located in Augusta.

Media.

Television.

Augusta is part of the, and receives most of that market's channels. WCBB channel 10, licensed to Augusta, is the local television outlet for the Maine Public Broadcasting Network.

Augusta is the state capital of the U.S. state of Maine and the county seat of Kennebec County. The city's population was 19,136 at the 2010 census, making it the third-least populous state capital in the United States after Montpelier, Vermont, and Pierre, South Dakota, and the ninth-most populous city in Maine. Located on the Kennebec River at the head of tide, Augusta is home to the University of Maine at Augusta. Augusta is also the principal city in the "Augusta-Waterville Micropolitan Statistical Area".

Augusta je město ve Spojených státech amerických. Leží na severu země, na řece Kennebec v Nové Anglii. Od roku 1827 je hlavním městem státu Maine, žije zde 18 560 obyvatel (stav k roku 2000). Jde o nejseverovýchodnější hlavní město státu kontinentálních Spojených států amerických.


Proposed change.

While the state seal has not been considered controversial in any way, during the 2010 United States mid-term and statewide elections, Ballot Measure 1069 was proposed in the state, which would alter the seal. This measure would require the seal of the State of Washington to be changed to depict a vignette of a tapeworm dressed in a three piece suit attached to the lower intestine of a taxpayer shown as the central figure. The seal would be required to be encircled with the following words: “Committed to sucking the life blood out of each and every tax payer.” The illustration would be selected from submissions submitted by taxpayers. The proposal did not qualify to appear on the state ballot.

Seal of the Lieutenant Governor.

There is also a seal of the Lieutenant Governor of Washington, created in 1959. The seal was created to mirror aspects of regional interest that embody the traditions and culture of Washington State. The seal is represented by the official state symbols of the Goldfinch, chosen in 1951 by a run-off between the Meadowlark and the goldfinch; the Rhododendron, voted in by Washington Women prior to universal suffrage in 1892; and the twin gavels of the state legislature, representing the bipartisan spirit of lawmaking, all enclosed in a circle. At the center is the state capitol building in Olympia, one of the tallest masonry domes in the world. Two Western Hemlocks, the state tree since 1947, flank the seal's outer edges.

The Seal of the State of Washington contains a portrait of George Washington, the first President of the United States, as painted by Gilbert Stuart. The outer ring contains the text "The Seal of the State of Washington" and "1889", the year Washington state was admitted to the Union. The seal is featured as the main element on both sides of the flag of Washington.

Pečeť Washingtonu, jednoho z federálních států USA, byla navržena a nakreslena, ještě před přijetím Washingtonu do Unie v roce 1889, Charlesem Talcottem a Gilbertem Stuartem.


Uses.

Medical.

Hydrocodone/acetaminophen is a two-ingredient combination formula consisting of the opioid hydrocodone and the non-opioid analgesic acetaminophen. It is indicated for relief of moderate to severe pain of acute, chronic, or postoperative types. Hydrocodone/acetaminophen comes in oral solution and tablet formulations; however strength of each component may vary. In October 2014, the Drug Enforcement Administration rescheduled hydrocodone combination drugs from schedule III to schedule II due to its risk for misuse, abuse, and diversions.

Recreational.

Hydrocodone diversion and recreational use has escalated in recent years due to its opioid effects. In 2009 and 2010, hydrocodone was the second most frequently encountered opioid pharmaceutical in drug evidence submitted to U.S. federal, state, and local forensic laboratories as reported by DEA's National Forensic Laboratory Information System (NFLIS) and System to Retrieve Information from Drug Evidence (STRIDE).

Pregnancy and breastfeeding.

Pregnancy category C: Risk in pregnancy cannot be ruled out. Animal controlled studies have not been conducted with this medication.  Low concentrations of acetaminophen is excreted through breast milk, however, hydrocodone's excretion is unknown.

Kidney and liver impairment.

Use with caution due to possible risk of toxicity.

Side effects.

Black box warning.

"Acetaminophen has been associated with cases of acute liver failure, at times resulting in liver transplant or death. Most of the cases of liver injury are associated with the use of acetaminophen at doses that exceed 4000 milligrams per day, and often involve more than one acetaminophen-containing product."

Allergy warning.

"Do not take hydrocodone bitartrate and acetaminophen tablets if you are allergic to any of its ingredients. If you develop signs of allergy such as a rash or difficulty breathing stop taking hydrocodone bitartrate and acetaminophen tablets and contact your healthcare provider immediately."

Overdose.

Hydrocodone: Respiratory depression, extreme somnolence progressing towards coma, muscle limpness, cold and clammy skin, slow heart rate, low blood pressure, abrupt loss of heart function, and death may occur.  Acetaminophen: Liver and kidney failure, low blood sugar coma may occur.

Interactions.

Hydrocodone may demonstrate an enhanced respiratory depressant effect when combined with other sedatives such as other opioids, benzodiazepines, nonbenzodiazepine sedatives, psychotropics, and anticonvulsants.  Concurrent use of paracetamol with alcohol products may increase the risk of acute liver failure.

Monitoring.

Laboratory function tests should be used to monitor therapy in people with severe liver or renal disease.

Society and culture.

In May 2017, professional golfer Tiger Woods was arrested by the police for driving under the influence. Woods said that this was due to four prescription drugs that he was taking for a back operation, one of which was Vicodin.

Regulation.

On June 30, 2009, a U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advisory panel voted by a narrow margin to advise the FDA to remove Vicodin and another opioid, Percocet, from the market because of "a high likelihood of overdose from prescription narcotics and acetaminophen products". The panel also cited concerns of liver damage from their acetaminophen component, which is also the main ingredient in commonly used nonprescription drugs such as Tylenol. Each year, acetaminophen overdose is linked to about 400 deaths and 42,000 hospitalizations.  In January 2011, the FDA asked manufacturers of prescription combination products that contain acetaminophen to limit the amount of acetaminophen to no more than 325 mg in each tablet or capsule within 3 years. The FDA also required manufacturers on all acetaminophen containing products to issue a black box warning indicating the potential risk for severe liver injury and a warning highlighting potential for allergic reactions.  On August 22, 2014, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) announced that all hydrocodone combination products (HCPs) will be rescheduled from Schedule III to Schedule II of the Controlled Substances Act (CSA), effective on October 6, 2014. In 2010, more than 16,000 deaths were attributed to abuse of opioid drugs. Even though there are legitimate medical uses for HCPs, data suggest that a significant number of individuals misuse them.

Popular culture.

Vicodin is mentioned in songs such as Eminem's "Kill You", Blackbear's "Sniffing Vicodin in Paris", Kendrick Lamar's "A.D.H.D", Future's "Lay Up", Lupe Fiasco's "Mural", Queens of the Stone Age's "Feel Good Hit of the Summer", A Winged Victory for the Sullen's "Steep Hills of Vicodin Tears" and The Wombats' "Give Me a Try". Vicodin use is a central theme in the 2004–2012 medical TV drama "House", in which the lead character Dr. Gregory House is addicted to it.

Brand names.

Brand names include Adol, Hycet, Lortab, Lorcet, Norco, and Vicodin among others.

Hydrocodone/paracetamol, also known as hydrocodone/acetaminophen, is the combination of the pain medications hydrocodone and paracetamol (acetaminophen). It is used to treat moderate to severe pain. It is taken by mouth. Recreational use is common in the United States. Common side effects include dizziness, sleepiness, constipation, and vomiting. Serious side effects include addiction, decreased rate of breathing, low blood pressure, serotonin syndrome, severe allergic reactions, and liver failure. Use during pregnancy may harm the baby. Use with alcohol is not recommended. Hydrocodone works by binding to the mu-opioid receptor. How acetaminophen works is unclear but may involve blocking the creation of prostaglandins. Hydrocodone/paracetamol was approved for medical use in the United States in 1982. In the United States, it is a schedule II controlled substance. In 2017, it was the thirteenth most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 40 million prescriptions. It is not available in the United Kingdom, though the combination codeine/paracetamol is. It is sold under the brand names Vicodin and Norco among others.

Kombinované analgetikum s obsahem hydrokodonu a paracetamolu je známo například pod obchodními názvy Vicodin, Anexsia, Anolor DH5, Bancap HC, Dolacet, Lorcet, Lortab nebo Norco. Paracetamol v léku výrazně zvyšuje účinek hydrokodonu. Hydrokodon se používá také v kombinaci s ibuprofenem (viz hydrokodon/ibuprofen).


Background.

Man-rating of the Apollo launch escape system was planned to be accomplished at minimum cost early in the program. Since there were no reasonably priced launch vehicles with the payload capability and thrust versatility that could meet the requirements of the planned tests, a contract was awarded for the development and construction of a specialized launch vehicle. The rocket's predecessor, Little Joe, had been used in testing the launch escape system for the Mercury spacecraft from 1959-1960.  The program was originally planned to be conducted at the U.S. Air Force Eastern Test Range at Cape Kennedy, Florida. However, because of a heavy schedule of high-priority launches at that facility, other possible launch sites were evaluated including Wallops Flight Facility, Wallops Island, Virginia, and Eglin Air Force Base, Florida. Launch Complex 36 at White Sands Missile Range, previously used for Redstone missile tests, was ultimately selected as the most suitable for meeting schedule and support requirements. White Sands also allowed land recovery which was less costly and complicated than the water recovery that would have been required at the Eastern Test Range or at the NASA Wallops Island facility.  The program was conducted under the direction of the Manned Spacecraft Center (now Johnson Space Center), Houston, Texas, with joint participation by the prime contractors for the launch vehicle (General Dynamics/Convair) and spacecraft (North American Rockwell). The White Sands Missile Range administrative, range, and technical organizations provided the facilities, resources, and services required. These included range safety, radar and camera tracking, command transmission, real-time data displays, photography, telemetry data acquisition, data reduction, and recovery operations.

Design.

Little Joe II was a single-stage, solid-propellant rocket which used a booster motor developed for the Recruit rocket, and a sustainer motor developed for the Algol stage of the Scout rocket family. It could fly with a variable number of booster and sustainer motors, but all were contained within a single airframe.

Development.

Fabrication of the detail parts for the first vehicle started in August 1962, and the final factory systems checkout was completed in July 1963. There was an original fixed-fin configuration and a later version using flight controls. The vehicle was sized to match the diameter of the Apollo spacecraft service module and to suit the length of the Algol rocket motors. Aerodynamic fins were sized to assure that the vehicle was inherently stable. The structural design was based on a gross weight of 220,000 pounds (100,000 kg), of which 80,000 pounds (36,000 kg) was payload. The structure was also designed for sequential firing with a possible 10-second overlap of four first-stage and three second-stage sustainer motors. Sustainer thrust was provided by Algol solid-propellant motors. The versatility of performance was achieved by varying the number and firing sequence of the primary motors (capability of up to seven) required to perform the mission. Recruit rocket motors were used for booster motors as required to supplement lift-off thrust.  A simplified design, tooling, and manufacturing concept was used to limit the number of vehicle components, reduce construction time, and hold vehicle cost to a minimum. Because overall weight was not a limiting factor in the design, over designing of primary structural members greatly reduced the number and complexity of structural proof tests. Whenever possible, vehicle systems were designed to use readily available off-the-shelf components that had proven reliability from use in other aerospace programs, and this further reduced overall costs by minimizing the amount of qualification testing required.  The Little Joe II launch vehicle proved to be very acceptable for use in this program. Two difficulties were experienced. The "Qualification Test Vehicle" (QTV) did not destruct when commanded to do so because improperly installed primacord did not propagate the initial detonation to the shaped charges on the Algol motor case. The fourth mission (A-003) launch vehicle became uncontrolled about 2.5 seconds after lift-off when an aerodynamic fin moved to a hard over position as the result of an electronic failure. These problems were corrected and the abort test program was completed.

Flights.

The Qualification Test Vehicle launch, on 28 August 1963, carried a dummy payload consisting of an aluminum shell in the basic shape of the Apollo command module, with an inert LES attached, and demonstrated the rocket would work for the A-001 launch. This occurred on 13 May 1964, with a boilerplate BP-12 command module, and performed the first successful abort using a live LES. A third launch on 8 December 1964, using BP-23, tested the effectiveness of the LES when the pressures and stresses on the spacecraft were similar to what they would be during a Saturn IB or Saturn V launch. The fourth flight, with BP-22 on 19 May 1965, was designed to test the escape system at a high altitude (although the abort actually occurred at low altitude due to a failure of the Little Joe II booster). The final launch, on 20 January 1966, carried the first production spacecraft, CSM-002.  Minor spacecraft design deficiencies in the parachute reefing cutters, the drogue and main parachute deployment mortar mountings, and the command and service module umbilical cutters were found and corrected before the crewed Apollo flights began. However, all command modules flown achieved satisfactory landing conditions and confirmed that, had they been crewed spacecraft, the crew would have survived the abort conditions.  In addition, two pad abort tests were conducted in which the launch escape system was activated at ground level.

Little Joe II was an American rocket used from 1963-1966 for five uncrewed tests of the Apollo spacecraft launch escape system (LES), and to verify the performance of the command module parachute recovery system in abort mode. It was named after a similar rocket designed for the same function in Project Mercury. Launched from White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico, it was the smallest of four launch rockets used in the Apollo program.

Little Joe II byla testovací raketa používaná k testování únikového systému kosmické lodi programu Apollo. Design byl odvozen od rakety Little Joe, používané v programu Mercury ke stejnému účelu. Testy probíhaly v letech 1963-1966, celkem proběhlo 5 testů, z čehož jednou došlo krátce po startu ke ztrátě kontroly.


Early life.

Born at the Cedar Grove plantation in New Kent County, Virginia, Letitia Christian was the daughter of Mary ("née" Brown) and the Colonel Robert Christian. Christian was a prosperous planter. Letitia was shy, quiet, pious, and by all accounts, selfless and devoted to her family.

Personal life.

She met John Tyler, then a law student, in 1808. Their five-year courtship was restrained and it was three weeks before the wedding that Tyler first kissed her — on the hand. In his only surviving love letter to her, written a few months before their wedding, Tyler promised, "Whether I float or sink in the stream of fortune, you may be assured of this, that I shall never cease to love you."

Marriage.

They married on Tyler's 23rd birthday at Cedar Grove, her family's home. Their 29-year marriage appears to have been a happy one. Letitia Tyler avoided the limelight during her husband's political rise, preferring domestic responsibilities to those of a public wife. During his congressional service, she remained in Virginia except for one visit to Washington during the winter of 1828–1829. In 1839, she suffered a paralytic stroke that left her an invalid. As first lady, she remained in the upstairs living quarters of the White House; she came down once, to attend the wedding of her daughter (Elizabeth) in January 1842.

Children.

Together, John and Letitia Tyler had four daughters and three sons live to maturity:

Death and legacy.

The first first lady to die in the White House, Letitia Tyler died peacefully, aged 51, in the evening of September 10, 1842 from a stroke. She was taken to Virginia for burial at the plantation of her birth. Tyler, Caroline Harrison (1892) and Ellen Wilson (1914) are the only first ladies to have died in the White House.  Her daughter-in-law Priscilla Cooper Tyler remembered her as "the most entirely unselfish person you can imagine. Notwithstanding her very delicate health, mother attends to and regulates all the household affairs and all so quietly that you can't tell when she does it."  Tyler appears on a 28p (£0.28) commemorative postage stamp from the Isle of Man Post Office, issued May 23, 2006, as part of a series honoring Manx-Americans. She also appears on a one-half ounce gold coin and a bronze medal issued by the United States Mint on July 2, 2009.

Letitia Tyler ("née" Christian; November 12, 1790 – September 10, 1842), first wife of John Tyler, was the First Lady of the United States from 1841 until her death in 1842.

Letitia Christian Tylerová (12. listopadu 1790, Virginie – 10. září 1842, Bílý dům, Washington, D.C.) byla manželkou 10. prezidenta USA Johna Tylera a až do své smrti vykonávala funkci první dámy USA.


Description.

The type specimen of "Coloborhynchus" is known only from a partial upper jaw. Therefore, according to Rodrigues and Kellner's 2008 re-evaluation on "Coloborhynchus clavirostris", it can only be differentiated from its relatives based on its unique combination of tooth socket positions. In "Coloborhynchus", the two front teeth pointed forward and were higher on the jaw than the other teeth, while the next three pairs of teeth pointed to the sides. The final two (preserved) pairs of teeth pointed downward. Finally, a unique oval depression was located below the first pair of teeth.  Like the related "Anhanguera" and "Uktenadactylus", the tip of the snout flared out into a wider rosette, in contrast to the narrow posterior jaws. However, whereas the rosettes of species typically assigned to "Anhanguera" were rounded and spoon-shaped, those of "coloborhynchus" were robust and box-shaped.  Also like its close relatives, "Coloborhynchus" had a keel-shaped crest on the front of its jaws, though it was broad and thinned from base to top, rather than the uniformly thin crests of its relatives. This kind of thickened crest is also seen in "Siroccopteryx moroccensis", which may be its closest relative or a member of the same genus. It also had a straight, rather than curved, front margin, unlike its relatives, and begins at the tip of the snout, rather than further back as in other species.  A second specimen showing all of these same unique features was reported to Brazilian paleontologist Alexander Kellner by Darren Naish in 2007, and likely represents a second specimen of "C. clavirostris", though it has not yet been described.  The possible species "Coloborhynchus capito" represents the second largest known ornithocheirid (after a "Tropeognathus" specimen), and indeed the largest toothed pterosaur known. A referred specimen from the Cambridge Greensand of England described in 2011 consists of a very large upper jaw tip which displays the tooth characteristics that distinguish "C. capito" from other species. The jaw tip is nearly 10 cm tall and 5.6 cm wide, with teeth up to 1.3 cm in base diameter. If the proportions of this specimen were consistent with other known species of "Coloborhynchus", the total skull length could have been up to 75 cm, leading to an estimated wingspan of. However, this species may belong to a different genus.  A rostrum fragment diagnostic to "Coloborhynchus" sp. is known from the Wessex Formation of England.

Classification and species.

Like many ornithocheiroid pterosaurs named during the 19th century, "Coloborhynchus" has a highly convoluted history of classification. Over the years numerous species have been assigned to it, and often, species have been shuffled between "Coloborhynchus" and related genera by various researchers.  In 1874 Richard Owen, rejecting the creation by Harry Govier Seeley of the genus "Ornithocheirus", named a species "Coloborhynchus clavirostris" based on holotype BMNH 1822, a partial snout from the Hastings Beds of the Wealden Group of East Sussex, England. The genus name means "maimed beak", a reference to the damaged and eroded condition of the fossil; the specific name means "key snout", referring to its form in cross-section. Owen also reclassified "Ornithocheirus cuvieri" and "O. sedgwickii" as species within the genus "Coloborhycnhus", though he did not designate any of these three as the type species. Owen considered the defining trait of the genus to be the location of the front tooth pairs high on the side of the upper jaws. However, in 1913 Reginald Walter Hooley concluded that this location was an artefact of the erosion and that the genus was indistinguishable from "Criorhynchus simus", the second genus and species Owen erected in 1874. Hooley also ignored Owen's reassignment of the two former "Ornithocheirus" species, leaving them in that genus. In 1967, Kuhn agreed with Hooley that "Coloborhynchus clavirostris" was a synonym of "Criorhynchus simus". Furthermore, Kuhn was the first to formally designate "C. clavirostris" as the type species of the genus, rather than one of the "Ornithocheirus" species. Most later researchers followed these opinions, regarding "Coloborhynchus" as invalid relative to "Criorhynchus". This changed in 1994 when Yuong-Nam Lee named "Coloborhynchus wadleighi" for a snout found in 1992 in the Albian age Paw Paw Formation Texas. The revival of the genus meant that of several related species, then assigned to other genera, had to be re-evaluated to determine whether or not they actually belonged to "Coloborhynchus". In 2008, Taissa Rodrigues and Alexander Kellner re-formulated the key features of "Coloborhynchus", again based mainly on the unique positions of the tooth sockets. Rodrigues and Kellner argued that Lee's "C. wadleighi", which possessed some differences in the skull and teeth from "C. clavirostris", and from an earlier time period, belonged in its own genus, which they named "Uktenadactylus".  A partial lower jaw originally named "Tropeognathus robustus" from the Romualdo Member of the Santana Formation in Brazil was assigned to "Coloborhynchus" in 2001 by Fastnacht, as "Coloborhynchus robustus". In 2002, David Unwin supported this position, and also synonymized the more well-known species "Anhanguera piscator" with "C. robustus". Rodrigues and Kellner disagreed with this classification, however, noting that both did not possess the unique straightened crest beginning at the snout tip, or sideways pointed teeth, of "C. clavirostris". Instead, Rodrigues and Kellner regarded both "Anhanguera robustus" and "Anhanguera piscator" as valid species of "Anhanguera".  Another Brazilian species from the Romualdo Member was named "Coloborhynchus spielbergi" by Veldmeijer in 2003. It shares one or two characters in common with "C. clavirostris" (such as a flattened upper surface of the snout), though Rodrigues and Kellner regarded them as dubious, and noted that they are also present in other genera. Kellner assigned it as "Anhanguera spielbergi" in 2006. Similarly, Kellner excluded "C. araripensis" (formerly assigned to the genus "Santanadactylus" from the genus, based on lack of comparable diagnostic features. Unwin, in 2001, assigned the species "Siroccopteryx moroccensis" to "Coloborhynchus", based on its similarity to "C. wadleighi" (aka "Uktenadactylus"). Kellner, who regarded "Uktenadactylus" as a distinct genus in 2008, also regarded "Siroccopteryx" as distinct, and noted that like the other species assigned to "Coloborhynchus", lacked its unique characteristics of the tooth row, a position also supported by Fastnacht in 2001.  Unwin (in 2001) also reassigned the two other species from the Cambridge Greensand to "Coloborhycnhus": "C. capito" and "C. sedgwickii", the second of which being one of the original members of the genus according to Richard Owen in 1874. According to Kellner, "C. capito" is too incomplete to fully compare to "C. claviraostris", and its precise classification is open to debate. He noted that "C. sedgwicki" does not possess the unique features of "C. clavirostris" (in fact it lacks a crest altogether), and may instead belong to the same genus as "Ornithocheirus" "compressirostris" (="Lonchodectes").  In 2013, Rodrigues and Kellner considered "Coloborhynchus" to be monotypic, containing only "C. clavirostris", and placed most other species in other genera, or declared them "nomina dubia".

Phylogeny.

A topology made by Andres and Myers in 2013 placed the species "Coloborhynchus clavirostris" and "C. wadleighi" (now considered as "Uktenadactylus") within the family Ornithocheiridae in a more derived position than "Ornithocheirus", and the family itself is placed within the more inclusive clade Ornithocheirae. In 2019, the description of the new ornithocheirid "Ferrodraco" by Pentland "et al." had made paleontologists reclassify the family Ornithocheiridae. In the analysis, a topology placed "Coloborhynchus" within the subfamily Ornithocheirinae in a more basal position than "Ornithocheirus", which is unlike the topology recovered by Andres & Myers in 2013.  Topology 1: Andres & Myers (2013). Topology 2: Pentland "et al." (2019).

List of species and synonyms.

Species which have been assigned to "Coloborhynchus" by various scientists over the years include:  Species assigned to "Coloborhynchus" in the past include:

Biology.

Like most ornithocheirids, "Coloborhynchus" is traditionally thought to be an oceanic piscivore.

References.

The Pterosaur Database (multiple species, scroll down)

Coloborhynchus is a genus in the pterosaur family Ornithocheiridae, and is known from the Lower Cretaceous of England (Valanginian age, 140-136 million years ago), and depending on which species are included, possibly the Albian and Cenomanian ages (113-93.9 million years ago) as well. It is the largest known toothed pterosaur.

Coloborhynchus byl rod pterodaktyloidního ptakoještěra z čeledi Ornithocheiridae, který se vyskytoval v období rané křídy (asi před 140 až 100 miliony let) na území současné Evropy, Severní Ameriky, Jižní Ameriky a Afriky. Největší druh "C. piscator" z dnešní Brazílie mohl dosahovat v rozpětí křídel až úctyhodných 6 metrů a délka jeho lebky přesáhla 50 cm.


History.

Early history.

The club was founded in 1926 as the city of Krujë's main sports club. During a brief spell in 1949, the club was dissolved, but was quickly re-established under the name of the city, Krujë. Two years later in 1951, the club was renamed Puna Krujë before reverting it back to simply Krujë again in 1958, which they later added Kastrioti to, in honour of the nobel Kastrioti family of which Albania's national hero Skanderbeg hailed from.

Rise and fall (1989–2006).

For many years the club only competed in the lower divisions of Albanian football, but they managed to achieve promotion to the top tier Albanian Superliga in 1990 for the very first time. During their debut season in the top flight the club finished in 12th place out of 14 teams with a record of 12 wins, 10 draws and 17 losses. The following season they would again finish 2 places from the bottom, in 14th place out of 16 teams, a feat they would replicate the following season once again, but this time the league format had changed and the club was relegated to the Albanian First Division. The club returned to the top flight in 1995 after winning the 1994–95 First Division title and gaining promotion. However, this was only short lived as they were relegated in their first season back after finishing in penultimate place. They would have to wait 10 years to return to the Superliga once again, as they achieved promotion in the 2004–05 season after finishing 3rd in the First Division.

Recent history (2006–2011).

During the 2005–06 season, the club finished in its best league position of 8th place out of 12 teams and secured top flight football for another season. The following season they were relegated after losing in the promotion and relegation play off against KS Lushnja 4–2 on penalties after a goalless stalemate. Kastrioti were immediately promoted after finishing in 3rd place and reaching the play offs for promotion, where they beat Partizani Tirana 1–0 to gain promotion. The club had to feature in the play off once again after finishing 9th out of 12 teams, but they beat KS Lushnja 1–0 to remain in the top flight. The following season the club finished 8th but narrowly avoided the promotion and relegation play off by goal difference.

Present time.

In the summer of 2011, 75% of the club's shares were sold by the Municipality of Krujë to Alban Sport, Albania's exclusive distributor of Adidas and Reebok clothing. The remaining 25% of the club's shares were held by the Municipality of Krujë. This provided the club with greater resources to invest in the squad and to keep up with the other Superliga sides who were investing heavily at the time. The 2011–12 season proved to be the club's most successful campaign as they finished in 5th place, just one place behind reaching UEFA Europa League qualification stage. They again remained a mid table team, finishing 8th out of 14 teams in the 2012–13 season and remaining comfortably in the league.

Stadium.

The stadium of KS Kastrioti is located in Krujë, Albania. Kastrioti Stadium has a capacity of 8,400 seats and the owner of the stadium is the Municipality of Krujë. During the 2018–19 Albanian Superliga, the team has to move down to Fushë-Krujë because the municipality did not renovate the stadium at the right time for the Albanian Superliga so they will play at Redi Maloku Stadium with a capacity of 3,000 seats. Kastrioti Stadium was last renovated during 2008.

KF Kastrioti Krujë is an Albanian football club based in the city of Krujë. The club's home ground is the Kastrioti Stadium which has a capacity of 8,000 spectators and they currently compete in the Albanian First Division.

KS Kastrioti Krujë je albánský fotbalový klub z Krujë. Klub byl založen roku 1926 ve městě Krujë. Domovským stadionem je Stadiumi Kastrioti s kapacitou 8 500 diváků. Současným trenérem je Rramazan Ndreu.