Structure.

Human chorionic gonadotropin is a glycoprotein composed of 237 amino acids with a molecular mass of 36.7 kDa, approximately 14.5 αhCG and 22.2kDa βhCG.  It is heterodimeric, with an α (alpha) subunit identical to that of luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and β (beta) subunit that is unique to hCG.  The two subunits create a small hydrophobic core surrounded by a high surface area-to-volume ratio: 2.8 times that of a sphere. The vast majority of the outer amino acids are hydrophilic.  beta-hCG is mostly similar to beta-LH, with the exception of a Carboxy Terminus Peptide (beta-CTP) containing four glycosylated serine residues that is responsible for hCG's longer half-life.

Function.

Human chorionic gonadotropin interacts with the LHCG receptor of the ovary and promotes the maintenance of the corpus luteum during the beginning of pregnancy. This allows the corpus luteum to secrete the hormone progesterone during the first trimester. Progesterone enriches the uterus with a thick lining of blood vessels and capillaries so that it can sustain the growing fetus.  Due to its highly negative charge, hCG may repel the immune cells of the mother, protecting the fetus during the first trimester. It has also been hypothesized that hCG may be a placental link for the development of local maternal immunotolerance. For example, hCG-treated endometrial cells induce an increase in T cell apoptosis (dissolution of T cells). These results suggest that hCG may be a link in the development of peritrophoblastic immune tolerance, and may facilitate the trophoblast invasion, which is known to expedite fetal development in the endometrium. It has also been suggested that hCG levels are linked to the severity of morning sickness or Hyperemesis gravidarum in pregnant women.  Because of its similarity to LH, hCG can also be used clinically to induce ovulation in the ovaries as well as testosterone production in the testes. As the most abundant biological source in women who are presently pregnant, some organizations collect urine from pregnant women to extract hCG for use in fertility treatment.  Human chorionic gonadotropin also plays a role in cellular differentiation/proliferation and may activate apoptosis.

Production.

Naturally, it is produced in the human placenta by the syncytiotrophoblast.  Like any other gonadotropins, it can be extracted from the urine of pregnant women or produced from cultures of genetically modified cells using recombinant DNA technology.  In Pubergen, Pregnyl, Follutein, Profasi, Choragon and Novarel, it is extracted from the urine of pregnant women. In Ovidrel, it is produced with recombinant DNA technology.

hCG forms.

Regarding endogenous forms of hCG, there are various ways to categorize and measure them, including total hCG, C-terminal peptide total hCG, intact hCG, free β-subunit hCG, β-core fragment hCG, hyperglycosylated hCG, nicked hCG, alpha hCG, and pituitary hCG.  Regular hCG is the main form of hCG associated with the majority of pregnancy and in non-invasive molar pregnancies. This is produced in the trophoblast cells of the placental tissue. Hyperglycosylated hCG is the main form of hCG during the implantation phase of pregnancy, with invasive molar pregnancies, and with choriocarcinoma.  Regarding pharmaceutical preparations of hCG from animal or synthetic sources, there are many gonadotropin preparations, some of which are medically justified and others of which are of a quack nature.

Testing.

Blood or urine tests measure hCG. These can be pregnancy tests. hCG-positive indicates an implanted blastocyst and mammalian embryogenesis. These can be done to diagnose and monitor germ cell tumors and gestational trophoblastic diseases.  Concentrations are commonly reported in thousandth international units per milliliter (mIU/ml). The international unit of hCG was originally established in 1938 and has been redefined in 1964 and in 1980. At the present time, 1 international unit is equal to approximately 2.35×10 moles, or about 6×10 grams.

Methodology.

Most tests employ a monoclonal antibody, which is specific to the "β-subunit" of hCG (β-hCG). This procedure is employed to ensure that tests do not make false positives by confusing hCG with LH and FSH. (The latter two are always present at varying levels in the body, whereas the presence of hCG almost always indicates pregnancy.)  Many hCG immunoassays are based on the sandwich principle, which uses antibodies to hCG labeled with an enzyme or a conventional or luminescent dye. Pregnancy urine dipstick tests are based on the lateral flow technique.

Reference levels in normal pregnancy.

The following is a list of serum hCG levels. ("LMP" is the last menstrual period dated from the first day of the last menstrual period.) The levels grow exponentially after conception and implantation.

Interpretation.

The ability to quantitate the βhCG level is useful in the monitoring germ cell and trophoblastic tumors, follow-up care after miscarriage, and diagnosis of and follow-up care after treatment of ectopic pregnancy. The lack of a visible fetus on vaginal ultrasound after the βhCG levels have reached 1500 mIU/ml is strongly indicative of an ectopic pregnancy. Still, even an hCG over 2000 IU/l does not necessarily exclude the presence of a viable intrauterine pregnancy in such cases.  As pregnancy tests, quantitative blood tests and the most sensitive urine tests usually detect hCG between 6 and 12 days after ovulation. It must be taken into account, however, that total hCG levels may vary in a very wide range within the first 4 weeks of gestation, leading to false results during this period. A rise of 35% over 48 hours is proposed as the minimal rise consistent with a viable intrauterine pregnancy.  Gestational trophoblastic disease like hydatidiform moles ("molar pregnancy") or choriocarcinoma may produce high levels of βhCG (due to the presence of syncytiotrophoblasts - part of the villi that make up the placenta) despite the absence of an embryo. This, as well as several other conditions, can lead to elevated hCG readings in the absence of pregnancy.  hCG levels are also a component of the triple test, a screening test for certain fetal chromosomal abnormalities/birth defects.  A study of 32 normal pregnancies came to the result a gestational sac of 1–3 mm was detected at a mean hCG level of 1150 IU/l (range 800-1500), a yolk sac was detected at a mean level of 6000 IU/l (range 4500-7500) and fetal heartbeat was visible at a mean hCG level of 10,000 IU/l (range 8650–12,200).

Uses.

Tumor marker.

Human chorionic gonadotropin can be used as a tumor marker, as its β subunit is secreted by some cancers including seminoma, choriocarcinoma, germ cell tumors, hydatidiform mole, teratoma with elements of choriocarcinoma, and islet cell tumor. For this reason, a positive result in males can be a test for testicular cancer. The normal range for men is between 0-5 mIU/mL. Combined with alpha-fetoprotein, β-HCG is an excellent tumor marker for the monitoring of germ cell tumors.

Fertility.

Human chorionic gonadotropin injection is extensively used for final maturation induction in lieu of luteinizing hormone. In the presence of one or more mature ovarian follicles, ovulation can be triggered by the administration of HCG. As ovulation will happen between 38 and 40 hours after a single HCG injection, procedures can be scheduled to take advantage of this time sequence, such as intrauterine insemination or sexual intercourse. Also, patients that undergo IVF, in general, receive HCG to trigger the ovulation process, but have an oocyte retrieval performed at about 34 to 36 hours after injection by, a few hours before the eggs actually would be released from the ovary.  As HCG supports the corpus luteum, administration of HCG is used in certain circumstances to enhance the production of progesterone.  In the male, HCG injections are used to stimulate the Leydig cells to synthesize testosterone. The intratesticular testosterone is necessary for spermatogenesis from the sertoli cells. Typical uses for HCG in men include hypogonadism and fertility treatment, including during testosterone replacement therapy to restore or maintain fertility and prevent testicular atrophy.  Several vaccines against human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) for the prevention of pregnancy are currently in clinical trials.

HCG Pubergen, Pregnyl warnings.

In the case of female patients who want to be treated with HCG Pubergen, Pregnyl: a) Since infertile female patients who undergo medically assisted reproduction (especially those who need in vitro fertilization), are known to often be suffering from tubal abnormalities, after a treatment with this drug they might experience many more ectopic pregnancies. This is why early ultrasound confirmation at the beginning of a pregnancy (to see whether the pregnancy is intrauterine or not) is crucial. Pregnancies that have occurred after a treatment with this medicine are submitted to a higher risk of multiplets. Female patients who have thrombosis, severe obesity, or thrombophilia should not be prescribed this medicine as they have a higher risk of arterial or venous thromboembolic events after or during a treatment with HCG Pubergen, Pregnyl. b)Female patients who have been treated with this medicine are usually more prone to pregnancy losses.  In the case of male patients: A prolonged treatment with HCG Pubergen, Pregnyl is known to regularly lead to increased production of androgen. Therefore: Patients who are suffering from overt or latent cardiac failure, hypertension, renal dysfunction, migraines, or epilepsy might not be allowed to start using this medicine or may require a lower dose of HCG Pubergen, Pregnyl. Also this medicine should be used with extreme caution in the treatment of prepubescent teenagers in order to reduce the risk of precocious sexual development or premature epiphyseal closure. This type of patients' skeletal maturation should be closely and regularly monitored.  Both male and female patients who have the following medical conditions must not start a treatment with HCG Pubergen, Pregnyl: (1) Hypersensitivity to this medicine or to any of its main ingredients. (2) Known or possible androgen-dependent tumors for example male breast carcinoma or prostatic carcinoma.

Anabolic steroid adjunct.

In the world of performance-enhancing drugs, HCG is increasingly used in combination with various anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) cycles. As a result, HCG is included in some sports' illegal drug lists.  When exogenous AAS are put into the male body, natural negative-feedback loops cause the body to shut down its own production of testosterone via shutdown of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPGA). This causes testicular atrophy, among other things. HCG is commonly used during and after steroid cycles to maintain and restore testicular size as well as normal testosterone production.  High levels of AASs, that mimic the body's natural testosterone, trigger the hypothalamus to shut down its production of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. Without GnRH, the pituitary gland stops releasing luteinizing hormone (LH). LH normally travels from the pituitary via the blood stream to the testes, where it triggers the production and release of testosterone. Without LH, the testes shut down their production of testosterone. In males, HCG helps restore and maintain testosterone production in the testes by mimicking LH and triggering the production and release of testosterone.  If HCG is used for too long and in too high a dose, the resulting rise in natural testosterone and estrogen would eventually inhibit endogenous production of luteinizing hormone via negative feedback on the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.  Professional athletes who have tested positive for HCG have been temporarily banned from their sport, including a 50-game ban from MLB for Manny Ramirez in 2009 and a 4-game ban from the NFL for Brian Cushing for a positive urine test for HCG. Mixed Martial Arts fighter Dennis Siver was fined $19,800 and suspended 9 months for being tested positive after his bout at UFC 168.

HCG diet.

British endocrinologist Albert T. W. Simeons proposed HCG as an adjunct to an ultra-low-calorie weight-loss diet (fewer than 500 calories). Simeons, while studying pregnant women in India on a calorie-deficient diet, and "fat boys" with pituitary problems (Frölich's syndrome) treated with low-dose HCG, observed that both lost fat rather than lean (muscle) tissue. He reasoned that HCG must be programming the hypothalamus to do this in the former cases in order to protect the developing fetus by promoting mobilization and consumption of "abnormal", "excessive" adipose deposits. Simeons in 1954 published a book entitled "Pounds and Inches", designed to combat obesity. Simeons, practicing at Salvator Mundi International Hospital in Rome, Italy, recommended low-dose daily HCG injections (125 IU) in combination with a customized ultra-low-calorie (500 cal/day, high-protein, low-carbohydrate/fat) diet, which was supposed to result in a loss of adipose tissue without loss of lean tissue.  Other researchers did not find the same results when attempting experiments to confirm Simeons' conclusions, and in 1976 in response to complaints the FDA required Simeons and others to include the following disclaimer on all advertisements:  There was a resurgence of interest in the "HCG diet" following promotion by Kevin Trudeau, who was banned from making HCG diet weight-loss claims by the U.S. Federal Trade Commission in 2008, and eventually jailed over such claims.<ref name="FTC 2008/10">Kevin Trudeau Banned from Infomercials For Three Years, Ordered to Pay More Than $5 Million for False Claims About Weight-Loss Book; "FTC v. Trudeau" (7th Cir., 2009) 579 F.3d 754 remanded (N.D.Ill., 2010) 708 F.Supp.2d 711, affirmed (7th Cir. 2011) 662 F.3d 947, certiorari denied (Oct. 9, 2012) _U.S._, 133 S.Ct. 426, 184 L.Ed.2d 257; and a ten-year prison sentence for violating a court order, "U.S. v. Trudeau" (N.D.Ill., Jan. 29, 2014) 2014 u.s.dist. LEXIS 10717, 2014 WL 321373. And the article, "The Curious Case of Kevin Trudeau, King Catch Me If You Can " by Catherine Bryant Bell, Mississippi Law Journal, vol. 79 page 1043 (summer 2010), http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/mislj79&div=44&g_sent=1&collection=journals#1053.</ref>  A 1976 study in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition concluded that HCG is not more effective as a weight-loss aid than dietary restriction alone.  A 1995 meta analysis found that studies supporting HCG for weight loss were of poor methodological quality and concluded that "there is no scientific evidence that HCG is effective in the treatment of obesity; it does not bring about weight-loss or fat-redistribution, nor does it reduce hunger or induce a feeling of well-being".  On November 15, 2016, the American Medical Association (AMA) passed policy that "The use of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) for weight loss is inappropriate."  According to the American Society of Bariatric Physicians, no new clinical trials have been published since the definitive 1995 meta-analysis.  The scientific consensus is that any weight loss reported by individuals on an "HCG diet" may be attributed entirely to the fact that such diets prescribe calorie intake of between 500 and 1,000 calories per day, substantially below recommended levels for an adult, to the point that this may risk health effects associated with malnutrition.

Homeopathic HCG for weight control.

Controversy about, and shortages of, injected HCG for weight loss have led to substantial Internet promotion of "homeopathic HCG" for weight control. The ingredients in these products are often obscure, but if prepared from true HCG via homeopathic dilution, they contain either no HCG at all or only trace amounts. Moreover, it is highly unlikely that oral HCG is bioavailable due to the fact that digestive protease enzymes and hepatic metabolism renders peptide-based molecules (such as insulin and human growth hormone) biologically inert. HCG can likely only enter the bloodstream through injection.  The United States Food and Drug Administration has stated that over-the-counter products containing HCG are fraudulent and ineffective for weight loss. They are also not protected as homeopathic drugs and have been deemed illegal substances. HCG is classified as a prescription drug in the United States and it has not been approved for over-the-counter sales by the FDA as a weight loss product or for any other purposes, and therefore neither HCG in its pure form nor any preparations containing HCG may be sold legally in the country except by prescription. In December 2011, FDA and FTC started to take actions to pull unapproved HCG products from the market. In the aftermath, some suppliers started to switch to "hormone-free" versions of their weight loss products, where the hormone is replaced with an unproven mixture of free amino acids or where radionics is used to transfer the "energy" to the final product.

Tetanus vaccine conspiracy theory.

Catholic Bishops in Kenya are among those who have spread a conspiracy theory asserting that HCG forms part of a covert sterilization program, forcing denials from the Kenyan government.  In order to induce a stronger immune response, some versions of human chorionic gonadotropin-based anti-fertility vaccines were designed as conjugates of the β subunit of HCG covalently linked to tetanus toxoid. It has been alleged that a non-conjugated tetanus vaccine used in developing countries is laced with a human chorionic gonadotropin based anti-fertility drug and is distributed as a means of mass sterilization. This charge has been vigorously denied by the World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF. Others have argued that a hCG laced vaccine could not be used for sterilization since the effects of the anti-fertility vaccines are reversible (requiring booster doses to maintain immunity) and a non-conjugated vaccine is likely to be ineffective. Finally, independent testing of the tetanus vaccine by Kenya's health authorities has revealed no traces of the human chorionic gonadotropin hormone.

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone produced by cells that are surrounding a growing embryo (syncitiotrophoblast initially), which eventually forms the placenta after implantation. The presence of hCG is detected in some pregnancy tests (HCG pregnancy strip tests). Some cancerous tumors produce this hormone; therefore, elevated levels measured when the patient is not pregnant may lead to a cancer diagnosis and, if high enough, paraneoplastic syndromes, however, it is not known whether this production is a contributing cause, or an effect of carcinogenesis. The pituitary analog of hCG, known as luteinizing hormone (LH), is produced in the pituitary gland of males and females of all ages.

Choriogonadotropin (CG, či lidský CG, human: hCG) je glykoproteinový hormon ze skupiny gonadotropinů. Jeho funkce je velmi podobná funkci folitropinu a (FSH) luteinizačního hormonu (LH) dohromady. Chemicky se skládá ze dvou podjednotek (jde o heterodimer). Podjednotka alfa (α-hCG, řetězec s 92 jednotkami aminokyselin) se nijak nevymyká stavbě příbuzných hormonů, zato podjednotka beta (β-hCG, řetězec se 145 jednotkami aminokyselin) je poměrně specifická pro choriogonadotropin.


Life.

Kidrič was born in Vienna, then capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, as the son of the prominent Slovene liberal literary critic France Kidrič. In 1953, he died of leukemia in Belgrade.

Political career.

In the early 1930s, Kidrič was persuaded by the communist publicist Vlado Kozak to join the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. He soon rose to high political posts in the Drava Banovina and was among the founders of the autonomous Communist Party of Slovenia in 1937. Besides Milovan Đilas and Ivan Milutinović, Kidrič was one of the major exponents of the policy of leftist errors.  After the end of World War II, the Slovenian National Liberation Council appointed him as the first president of the Slovenian socialist government and he moved into the Ebenspanger Mansion, which the communist government had confiscated from its previous Jewish owners. He became a member of the Yugoslav Politburo in 1948, and was in charge of the Yugoslav economy from 1946 until his death.

Honours and awards.

He was awarded the Order of the People's Hero, Order of the Hero of Socialist Labour, Order of the People's Liberation and the Commemorative Medal of the Partisans of 1941. The National Institute of Chemistry in Ljubljana was named after him and until 1990 the main award for scientific achievements in Slovenia was called "Kidrič Prize".  Among the foreign decorations were the Soviet Union's Order of Kutuzov, 2nd class, the Hungarian Order of the Republic, the Bulgarian Order of the People's Freedom and the Polish Partisan Cross. After his death, the eastern Slovenian industrial town of Strnišče was renamed Kidričevo in his honour. In 1959, a large monument was erected in his honour in front of the Slovenian Government Office in Ljubljana, where it still stands despite some protests by anti-Communist groups and victims of Communist persecution. The Institute for Physics, near Belgrade, was renamed in his honour.

Boris Kidrič (10 April 1912 – 11 April 1953) was a Slovene politician and revolutionary who was one of the chief organizers of the Slovene Partisans, the Slovene resistance against occupation by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy after Operation Barbarossa in June 1941. He became the de facto leader of the Liberation Front of the Slovenian People. As such, he had a crucial role in the anti-Fascist liberation struggle in Slovenia between 1941 and 1945. After World War II he was, together with Edvard Kardelj, a leading Slovenian politician in Titoist Yugoslavia.

Boris Kidrič (10. duben 1912 – 11. duben 1953) byl slovinský a jugoslávský komunistický politik a jeden z představitelů slovinského odbojového hnutí z období druhé světové války.


Books.

The Kharkanas Trilogy.

The Kharkanas Trilogy is a prequel series written by Steven Erikson after the completion of the main series. The series deals with the Tiste before their split into darkness, light and shadow. It sheds light on the events that are often hinted at in the background of "Malazan Book of the Fallen". Many of the important Tiste characters from the "Malazan Book of the Fallen" make an appearance like Anomander Rake, Draconus, Spinnock Durav and Andarist.

Path to Ascendancy.

The Path to Ascendancy is a prequel trilogy set in the world of Malazan, written by Ian Cameron Esslemont. The stories deal with the early adventures of Dancer and Kellanved (Dorin and Wu, in this series) and their eventual rise to power on Quon Tali.

Malazan Book of the Fallen.

The main series written by Steven Erikson. The first book in the series, "Gardens of the Moon", was shortlisted for a World Fantasy Award. The second novel, "Deadhouse Gates", was voted one of the ten best fantasy novels of 2000 by SF Site. See the structure section below for more information.

Novels of the Malazan Empire.

Six-part novel series set in the world of Malazan. It was written by Ian Cameron Esslemont. The novels cover events simultaneous with the Book of the Fallen, like the mystery of the Crimson Guard, the succession of the Malazan Empire, the situation on Korel and Jacuruku and the mystery of Assail. Some of these events are hinted at during the course of the Malazan Book of the Fallen. Characters that appear throughout the novels are Kyle, Greymane and the avowed members of the Crimson Guard like Shimmer, Blues, K'azz, Skinner and Cowl.

The Witness Trilogy.

Planned trilogy written by Steven Erikson. It will be a sequel to the main series.

The Tales of Bauchelain and Korbal Broach (novellas).

The first three novellas were published together as "The Tales of Bauchelain and Korbal Broach, Volume 1". "The Tales of Bauchelain and Korbal Broach, Volume 2" includes the last three novellas.

Reading order.

Erikson and Esslemont recommend reading the books in order of publication. "Tor.com" published a reading order based on the approximate chronological order of events in the series, which the authors did not consider suitable as a reading order for a first-time reader. The publication order of the series is as follows:

Authorship.

Conception.

The Malazan world was originally created by Steven Erikson and Ian Cameron Esslemont in 1982 as a backdrop for role-playing games using a modified version of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons. By 1986, when the GURPS system had been adopted by Erikson and Esslemont, the world had become much larger and more complex, approaching its current scope. It was then developed into a movie script entitled "Gardens of the Moon". When this was not successful in finding interest, the two writers agreed to each write a series set in their shared world. Steven Erikson wrote "Gardens of the Moon" as a novel in the period 1991-92 but it was not published until 1999. In the meantime, he wrote several non-fantasy novels. When he sold "Gardens of the Moon", he agreed to a contract for an additional nine volumes in the series. The contract with Bantam UK was worth £675,000 making it "among the largest fees ever paid for a fantasy series".  Ian Cameron Esslemont's first published Malazan story, the novella "Night of Knives", was released as a limited edition by PS Publishing in 2004 and as a mass-market hardcover by Bantam UK in 2007. The second novel, "Return of the Crimson Guard", was published in 2008, with a limited PS Publishing edition preceding the larger-scale Bantam UK release. The third novel, "Stonewielder", was released on 11 Dec 2010 in the UK by Bantam, and 11 May 2011 in the US by TOR. "Orb Sceptre Throne" and "Blood and Bone", the fourth and fifth novels, were both published in 2012, and "Assail", the sixth, was published in 2014.  After finishing the two main series, Erikson and Esslemont continued on to further projects in the Malazan universe. While writing the last novels in "The Malazan Book of the Fallen", Erikson decided that his next project, "The Kharkanas Trilogy", would be a "trilogy traditional in form," saying the following:"If the Malazan series emphasized a postmodern critique of the subgenre of epic fantasy, paying subtle homage all the while, the Kharkanas Trilogy subsumes the critical aspects and focuses instead on the homage."The first novel in the trilogy, "Forge of Darkness", was released in 2012, and the second novel, "Fall of Light", was released in April 2016. Information on the third novel, "Walk in Shadow", is forthcoming. As for Esslemont, the first novel in his "Path to Ascendancy" trilogy, "Dancer's Lament", was released in February 2016.  At one point, Steven Erikson indicated that the two authors would collaborate on "The Encyclopedia Malaz", an extensive guide to the series, which was to be published following the last novel in the main sequence. In an interview on a later date, however, he mentioned talks underway with an RPG 20D group to produce a game adapted from the Malazan universe, in which case the maps and notes created by Erikson and Esslemont would be released through installments or expansions rather than through the publishing of an encyclopedia.

Structure.

The series is not told in a linear fashion. Instead, several storylines progress simultaneously, with the individual novels moving backwards and forwards between them. As the series progresses, links between these storylines become more readily apparent. During a book signing in November 2005, Steven Erikson confirmed that the Malazan saga consists of three major story arcs, equating them to the points of a triangle.  The first plotline takes place on the continent of Genabackis where armies of the Malazan Empire are battling the native city-states for dominance. An elite Malazan military unit, the Bridgeburners, is the focus for this storyline, although as it proceeds their erstwhile enemies, the Tiste Andii led by Anomander Rake and the mercenaries commanded by Warlord Caladan Brood, also become prominent. The novel Gardens of the Moon depicts an attempt by the Malazans to seize control of the city of Darujhistan. "Memories of Ice", the third novel released in the sequence, continues the unresolved plot threads from "Gardens of the Moon" by having the now-outlawed Malazan armies uniting with their former enemies to confront a new, mutual threat known as the Pannion Domin. "Toll the Hounds", the eighth novel in the series, revisits Genabackis some years later as new threats arise to Darujhistan and the Tiste Andii who now control the city of Black Coral.  The second plotline takes place on the subcontinent of Seven Cities and depicts a major native uprising against Malazan rule. This rebellion is known as 'the Whirlwind'. The second novel released in the sequence, "Deadhouse Gates", shows the outbreak of this rebellion and focuses on the rebels' relentless pursuit of the main Malazan army as it escorts some 40,000 refugees more than 1,500 miles (2,400 km) across the continent. The story of the pursuit, and the event itself, is referred to as the Chain of Dogs. The fourth novel, "House of Chains", sees the continuation of this storyline with newly arrived Malazan reinforcements – the 14th Army – taking the war to the rebels. The 14th's exploits earn them the nickname, 'The Bonehunters'.  The third plotline was introduced with "Midnight Tides", the fifth book released in the series. This novel introduces a previously unknown continent where two nations, the united tribes of the Tiste Edur and the Empire of Lether, are engaged in escalating tensions, which culminate in open warfare. The novel takes place contemporaneously with earlier books in the sequence and the events in it are in fact being related in flashback by a character from the fourth volume to one of his comrades (although the novel itself is told in the traditional third-person form).  The sixth book, "The Bonehunters", sees all three plot strands combined, with the now-reconciled Malazan army from Genabackis arriving in Seven Cities to aid in the final defeat of the rebellion. At the same time, fleets from the newly proclaimed Letherii Empire are scouring the globe for worthy champions to face their immortal emperor in battle, in the process earning the enmity of elements of the Malazan Empire. The seventh novel, "Reaper's Gale", sees the Malazan 14th Army arriving in Lether to take the battle to the Letherii homeland. The ninth and tenth novels, "Dust of Dreams" and "The Crippled God", picks up the storyline on the Lether continent and deal with the activities of the 14th Army following their successful 'liberation' of the Letherii people and the revelation that the K'Chain Che'Malle species and Forkrul Assail species have returned. The 14th Army is attempting to deal with the peril that the Crippled God has caused with his attempts to poison the warrens and to wake Burn.  Ian Cameron Esslemont's novels are labeled as Novels of the Malazan Empire, not as parts of the Malazan Book of the Fallen itself, and deal primarily with the Malazan Empire, its internal politics and characters who only play minor roles in Erikson's novels. His first novel, "Night of Knives", details events in Malaz City on the night that the Emperor Kellanved was assassinated. The second, "Return of the Crimson Guard", investigates the fall-out in the Malazan Empire from the devastating losses of the Genabackan, Korelri and Seven Cities campaigns following the events of The Bonehunters. Esslemont's third novel, "Stonewielder", explores events on the Korelri continent for the first time in the series and focuses on the often-mentioned, rarely seen character of Greymane. The fourth novel, "Orb Sceptre Throne", revisits Genebackis once again in the wake of Erikson's "Toll the Hounds", and features several well known characters seen in Erikson's novels. Esslemont's fifth novel, "Blood and Bone" visits the continent of Jacuruku and the sixth, "Assail", set on the continent of Assail, serves as a closing chapter and coda for the entire series.

Influences.

In a general review of "The Cambridge Companion to Fantasy Literature", edited by Edward James and Farah Mendlesohn, Erikson fired a shot across the bow of "the state of scholarship in the fantastic as it pertains to epic fantasy," taking particularly to task James's opening lines in Chapter 5 of that volume. Erikson uses a handful of words from that chapter as an epigraph for a quasi-autobiographical essay in "The New York Review of Science Fiction". James's sentences read in full:  Erikson writes, "But epic fantasy has moved on, something critics have failed to notice." He goes on,  Erikson concludes, "So, Professor James, when you say'since [Tolkien and "The Lord of the Rings"]... most subsequent writers of fantasy are either imitating him or else desperately trying to escape his influence'—sorry. You're flat-out wrong."

Magic.

Magic in the "Malazan" series is accomplished by tapping the power of a Warren or Hold, from within the body of the mage. Effects common to most warrens include enchantment of objects ("investment"), minor healing, large-scale blasts and travel through warren across great distances in a short period of time. Other effects are more specific to each warren. For example, Thyr is the warren of light, Telas is the warren of fire, Serc is the warren of Air, and Denul is the warren of healing. The specific uses of this power can vary depending on the ingenuity of the user. Only a minority of humans can access warrens, usually tapping and working with a single one, with High Mages accessing two or three. Two notable exceptions to this are the High Mage Quick Ben who can access seven at any single time out of his repertoire of twelve (due to his killing of and subsequent merging with the souls of eleven other sorcerers), and Beak who can access all the warrens (although he seems to have a cognitive disability). Certain Elder races have access to warrens specific to their race which seem to be significantly more powerful and cannot be blocked by the magic-deadening ore otataral. Examples of this phenomenon are Tellann, representing fire, for the T'lan Imass, and Omtose Phellack, representing ice, for the Jaghut. Further, three aspects of Kurald for each of the Tiste races: Kurald Galain, representing Dark, for the Tiste Andii; Kurald Emurlahn, representing Shadow, for the Tiste Edur; and Kurald Thyrllan, representing Light, for the Tiste Liosan.  Alternatively, a more basic form of magic can be harnessed by using or capturing natural spirits of the land, elements, people, or animals. A form of this method is also utilized when the power of an ascendant or god is called upon or channeled, although in most cases this is also linked with the warren of that being.

Soletaken and D'ivers.

Some characters within the "Malazan" series are able to "veer" into animal form (shapeshifting). Characters which veer into a single animal are called Soletaken. Examples of Soletaken include Anomandar Rake, the Son of Darkness (dragon) and Treach/Trake, a god of war (tiger). A D'ivers can veer into a pack of animals. Prominent examples of D'ivers include Gryllen (rats, also known as the Tide of Madness) and Mogora (spiders).

Cards and Tiles.

Cards are from the Deck of Dragons while the elder Tiles belong to the Tiles of the Hold. They are similar in that they are used to get information about present and future events. They are used separately on two different continents and both are not known about contiguously except by very rare people such as Bottle, a squad mage in Tavore's 14th Army. Houses (Deck of Dragons) and Holds (Tiles of the Hold) usually relate to Warrens (Deck) and Holds (Tiles). The difference between these two is marked by the progressive evolution of magic. As magic evolves, Tiles and Cards become active or inactive. Usually the two do not overlap, except in a few instances where elder realms have become active (the Beast Hold, mentioned in Memories of Ice and Midnight Tides).

Deck of Dragons.

The Deck of Dragons resembles a Tarot card deck in that it consists of cards that divine the future. The difference is that a real Deck of Dragons adjusts itself to the changing circumstances of the pantheon. If an entity ascends or dies, the deck will change to reflect this fact. The pictures on the cards reflect the gods/ascendants that each is made to represent. Not all cards are active on all continents; for example Obelisk is referred to as inactive on Seven Cities until partway through "Deadhouse Gates".

Tiles of the Hold.

As an alternative and older version of the Deck of Dragons, the Tiles of the Holds are also used for divination. Their use is restricted to the continent of Lether, where the influence of the Jaghut warren Omtose Phellack halted the evolution of magic in a less developed state. The Tiles of the Hold are cast rather than read.

Critical reception.

The series has received widespread critical acclaim, with critics praising the epic scope, plot complexity and the introspective nature of the characterization, which serve as social commentary. Fellow author Glen Cook has called the series a masterwork of the imagination that may be the high water mark of the epic fantasy genre. In his treatise written for The New York Review of Science Fiction, fellow author Stephen R. Donaldson has also praised Erikson for his approach to the fantasy genre, the subversion of classical tropes, the complex characterizations, the social commentary — pointing explicitly to parallels between the fictional Letheras Economy and the US Economy — and has compared him to the likes of Joseph Conrad, Henry James, William Faulkner, and Fyodor Dostoevsky.  Reviewing for SF Site, Dominic Cilli says, "The Malazan Book of the Fallen" raises "the bar for fantasy literature", that the world building and the writing are exceptional. The series is not easily read, not easily accessible, is written for the "most advanced readers out there. Even they will have to make two passes through all ten books to fully comprehend the myriad of plotlines, characters and various settings that Erikson presents to us." Reading Erikson's "The Malazan Book of the Fallen" might be "the most challenging literary trial" a reader has ever tried, yet "the payoff is too enormous to ignore and well worth taking on the endeavor. Steven Erikson doesn't spoon feed his readers. He forces you to question and think on a level that very few authors would even dare for fear of finding and perhaps losing an audience."

Malazan Book of the Fallen is a high fantasy book series by the Canadian author Steven Erikson. The series, published by Bantam Books in the U.K. and Tor Books in the U.S., consists of ten volumes, beginning with "Gardens of the Moon" (1999) and concluding with "The Crippled God" (2011). Erikson's series is extremely complex with a wide scope, and presents the narratives of a large cast of characters spanning thousands of years across multiple continents.

Malazská kniha padlých v originále Malazan Book of the Fallen je epická knižní série žánru fantasy Stevena Eriksona. První díl "Gardens of the Moon" vyšel v roce 1999, v češtině pak v roce 2002 pod názvem "Měsíční zahrady". Kniha zaznamenala velký úspěch, a tak v roce 2011 vyšel desátý a poslední plánovaný díl.


Biography.

Wannieck founded Friedrich Wannieck & Co. in 1864. He was also chairman of the Prague Iron Company and the First Brno Engineering Company, both major producers of capital goods in the Habsburg empire. He was also president of the organisation and publishing house Verein "Deutsches Haus" ("German House" Association) in Brno. This was a nationalist association for German inhabitants of the city, who knew it by the name of "Brünn" and felt encircled by the overwhelming Czech population of South Moravia (Goodrick-Clarke 1985: 37).  In 1888 the "Verein "Deutsches Haus"" published an historical work entitled "Der altdeutsche Volksstamm der Quaden [The Ancient German Quadi Tribe]" by Heinrich Kirchmayr. Wannieck was impressed by the parallels between List's clairvoyant account of the Quadi and the academic study of Kirchmayr. Between Wannieck and List there developed a regular correspondence that laid the basis of a lasting friendship. The "Verein "Deutsches Haus"" later published three of List's works in its own book-series of nationalist studies of history and literature ("ibid.").  Wannieck's munificence eventually led to the foundation of the "Guido-von-List-Gesellschaft" (Guido von List Society) twenty years later. Around 1905, he and his son Friedrich Oskar were among the signatories to the initial announcement endorsing the formation of the Society. This came to fruition with an official founding ceremony in 1908. The Society's assets came mostly from the Wanniecks, who put up more than 3000 crowns at the inauguration ("ibid.", 43-44).

Family.

Friedrich Oskar Wannieck (died July 6, 1912) was an Austrian/German and the son of Friedrich Wannieck. He, along with his father, were two of the initial signatories creating the Guido-von-List-Gesellschaft in support of their good friend, Guido von List.  He was an Armanist and supporter of the Armanen runes system.

Friedrich Wannieck (1838 in Brno, Austrian Empire –1919) was a prominent and wealthy Austrian/German industrialist most notable for his successful business ventures and his enthusiastic support for the "völkisch" author, pioneer of Germanic mysticism and runic revivalist, Guido von List. He is the father of Friedrich Oskar Wannieck.

Friedrich Wannieck (18. července 1838 Brno – 21. dubna 1919 Merano) byl rakousko-uherský, respektive moravský podnikatel a politik německé národnosti.


Early life.

Marsalis was born in Breaux Bridge, Louisiana. He is the son of Dolores (née Ferdinand), a jazz singer and substitute teacher, and Ellis Louis Marsalis, Jr., a pianist and music professor. His brothers Jason Marsalis, Wynton Marsalis, and Delfeayo Marsalis are also jazz musicians.

Career.

Musical beginnings: 1980–85.

In mid-1980, while still a Berklee College of Music student, Marsalis toured Europe playing alto and baritone saxophone in a large ensemble led by drummer Art Blakey. Other big band experiences with Lionel Hampton and Clark Terry followed over the next year, and by the end of 1981 Marsalis, on alto saxophone, had joined his brother Wynton in Blakey's Jazz Messengers. Other performances with his brother, including a 1981 Japanese tour with Herbie Hancock, led to the formation of his brother Wynton's first quintet, where Marsalis shifted his emphasis to soprano and tenor saxophones. He continued to work with Wynton until 1985, a period that also saw the release of his own first recording, "Scenes in the City", as well as guest appearances with other artists including Miles Davis and Dizzy Gillespie

Expanded output: 1985–95.

In 1985, he joined Sting, singer and bassist of rock band the Police, on his first solo project, "The Dream of the Blue Turtles", alongside jazz and session musicians Omar Hakim on drums, Darryl Jones on the bass and Kenny Kirkland on keyboards. He became a regular in Sting's line-up both in the studio and live up until the release of "Brand New Day" in 1999.  In 1986, Marsalis formed the Branford Marsalis Quartet with pianist Kirkland, drummer Jeff "Tain" Watts and bass player Robert Hurst. That year, they released their first album, "Royal Garden Blues". That lineup of the quartet would go on to release four more albums, the last of which, "I Heard You Twice the First Time" (1992), won the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Jazz Album, Individual or Group.  In 1988, Marsalis co-starred in the Spike Lee film "School Daze", also rendering several horn-blowing interludes for the music in the film. His witty comments have pegged him to many memorable one-liners in the film. In 1989, Marsalis played a 30 second cover of "Lift Every Voice and Sing" over the opening logos of Lee's film "Do the Right Thing".  Between 1990 and 1994, Branford played with the Grateful Dead numerous times, and appeared on their 1990 live album "Without a Net".  In 1992, Marsalis became the leader of the Tonight Show Band on the newly-launched "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno", after Jay Leno replaced Johnny Carson. Initially, Marsalis turned down the offer, but later reconsidered and accepted the position. He brought with him the three other members of the Branford Marsalis Quartet, who became the Tonight Show Band's pianist, drummer and bass player, respectively. Marsalis eventually became unhappy in the role, disliking that he was supposed to always show enthusiasm, even for jokes he thought were unfunny, and left in 1995. In a well-publicized interview soon after leaving, he said, "The job of musical director I found out later was just to kiss the ass of the host, and I ain't no ass kisser." He also complained that, when he did not laugh or smile, some viewers' perception was, "Oh, he’s surly. He hates his boss." When the interviewer asked if Marsalis did hate Leno, Marsalis responded, "Oh, I despised him." He later stated that he did not hate Leno, and that this was a sarcastic response to what he considered "a ridiculous question". Marsalis was succeeded as bandleader by guitarist Kevin Eubanks.  In 1994, Marsalis formed the group Buckshot LeFonque (named after a pseudonym once used by Cannonball Adderley), a jazz group with elements of rock and hip-hop. That year, they released their first album, "Buckshot LeFonque", which was mostly produced by DJ Premier.  In 1994, Marsalis appeared on the Red Hot Organization's compilation CD, "". The album, meant to raise awareness of the AIDS epidemic in African American society, was named Album of the Year by "Time".

Transition: 1995–2007.

In 1997, bassist Eric Revis replaced Hurst in the Branford Marsalis Quartet. Kirkland died the following year, and was replaced by pianist Joey Calderazzo. The Branford Marsalis Quartet has since toured and recorded extensively. For two decades Marsalis was associated with Columbia, where he served as creative consultant and producer for jazz recordings between 1997 and 2001, including signing saxophonist David S. Ware for two albums.  In 2002, Marsalis founded his own label, Marsalis Music. Its catalogue includes Claudia Acuña, Harry Connick Jr., Doug Wamble, Miguel Zenón, in addition to albums by members of the Marsalis family.  Marsalis has also become involved in college education, with appointments at Michigan State (1996–2000), San Francisco State (2000–2002), and North Carolina Central University (2005–present). After Hurricane Katrina in 2005, Marsalis and Harry Connick, Jr., working with the local Habitat for Humanity, created Musicians Village in New Orleans, with the Ellis Marsalis Center for Music the centerpiece.

Classical and Broadway projects: 2008–10.

Under the direction of conductor Gil Jardim, Branford Marsalis and members of the Philharmonia Brasileira toured the United States in the fall of 2008, performing works by Brazilian composer Heitor Villa-Lobos, arranged for solo saxophone and orchestra. This project commemorated the 50th Anniversary of the revered Brazilian composer s death.  Marsalis and the members of his quartet joined the North Carolina Symphony for "American Spectrum", released in February 2009 by Sweden's BIS Records. The album showcases Marsalis and the orchestra performing a range of American music by Michael Daugherty, John Williams, Ned Rorem and Christopher Rouse, while being conducted by Grant Llewellyn.  Marsalis wrote the music for the 2010 Broadway revival of the August Wilson play "Fences".  On July 14, 2010, Marsalis made his debut with the New York Philharmonic on Central Park's Great Lawn. Led by conductor Andrey Boreyko, Marsalis and the New York Philharmonic performed Glazunov's "Concerto for Alto Saxophone" and Schuloff's "Hot-Sonate for Alto Saxophone and Orchestra." Boreyko, Marsalis and the Philharmonic performed the same program again in Vail, CO later that month and four more times at Avery Fisher Hall in New York, NY the following February.

2011–present.

In June 2011, after working together for over 10 years in a band setting, Branford Marsalis and Joey Calderazzo released their first duo album titled "Songs of Mirth and Melancholy", on Branford's label, Marsalis Music. Their first public performance was at the 2011 TD Toronto Jazz Festival.  In 2012, Branford Marsalis released "Four MFs Playin' Tunes" on deluxe 180-gram high definition vinyl, prior to Record Store Day 2012 on April 21, 2012. This is the first recording of the Branford Marsalis Quartet with drummer Justin Faulkner, who joined the band in 2009, and was the first vinyl release from Marsalis Music. The album was named Apple iTunes Best of 2012 Instrumental Jazz Album of the Year.  Marsalis performed "The Star-Spangled Banner" on Wednesday, September 5, 2012 at the Democratic National Convention in Charlotte.  In 2019 Marsalis released "The Secret Between the Shadow and the Soul", which he recorded in Australia with his quartet. Marsalis, commenting on the longevity of his band and their approach said, ahead of the album's release: '“Staying together allows us to play adventurous, sophisticated music and sound good. Lack of familiarity leads to defensive playing, playing not to make a mistake. I like playing sophisticated music, and I couldn’t create this music with people I don’t know.”

Discography.

As sideman or guest.

With Art Blakey  With Terence Blanchard  With Joey Calderazzo  With Harry Connick Jr.  With Bela Fleck  With Dizzy Gillespie  With Grateful Dead  With Roy Hargrove  With Anna Maria Jopek  With Delfeayo Marsalis  With Ellis Marsalis Jr.  With Wynton Marsalis  With Frank McComb  With Sting  With James Taylor  With Doug Wamble  With Jeff "Tain" Watts  With others

Filmography.

"Branford Marsalis- The Soundillusionist." Documentary. Germany 2016, 88 min. HD Stereo Language: English. Directed by Reinhold Jaretzky. Produced by Zauberbergfilm, Berlin, Germany.Cameo in living single season 2  Throw Mamma From the Train (1987) “Lester”

Branford Marsalis (born August 26, 1960) is an American saxophonist, composer, and bandleader. While primarily known for his work in jazz as the leader of the Branford Marsalis Quartet, he also performs frequently as a soloist with classical ensembles and has led the group Buckshot LeFonque. From 1992 to 1995 he led "The Tonight Show" Band.

Branford Marsalis (* 26. srpna, 1960) je americký jazzový saxofonista, skladatel a leader Branford Marsalis Quartetu. Je vyhledávaným spoluhráčem a vystupuje také s orchestry zaměřenými na klasickou hudbu.


Early life.

Nino Machaidze was born to a Georgian language teacher mother and an economist father and raised in Tbilisi. At the age of six she began piano and vocal lessons at a school affiliated with the Tbilisi State Conservatoire, which she later also attended. At 17, she also attended flute lessons, hoping to strengthen the diaphragm. Between 2000 and 2005, she had role engagements as Zerlina in "Don Giovanni", Gilda in "Rigoletto", Rosina in "The Barber of Seville", and Norina in "Don Pasquale" at the Georgian National Opera Theater.  In 2005, she was among the 9 applicants accepted into the Accademia del Teatro alla Scala after an intense competition. At the academy, she studied with Luciana Serra, Leyla Gencer, and Luigi Alva and also attended masterclasses of Renato Bruson and Mirella Freni. In 2006 she debuted at the theater as Najade in "Ariadne auf Naxos" and won first prize in the Leyla Gencer Voice Competition in Istanbul.

Career.

Machaidze proceeded to perform several roles at La Scala: Silvia in "Ascanio in Alba", Marie in "La fille du régiment", Despina in "Così fan tutte", Lauretta in "Gianni Schicchi", and Musetta in "La bohème". She also performed Marie at the Teatro dell'Opera di Roma, and Amina in "La sonnambula" at the Teatro Carlo Felice.  Being spotted by artistic director Jürgen Flimm as Lauretta led to her opportunity to play Juliette in the new production of Gounod's "Roméo et Juliette" opposite Rolando Villazón at the Salzburg Festival in 2008 when Anna Netrebko dropped out due to pregnancy. After one month's preparation, the performance turned out to be successful, therefore propelled her to international fame. She was nicknamed "The Angelina Jolie of Opera" by the press. She went on to reprise Juliette at the Concertgebouw and La Fenice. In October 2008, she debuted at the Teatro Regio di Parma as Gilda in "Rigoletto".  In January 2009, Machaidze portrayed Elvira in "I puritani" opposite Juan Diego Flórez at the Teatro Comunale di Bologna. In April she performed Lucia in "Lucia di Lammermoor" at La Monnaie and subsequently reprised the role at the Teatro Municipale Giuseppe Verdi in Salerno next month. She joined the cast as Donna Fiorilla in a new production of "Il turco in Italia" at the Theater an der Wien in July. In September she debuted at the Los Angeles Opera as Adina in "L'elisir d'amore", and in December premiered David Bösch's production of the same opera at the Bavarian State Opera, to which she frequently returned in the following seasons. She continued to deliver performances as Adina at the Berlin State Opera and La Scala. In 2010, she performed Lucia at the Palau de les Arts Reina Sofia in Valencia and debuted at the Liceu in Pelly's production of "La fille du régiment". She also returned to the Salzburg Festival, sharing Juliette with Netrebko, and debuted at the London Royal Opera House in the same role.  The year 2011 saw her debut at the Metropolitan Opera as Gilda in January. She returned to the house in May to replace Diana Damrau in the same role, and in December to perform Marie again in Pelly's production. She returned to the Los Angeles Opera to perform in Fiorilla and Juliette, a role which she also delivered at La Scala, the Verona Arena, and the BOZAR. In April, she debuted as Leïla in "Les pêcheurs de perles" at the Teatro Filarmonico in Verona, and later at the Salle Pleyel in Paris. In September, she made house debut at the Hamburg State Opera singing Gilda and Lucia. She resumed in role of Gilda at the Paris Opera, Teatro Pérez Galdós in Las Palmas, and the Teatro Carlo Felice. In 2012, she returned to the Salzburg Festival, performing Musetta in "La bohème". She debuted as the title role in "Thaïs", alongside Plácido Domingo, at the Teatro de la Maestranza and then opened a concert performance of "La fille du régiment" at the Teatro Municipal in Rio de Janeiro. In 2013, she returned to Spain, performing in "Il turco in Italia" at the Liceu and "L'elisir d'amore" at the Teatro Real in Madrid.  In 2014, Machaidze debuted at the Vienna State Opera in Otto Schenk's production of "L'elisir d'amore", and then performed Leïla at the Teatro Regio di Parma and the Teatro Comunale Modena. She returned to the Los Angeles Opera for "Thaïs" and her first Violetta in "La traviata", a role which she later reprised at the Hamburg State Opera and the Verona Arena. In November, she debuted as Luisa in "Luisa Miller" at the Hamburg State Opera, a production to which she would return in 2016 and 2018. In 2015, she debuted as Folleville in "Il viaggio a Reims" at the Dutch National Opera, Micaëla in "Carmen" at La Scala, Ninetta in "La gazza ladra" at the Rossini Opera Festival, and Inès in "L'Africaine" at the Deutsche Oper Berlin. In 2016, she debuted as Desdemona in Rossini's "Otello" at the Theater an der Wien and as Mimì in "La bohème" at the Los Angeles Opera, conducted by Gustavo Dudamel. In December, she reprised both roles respectively at the Teatro di San Carlo and the Grand Théâtre de Genève, with the former marked 200 years since the opera's world premiere in the city. She also performed Fiorilla at the Teatro Regio di Torino, Gilda at the Théâtre du Capitole, and Juliette with the Opéra de Monte-Carlo at the Royal Opera House Muscat.  The year 2017 saw her debuts at the Bergen National Opera (Fiorilla), Royal Danish Theatre (Folleville), and San Francisco Opera (Gilda), in addition to performances as Thaïs at the Liceu and Leïla at the Los Angeles Opera. She returned to the Rossini Opera Festival, debuting as Pamira in "Le siège de Corinthe".  In January 2018, she debuted as Mathilde in "William Tell" at the Teatro Massimo and Nedda in "Pagliacci" at the Grand Théâtre de Genève. She debuted at the Zürich Opera House singing Luisa Miller in April. She performed the Georgian national anthem "Tavisupleba" on the parade for the centenary of the Democratic Republic of Georgia.

Personal life.

Machaidze has been residing in Milan, Italy since 2005. She married baritone Guido Loconsolo on 26 September 2011. Their son, Alessandro, was born on 9 August 2013. She enjoys swimming but not jogging. She is active on social media and has over 100,000 followers on Facebook.

Recordings.

Machaidze has been a Sony artist since January 2011.

Nino Machaidze (; born 8 March 1983) is a Georgian operatic soprano. She gained international attention after being cast as Juliette in "Roméo et Juliette" at the 2008 Salzburg Festival. She is also notable for bel canto roles such as Fiorilla in "Il turco in Italia", Adina in "L'elisir d'amore", and Violetta in "La traviata".

Nino Mačaidze (,,, * 8. března 1983, Tbilisi) je gruzínská pěvkyně-sopranistka. Studia zpěvu absolvovala v Tbilisi a v Miláně (Accademia del Teatro alla Scala).


Skiing career.

Early years.

Maze made her World Cup debut at age 15 in Slovenia in January 1999, in a giant slalom race at Maribor. During her early World Cup seasons, Maze competed in slalom, giant slalom, and super-G, but scored World Cup points only in the first two disciplines. At the 2001 World Championships, Maze's best result was a 16th place in slalom. In January 2002, Maze won her first podium, a second place in giant slalom in Maribor. At the 2002 Winter Olympics in the United States, Maze finished twelfth in the giant slalom in her Olympic debut at Park City, Utah.

2003–2004 seasons.

On 26 October 2002, Maze won her first World Cup race at the season opener in Sölden, Austria. She shared the giant slalom win with Nicole Hosp of Austria and Andrine Flemmen of Norway in the first-ever a three-way tie in a World Cup race. Maze finished the 2003 season on the 38th place in the overall standings with 190 points, all in giant slalom. At the 2003 World Championships, she finished 5th in giant slalom.  In the 2004 season, Maze scored one podium, a runner-up position in giant slalom, and finished 33rd in the overall standings with 244 points. She scored her first points in super-G and started competing in downhill races.

2005–2008 seasons.

The 2005 season was a successful season for Maze as she won 3 giant slalom races and scored two super-G podiums, both 3rd places. She finished the season 10th in the overall standings with 650 points: 366 in giant slalom, where she finished fourth. At the 2005 World Championships Maze finished sixth in super-G and 10th in the combined.  In the 2006 season, Maze won one giant slalom race and two more podiums, a third place in giant slalom and a runner-up position in super-G. She finished the season 14th in the overall standings with 525 points and scored World Cup points in all disciplines for the first time. At the 2006 Winter Olympics, Maze competed in the giant slalom and super-G events, where she finished 12th and 39th, respectively.  The 2007 season was not as successful for her as the previous two seasons, with only 3 top 10 finishes. She finished the season 30th in the overall standings with 268 points. At the 2007 World Championships, Maze's best result was a 14th place in super-G.  In February 2008, Maze won her first downhill in St. Moritz, Switzerland, which was the first downhill victory won by a Slovenian female skier. It was also her first non-giant slalom victory. She finished the 2008 season 28th overall with 287 points.

2009–2010 seasons: The breakthrough.

Following the declining results in the 2007 and 2008 seasons, Maze decided to break with the national ski team and founded her personal "Team to aMAZE" with her coach and partner Andrea Massi. This move turned out to be a decisive step in Maze's career as her results began to improve significantly. In the 2009 Alpine Skiing World Cup, Maze scored two wins, both in giant slalom, in Maribor, Slovenia, and in Åre, Sweden. She also won three more podiums, finishing second in downhill and was third twice in super-G. At the 2009 World Championships in Val-d'Isère, France, Maze won a silver medal in giant slalom, her first medal in a "big competition." In that race, she was only 15th after the first run but excelled in the second, "because she was angry." In addition to the silver medal, Maze finished 14th in the downhill and fifth in the super-G. Maze concluded the 2009 season sixth in the overall standings with 852 points, her best result to that date. She also finished third in the giant slalom standings.  In the 2010 season, Maze won one giant slalom race and had runner-up finishes in slalom and giant slalom. That season, Maze had fifteen top 10 results and finished fourth in the overall standings. Again, she finished third in the giant slalom standings.  Maze was the flag bearer for Slovenia at the opening ceremony of the 2010 Winter Olympic Games in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. She won two silver medals – in super-G and giant slalom at Whistler. These were the first silver medals at Winter Olympics for independent Slovenia (athletes only won bronze medals before 2010). Maze was fifth in the super combined, ninth in slalom, and 18th in downhill.

2011–2012 seasons.

Maze began the 2011 season strong with several good results and podiums. That season, she won the first races in her career in super combined (Tarvisio, Italy) and slalom (Lenzerheide, Switzerland). She finished on podium six more times. Maze finished the 2011 season third in the overall standings with 1139 points.  At the 2011 World Championships in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, Maze won the silver medal in the super combined and the gold medal in the giant slalom. She finished 5th in the slalom and downhill, and 11th in the super-G.  The 2012 season was a very interesting one as Maze had no victories but had ten podium finishes. She finished the season second in the overall standings with 1402 points, behind Lindsey Vonn of United States.

2013: The record breaking season.

Maze started the 2013 season with a win in giant slalom in Sölden, Austria. She then won the 2nd giant slalom in Aspen, United States, followed by two wins in St.Moritz, Switzerland, both in giant slalom and super combined. She then won again in giant slalom in Courchevel, France making it 4 wins out of the first 4 races in this discipline. She collected 11 podiums till the New Year, with five wins, two 2nd and four 3rd places, gaining a sizable lead in the overall standings. She also broke the records for most points in a calendar year (2,180) and most podiums (19) in a calendar year. Her first victory in super-G on 13 January 2013 in St. Anton made her a member of the small group of all-event winners in alpine skiing. On 26 January, Maze finished second in giant slalom in Maribor to clinch her first World Cup title in GS, then won the slalom the following day.  On 24 February, she won the second super combined of the season in Méribel, France, and secured the overall World Cup title with nine races remaining. Despite having the most points in super combined standings, the crystal globe for this discipline is no longer awarded due to a lack of events.  On 1 March, Maze finished second in super-G in Garmisch, her 19th podium of the season, breaking the previous ladies' record. The next day, she won the downhill to record a win in all disciplines in a single season, previously accomplished by only two female skiers. In that race, Maze also surpassed 2,000 World Cup points in a single season and therefore broke Hermann Maier's record from the 2000 season, which was exactly 2,000 points.  The last downhill race of the season at the World Cup finals was cancelled, so Maze finished as runner-up in the downhill standings, a single point behind Lindsey Vonn, whose season had ended in February after a knee injury at the World Championships. The last super-G race was also cancelled and Maze won the super-G title. In the last race, a giant slalom on 17 March, she gained her eleventh victory of the season and finished with a record 2,414 points.  Maze broke various statistical records in this season. They include the highest number of podiums in a single season (24, record previously held by Hermann Maier (22) and by Hanni Wenzel and Pernilla Wiberg for ladies (18)), highest number of top 5 finishes (31, previously Hermann Maier and Pernilla Wiberg (24)), highest number of points after first 10 races (677, previously Katja Seizinger, 643), highest percent of possible points won (69%, previously 61% by Pernilla Wiberg), and the highest point difference to the second-placed skier (1313, compared to 743 for Hermann Maier and 578 for Lindsey Vonn). In fact, Maze collected more World Cup points than second and third skier combined. Maze finished on podium in all Giant slalom events of the season, a feature previously achieved only by Vreni Schneider in the 1989 season. She is also the only woman to remain at the top of the overall ranking throughout the season – a feature only achieved at men's Cup by Bode Miller. In addition to the overall title, Maze won the super-G and giant slalom titles, finished at the top of the combined list by winning both races in the season, and finished second in the Downhill and slalom listing. The titles went to Lindsey Vonn and Mikaela Shiffrin, respectively. She also came extremely close to sweeping all 6 titles, losing the downhill title to Vonn by a mere 1 point with the seasons final race cancelled due to bad weather, and where Maze would have needed only a top 15 finish to pass the injured Vonn. Shiffrin needed to beat Maze in the seasons final slalom race to steal away the season slalom title from points leader Maze, and overcome an over second deficit on Maze after the first run to do so.  Maze came to the 2013 World Championships in Schladming, Austria, as a favorite. At the time, she was the leader in the World Cup standings in three of the five disciplines (giant slalom, super-G, and super combined), second in slalom and third in downhill. Several former alpine skiers stated that she is capable of winning a medal in every single discipline. In the first race at Planai, Maze won the gold medal in super-G and three days later won the silver medal in super combined. She then finished seventh in downhill, won another silver medal in giant slalom, and took fifth in slalom.  In October 2013, Maze was awarded the Skieur d'Or Award by members of the International Association of Ski Journalists for her record-breaking performances during the previous season, thereby becoming the first Slovenian skier to receive the honour since its inception in 1963.

2014 season.

Maze started the 2014 season less successfully, with one victory and three more podiums before the Winter Olympics in February. The decline in results was partially attributed to the change of the coach from the previous season, when Walter Ronconi replaced Livio Magoni. In January 2014, Ronconi was replaced by Mauro Pini, who, according to Maze's team, brought a positive change to the team. Following the Olympics, Maze won two more podiums, two third places. At the end of the season, she was completely exhausted and finished the last races with difficulties, having fulfilled her goals with two Olympic gold medals. She won a third place in the downhill standings and finished 4th overall.  At the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia, Maze finished fourth in the super combined at Rosa Khutor. The second event was the downhill, where Maze tied for first place with Dominique Gisin of Switzerland. This was the first gold medal for Slovenia at any Winter Olympics and the first time that a gold medal was shared at an Olympic alpine skiing event. Maze finished fifth in super-G, won another gold in the giant slalom, and was eighth in the slalom. Following her Olympic success, Maze was nominated for the Laureus Award for the second year in a row.

2015 season.

The start of the 2015 season was stronger than the previous year's for Maze. Winning three races and four additional podiums, Maze came to the 2015 World Championships in Vail / Beaver Creek, Colorado, United States, as the overall World Cup leader and was, as in 2013, seen as a potential candidate to win a medal in all five disciplines. She took silver in the super-G race, continued with winning gold both in downhill and super-combined and then finished 5th in giant slalom and 8th in slalom, what was her best overall performance at World Championships.  Following the World Championships, Maze was tired and did not finish any of the two races in Maribor, which meant that she started to lose advantage over Anna Fenninger. Final races of the season were a close battle between Maze and Fenninger. Maze won six more podiums until the end of the season and was leading 18 points in the overall standings before the last race but Fenninger won the last giant slalom and defended her overall title from the 2014 season. Maze finished the season second, with her second-highest number of season points. She also finished third in the slalom, super-G, and downhill standings. At the end of the season, Maze hinted that she may retire from competitive sport in the following months.

Retirement.

In May 2015, Maze announced that she would take a break from the sport for a year, not competing in the 2015–16 season and focusing on her studies instead. On 20 October 2016 in Sölden, Maze announced her retirement from competitive skiing. She officially concluded her career on 7 January 2017 at the giant slalom race in Maribor, at the venue where she made her World Cup debut in 1999.

World Cup results.

Season titles.

3 titles (1 overall, 1 giant slalom, 1 super-G)

Season standings.

Place

Personal life.

When not competing or training abroad, Maze lives in Črna na Koroškem. She is in a relationship with Andrea Massi, who is also the head of Maze's team. In November 2017, they announced they are expecting a child together. She gave birth to a girl in February 2018.  In 2012, Maze recorded a pop-rock single "My Way Is My Decision", produced by Raay.  During the year-long break from competing, Maze concluded her studies at the Faculty of Education, University of Maribor, obtaining an elementary school teacher degree.

Tina Maze (; born 2 May 1983) is a retired Slovenian World Cup alpine ski racer. Maze is the most successful Slovenian ski racer in history with a career that culminated with two gold medals at the 2014 Winter Olympics. She was awarded the title of the Slovenian Sportswoman of the Year in 2005, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014 and 2015, and with her four medals she is the most decorated Slovenian athlete at the Winter Olympics.

Tina Mazeová, slovinsky Tina Maze, (* 2. května 1983 Slovinský Hradec) je bývalá slovinská reprezentantka v alpském lyžování, specializující se během kariéry především na točivé disciplíny – obří slalom a slalom. Představuje prvního slovinského olympijského vítěze ze zimních her, když vyhrála dvě zlaté medaile ve sjezdu a obřím slalomu na Zimních olympijských hrách 2014 v Soči.


Kamakura campaign.

Long an enemy of Ashikaga Takauji, Nitta Yoshisada is often blamed for the split between the Northern and Southern Courts, as he fought against the Ashikaga and for the emperor, Emperor Go-Daigo. This rivalry came largely from the fact that the Ashikaga were ranked above the Nitta, despite their being descended from a younger ancestor; since the ancestors of the Nitta did not fight alongside their Minamoto cousins in the Genpei War, they were never accorded power or prestige at Kamakura.

March on Kamakura.

In 1331, after being ordered by the "bakufu" (shogunate) to join an army at the Chihaya fortress, Nitta was ordered by Prince Morinaga and Emperor Go-Daigo to strike at the Hōjō, so he left his post. Returning to his home province of Kozuke, Yoshisada rallied the aid of other descendants and vassals, including his brother Yoshisuke of the Minamoto clan, and began to march toward Kamakura through Musashi. On the approaches to the city, Nitta enjoyed some early victories, routing the Hōjō defenders and pursuing them towards the city. Except for its coastline, Kamakura is surrounded by steep hills, making an overland attack difficult. Nitta first tried to enter through the Gokurakuji Pass and the Kewaizaka Pass, but strong Hōjō forces stopped him. Judging it impossible to enter by land, Nitta decided to try by sea, bypassing Inamuragasaki Cape on Sagami Bay, west of Kamakura. Once there, Nitta took advantage of a low tide and moved his men in through the beaches to the south, but according to the "Taiheiki", he threw his sword into the surf and prayed to Ryūjin, who parted the waters for him. In describing this event, Japanese sources say Nitta Yoshisada prayed to a sea-god or Ryūjin; English sources almost always refer to Sun Goddess Amaterasu. The "Taiheiki" (稲村崎成干潟事) says: He therefore speaks to Ryūjin who, he has heard, is a manifestation of Amaterasu.  The stele at, the tiny bay west of Inamuragaki, says: 666 years ago on May 21, 1333 Nitta Yoshisada, judging an invasion on land to be difficult, decided to try to bypass this cape. This is the place where, according to tradition, he threw his golden sword into the waves, praying the sea-god to withdraw them and let him pass. (Erected in 1917)

Fall of Kamakura.

The city was taken, and the Hōjō clan's influence destroyed. Following the fall of Kamakura (and of the Hōjō regency), Yoshisada was appointed governor of Echigo and vice-governor of Harima and Kōzuke Provinces, as Emperor Go-Daigo redistributed the Hōjō lands.

Marriage.

Yoshisada courted a daughter of a court noble, Kōtō-Naishi (匂当内侍), and married her through the emperor's mediation.

Later campaigns.

During the following few years, Nitta Yoshisada's rivalry with Ashikaga Takauji and his brother Ashikaga Tadayoshi came to a head, with an imperial commission to destroy the two brothers issued in 1335. The two armies fought a number of battles, starting at the Yahagi River on 10 December and ending at Mishima later that month. Yoshisada's forces were eventually defeated and the brothers advanced upon Kyoto.  The Takaujis were able to capture Kyoto for a few days in February 1336, before help arrived for Yoshisada and Kusunoki from Prince Norinaga and Prince Takanaga. In April 1336 Nitta attacked Akamatsu Norimura in Harima Province. He kept up the investment of Akamatsu's strongholds at Shirohata and Mitsuishi until June, when he retreated in the face of advances by Tadayoshi's army. Yoshisada was defeated in the Battle of Minatogawa allowing Takauji to occupy Kyoto once again.  Nitta retreated with the emperor to Hieizan. Eventually, on 13 November 1336, the emperor agreed with Takauji's offers to return to Kyoto. Before he did so, he entrusted Nitta with escorting Prince Takanaga and Prince Tsunenaga to Echizen Province. They made it as far as a loyalist stronghold, where they had to endure the Siege of Kanegasaki (1337) Nitta escaped to Somayama, but his son Nitta Yoshiaki and the princes were eventually killed.

Death.

Nitta's death was as remarkable as his life. While Nitta was fighting in the Siege of Kuromaru against Hosokawa Akiuji, an ally of Takauji, his horse was felled by arrow fire. Nitta, pinned under the dead horse and unable to move, was an easy target for archers. As a final act, Nitta is supposed to have drawn his short sword and cut off his own head. Record has it that a number of his fellow samurai committed "junshi seppuku" nearby, in a show of allegiance.

Later he fought the Takauji brothers on the Emperor's behalf in a see-saw campaign which saw the capital change hands several times. After a compromise peace was agreed, Yoshisada was entrusted with two royal princes. At the siege of Kanegasaki both were killed, along with Yoshisada's son, although Yoshisada was able to escape.

Celková délka dálnic v Chorvatsku je v současné době 1325,4 km. Nejvyšší povolená rychlost na dálnicích je pro osobní automobily 130 km/h, na rychlostních silnicích pak 110 km/h. Na chorvatských dálnicích funguje mýtný systém pro všechna vozidla.


Early life.

Cray was born in 1925 in Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, to Seymour R. and Lillian Cray. His father was a civil engineer who fostered Cray's interest in science and engineering. As early as the age of ten he was able to build a device out of Erector Set components that converted punched paper tape into Morse code signals. The basement of the family home was given over to the young Cray as a "laboratory".  Cray graduated from Chippewa Falls High School in 1943 before being drafted for World War II as a radio operator. He saw action in Europe, and then moved to the Pacific theatre where he worked on breaking Japanese naval codes. On his return to the United States he earned a B.Sc. in electrical engineering at the University of Minnesota, graduating in 1949, followed by a M.Sc. in applied mathematics in 1951.

Career.

Engineering Research Associates.

In 1951, Cray joined Engineering Research Associates (ERA) in Saint Paul, Minnesota. ERA had formed out of a former United States Navy laboratory that had built codebreaking machines, a tradition ERA carried on when such work was available. ERA was introduced to computer technology during one such effort, but in other times had worked on a wide variety of basic engineering as well.  Cray quickly came to be regarded as an expert on digital computer technology, especially following his design work on the ERA 1103, the first commercially successful scientific computer. He remained at ERA when it was bought by Remington Rand and then Sperry Corporation in the early 1950s. At the newly formed Sperry Rand, ERA became the "scientific computing" arm of their UNIVAC division.

Control Data Corporation.

Cray, along with William Norris, later became dissatisfied with ERA, then spun off as Sperry Rand. In 1957, they founded a new company, Control Data Corporation.  By 1960 he had completed the design of the CDC 1604, an improved low-cost ERA 1103 that had impressive performance for its price range. Even as the CDC 1604 was starting to ship to customers in 1960, Cray had already moved on to designing other computers. He first worked on the design of an upgraded version (the CDC 3000 series), but company management wanted these machines targeted toward "business and commercial" data processing for average customers. Cray did not enjoy working on such "mundane" machines, constrained to design for low-cost construction, so CDC could sell lots of them. His desire was to ""produce the largest [fastest] computer in the world"". So after some basic design work on the CDC 3000 series, he turned that over to others and went on to work on the CDC 6600. Nonetheless, several special features of the 6600 first started to appear in the 3000 series.  Although in terms of hardware the 6600 was not on the leading edge, Cray invested considerable effort into the design of the machine in an attempt to enable it to run as fast as possible. Unlike most high-end projects, Cray realized that there was considerably more to performance than simple processor speed, that I/O bandwidth had to be maximized as well in order to avoid "starving" the processor of data to crunch. He later noted, "Anyone can build a fast CPU. The trick is to build a fast system."  The 6600 was the first commercial supercomputer, outperforming everything then available by a wide margin. While expensive, for those that needed the absolutely fastest computer available there was nothing else on the market that could compete. When other companies (namely IBM) attempted to create machines with similar performance, they stumbled (IBM 7030 Stretch). Indeed, the 6600 solved a critical design problem — "imprecise interrupts" — that was largely responsible for IBM's failure. He did this by replacing I/O interrupts with a polled request issued by one of ten so-called peripheral processors, which were built-in mini-computers that did all transfers in and out of the 6600's central memory. He then further increased the challenge in the later-released five-fold faster CDC 7600.  In 1963, in a "Business Week" article announcing the CDC 6600, Seymour Cray clearly expressed an idea that is often misattributed to Herb Grosch as so-called Grosch's law:

CDC's Chippewa Falls laboratory.

During this period Cray had become increasingly annoyed at what he saw as interference from CDC management. Cray always demanded an absolutely quiet work environment with a minimum of management overhead, but as the company grew he found himself constantly interrupted by middle managers who – according to Cray – did little but gawk and use him as a sales tool by introducing him to prospective customers.  Cray decided that in order to continue development he would have to move from St. Paul, far enough that it would be too long a drive for a "quick visit" and long distance telephone charges would be just enough to deter most calls, yet close enough that real visits or board meetings could be attended without too much difficulty. After some debate, Norris backed him and set up a new laboratory on land Cray owned in his hometown of Chippewa Falls. Part of the reason for the move may also have to do with Cray's worries about an impending nuclear war, which he felt made Minneapolis a serious safety concern. His house, built a few hundred yards from the new CDC laboratory, included a huge bomb shelter.  The new Chippewa Lab was set up during the middle of the 6600 project, although it does not seem to have delayed the project. After the 6600 shipped, the successor CDC 7600 system was the next product to be developed in Chippewa Falls, offering peak computational speeds of ten times the 6600. The failed follow-on to the 7600, the CDC 8600, was the project that finally ended his run of successes at CDC in 1972.  Although the 6600 and 7600 had been huge successes in the end, both projects had almost bankrupted the company while they were being designed. The 8600 was running into similar difficulties and Cray eventually decided that the only solution was to start over fresh. This time Norris was not willing to take the risk, and another project within the company, the CDC STAR-100, seemed to be progressing more smoothly. Norris said he was willing to keep the project alive at a low level until the STAR was delivered, at which point full funding could be put into the 8600. Cray was unwilling to work under these conditions and left the company.

Cray Research.

The split was fairly amicable, and when he started Cray Research in a new laboratory on the same Chippewa property a year later, Norris invested $250,000 in start-up money. Like CDC's organization, Cray R&D was based in Chippewa Falls and business headquarters were in Minneapolis. Unlike CDC, Cray's manufacturing was also in Chippewa Falls.  At first there was some question as to what exactly the new company should do. It did not seem that there would be any way for them to afford to develop a new computer, given that the now-large CDC had been unable to support more than one. When the President in charge of financing traveled to Wall Street to look for seed money, he was surprised to find that Cray's reputation was very well known. Far from struggling for some role to play in the market, the financial world was more than willing to provide Cray with all the money they would need to develop a new machine..  After several years of development, their first product was released in 1976 as the Cray-1. As with earlier Cray designs, the Cray-1 made sure that the "entire" computer was fast, as opposed to just the processor. When it was released it easily beat almost every machine in terms of speed, including the STAR-100 that had beaten the 8600 for funding. The only machine able to perform on the same sort of level was the ILLIAC IV, a specialized one-off machine that rarely operated near its maximum performance, except on very specific tasks. In general, the Cray-1 beat anything on the market by a wide margin.  Serial number 001 was "lent" to Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1976, and that summer the first full system was sold to the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) for $8.8 million. The company's early estimates had suggested that they might sell a dozen such machines, based on sales of similar machines from the CDC era, so the price was set accordingly. Eventually, well over 80 Cray-1s were sold, the company was a huge success financially, and Cray's innovations with super computers won him the nickname "The Wizard of Chippewa Falls".  Follow-up success was not as easy. While he worked on the Cray-2, other teams delivered the two-processor Cray X-MP, which was another huge success and later the four-processor X-MP. When the Cray-2 was finally released after six years of development it was only marginally faster than the X-MP, largely due to very fast and large main memory, and thus sold in much smaller numbers. The Cray-2 ran at 250 MHz with a very deep pipeline, making it harder to write code than for the shorter pipe X-MP.  As the Cray-3 project started, he found himself once again being "bothered" too much with day-to-day tasks. In order to concentrate on design, Cray left the CEO position of Cray Research in 1980 to become an independent contractor. In 1988 he moved the Cray 3 project from Chippewa Falls to a laboratory in Colorado Springs, Colorado.  In 1989 Cray was faced with a repeat of history when the Cray-3 started to run into difficulties. An upgrade of the X-MP using high-speed memory from the Cray-2 was under development and seemed to be making real progress, and once again management was faced with two projects and limited budgets. They eventually decided to take the safer route, releasing the new design as the Cray Y-MP.

Cray Computer Corporation.

Cray decided to spin off the Colorado Springs laboratory to form Cray Computer Corporation. This new entity took the Cray-3 project with them.  The 500 MHz Cray-3 proved to be Cray's second major failure. In order to provide the tenfold increase in performance that he always demanded of his newest machines, Cray decided that the machine would have to be built using gallium arsenide semiconductors. In the past Cray had always avoided using anything even near the state of the art, preferring to use well-known solutions and designing a fast machine based on them. In this case, Cray was developing every part of the machine, even the chips inside it.  Nevertheless, the team were able to get the machine working and delivered their first example to NCAR on 24 May 1993.  The machine was still essentially a prototype, and the company was using the installation to debug the design. By this time a number of massively parallel machines were coming into the market at price/performance ratios the Cray-3 could not touch. Cray responded through "brute force", starting design of the Cray-4 which would run at 1 GHz and outpower these machines, regardless of price.  In 1995 there had been no further sales of the Cray-3, and the ending of the Cold War made it unlikely anyone would buy enough Cray-4s to offer a return on the development funds. The company ran out of money and filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy 24 March 1995.

SRC Computers.

Cray had always resisted the massively parallel solution to high-speed computing, offering a variety of reasons that it would never work as well as one very fast processor. He famously quipped "If you were plowing a field, which would you rather use: two strong oxen or 1024 chickens?" By the mid-1990s this argument was becoming increasingly difficult to justify, and modern compiler technology made developing programs on such machines not much more difficult than their simpler counterparts.  Cray set up a new company, SRC Computers, and started the design of his own massively parallel machine. The new design concentrated on communications and memory performance, the bottleneck that hampered many parallel designs. Design had just started when Cray died suddenly as a result of a car accident. SRC Computers carried on development and specialized in reconfigurable computing.

Technical approaches.

Cray frequently cited two important aspects to his design philosophy: remove heat, and ensure that all signals that are supposed to arrive somewhere at the same time do indeed arrive at the same time.  His computers were equipped with built-in cooling systems, extending ultimately to coolant channels cast into the mainframes and thermally coupled to metal plates within the circuit boards, and to systems immersed in coolants. In a story he told about himself, he realized early in his career that he should interlock the computers with the cooling systems so that the computers would not operate unless the cooling systems were operational. It did not originally occur to him to interlock in the other direction until a customer reported that localized power outages had shut down their computer, but left the cooling system running — so they arrived in the morning to find the machine encased in ice.  Cray addressed the problem of skew by ensuring that every signal path in his later computers was the same electrical length, so that values that were to be acted upon at a particular time were indeed all valid values. When required, he would run the traces back and forth on the circuit boards until the desired length was achieved, and he employed Maxwell's equations in design of the boards to ensure that any radio frequency effects which altered the signal velocity and hence the electrical path length were accounted for.  When asked what kind of CAD tools he used for the Cray-1, Cray said that he liked #3 pencils with 8-1/2" x 11" quadrille paper pads. Cray recommended using the backs of the pages so that the lines were not so dominant.

Personal life.

Cray avoided publicity, and there are a number of unusual tales about his life away from work, termed "Rollwagenisms", from then-CEO of Cray Research, John A. Rollwagen. He enjoyed skiing, windsurfing, tennis, and other sports. Another favorite pastime was digging a tunnel under his home; he attributed the secret of his success to "visits by elves" while he worked in the tunnel: "While I'm digging in the tunnel, the elves will often come to me with solutions to my problem."  One story has it that when Cray was asked by management to provide detailed one-year and five-year plans for his next machine, he simply wrote, "Five-year goal: Build the biggest computer in the world. One year goal: One-fifth of the above." And another time, when expected to write a multi-page detailed status report for the company executives, Cray's two sentence report read: "Activity is progressing satisfactorily as outlined under the June plan. There have been no significant changes or deviations from the June plan."  Cray died on October 5, 1996, two weeks after his automobile was struck on the highway and rolled several times.  The IEEE Computer Society's Seymour Cray Computer Engineering Award, established in late 1997, recognizes innovative contributions to high performance computing systems exemplifying Cray's creative spirit.  He married Geri Harrand (one son, two daughters).

Seymour Roger Cray (September 28, 1925 – October 5, 1996) was an American electrical engineer and supercomputer architect who designed a series of computers that were the fastest in the world for decades, and founded Cray Research which built many of these machines. Called "the father of supercomputing", Cray has been credited with creating the supercomputer industry. Joel S. Birnbaum, then chief technology officer of Hewlett-Packard, said of him: "It seems impossible to exaggerate the effect he had on the industry; many of the things that high performance computers now do routinely were at the farthest edge of credibility when Seymour envisioned them." Larry Smarr, then director of the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois said that Cray is "the Thomas Edison of the supercomputing industry."

Seymour Roger Cray (28. září 1925 Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin — 5. října 1996 Colorado Springs, Colorado) byl americký elektrotechnický inženýr a architekt superpočítačů. Zkonstruoval řadu superpočítačů, které dominovaly žebříčku nejvýkonnějších počítačů po několik dekád. Zároveň byl zakladatelem společnosti Cray Research, která se stavbou těchto strojů zabývala. Bývá nazýván otcem superpočítačů.