Origin.

Surströmming has been part of northern Swedish cuisine since at least the 16th century.  Fermented fish is an old staple in European cuisines. The oldest archeological findings of fish fermentation are 9,200 years old and from the south of today's Sweden. More recent examples include garum, a fermented fish sauce made by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and Worcestershire sauce, which also has a fermented fish ingredient.  Preservation of fish through fermentation in a weak brine may have developed when brining was still expensive due to the cost of salt. In modern times, the fish are initially marinated in a strong brine solution that draws out the blood, and then fermented in a weaker brine in barrels prior to canning.  The canning procedure, introduced in the 19th century, enabled the product to be marketed in shops and stored at home, whereas at one time the final stage would have been storage in large wooden barrels and smaller, one-litre kegs. Canning also enabled the product to be marketed farther south in Sweden.

Chemical process.

The fermentation happens through autolysis and starts from a lactic acid enzyme in the spine of the fish. Together with bacteria, pungent smelling acids are formed, such as propionic acid, butyric acid and acetic acid. Hydrogen sulfide is also produced. The salt raises the osmotic pressure of the brine above the zone where bacteria responsible for rotting can thrive and prevents decomposition of proteins into oligopeptides and amino acids. Instead, the osmotic conditions enable "Halanaerobium" bacteria to thrive and decompose the fish glycogen into organic acids, making it sour (acidic).

Production.

The herring are caught in April and May, when they are in prime condition and just about to spawn, and have not yet fattened. They are put into a strong brine for about 20 hours which draws out the blood, after which the heads are removed and the fish is gutted and put into a weaker brine solution. The barrels are placed in a temperature controlled room kept at. Canning takes place at the beginning of July and for five weeks thereafter. Ten days prior to the premiere the final product is distributed to wholesalers. The fermentation of the fish depends on a lactic acid enzyme in the spine that is activated if the conditions are right (temperature and brine concentration). The low temperature in Northern Sweden is one of the parameters that affects the character of the final product.  Prior to modern canning methods, surströmming was sold in wooden barrels for immediate consumption, as even the smaller one-litre kegs could leak.  Fermentation continues in the can, causing it to bulge noticeably, which would usually be a sign of botulism or other food poisoning concern in non-fermented canned foods. Species of "Halanaerobium" bacteria are responsible for the in-can ripening. These bacteria produce carbon dioxide and a number of compounds that account for the unique odour: pungent (propionic acid), rotten-egg (hydrogen sulfide), rancid-butter (butyric acid), and vinegary (acetic acid). Due to these gases, a thousand cans of surströmming exploded over a period of six hours during a fire at a Swedish warehouse in 2014.  Surströmming is commonly sold in grocery stores all over Sweden.

Preparation.

Swedes usually consume surströmming after the third Thursday of August, labeled as "Surströmming day", through early September. Because of the strong smell, it is often eaten outdoors. The pressurized can is usually opened some distance away from the dining table and is often initially punctured while immersed in a bucket of water, or after tapping and angling it upwards at 45 degrees, to prevent the escaping gas from spraying any brine.  Surströmming comes both ungutted with just the heads removed and as fillets. Regarding the first version, the fish is gutted prior to eating, and the backbone and sometimes the skin are removed. Roe from "strömming" is commonly eaten along with the fish.  Surströmming is often eaten with tunnbröd, a thin, either soft or crispy bread (not to be confused with crispbread). The use of tunnbröd originated in the High Coast area, where the tradition is to make a sandwich (known as a "surströmmingsklämma") using two pieces of buttered hard tunnbröd. In addition to the fish, the two most common toppings are potatoes (either sliced or mashed, often almond potatoes) and finely diced red onion. Surströmming is also commonly eaten without bread together with the accompanying ingredients. To balance the strong flavour of the fish, Västerbotten cheese is sometimes added.  In the southern part of Sweden, it is customary to use a variety of condiments such as diced red onion, "gräddfil" (fat fermented sour cream similar to smetana) or crème fraîche, chives, and sometimes even tomato and chopped dill.  Surströmming is commonly served with snaps, light beers like pilsner or lager, svagdricka (a type of small beer), water, or cold milk. What to drink with surströmming is disputed among connoisseurs. Surströmming is usually served as the focus of a traditional festivity called a "surströmmingsskiva".  Some people do not care for surströmming. It is a food which is subject to strong passions, as is lutefisk.

International opinion.

German food critic and author Wolfgang Fassbender wrote that "the biggest challenge when eating surströmming is to vomit only after the first bite, as opposed to before".

European Union.

Due to being made from herring from the Baltic sea, surströmming today contains higher levels of dioxins and PCBs than permitted in the EU. Sweden was granted exceptions to these rules from 2002 to 2011, and a renewal of the exceptions was then applied for. Producers have said that if the application is denied they will only be allowed to use herring less than long, which contain lower levels, and which will affect the availability of herring.

Surströmming challenge.

Since gaining notoriety as one of the world's smelliest foods, surströmming has become the focus of a number of "challenge" videos on YouTube and other platforms where people uninitiated to the food show themselves opening a can for the first time, usually to visceral reaction, and then try to eat the fish without any additional preparation. Often the videos show the participants gagging, swearing, holding their nose, or throwing up. The videos have been criticized by those who actually eat surströmming for not following the normal preparation methods, which include opening the can outdoors or underwater, gutting the fish and removing the backbone, and serving with tunnbröd and other accoutrements, along with a proper drink.

German eviction.

In 1981, a German landlord evicted a tenant without notice after the tenant spread surströmming brine in the apartment building's stairwell. When the landlord was taken to court, the court ruled that the termination was justified when the landlord's party demonstrated their case by opening a can inside the courtroom. The court concluded that it "had convinced itself that the disgusting smell of the fish brine far exceeded the degree that fellow-tenants in the building could be expected to tolerate".

Airline bans.

In April 2006, several major airlines (such as Air France, British Airways, Finnair, and KLM) banned the fish, claiming that the pressurised cans of fish are potentially explosive. The sale of the fish was subsequently discontinued in Stockholm's international airport. Those who produce the fish have called the airlines' decision "culturally illiterate", claiming that it is a "myth that the tinned fish can explode".

Protests in Hong Kong.

During March 2018 Hong Kong by-elections, the returning officer Amy Chan Yuen-man had disqualified two localist candidates Ventus Lau and James Chan Kwok-keung. Lau visited the Home Affairs Department of Sha Tin District Office in person asking for a meeting with Chan. Lau had brought a can of surströmming and opened it in public. Lau said that he would like Chan to sense that the Hong Kong people are facing an entirely rotten election system. Lau launched an appeal to the court, while the court announced that Chan's decisions were not justified.

Museum.

On 4 June 2005, the first surströmming museum in the world was opened in Skeppsmalen, south-east of Örnsköldsvik, a town at the northern end of the High Coast. The name of the museum is "Fiskevistet" (translated to The Fish Encampment).

Surströmming (; ) is a lightly-salted fermented Baltic Sea herring traditional to Swedish cuisine since at least the 16th century.

Surströmming (; švédsky "kyselý sleď") je švédské rybí jídlo, které se vyrábí zkvašením rybího masa. Vyznačuje se mimořádně intenzivním zápachem. Původně se jednalo o běžné jídlo chudých obyvatel severního Švédska. Ti je vyráběli především ze sleďů obecných, kteří byli loveni na jaře a nakládáni na několik měsíců do slaného láku, až lehce zkvasili.


Etymology.

The word "shakshouka" () is Maghrebi Arabic for "a mixture".

History.

Tomato-based stews, called "shakshouka" in the Maghreb, were common throughout the Middle East and former Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman dish "şakşuka" was originally a dish of cooked vegetables with minced meat or liver ("ciġer"). Tomato and chili peppers hot/sweet were introduced to the dish much later both having their origin in the Americas and meatless variations evolved. Jews in the Ottoman Maghreb served a pareve vegetarian variation and Tunisian Jews were known for creating spicy versions of egg shakshouka.  The exact origins of the dish are disputed. Some food historians believe the dish spread to Spain and the greater Middle East from Ottoman Turkey, while others think it originated in Morocco. A third theory is that it is from Yemen, where it is served with "zhug", a hot green paste.  The dish was brought to Israel by Tunisian Jews as part of the mass Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim lands, where it has become a characteristic feature of the local cuisine.  Shakshouka is typical of North African and Arab cuisine and is traditionally served in a cast iron pan or, in Morocco, a tajine.

Variations.

Some variations of shakshouka can be made with lamb mince, toasted whole spices, yogurt and fresh herbs. Others may include salty cheeses such as feta. Spices can include ground coriander, caraway, paprika, cumin and cayenne pepper. Tunisian cooks may add potatoes, broad beans, artichoke hearts or courgettes to the dish. The North African dish "matbukha" can be used as a base for shakshouka.  In Israel, shakshouka is made with eggs which are commonly poached but can also be scrambled like the Turkish "menemen". A 1979 Israeli cookbook "Bishul la-Gever ha-Meshuhrar" includes a recipe for "lufgania shakshuka". This is shakshouka made with a kosher version of Spam (called "loof") that was added to IDF army rations in the 1950s. Because eggs are the main ingredient, it is often on breakfast menus, but in Israel, it is also a popular evening meal, and like hummus and falafel, is a national favorite.

Shakshouka (, also spelled "shakshuka" or "chakchouka") is a dish of eggs poached in a sauce of tomatoes, olive oil, peppers, onion and garlic, and commonly spiced with cumin, paprika, cayenne pepper and nutmeg. The dish has existed in Mediterranean cultures for centuries.

Šakšúka nebo šakšuka (arabsky شكشوكة, hebrejsky שקשוקה, původní arabský význam slova je „směs“) je původem severoafrický zeleninový pokrm. Stal se velmi populárním v Izraeli, takže je i zde považován za národní jídlo. S opečenými tousty se zde obvykle servíruje k snídani.


Early life and education.

Taylor was born in St. John's Wood, London. His father, Edward Ingram Taylor, was an artist, and his mother, Margaret Boole, came from a family of mathematicians (his aunt was Alicia Boole Stott and his grandfather was George Boole). As a child he was fascinated by science after attending the Royal Institution Christmas Lectures, and performed experiments using paint rollers and sticky-tape. Taylor read mathematics and physics at Trinity College, Cambridge from 1905 to 1908. Then he obtained a scholarship to continue at Cambridge under J. J. Thomson.

Career and research.

Taylor is best known to students of physics for his very first paper, published while he was still an undergraduate, in which he showed that interference of visible light produced fringes even with extremely weak light sources. The interference effects were produced with light from a gas light, attenuated through a series of dark glass plates, diffracting around a sewing needle. Three months were required to produce a sufficient exposure of the photographic plate. The paper does not mention quanta of light (photons) and does not reference Einstein's 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, but today the result can be interpreted by saying that less than one photon on average was present at a time. Once it became widely accepted ca. 1927 that the electromagnetic field was quantized, Taylor's experiment began to be presented in pedagogical treatments as evidence that interference effects with light cannot be interpreted in terms of one photon interfering with another photon—that, in fact, a "single" photon must travel through "both" slits of a double-slit apparatus. Modern understanding of the subject has shown that the conditions in Taylor's experiment were not in fact sufficient to demonstrate this, because the light source was not in fact a single-photon source, but the experiment was reproduced in 1986 using a single-photon source, and the same result was obtained.  He followed this up with work on shock waves, winning a Smith's Prize. In 1910 he was elected to a Fellowship at Trinity College, and the following year he was appointed to a meteorology post, becoming Reader in Dynamical Meteorology. His work on turbulence in the atmosphere led to the publication of "Turbulent motion in fluids", which won him the Adams Prize in 1915.  In 1913 Taylor served as a meteorologist aboard the Ice Patrol vessel "Scotia", where his observations formed the basis of his later work on a theoretical model of mixing of the air. At the outbreak of World War I, he was sent to the Royal Aircraft Factory at Farnborough to apply his knowledge to aircraft design, working, amongst other things, on the stress on propeller shafts. Not content just to sit back and do the science, he also learned to fly aeroplanes and make parachute jumps.  After the war Taylor returned to Trinity and worked on an application of turbulent flow to oceanography. He also worked on the problem of bodies passing through a rotating fluid. In 1923 he was appointed to a Royal Society research professorship as a Yarrow Research Professor. This enabled him to stop teaching, which he had been doing for the previous four years, and which he both disliked and had no great aptitude for. It was in this period that he did his most wide-ranging work on fluid mechanics and solid mechanics, including research on the deformation of crystalline materials which followed from his war work at Farnborough. He also produced another major contribution to turbulent flow, where he introduced a new approach through a statistical study of velocity fluctuations.  In 1934, Taylor, roughly contemporarily with Michael Polanyi and Egon Orowan, realised that the plastic deformation of ductile materials could be explained in terms of the theory of dislocations developed by Vito Volterra in 1905. The insight was critical in developing the modern science of solid mechanics.

Manhattan Project.

During World War II, Taylor again applied his expertise to military problems such as the propagation of blast waves, studying both waves in air and underwater explosions. Taylor was sent to the United States in 1944–1945 as part of the British delegation to the Manhattan Project. At Los Alamos, Taylor helped solve implosion instability problems in the development of atomic weapons particularly the plutonium bomb used at Nagasaki on 9 August 1945.  In 1944 he also received his knighthood and the Copley Medal from the Royal Society.  Taylor was present at the Trinity (nuclear test), July 16, 1945, as part of General Leslie Groves' "VIP List" of just 10 people who observed the test from Compania Hill, about 20 miles (32 km) northwest of the shot tower. By a strange twist, Joan Hinton, another direct descendant of the mathematician, George Boole, had been working on the same project and witnessed the event in an unofficial capacity. They met at the time but later followed different paths. Joan, strongly opposed to nuclear weapons, defected to Mao's China, while Taylor maintained that political policy was not within the remit of the scientist.  In 1950, he published two papers estimating the yield of the explosion using the Buckingham Pi theorem, and high speed photography stills from that test, bearing timestamps and physical scale of the blast radius, which had been published in Life magazine. His estimate of 22 kt was remarkably close to the accepted value of 20 kt, which was still highly classified at that time.

Later life.

Taylor continued his research after the war, serving on the Aeronautical Research Committee and working on the development of supersonic aircraft. Though he officially retired in 1952, he continued research for the next twenty years, concentrating on problems that could be attacked using simple equipment. This led to such advances as a method for measuring the second coefficient of viscosity. Taylor devised an incompressible liquid with separated gas bubbles suspended in it. The dissipation of the gas in the liquid during expansion was a consequence of the shear viscosity of the liquid. Thus the bulk viscosity could easily be calculated. His other late work included the longitudinal dispersion in flow in tubes, movement through porous surfaces, and the dynamics of sheets of liquids.  Aspects of Taylor's life often found expression in his work. His over-riding interest in the movement of air and water, and by extension his studies of the movement of unicellular marine creatures and of weather, were related to his lifelong love of sailing. In the 1930s he invented the 'CQR' anchor, which was both stronger and more manageable than any in use, and which was used for all sorts of small craft including seaplanes.  His final research paper was published in 1969, when he was 83. In it he resumed his interest in electrical activity in thunderstorms, as jets of conducting liquid motivated by electrical fields. The cone from which such jets are observed is called the Taylor cone, after him. In the same year Taylor received the A. A. Griffith Medal and Prize and was appointed to the Order of Merit.

Personal life.

Taylor married Grace Stephanie Frances Ravenhill, a school teacher in 1925. They stayed together until Stephanie's death in 1965. Taylor suffered a severe stroke in 1972 which effectively put an end to his work. He died in Cambridge in 1975.

A salvage pathway is a pathway in which a biological product is produced from intermediates in the degradative pathway of its own or a similar substance. The term often refers to nucleotide salvage in particular, in which nucleotides (purine and pyrimidine) are synthesized from intermediates in their degradative pathway.

Záchrana nukleotidů je cestou, ve které jsou nukleotidy (purin a pyrimidin) syntetizovány z meziproduktů v degradační cestě pro nukleotidy. Pochody záchrany se používají k regeneraci bází a nukleosidů, které vznikají během degradace RNA a DNA. To je důležité v některých orgánech, protože některé tkáně nemohou podstoupit de novo syntézu.


Overview.

Bioenergetics is the part of biochemistry concerned with the energy involved in making and breaking of chemical bonds in the molecules found in biological organisms. It can also be defined as the study of energy relationships and energy transformations and transductions in living organisms. The ability to harness energy from a variety of metabolic pathways is a property of all living organisms that contains earth science. Growth, development, anabolism and catabolism are some of the central processes in the study of biological organisms, because the role of energy is fundamental to such biological processes. Life is dependent on energy transformations; living organisms survive because of exchange of energy between living tissues/ cells and the outside environment. Some organisms, such as autotrophs, can acquire energy from sunlight (through photosynthesis) without needing to consume nutrients and break them down. Other organisms, like heterotrophs, must intake nutrients from food to be able to sustain energy by breaking down chemical bonds in nutrients during metabolic processes such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. Importantly, as a direct consequence of the First Law of Thermodynamics, autotrophs and heterotrophs participate in a universal metabolic network—by eating autotrophs (plants), heterotrophs harness energy that was initially transformed by the plants during photosynthesis.  In a living organism, chemical bonds are broken and made as part of the exchange and transformation of energy. Energy is available for work (such as mechanical work) or for other processes (such as chemical synthesis and anabolic processes in growth), when weak bonds are broken and stronger bonds are made. The production of stronger bonds allows release of usable energy.  Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the main "energy currency" for organisms; the goal of metabolic and catabolic processes are to synthesize ATP from available starting materials (from the environment), and to break- down ATP (into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate) by utilizing it in biological processes. In a cell, the ratio of ATP to ADP concentrations is known as the "energy charge" of the cell. A cell can use this energy charge to relay information about cellular needs; if there is more ATP than ADP available, the cell can use ATP to do work, but if there is more ADP than ATP available, the cell must synthesize ATP via oxidative phosphorylation.  Living organisms produce ATP from energy sources, mostly sunlight or O, mainly via oxidative phosphorylation. The terminal phosphate bonds of ATP are relatively weak compared with the stronger bonds formed when ATP is hydrolyzed (broken down by water) to adenosine diphosphate and inorganic phosphate. Here it is the thermodynamically favorable free energy of hydrolysis that results in energy release; the phosphoanhydride bond between the terminal phosphate group and the rest of the ATP molecule does not itself contain this energy. An organism's stockpile of ATP is used as a battery to store energy in cells. Utilization of chemical energy from such molecular bond rearrangement powers biological processes in every biological organism.  Living organisms obtain energy from organic and inorganic materials; i.e. ATP can be synthesized from a variety of biochemical precursors. For example, lithotrophs can oxidize minerals such as nitrites or forms of sulfur, such as elemental sulfur, sulfites, and hydrogen sulfide to produce ATP. In photosynthesis, autotrophs produce ATP using light energy, whereas heterotrophs must consume organic compounds, mostly including carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The amount of energy actually obtained by the organism is lower than the amount released in combustion of the food; there are losses in digestion, metabolism, and thermogenesis.  Environmental materials that an organism intakes are generally combined with oxygen to release energy, although some can also be oxidized anaerobically by various organisms. The bonds holding the molecules of nutrients together and in particular the bonds holding molecules of free oxygen together are relatively weak compared with the chemical bonds holding carbon dioxide and water together. The utilization of these materials is a form of slow combustion because the nutrients are reacted with oxygen (the materials are oxidized slowly enough that the organisms do not actually produce fire). The oxidation releases energy because stronger bonds (bonds within water and carbon dioxide) have been formed. This net energy may evolve as heat, which may be used by the organism for other purposes, such as breaking other bonds to do chemistry required for survival.

Types of reactions.

The free energy gained or lost (Δ"G") in a reaction can be calculated as follows: Δ"G" = Δ"H" − "T"Δ"S" where ∆"G" = Gibbs free energy change, ∆"H" = enthalpy change, "T" = temperature (in kelvins), and ∆"S" = entropy change.

Cotransport.

In August 1960, Robert K. Crane presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose cotransport as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption. Crane's discovery of cotransport was the first ever proposal of flux coupling in biology and was the most important event concerning carbohydrate absorption in the 20th century.

Chemiosmotic theory.

One of the major triumphs of bioenergetics is Peter D. Mitchell's chemiosmotic theory of how protons in aqueous solution function in the production of ATP in cell organelles such as mitochondria. This work earned Mitchell the 1978 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Other cellular sources of ATP such as glycolysis were understood first, but such processes for direct coupling of enzyme activity to ATP production are not the major source of useful chemical energy in most cells. Chemiosmotic coupling is the major energy producing process in most cells, being utilized in chloroplasts and several single celled organisms in addition to mitochondria.

Energy balance.

Energy homeostasis is the homeostatic control of energy balance – the difference between energy obtained through food consumption and energy expenditure – in living systems.

Bioenergetics is a field in biochemistry and cell biology that concerns energy flow through living systems. This is an active area of biological research that includes the study of the transformation of energy in living organisms and the study of thousands of different cellular processes such as cellular respiration and the many other metabolic and enzymatic processes that lead to production and utilization of energy in forms such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules. That is, the goal of bioenergetics is to describe how living organisms acquire and transform energy in order to perform biological work. The study of metabolic pathways is thus essential to bioenergetics.

Bioenergetika je oblast biochemie a buněčné biologie, která se týká energetických toků v živých systémech. Jedná se o aktivní součást biologického výzkumu, která zahrnuje studium přeměny energie v živých organismech a studium tisíců různých buněčných procesů, např. buněčného dýchání a mnoho dalších metabolických a enzymatických procesů, které vedou k výrobě a využití energie do různých forem např. molekuly adenosintrifosfátu (ATP). Cílem bioenergetiky je popsat, jak živé organismy získávají a transformují energii, aby vykonávaly biologickou práci. Studium metabolických drah je proto zásadní oblastí bioenergetiky.


History.

In the 19th century, statistical analytical methods were mainly applied in biological data analysis and it was customary for researchers to assume that observations followed a normal distribution, such as Sir George Airy and Professor Merriman, whose works were criticized by Karl Pearson in his 1900 paper.  At the end of 19th century, Pearson noticed the existence of significant skewness within some biological observations. In order to model the observations regardless of being normal or skewed, Pearson, in a series of articles published from 1893 to 1916, devised the Pearson distribution, a family of continuous probability distributions, which includes the normal distribution and many skewed distributions, and proposed a method of statistical analysis consisting of using the Pearson distribution to model the observation and performing a test of goodness of fit to determine how well the model really fits to the observations.

Pearson's test.

In 1900, Pearson published a paper on the test which is considered to be one of the foundations of modern statistics. In this paper, Pearson investigated a test of goodness of fit.  Suppose that observations in a random sample from a population are classified into mutually exclusive classes with respective observed numbers (for ), and a null hypothesis gives the probability that an observation falls into the th class. So we have the expected numbers for all, where  Pearson proposed that, under the circumstance of the null hypothesis being correct, as the limiting distribution of the quantity given below is the distribution.  Pearson dealt first with the case in which the expected numbers are large enough known numbers in all cells assuming every may be taken as normally distributed, and reached the result that, in the limit as becomes large, follows the distribution with degrees of freedom.  However, Pearson next considered the case in which the expected numbers depended on the parameters that had to be estimated from the sample, and suggested that, with the notation of being the true expected numbers and being the estimated expected numbers, the difference  will usually be positive and small enough to be omitted. In a conclusion, Pearson argued that if we regarded as also distributed as distribution with degrees of freedom, the error in this approximation would not affect practical decisions. This conclusion caused some controversy in practical applications and was not settled for 20 years until Fisher's 1922 and 1924 papers.

Other examples of tests.

One test statistic that follows a chi-square distribution exactly is the test that the variance of a normally distributed population has a given value based on a sample variance. Such tests are uncommon in practice because the true variance of the population is usually unknown. However, there are several statistical tests where the chi-square distribution is approximately valid:

Fisher's exact test.

For an exact test used in place of the 2 x 2 test for independence, see Fisher's exact test.

Binomial test.

For an exact test used in place of the 2 x 1 test for goodness of fit, see Binomial test.

Yates's correction for continuity.

Using the chi-square distribution to interpret Pearson's chi-square statistic requires one to assume that the discrete probability of observed binomial frequencies in the table can be approximated by the continuous chi-square distribution. This assumption is not quite correct and introduces some error.  To reduce the error in approximation, Frank Yates suggested a correction for continuity that adjusts the formula for Pearson's chi-square test by subtracting 0.5 from the absolute difference between each observed value and its expected value in a contingency table. This reduces the value obtained and thus increases its "p"-value.

Chi-square test for variance in a normal population.

If a sample of size is taken from a population having a normal distribution, then there is a result (see distribution of the sample variance) which allows a test to be made of whether the variance of the population has a pre-determined value. For example, a manufacturing process might have been in stable condition for a long period, allowing a value for the variance to be determined essentially without error. Suppose that a variant of the process is being tested, giving rise to a small sample of product items whose variation is to be tested. The test statistic in this instance could be set to be the sum of squares about the sample mean, divided by the nominal value for the variance (i.e. the value to be tested as holding). Then has a distribution with degrees of freedom. For example, if the sample size is 21, the acceptance region for with a significance level of 5% is between 9.59 and 34.17.

Example test for categorical data.

Suppose there is a city of 1,000,000 residents with four neighborhoods:,,, and. A random sample of 650 residents of the city is taken and their occupation is recorded as "white collar", "blue collar", or "no collar". The null hypothesis is that each person's neighborhood of residence is independent of the person's occupational classification. The data are tabulated as:  Let us take the sample living in neighborhood, 150, to estimate what proportion of the whole 1,000,000 live in neighborhood. Similarly, we take to estimate what proportion of the 1,000,000 are white-collar workers. By the assumption of independence under the hypothesis, we should "expect" the number of white-collar workers in neighborhood to be  Then in that "cell" of the table, we have  The sum of these quantities over all of the cells is the test statistic; in this case, formula_6. Under the null hypothesis, this sum has approximately a distribution whose number of degrees of freedom are  If the test statistic is improbably large according to that distribution, then one rejects the null hypothesis of independence.  A related issue is a test of homogeneity. Suppose that instead of giving every resident of each of the four neighborhoods an equal chance of inclusion in the sample, we decide in advance how many residents of each neighborhood to include. Then each resident has the same chance of being chosen as do all residents of the same neighborhood, but residents of different neighborhoods would have different probabilities of being chosen if the four sample sizes are not proportional to the populations of the four neighborhoods. In such a case, we would be testing "homogeneity" rather than "independence". The question is whether the proportions of blue-collar, white-collar, and no-collar workers in the four neighborhoods are the same. However, the test is done in the same way.

Applications.

In cryptanalysis, the test is used to compare the distribution of plaintext and (possibly) decrypted ciphertext. The lowest value of the test means that the decryption was successful with high probability. This method can be generalized for solving modern cryptographic problems.  In bioinformatics, the test is used to compare the distribution of certain properties of genes (e.g., genomic content, mutation rate, interaction network clustering, etc.) belonging to different categories (e.g., disease genes, essential genes, genes on a certain chromosome etc.).

A chi-square test, also written as test, is a statistical hypothesis test that is valid to perform when the test statistic is chi-square distributed under the null hypothesis, specifically Pearson's chi-square test and variants thereof. Pearson's chi-square test is used to determine whether there is a statistically significant difference between the expected frequencies and the observed frequencies in one or more categories of a contingency table.

Chí-kvadrát test, chí kvadrátový test neboli test je v matematické statistice jakýkoli test statistické hypotézy, jehož testovací kritérium má za předpokladu platnosti nulové hypotézy rozdělení chí kvadrát. Často se chí-kvadrát testy objevují při testování hypotéz o diskrétních rozděleních, kdy se pracuje s četnostmi různých hodnot pozorovaných znaků. První chí-kvadrát test navrhl roku 1900 Karl Pearson. Testy chí-kvadrát obvykle vyžadují znát počet stupňů volnosti, který roste s počtem zkoumaných kategorií pozorovaných veličin, a spočívají v porovnání vypočítané testovacího kritéria s kritickou hodnotou (kvantilem) rozdělení chí kvadrát s tímto počtem stupňů volnosti: překročí-li napočítaná testovací statistika kritickou hodnotu, zamítneme nulovou hypotézu. V moderní praxi se ovšem testy obvykle počítají pomocí statistického počítačového programu, který přímo vypíše p-hodnotu, již interpretujeme stejně jako při každém jiném testu. Chí kvadrátové testy jsou často asymptotické, což znamená, že je lze používat až od jisté četnosti naměřených dat, jinak budou výsledky velmi nepřesné.


Synthesis.

Nitroso compounds can be prepared by the reduction of nitro compounds or by the oxidation of hydroxylamines. Ortho-nitrosophenols may be produced by the Baudisch reaction. In the Fischer–Hepp rearrangement aromatic 4-nitrosoanilines are prepared from the corresponding nitrosamines.

Properties.

Nitrosoarenes typically participate in a monomer-dimer equilibrium. The dimers, which are often pale-yellow, are often favored in the solid state, whereas the deep-green monomers are favored in dilute solution or at higher temperatures. They exist as "cis"- and "trans"-isomers.  Due to the stability of the nitric oxide free radical, nitroso organyls tend to have very low C–N bond dissociation energies: nitrosoalkanes have BDEs on the order of 30 to 40 kcal/mol, while nitrosoarenes have BDEs on the order of 50 to 60 kcal/mol. As a consequence, they are generally heat- and light-sensitive. Compounds containing O–(NO) or N–(NO) bonds generally have even lower bond dissociation energies. For instance, "N"-nitrosodiphenylamine, PhN–N=O, has a N–N bond dissociation energy of only 23 kcal/mol. Organonitroso compounds serve as a ligands for transition metals.

Reactions.

Many reaction exists which make use of an intermediate nitroso compound, such as the Barton reaction and Davis–Beirut reaction, as well as in the synthesis of indoles, for example: Baeyer–Emmerling indole synthesis, Bartoli indole synthesis

Nitrosation vs. nitrosylation.

Nitrite can enter two kinds of reaction, depending on the physico-chemical environment. Many primary alkyl "N"-nitroso compounds, such as CHN(H)NO, tend to be unstable with respect to hydrolysis to the alcohol. Those derived from secondary amines (e.g., (CH)NNO derived from dimethylamine) are more robust. It is these "N"-nitrosamines that are carcinogens in rodents.

Nitrosyl in inorganic chemistry.

Nitrosyls are non-organic compounds containing the NO group, for example directly bound to the metal via the N atom, giving a metal–NO moiety. Alternatively, a nonmetal example is the common reagent nitrosyl chloride (Cl−N=O). Nitric oxide is a stable radical, having an unpaired electron. Reduction of nitric oxide gives the nitrosyl anion, NO:  Oxidation of NO yields the nitrosonium cation, NO:  Nitric oxide can serve as a ligand forming metal nitrosyl complexes or just metal nitrosyls. These complexes can be viewed as adducts of NO, NO, or some intermediate case.

In food.

In foodstuffs and in the gastro-intestinal tract, nitrosation and nitrosylation do not have the same consequences on consumer health.

Nitroso refers to a functional group in organic chemistry which has the NO group attached to an organic moiety. As such, various nitroso groups can be categorized as "C"-nitroso compounds (e.g., nitrosoalkanes; R−N=O), "S"-nitroso compounds (nitrosothiols; RS−N=O), "N"-nitroso compounds (e.g., nitrosamines, RN(−R)−N=O), and "O"-nitroso compounds (alkyl nitrites; RO−N=O).

Nitrososloučeniny jsou v organické chemii sloučeniny obsahující nitroso funkční skupinu se vzorcem -NO. Existují "C"-nitrososloučeniny (např nitrosoalkany, R-N=O), "S"-nitroso sloučeniny (například nitrosothioly RS-N=O), "N"-nitrososloučeniny (například nitrosaminy R N(R)-N=O), a "O"-nitroso sloučeniny (alkyldusitany neboli alkylnitrity, RO-N=O).


Occurrence.

Tyramine occurs widely in plants and animals, and is metabolized by various enzymes, including monoamine oxidases. In foods, it often is produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include:

Physical effects and pharmacology.

Evidence for the presence of tyramine in the human brain has been confirmed by postmortem analysis. Additionally, the possibility that tyramine acts directly as a neuromodulator was revealed by the discovery of a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine, called TAAR1. The TAAR1 receptor is found in the brain, as well as peripheral tissues, including the kidneys. Tyramine binds to both TAAR1 and TAAR2 as an agonist in humans. Tyramine is physiologically metabolized by monoamine oxidases (primarily MAO-A), FMO3, PNMT, DBH, and CYP2D6. Human monoamine oxidase enzymes metabolize tyramine into 4-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde. If monoamine metabolism is compromised by the use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) and foods high in tyramine are ingested, a hypertensive crisis can result, as tyramine also can displace stored monoamines, such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine, from pre-synaptic vesicles. Tyramine is considered a “false neurotransmitter,” as it enters noradrenergic nerve terminals and displaces large amounts of norepinephrine, which enters the blood stream and causes vasoconstriction.  The first signs of this effect were discovered by a British pharmacist who noticed that his wife, who at the time was on MAOI medication, had severe headaches when eating cheese. For this reason, it is still called the "cheese effect" or "cheese crisis," though other foods can cause the same problem.  Most processed cheeses do not contain enough tyramine to cause hypertensive effects, although some aged cheeses (such as Stilton) do.  A large dietary intake of tyramine (or a dietary intake of tyramine while taking MAO inhibitors) can cause the tyramine pressor response, which is defined as an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. The increased release of norepinephrine (noradrenaline) from neuronal cytosol or storage vesicles is thought to cause the vasoconstriction and increased heart rate and blood pressure of the pressor response. In severe cases, adrenergic crisis can occur. Although the mechanism is unclear, tyramine ingestion also triggers migraine attacks in sensitive individuals. Vasodilation, dopamine, and circulatory factors are all implicated in the migraines. Double-blind trials suggest that the effects of tyramine on migraine may be adrenergic.  Research reveals a possible link between migraines and elevated levels of tyramine. A 2007 review published in Neurological Sciences presented data showing migraine and cluster diseases are characterized by an increase of circulating neurotransmitters and neuromodulators (including tyramine, octopamine and synephrine) in the hypothalamus, amygdala and dopaminergic system. People with Migraine are over-represented among those with inadequate natural monoamine oxidase, resulting in similar problems to individuals taking MAO inhibitors. Many migraine attack triggers are high in tyramine.  If one has had repeated exposure to tyramine, however, there is a decreased pressor response; tyramine is degraded to octopamine, which is subsequently packaged in synaptic vesicles with norepinephrine (noradrenaline). Therefore, after repeated tyramine exposure, these vesicles contain an increased amount of octopamine and a relatively reduced amount of norepinephrine. When these vesicles are secreted upon tyramine ingestion, there is a decreased pressor response, as less norepinephrine is secreted into the synapse, and octopamine does not activate alpha or beta adrenergic receptors.  When using a MAO inhibitor (MAOI), an intake of approximately 10 to 25 mg of tyramine is required for a severe reaction, compared to 6 to 10 mg for a mild reaction.

Biosynthesis.

Biochemically, tyramine is produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine via the action of the enzyme tyrosine decarboxylase. Tyramine can, in turn, be converted to methylated alkaloid derivatives "N"-methyltyramine, "N","N"-dimethyltyramine (hordenine), and "N","N","N"-trimethyltyramine (candicine).  In humans, tyramine is produced from tyrosine, as shown in the following diagram.

Chemistry.

In the laboratory, tyramine can be synthesized in various ways, in particular by the decarboxylation of tyrosine.

Legal status.

United States.

Tyramine is not scheduled at the federal level in the United States and is therefore legal to buy, sell, or possess.

Status in Florida.

Tyramine is a Schedule I controlled substance, categorized as a hallucinogen, making it illegal to buy, sell, or possess in the state of Florida without a license at any purity level or any form whatsoever. The language in the Florida statute says tyramine is illegal in "any material, compound, mixture, or preparation that contains any quantity of [tyramine] or that contains any of [its] salts, isomers, including optical, positional, or geometric isomers, and salts of isomers, if the existence of such salts, isomers, and salts of isomers is possible within the specific chemical designation."  This ban is likely the product of lawmakers overly eager to ban substituted phenethylamines, which tyramine is, in the mistaken belief that ring-substituted phenethylamines are hallucinogenic drugs like the 2C series of psychedelic substituted phenethylamines. The further banning of tyramine's optical isomers, positional isomers, or geometric isomers, and salts of isomers where they exist, means that meta-tyramine and phenylethanolamine, a substance found in every living human body, and other common, non-hallucinogenic substances are also illegal to buy, sell or possess in Florida. Given that tyramine occurs naturally in many foods and drinks (most commonly as a by-product of bacterial fermentation), e.g. wine, cheese, and chocolate, Florida's total ban on the substance may prove difficult to enforce.

Tyramine ( ) (also spelled tyramin), also known under several other names, is a naturally occurring trace amine derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine acts as a catecholamine releasing agent. Notably, it is unable to cross the blood-brain barrier, resulting in only non-psychoactive peripheral sympathomimetic effects following ingestion. A hypertensive crisis can result, however, from ingestion of tyramine-rich foods in conjunction with the use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs).

Tyramin (4-(2-aminoethyl)fenol) je v přírodě se vyskytující stopový amin odvozený z aminokyseliny tyrosinu. Tyramin působí jako činidlo uvolňující katecholamin. Není schopen překročit hematoencefalickou bariéru, což má za následek pouze nepsychoaktivní periferní sympatomimetické účinky po požití. Hypertenzní krize však může vyplynout z požití potravy bohaté na tyramin ve spojení s inhibitory monoaminooxidázy (MAOI).


History.

The Cistercian Era.

The era of the Cistercian cathedrals and abbeys was in full swing during the thirteenth century and Differdange did not deviate from this pattern. In 1235, Alexandre de Soleuvre founded the abbey of Differdange, which he donated to the order of Cîteaux. Initially, the Cistercian abbey welcomed only sisters from the nobility of Luxembourg. Subsequently, women from the Lorraine region of France and the present province of Luxembourg in Wallonia also made their vows at Differdange.  In 1552, the abbey was plundered and sacked by French soldiers. However, it was during the French invasion of Luxembourg that the abbey and the town experienced real raids and innumerable rampages.  The last abbess to direct the convent was Marie-Madeleine de Gourcy, who held office until 1796. After her mandate, the Order was then formally dissolved. The Abbey of Differdange was auctioned off in 1797 and subsequently be bought by the commune of Differdange in 1929. In 1981 following its purchase by government of Luxembourg, the Differdange Abbey was transformed into a hospital and health center.

The Renaissance Era.

The Differdange Castle is one of the only remaining landmarks from the Renaissance period in the area. Although it has no known origin since all traced manuscripts have disappeared, squire listed was Wilhelm de Differdange, named in documents dating from 1310. The castle is probably the earliest example in Luxembourg of a château built entirely in the Renaissance style. It was intended as a residence and a fortification. Differdange'e descendants were extinguished in 1400 with the death of his last grandson.  In 1552, the castle underwent a disastrous fire, It was eventually restored and occupied by Anna of Isenburg.

The Iron City.

Beginning in 1830, Luxembourg's steel industry evolved from and artisan stage to an industrial stage. In 1896, two blast furnaces were erected in Differdange with the name of ""Société Anonyme des Hauts-Fourneaux de Differdange"". Subsequently, eight other blast furnaces were built, allowing the production of steel beams known at the time as ""Differdinger"".  On August 4, 1907, Differdange received its town status by William IV of Luxembourg.  During the 20th century, the industrial boom was at its peak, and the population of Differdange rose from less than 4,000 in 1890 to almost 18,000 by 1930.  In 1967, the ""Société des Hauts-Fourneaux and Aciererie de Differdange"" merged with several steel companies in Belgium and France to form ARBED, Luxembourg's largest steel company, which had numerous factories in Differdange.

Geography.

The town is located in the valley of the river Chiers, a tributary of the river Meuse which takes its source in the section of Oberkorn.  Differdange has an altitude of 293 meters, the highest point of the municipality being at 427,1m at "Koufeld".  The commune spreads over 2,215 hectares.  Its territory borders France, through the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle in the basin of Longwy.

Towns of the commune.

Differdange (commune seat)  Lasauvage  Niederkorn  Oberkorn

Twin towns — sister cities.

Differdange is twinned with:

Differdange (, ) is a commune with town status in south-western Luxembourg, west from the country's capital. It lies near the borders with Belgium and France and it is located in the canton of Esch-sur-Alzette. With a population of around 26,000, Differdange is the country's third largest city. It is also the main town of the commune, and other towns within the commune include Lasauvage, Niederkorn, and Oberkorn.

Differdange ( "Differdingen", "Déifferdeng") je město na jihozápadě Lucemburska. Je třetím největším městem v zemi, žije v něm obyvatel. Differdange spolu s Lasauvage, Oberkornem, Niederkornem a částí Fond-de-Gras tvoří jednu z obcí v rámci kantonu Esch an der Alzette. Město leží na úpatí Koufeldu a protéká jím řeka Chiers.


Etymology and names.

The Malagasy name "Antsirabe" literally means "the place of much salt".  The city has the nicknames "ville d'eau" ('city of water' in French) and "visy gasy" or "le Vichy malgache" ('the Malagasy Visy' in Malagasy and French respectively), referring to the presence of multiple thermal springs in the area.

History.

The area where Antsirabe is found today was part of the Kingdom of Andrantsay which existed from the early 1600s until it was incorporated into the Imerina kingdom in the early 1800s. The area was a farming region, with production of rice, vegetables and fruit.  The first Norwegian (Lutheran) missionaries arrived in 1868. Limestone and sulphur were exploited in the area at this time.  The city was founded by Norwegian missionary T.G. Rosaas in 1872 as a hill station to serve as a retreat centre because of the much cooler climate. The thermal baths were opened in 1917.  In 1886 the Norwegian mission established the leper hospital of Ambohipiantrana and it quickly developed into a village for lepers. The colonial government decided to make it the leper hospital of Vakinankaratra and the around 950 people with the illness lived there in 1904.  During the French colonial rule the centre of the Vakinankaratra region shifted from the Andrantsay capital of Fivavahana to Antsirabe.  In 1921 it succeeded Betafó as the seat of a Catholic (pre-diocesan) Apostolic vicariate, and was promoted to a bishopric in 1955.

Population.

Demographics.

The population of Antsirabe was estimated at 238,478 in 2013.

Languages.

The majority of the population belongs to the Merina ethnic group, which speaks a highland dialect of Malagasy. As in other urban areas of Madagascar, French is widely understood.

Places of worship.

The places of worship, are predominantly Christian churches and temples; Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar (World Communion of Reformed Churches), Malagasy Lutheran Church (Lutheran World Federation), Assemblies of God, Association of Bible Baptist Churches in Madagascar (Baptist World Alliance), Roman Catholic Diocese of Antsirabe (Catholic Church seated in the Cathedral of Our Lady of La Salette). There are also Muslim mosques.

Government.

Antsirabe is an urban commune or municipality ("kaominina"). The borders of the commune are identical with those of the Antsirabe I District. Antsirabe is also the capital of the Vakinankaratra region.  Since April 2012, the city is governed by a "Special Delegation" with three members: Razafindrainiony Lala Marie Béryl, the previous Head of Antsirabe I District is President of the Special Delegation while Randrianarison Olivier from the TIM party and Rakotomalala Olivier from the AS party are First and Second Deputy presidents, respectively.  Between November 2011 and April 2012 the position of the Mayor of Antsirabe was vacant. Olga Ramalason of the TIM party was Mayor until she was appointed Minister of Commerce in Omer Beriziky's government of consensus in November 2011.  The city council was elected in November 2003.

Architecture.

Several buildings in central Antsirabe date back to the first decades of the 20th century. These include the thermal bath centre (opened in 1917), Hôtel des Thermes (1922), the railway station (1923), and the residence for French retirees (1934).  Other sights are "la Stèle de l'Indépendance" (the Stele of Independence) on Independence Avenue and the two public markets: Antsenakely ("The Small Market") and the bigger Asabotsy.

Geography and climate.

Antsirabe is situated at an altitude of about, making its subtropical highland climate (Köppen: "Cwb"), similar to Brazilian high cities of the southeast. During the winter the temperature can fall below at night.  May to September form the coldest and driest part of the year with average monthly temperatures between and and an average number of days with precipitation per month of 1–2. From November to March the climate is warmer and wetter with on average 12 to 17 days with precipitation per month and average temperature of approximately. April and October have average temperatures of and respectively and 5–6 days of rain.  The Ankaratra volcanic field covers an area about 100 km long from Antsirabe northwards to Arivonimamo where highest peak reaches. This volcanic field is "the most prominent and volcanologically diverse (sic) on Madagascar". Several water-filled craters are found in the area around Antsirabe, including Lake Tritriva to the south-west. There are hot springs which are utilised by the Ranomafana thermal bath in the city.  The Mania River is south of Antsirabe.

Economy.

An Export Processing Zone is located in Antsirabe and the town is the home of several factories, including Star Brasseries (beverages), Cotona (textiles) and Kobama (grain).  As in Antananarivo, international economic sanctions following the 2009 uprising and following political crisis led to an economic downturn and factory lay-offs in Antsirabe. The removal of Madagascar from the list of beneficiaries of the African Growth and Opportunity Act was particularly important in this regard.

Infrastructure.

The city is at the end of the TA (Tananarive-Antsirabe) railway line, part of the Network North railway, which links Antsirabe to the capital and the port city of Toamasina. The line is operated by Madarail, currently only with freight trains. The line has been extended southwards through Vinaninkarena, but this extension is not in use.  National road 7 (RN7) connects the city to Antananarivo in the north and to Fianarantsoa and Toliara to the south. Antsirabe is connected with Morondava on the west coast through RN34/35.  Public transport to and from Antsirabe are provided by taxi-brousses (share taxis) and buses. Most taxi-brousses operate from the main bus station in the north of the city.  Within the city public transport consists of small buses and numerous pulled rickshaws ("pousse-pousse"), as well as cycle rickshaw ("cyclo-pousse"), auto rickshaw ("touktouks") and private taxis. The pousse-pousse is something of an emblem of the city; 5600 of them were recorded in 2006.  There is also an airport.

Education.

The Institute of Higher Education of Antsirabe Vakinankaratra is the regional branch of the University of Antananarivo. A regional centre for distance education (CRTE) of the Centre National de Télé-Enseignement de Madagascar (CNETMAD) is located in Antsirabe.  Collège français Jules-Verne, a French international school, is in the commune.

Twin cities.

Antsirabe is twinned with:  Antsirabe has collaborations with:

Antsirabe () is the third largest city in Madagascar and the capital of the Vakinankaratra region, with a population of 257,163 in 2014. In Madagascar, Antsirabe is known for its relatively cool climate (like the rest of the central region), its industry and the high concentration of pulled rickshaws or "pousse-pousse". It attracts around 30,000 tourists a year

Antsirabe je třetí nejlidnatější město na Madagaskaru, má 244 900 obyvatel (2014). Leží ve výšce 1500 metrů nad mořem a je známé pivovarem STAR, kde se vaří pivo THB (Three Horses Beer). Nachází se v něm také původní vlakové nádraží z 90. let. Město bylo založeno v roce 1872 norskými misionáři a jeho název znamená v malgaštině „tam, kde je hodně soli“. Je hlavním městem regionu Vakinankaratra, většinu obyvatel tvoří Merinové. Je také sídlem římskokatolické diecéze, hlavním chrámem je Cathédrale Notre-Dame-de-la-Salette. Díky termálním pramenům a mírnému podnebí je Antsirabe využíváno k ozdravným pobytům a má přezdívku „malgašské Vichy“. Oblíbeným turistickým cílem je nedaleké jezero Tritriva. Dopravu ve městě zajišťují převážně typické rikši "pousse-pousse".


Types.

The earliest and most influential of the types of seguidilla are thought to originate in either La Mancha or Andalusia, having become typical of large parts of central Spain. Variants include the "seguidilla manchega" (from La Mancha) as well as the "murciana" from Murcia and the slightly faster "sevillana" of Seville. One of the most complex styles of seguidilla is the "seguidilla flamenca" or "seguiriya"), which is used in flamenco music. Act I of Jacques Offenbach's opera "La Périchole" includes a number entitled "Séguedille".

Dance.

The dance is performed in pairs with animated footwork reflecting the rhythm of the guitar and percussion, yet restrained upper body movement. One technique characteristic of the dance is known as "bien parado", wherein the dancers stop motion at the end of a section of the music or stanza of text while the instruments continue playing into the next section. Usually the woman dancer also holds castanets.  Act I of ballet "Don Quixote" (classical version choreographed by Marius Petipa and restaged by Alexander Gorsky) includes a Seguidilla dance performed by corps de ballet.

Song.

In general, seguidilla folksongs begin with a brief instrumental introduction, often played on guitar, followed by a "salida", which is a small portion of the song text acting as a false start. The remaining sections are free and varied, consisting of instrumental "interludios" and the vocal sections called "coplas".

The 'Seguidilla' in opera.

An original song entitled "Seguidilla" occurs in Act I of the opera "Carmen" by Georges Bizet, where it is sung by the gypsy heroine in a (successful) attempt to seduce her captor, the soldier Don José, into setting her free and meeting her later at the inn of her friend Lillas Pastia. Although this number uses flamenco-style material, it has a slower tempo than the classic Spanish dance form and a more complex structure. It is possible also that the "Veil Song" (Act II, scene 1, of "Don Carlos") by Giuseppe Verdi is meant to evoke the style of a "seguidilla", though stylistically it is closer to a "bolero" with added flamenco-style melodic colouration. Elsewhere, in "La forza del destino", the same composer inserts a folk dance at the beginning of Act II; but although it is labelled "seguidilla" in the score, the passage is written in 4/4, not the triple time usual for a seguidilla. A seguidilla also features in Paisiello's opera "Il barbiere di Siviglia".

The seguidilla (; ; plural in both English and Spanish "seguidillas"; diminutive of "seguida", which means "sequence" and is the name of a dance) is an old Castilian folksong and dance form in quick triple time for two people with many regional variations. The music is generally in a major key and often begins on an offbeat.

Seguidilla ([segidilja]; zdrobnělina od "seguida", což znamená "posloupnost") je stará kastilská lidová píseň a párový tanec v rychlém tříčtvrťovém taktu s mnoha regionálními variacemi. Hudba je obecně v durové tónině a často začíná na nepřízvučnou dobu. "Seguidilla" se objevuje v prvním jednání Bizetovy opery "Carmen", kde ji zpívá cikánská hrdinka.


Symbol.

Kyushu University does not have an official school song, instead it has one cheering song and three student songs including "Matssubara-ni", with lyrics by Yoshifumi Akiyama.  The University's logo features a background of pine needles inset with an older iterance of the kanji for "university". The logo was officially established in 2004, but was originally proposed by a student, Sou Yoshihide, in the mid-20th century, and was used then on from 1950. There have also been alternatives designs, such as those featuring the Japanese "KU" or "Q", for Kyushu instead of "university".  On March 3, prior to the incorporation of national universities in April 2004, the Committee of Public Relations agreed on a new university logo and color that symbolize Kyushu University under the new structure.

University logos.

The pine needle design, which is used in the current university logo, remains in the new logo. On deciding the new logo, consideration was given as to whether it would still be highly distinctive even when electronically rendered. The introduction of the new logo, however, does not limit or eliminate the use of the previous one Fig. B.  Several patterns of university logos (Figs. C-F) have been created for use on PR materials and merchandise. Fig. C uses the same design as Fig. A without the two Chinese characters that mean “university,” while Fig. D illustrates a design using the capital letters of Kyushu University (KU). Fig. E symbolizes the letter “q” for “Q-shu” University. Fig. F is the logo originally printed on the university diploma. These logos are also registered and used as trademarks of Kyushu University.

Logo color.

Dark red colors have been used for the logo of Kyushu University. The committee chose wine red as the new university logo color given that it is similar to the previous one and does not spoil the established image of Kyushu University's logo color. Since the visual effects of color can vary according to usage, a variation of the wine color within an allowable range can be used as the logo color. To allow broader variations, the use of sub-colors was also approved.

Global 30 Project.

On July 3, 2009, Kyushu University was chosen as one of thirteen venues for the “Global 30 (G30) Project”, planned and funded by Japan's Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). The major aim of the project is to further promote the globalization of Japanese higher education by assisting a select number of universities through the prioritized allocation of grants. The recipient schools are expected, among other things, to build and improve a system whereby overseas students may study and engage in research with minimal cultural and linguistic barriers. This more focused approach to budget allocation is also expected to help realize the government's public commitment to accommodate more than 300,000 international students on Japanese campuses by 2020.  In February 2010, the University opened an all-purpose office in Cairo, Egypt, bringing the number of its overseas offices to 13. Although the Cairo Office is managed by Kyushu University, all other Japanese colleges and universities can have access to its services and facilities when trying to recruit students or promote academic projects in Egypt.  By implementing these measures, Kyushu University is expecting to raise the number of its international students to 3,900 within a decade, a 300% increase over the current number. By the time the five-year grant terminates, the University will also have laid the foundation for a new interdisciplinary department (tentatively called the “International School of Arts and Sciences”), which is expected to launch by 2020.

Liberal arts subjects and basic sciences.

For the first year and a half, students in the international undergraduate programs study various liberal arts subjects and basic sciences. This segment of the programs aims not only to equip students with in-depth liberal arts knowledge and to help them deepen their understanding of various disciplines, but also to broaden their range of interests, and to enable them to continue learning independently.

International Cooperation.

MJIIT (Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology).

The governments of Japan and Malaysia have jointly established a university in Malaysia which follows the Japanese style of education in engineering. It opened in September 2011. From the time the concept of this project was initiated, Kyushu University has played a core role and now, as the leading university of mechanical precision engineering subcommittee of a school specializing in precision mechanical engineering, it hopes to take an active role in the promotion of this project.

AUN/SEED-NET.

(ASEAN University Network/ Southeast Asia Engineering Education Development Network) The AUN/SEED-Net was established in 2003 to full the following; to strengthen the main ASEAN universities education and research abilities, to strengthen the network between the universities of all the countries involved, including Japan, as well as, continuing to produce scientists needed in the economic and social areas of ASEAN nations. By accepting International Students and dispatching teachers, Kyushu University endeavors to train teachers of universities in ASEAN nations.

BOP by ICT.

Income generation project for farmers at the BOP by ICT Kyushu University uses the funding from JICA to support Bangladeshi farming villages by creating business centers where ICT is used to provide farmers with the necessary information for farming. These centers are available anytime the farmer would like to visit. They are information hubs, where useful information regarding farmers produce and sales are being distributed by the use of ICT, amongst farmers in the hope that this will improve their income and reduce poverty.

Graduate schools and faculties.

Kyushu University has instituted a Graduate School/Graduate Faculty system - the first attempt of this kind at a Japanese university - as part of the overall reorganization of undergraduate and graduate education at the university in 2000. In separating the former Graduate School into the Graduate School (the education body) and the Graduate Faculty (the research body to which faculty members belong), the University is seeking to revitalize relationships between the Graduate Faculty and the Graduate School, and the Graduate Faculty and Undergraduate School. These changes should promote a more dynamic functioning of the Graduate Faculty in its relation to the Graduate School and the Undergraduate School. (Refer to chart below.)  Under the Graduate School/Faculty system, all faculty members have been transferred from members of the Undergraduate Faculty to members of the Graduate Faculty. In addition, the educational body (Graduate School) and research body (Graduate Faculty) have become independent administrative entities. This new, more responsive administrative mechanism will enable Graduate Faculty members to participate more flexibly in the education of both the Undergraduate and Graduate School bodies. In implementing a more dynamic configuration of the education bodies (Undergraduate and Graduate Schools) and research body (Graduate Faculty), the university can more readily accommodate changes and shifts to pedagogic and research foci that may occur in the future.

Kyushu University Hospital.

History.

Kyushu University is one of the seven former Imperial Universities created in the Meiji period. The university is the largest research university in the Kyushu region with research centers in eleven different academic faculties, including the humanities, social sciences, medicine, and science.  Kyushu University Hospital is affiliated with the Faculty of Medical Sciences and the Faculty of Dental Science.

Research institutes.

Medical Institute of Bio-regulation.

The Medical Institute of Bioregulation at Kyushu University seeks to facilitate understanding of the essential regulatory mechanisms involved in human biology at the cellular and molecular levels, with a long-term goal of curing diseases.

Research Institute for Applied Mechanics.

The Research Institute for Applied Mechanics (RIAM) was established in, and consists of three research divisions (the Division of Renewable Energy Dynamics, the Division of Earth Environment Dynamics, and the Division of Nuclear Fusion Dynamics) as well as the two research centers of the Center for East Asian Ocean-Atmosphere Dynamics (COAR) and the Advanced Fusion Research Center (AFRC). In 1997, RIAM was recognized as an inter-university collaboration research institute and became a Center of Excellence (COE), nationally promoted by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). In 0 0, RIAM was again admitted to the COE of applied mechanics for the period between 0 0 and 0 by MEXT.

Institute for Materials Chemistry and Engineering.

The IMCE consists of four divisions engaged in a wide variety of research, including the synthesis of new functional molecules, the chemistry of new molecular assemblies, the chemistry of organic-inorganic hybrid materials, and the processing of advanced materials into devices. In cooperation with research groups in each field, the IMCE promotes research related to the basic science and application of the structure and functions of materials ranging from the atomic, molecular and nanoscale to macroscales. The IMCE is spread across three campuses in Chikushi, Hakozaki and Ito. The faculty members on each campus respectively belong to the Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Engineering Sciences, the Graduate School of Sciences, and the Graduate School of Engineering, as well as the Graduate School of Integrated Frontier Sciences. Their work includes recruiting graduate students for masters and doctoral courses in their respective graduate schools.

Institute of Mathematics for Industry.

Mathematics for Industry (MI) is a new research area that will provide a foundation for creating future technologies. It has been created with the aim of responding to the needs of the industrial sector by reorganizing and merging pure and applied mathematics into flexible and versatile forms. The Institute of Mathematics for Industry (IMI), established in April 2011, is the first research organization for mathematics in Asia involved with industrial technologies. It is constituted by the divisions of "Advanced Mathematics Technology", "Applied Mathematics" and "Fundamental Mathematics". Also included is the Office for Promotion of Collaboration and Consultation to promote smooth interaction and joint research with industry.

Institute of Health Science.

The Institute of Health Science was established in 1978 as a comprehensive research and educational institute to tackle fundamental issues of health science, and to promote and maintain human health by using innovative and unique research.

Information Infrastructure Initiative.

The Information Infrastructure Initiative is an organization that provides information infrastructures for both inside and outside of Kyushu University. For inside the university, the Information Infrastructure Initiative provides services such as Educational Computer Environments, Campus-Wide Software, Authentication and Authorization, Teleconferencing, University Mail, Hosting Services, Shared Storage, Networks, and Information Security. For outside the university, the Information Infrastructure Initiative provides high performance computing resources and academic databases for university researchers all over Japan. The Information Infrastructure Initiative is composed of the Research Division, the Technical Support Division, and the Administration Division. The Research Division has six sections: The Academic Information Section, Language Education Environment Section, Learning Spaces Design Section, Next Generation and Future Network Section, Interdisciplinary Computational Science Section and Advanced Computing Infrastructure Section.

Research Institute for East Asia Environments (RIEAE).

The East Asian Environmental Problems Project, overseen by Kyushu University, was initiated in September 2007 as one of the events conducted to mark the 100th anniversary of the university. The project was reestablished as the Research Institute for East Asia Environments (RIEAE) in April 2009. RIEAE proposes what our nation must do as a member of the community of East Asian countries to find and provide practical solutions to environmental problems that require international cooperation with industry, government, and academia.  The mission of RIEAE is to provide practical solutions to environmental problems, which are growing in severity in the East Asian region. RIEAE was established as a leading institute that seeks to quickly respond to the diverse and pressing environmental issues of the East Asian region, and to contribute to the development of the East Asian region through international cooperation with industry, government, and academia. Presided over by the president of Kyushu University, RIEAE is one of the university's largest specific research projects.

TOPICS-Distinctive Research and Education.

LL.M. Program in International Economic & Business Law.

Taught from a Japanese perspective, the one-year program offers students the opportunity to study international economic and business law, and Japanese and comparative law in a Japanese law faculty. A three-year LL.D. program and another one-year Master's course in Comparative Studies of Politics and Administration in Asia (CSPA) were launched in October 1999. As a result of the success of these programs, in 2001, Kyushu University was invited by the Ministry of Education to host the Young Leader's Program in Law, a program which, among others, seeks to foster good relations among future national leaders in Asia and other countries. In 2009, it was again selected by the Ministry of Education to host a Bilingual Program in law (LL.M). This unique master aims to overcome barriers of language and culture in the field of international law. This is achieved through law classes conducted in both Japanese and English, an internship, as well as a thesis written in both languages. Its first batch of students graduated in 2010.

Exploratry Research for Advanced Technology (ERATO).

The Exploratory Research for Advanced Technology (ERATO) research funding program was founded in 1981, to promote basic research in science and technology. Its mission was to make Japan a world leader in science and technology: bringing a brighter future for Japan as well as making significant contributions to the international community.  In 2002, influenced by the government's “Second-stage Basic Plan (Master Plan) for Science and Technology” (2001-2006) and by the strategies set_up by the Council for Science and Technology Policy (CSTP), ERATO received a complete makeover, under the bigger umbrella of “Strategic Basic Research Programs” initiated by the government.  The goal of Strategic Basic Research Programs is to promote problem-solving oriented basic research, guided by strategies set by the government based on social and economic needs as well as the national policy on science and technology.

International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (I2CNER).

Director: Prof. Petros Sofronis  The International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (I2CNER) was established on the Ito Campus in December, 2010. I2CNER is the newest of six research institutes to be funded under the World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI) program sponsored by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). The objective of the I2CNER is to realize a carbon-neutral energy fueled society through Green Innovation.

Center for Organic Photonics and Electronics Research.

Director: Prof. Chihaya Adachi  The new research building for the Center for Organic Photonics and Electronics Research (OPERA) was completed at the ITO campus in August 2011 and several OPERA research laboratories have been constructed inside. The building has three doors and is 2400 square meters in area, and has a clean room, physical equipment room, synthetic laboratory rooms, conference rooms and a cafe.

JST ERATO Takahara Soft Interfaces Project.

The 19th century was the era of hard materials such as steel, some of which were replaced by polymers in the 20th century. The 21st century will be the time of “soft materials”, including polymers, colloids, gels, vesicles, emulsions, films, surfactants, micelles, suspensions and liquid crystals. They are essential to produce various electrical & optical devices, and biodevices etc. The soft materials are increasingly indispensable in our daily lives. Since surfaces and interfaces of soft materials“( soft interfaces”) play an important role in various technological applications and bio-interfaces, precise control of soft interfaces would greatly promote the innovation of future science and technology. In this project, we are focusing on the understanding of fundamental science of soft interfaces formed in nature and extract the molecular and structure design principles. The following three groups are organized in order to pursue this project: 1) Precise molecular design of soft interfaces based on precise synthetic chemistry, 2) Hierarchical structural control and fabrication of soft interfaces through understanding natural systems, and 3) Development of in situ and dynamical characterization methods of soft interfaces.

Academic rankings.

General rankings.

The university has been ranked 5th in the 2020 Times Higher Education Japan University Rankings, which is one rank down from 2019. In another ranking, Japanese prep school ranked Kyushu as the 7th best university in Japan.  It has been ranked 132nd in the 2020 QS World University Rankings, and 401-500th in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings.  According to QS, its subject rankings were: 123rd in Engineering & IT, 170th in Life Sciences & Biomedicine, and 150th in Natural Sciences. It is also the 18th best university in Asia, according to QS Asian University rankings.

Research performance.

Kyushu is one of the top research institutions in Japan. According to Thomson Reuters, Kyushu is the 6th best research university in Japan. Its research excellence is especially distinctive in Materials Science (6th in Japan, 49th in the world), Chemistry (6th in Japan, 41st in the world), Biology & Biochemistry (4th in Japan, 95th in the world), Immunology (4th in Japan, 68th in the world), and Pharmacology & Toxicology (4th in Japan, 76th in the world).  "" reported that Kyushu has the 16th highest research standard in Japan in terms of research funding per researchers in. In the same article, it is also ranked fifth in terms of the quality of education by funds per student.  Furthermore, Nikkei Shimbun on 2004/2/16 surveyed about the research standards in Engineering studies based on Thomson Reuters, and questionnaires to heads of 93 leading Japanese Research Centers, and Kyushu was placed 11th (research planning ability 10th) in this ranking.  Kyushu University is one of Japan's National Seven Universities. Since Prof. Suzuki received the Nobel Prize in 2010, all the other Universities have alumni or professors who received a Nobel Prize. Kyushu University is the only National Seven University whose alumni or staff have not won a Nobel Prize.

Graduate school rankings.

Eduniversal ranked Kyushu as 9th in the rankings of "Excellent Business Schools nationally strong and/or with continental links " in Japan.  Kyushu was ranked 12th in the number of successful candidates of the Japanese Bar Examination in 2009 and 15th in 2010 in Japan.

Alumni rankings.

According to the's 2010 rankings, graduates from Kyushu have the 53rd best employment rate in 400 major companies in Japan.  École des Mines de Paris ranks Kyushu University as 38th in the world in 2011 in terms of the number of alumni listed among CEOs in the 500 largest worldwide companies.

Popularity and selectivity.

Kyushu is one of the most selective universities in Japan. Its entrance difficulty is usually considered as one of the top in Japan.

Scholarships for international students.

Kyushu offers a number of selected scholarships for international students. Some of them are:

, abbreviated to, is a Japanese national university located in Fukuoka, in the island of Kyushu. It was the 4th Imperial Universities in Japan, ranked as 4th in 2020 Times Higher Education Japan University Rankings, and selected as a Top Type university of Top Global University Project by the Japanese government. Kyudai is considered as one of the most prestigious research-oriented universities in Japan and is a member of the Alliance of Asian Liberal Arts Universities along with the University of Tokyo, Waseda University, Peking University and others.

Kjúšúská univerzita ( – "Kjúšú daigaku") je státní univerzita na ostrově Kjúšú v Japonsku. Sídlí ve městě Fukuoka ve stejnojmenné prefektuře.