Background.

KARI began on October 10, 1989 as a national aerospace research institute with the purpose of contributing to sound development of the national economy and enhancement of people's lives through a new exploration, technological advancement, development, and dissemination in the field of aerospace science and technology.  KARI began in 1989 to develop its own rockets. It produced the KSR-I and KSR-II, one and two-stage rockets in the early 1990s.  In December 1997 it began development of a LOX/kerosene rocket engine. KARI wished to develop satellite launch capability. A test launch of the KSR-III took place in 2002.

Aerospace developments.

KARI is also developing Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, high-altitude airships, a next-generation multi-purpose helicopter project, next- generation medium satellite, and a lunar exploration project. In addition, several satellites, including the KOMPSAT (also known as Arirang) Series, the COMS (Communication, Ocean and Meteorological Satellite), and the STSAT (Science and Technology Satellite), are developed, operated, or under development by KARI. On January 30, 2013, they launched a satellite into space from their own soil for the first time.

Space Launch Vehicles.

KSLV-1 and KSLV-2.

KSLV-1 launched on August 25, 2009. It was originally a cluster indigenous liquid KSR-III rockets with a solid propellant to form a multistage launcher. However, KARI experienced more difficulties than expected in SLV development, because it required much stronger propellant power than KSR-III possessed to launch a satellite into orbit. After several failed attempts, KARI turned to Russia's Khrunichev Design Bureau for assistance in developing a liquid-propellant rocket engine for the KSLV-1 as well as for cooperation in the construction of the launch facility at the Naro Space Center. KSLV-1 was transformed into a two-stage launcher, 33 m high with a maximum diameter of 2.9 m. It has a mass of 140 tons at lift-off. The first stage of the launcher was derived from the Russian URM-1 (Universal Rocket Module) developed by Khrunichev. The second stage of the launcher was a solid Kick Motor developed by Korea, which includes the Inertial Navigation System; the power, control, and flight safety systems; plus the nose fairing. KSLV-1 was the most prominent project of the whole South Korean space development program and was successfully launched in late January 2013. South Korea is planning to launch its next rocket KSLV-2 by year 2021. The first stage of its rocket will have 4 clustered engines, each of which will have a 75 metric ton thrust. It was announced that KARI has already developed few prototypes of a 75 metric ton thrust engine.

KSLV-2 TLV.

The Test Launch Vehicle (TLV) is an one stage rocket used to test the performance of the 75-ton thrust rocket engine that will power the KSLV-2. The TLV is 25.8 meters in length, 2.6 meters in diameter, and with a mass of 52.1 tons. The main-stage Kerolox engine is fully gimballed.

Test flight #1.

The first TLV was launched from the Naro Space Center in Goheung, South Jeolla Province. The main objective of the first suborbital flight was for the single-stage rocket's main engine to burn 140 seconds, reaching a 100 km altitude before splashing down in the sea between Jeju Island and Okinawa Island.  The maiden flight was first delayed from October 25, 2018, for two months, due to abnormal readings detected in the rocket propellant pressurization system. The test flight was then rescheduled for November 28, 2018, at 16:00 KST(UTC+9). No payload is to be placed into orbit.  The launch of the first TLV while deemed successful with its main engine burning for 151 seconds in a 10-minute flight, was not broadcast live. After reaching a maximum suborbital altitude of 209 kilometers, the rocket stage hit the ocean 429 kilometers southeast of Jeju.

Korean Lunar Exploration Program.

In December 2016, KARI signed a lunar exploration technical cooperation with NASA which increased the possibility of exploration success greatly. The Korean Lunar Exploration Program (KLEP) is divided in two phases. Phase 1 incorporates the launch and operation of a lunar orbiter called Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter (KPLO), which will be the first lunar probe by South Korea, meant to develop and enhance South Korea's technological capabilities, as well as map natural resources from orbit. Phase 2 will include a lunar obiter, a lunar lander, and a rover to be launched together on a KSLV-II South Korean rocket from the Naro Space Center, by 2030.

Satellite Navigation.

KASS is the Korean model of satellite-based augmented systems (SBAS), a technology that is capable of reducing GPS error to less than 3m. Korea is expected to become the only seventh country in the world to own an SBAS, beginning in July 2020.

Korea Multiple- Purpose Satellite-3A.

Korea Multiple-Purpose Satellite- 3A (KOMPSAT-3A) was launched on 25 March 2015, on a Dnepr-1 launch vehicle from the Jasny Kombarovsky site in Russia. The purpose of the KOMPSAT-3A is to enable us to take advantage of geographical information systems (GIS) in environmental, agricultural, and oceanographic sciences, and to facilitate responding to natural hazards. The KOMPSAT-3A is equipped with two distinctive sensors, a high-resolution multi-spectral (MS) optical sensor, namely the Advanced Earth Image Sensor System-A (AEISS-A), and the Scanner Infrared Imaging System (SIIS).

Smart Tilt Rotor UAV.

In late 2011, KARI unveiled its tiltrotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) that can fly at around 400 km/hr.

The Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) established in 1989, is the aeronautics and space agency of South Korea. Its main laboratories are located in Daejeon, in the Daedeok Science Town. KARI's vision is to continue building upon indigenous launch capabilities, strengthen national safety and public service, industrialize satellite information and applications technology, explore the moon, and develop environmentally-friendly and highly-efficient cutting-edge aircraft and core aerospace technology. Current projects include the KSLV-2 launcher. Past projects include the 1999 Arirang-1 satellite. The agency was founded in 1989. Prior to South Korea's entry into the IAE in 1992, it focused primarily on aerospace technology.

Korejský výzkumný institut pro letectví a vesmír (; ) je vládní agentura Jižní Koreje pro letectví a kosmický výzkum se sídlem v Tedžonu, založená roku 1989. V prvních letech se soustřeďovala především na leteckou technologii, v současné době vyvíjí vlastní nosnou raketu KSLV.


History.

Concepción was founded by Don Pedro de Valdivia in 1550 north of the Bío Bío River, at the site which is today known as Penco. At that time it was given the name "Concepción de María Purísima del Nuevo Extremo" (Mary Immaculate Conception of the New End). The new settlement of Concepción was just a few kilometers north of "La Frontera" (The Frontier), the boundary between Spanish territory and the land of the Mapuche, an American Indian ethnic group that remained independent until the 1870s. The settlement was formally recognized by the Spanish authorities as a town two years later by a royal decree. It was given a coat-of-arms that is still in use today.  At the time of the Spanish arrival to the Concepción area chronicler Jerónimo de Vivar noted local Mapuches wore gold and silver bracelets and "sort of crowns". This is interpreted either as Incan gifts, war spoils from defeated Incas, or adoption of Incan metallurgy.  Although Concepción was a significant military settlement for the Captaincy General of Chile, it was overrun and destroyed by Mapuche armies in 1554, and once again after being refounded in 1555. Concepción was restored during the governorship of García Hurtado de Mendoza when he landed there and built a fort on the Alto de Pinto in 1557. The town was refounded once more on January 6, 1558, by captain Jerónimo de Villegas. It became the headquarters of the military forces engaged against the Mapuche in La Araucanía over the next two centuries, growing to a population of 10,000 despite a siege in 1564 and other attacks by the Mapuche. Concepción was the home of the Real Audiencia from 1565 to 1575.  Earthquakes and tsunamis, which razed the town in 1570, 1657, 1687, 1730 and 1751, led the authorities to move the town to its current site in the Valle de la Mocha, alongside the Bío Bío River; the old site lay empty until March 29, 1842, when the present town of Penco was founded.  The new site for the town of Concepción became the main town of the Intendancy of Concepción, whose jurisdiction extended from the Maule River to La Frontera. The first Intendant of Concepción was the Irishman Ambrose O'Higgins, Marquis of Osorno, who later became Royal Governor of Chile and Viceroy of Peru.  When the First National Government Board met in Santiago on September 18, 1810, citizens of Concepción joined up. Concepción was used as the point of entry by the Spanish Army in the attempt by the Viceroyalty of Peru to re-conquer Chile. Concepción politicians and soldiers became a significant political force in the newly independent country.  On January 1, 1818, Ambrose O'Higgins's son, Bernardo O'Higgins, proclaimed and took the oath of the Chilean War of Independence in the main square of Concepción, which since then has been known as "Plaza de la Independencia". On February 20, 1835, the town again was largely destroyed by an earthquake and had to be rebuilt.  By 1875, a key British community and German colony existed within the province. By 1895, there was an even larger Spanish presence.  Concepción is the second largest city of Chile. The Universidad de Concepción, founded in 1919, became the first secular private university in Chile. The neighboring harbor of Talcahuano is the site of the largest naval base in Chile.  On February 27, 2010, an 8.8 magnitude earthquake struck the city of Concepción, killing more than 521 people and injuring thousands nationwide. Following the earthquake, geologists relying on global positioning satellite (GPS) data concluded that the city had been displaced roughly to the west as a result of the event. The tsunami that followed missed the city.  After the 2010 Chile earthquake, a prison riot began in Concepción's El Manzano prison following a failed escape attempt by the inmates. Different parts of the prison were set on fire and the riot was controlled only after the guards shot into the air and received help from military units. As of 5 March 2010, a Peruvian field hospital has been deployed to the city.

Seismology.

Like most of Chilean territory, the Concepción region is seismically active, with much of Concepción destroyed by a violent earthquake in 1939. An earthquake in 1953 damaged 15% of the town's buildings. Another major earthquake in 1960 had a nearby epicenter.  On February 27, 2010, an earthquake of 8.8 magnitude struck at 35.846°S, 72.719°W, NNE of the city. The United States Geological Survey said the earthquake struck at 0334 GMT on Saturday at a depth of. The effects were felt as far away as São Paulo, Brazil—.

Education.

Concepción is known as ""the university city"" thanks to the numerous universities within the urban agglomeration, since one of the most important universities of the country were founded here, such as the Universidad de Concepción, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción and Universidad del Biobío. This city also has numerous headquarters for many other universities. In addition, this metropolis has a large educational offer, focused on institutes, centers of technical formation and the universities already mentioned above.

Universities.

The University Pencopolitana whose name was Pontificia Universidad Pencopolitana de La Concepción (Pontifical Pencopolitana University of The Conception) was an old university founded though a decree of the Bishop of Concepción, delivered to the administration of the Society of Jesus which functioned between the years 1724 and 1767. In May 24 of 1751 an earthquake followed by a tsunami, ravaged the city causing serious damage, including the destruction of the library of the University and all of its funds. As a product of the fury of the waters, a rich collection of texts of the governance of southern Chile were lost, which resulted in a disaster for the culture and collective memory of the city. Due to the natural disasters, it was decided to relocate the city to the called Valle de la Mocha, location where it is currently situated. Slowly the seminary was revived in the new location, in a period of decline in academic activity in Chilean monastic universities after the creation of the Universidad de San Felipe, yet some degrees continued to be granted before the Suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1767. The aforementioned University is considered to be the natural and legitimate predecessor of the Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción (UCSC), erected by the Archbishop of Concepción in 1991, from the Talcahuano Regional Headquarters of the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile.  The image of the Pontifical University of Concepción Pencopolitana, is still valid, for His Majesty King Juan Carlos I of Spain in his 1990 speech on the occasion of his inauguration as Doctor Honoris Causa in the University of Chile, in Santiago de Chile, said: "The work of the Pontifical University Pencopolitana should not be ignored, even before the creation of the University of San Felipe" (Juan Carlos's account fails to acknowledge the existence of San Felipe's predecessor, the Dominican Universidad de Santo Tomás de Aquino, from the sixteenth century in Santiago).  Meanwhile, the University of Chile allowed schools in the city to teach courses in law which allowed men to obtain a law degree. Among its students was Henry Urrutia Manzano, who decades later became president of the Supreme Court of Chile.  The Universidad de Concepción was created in 1919 by a group of citizens including Enrique Molina Garmendia, its first rector.  Eventually the university began to receive state support, becoming part of the traditional universities, becoming one of three most important universities in the country, and the most importance at the regional level.

Primary and secondary schools.

The city has a French international school, the "Lycée Français Charles de Gaulle" and a German school, the Colegio Alemán de Concepción and a British school, Saint John's School, the former located in the city downtown and the latter examples in San Pedro de la Paz.

Transportation.

The city is served by Carriel Sur International Airport in Talcahuano.

Climate.

The climate of Concepción is classified as Köppen "Csb", with a dry summer nadir in February. The cool waters of the Pacific Ocean help to maintain mild temperatures throughout the year. Temperatures rarely exceed or fall below. In the six-month period between May and October, the city receives approximately 83% of its total annual precipitation, which totals. The wettest month since records began in 1912 was June 2000 with, whilst all months from November to April have been rainless on occasions. The maritime cooling brings much cooler temperatures than nearby inland areas on the same parallel in Argentina, where average summer highs match Concepción's all-time records. Summer temperatures for the 36 degrees latitude are rarely as cool as they are in Concepción, and on the Atlantic coast of Argentina, similar or hotter summer temperatures are found much further from the equator. However, this moderation is evident for the entire Chilean Pacific so is not unique for Concepción. Similar cool-summer mediterranean climate tendencies are found on the West Coast of North America on similar parallels, even though Concepción tends to have slightly wetter winters than San Francisco for example. Conversely, record winter nighttime temperatures in Concepcion are significantly more moderate than temperatures recorded on the Argentine Atlantic coast at the same latitude, where temperatures below have occurred.  As might be expected for such a large urban area heavily dependent on wood-burning for heat and diesel for transport, the air in Concepción is the third-most polluted in Chile, after Santiago and Temuco.

Demographics.

According to data collected on 2002 in the Census of the National Institute of Statistics, the township has an area of and a population of 216,061 inhabitants, of whom 103,860 are men and 112,201 are women.  Conception is home to 11.61% of the total population of the region. 1.88% (4,058 persons) is for rural population and 98.12% (212,003) to urban population.  Between 1970 and 1982 there is a large increase in the population. One reason is the inclusion of San Pedro, segregated from the municipality of Coronel.  The Concepción commune population declined sharply because in 1996 it was divided, creating Chiguayante and San Pedro de la Paz. In these communes the population has grown quickly since they have become bedroom communities of "Concepción", i.e. residential cities that do not have a center with many shops, such as Concepcion.  It is projected that by 2009 an estimated population of 227,768 inhabitants live in the commune.  There is a significant percentage of foreign residents in the city, the most numerous are the Spanish, Italian and US expatriate communities. There are also smaller segments of German, French, British, Dutch, Greek, Portuguese, Croatian, Scandinavian, Arab and Australian descendants in a city settled by waves of immigration.

Cultural life.

To an outsider, there may be confusion between the demonyms of the inhabitants of Concepción and the nearby city of Penco. Due to the previous location of Concepción being where Penco currently stands, inhabitants of Concepción are called "penquistas" while inhabitants of Penco are known as "pencones".  Concepción is one of the most active cities in Chilean rock music and many rock groups in Chile were formed in Concepción. The city has the second largest concentration of universities in Chile, and is home to Universidad de Concepción, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María and Universidad del Bío Bío

Music.

Concepción has been described as the "capital of Chilean rock", since numerous bands of this genre have been founded in the city, such as Los Tres, Los Bunkers, Emociones Clandestinas and Santos Dumont. Numerous bands have played their first major concerts in the city, such as Los Prisioneros.  Concepción is also known as "the university city", for the number of universities that exist and which also represent an alternative to various regions of Chile.

Sports.

Concepción is home of three professional football teams:  Basketball is also played at a high professional level. The most notable team is:

Economy.

Historically characterized by a strong manufacturing industry, Concepción has also been a major center for distribution and services and the financial basis of the regional economy.

Commerce.

Trade in the city is concentrated in the "Plaza Independencia" (Independence Square), the pedestrian street "Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga" (built in 1981), and along the major avenues. One such avenue is the "Diego Barros Arana" street which has developed into the commercial center of the city and the region was until 1907 even known as ""calle Comercio"" ("Commerce Street"). New commercial centers are being developed around the old central station and the new civic district as a part of the Chilean bicentennial (September 18, 2010). A considerable percentage of local trade is taking place in settlements around the city, in communes such as Hualpén, Talcahuano and San Pedro de la Paz, where there are bustling shopping centers, such as Mall Plaza del Trébol, and where there is a constant commercial development.  Other commercial spots, related to food, are the Vega Monumental and Mercado Central de Concepción (Central Market of Concepción) places offering various services and agricultural and livestock products.

Administration.

As a commune, Concepción is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2016–2020 mayor is Alvaro Ortiz Vera (Christian Democratic Party), who was first elected in 2012. The communal council has 10 seats, which are currently occupied (2016–2020) by three for Christian Democratic Party, two for National Renewal, two for Independent Democrat Union, one for Communist Party, one for Socialist Party, and one for Radical Party. The following members are:  Within the electoral divisions of Chile, Concepción is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Gaston Saavedra (PS), José Miguel Ortiz (PDC), Jaime Toha (PS), Felix Gonzalez (PEV), Enrique Van Rysselberghe (UDI), Sergio Bobadilla (UDI), Francesca Muñoz (RN) and Leonidas Romero (RN), as part of the 21st electoral district (Concepción Province without Lota). The commune is represented in the Senate by Alejandro Navarro Brain (MAS) and Jacqueline Van Rysselberghe (UDI) as part of the 12th senatorial constituency (Biobío-Costa).

Twin towns – sister cities.

Concepción's sister cities are:

Concepción (; in full: "Concepción de la Madre Santísima de la Luz", "Conception of the Blessed Mother of Light") is a city in central Chile and the core of the commune and metropolitan area of Greater Concepción, the country's third largest urban conurbation. It has a significant impact on domestic trade being part of the most heavily industrialized region in the country. Its location is in the called "Zona Centro Sur" (Central South Zone), in the geographic center of the country, and it is the capital of the Concepción Province and Bío Bío Region. It sits about 500 km south of Santiago, the country's capital.

Concepción je město, nacházející se v centrální-jižní části Chile, je hlavním městem stejnojmenné provincie i VIII. oblasti Biobío. Je známa jako „La Perla del Biobío“ („Perla Biobía“) a její metropolitní oblast se nazývá Gran Concepción.


Dam wall.

The actual dam is a high gravity dam made of 16 segments that is above the valley floor and wide at the crest. The individual segments of the dam are sealed on the upstream side with copper sheets set into the concrete. In addition the joints are sealed with tar and hemp. The flexure of the individual segments under water pressure is constantly monitored. By means of pendulums suspended on the dam wall the degree of flex can be measures. The movement of segments relative to one another is also under constant observation. The wall has several galleries for inspection purposes. Two bottom outlets have been installed at the base. The huge annular piston valves can deliver up to of water. It is currently being investigated whether the water outflow can be used for energy purposes.  The bedrock consists of manganese slate that is not particularly watertight. So that the dam wall is not lifted up from underneath by water pressure at the base, the pressure at the foot is relieved by over 40 bubble caps ("Glocken") with drainage pipes ("Steigleitungen"). The building water pressure is measured at intervals. By means of the observation well, the long term condition of the mountain is investigated.  The operator, the Saxony-Anhalt Dam Company ("Talsperrenbetrieb Sachsen-Anhalt"), has made the Wendefurth Dam accessible to visitors. In an adjacent engineering park, old dam components are given a final use.  There is a good viewing point over the dam and reservoir at "Talsperrenblick" on the hillside beyond the eastern end of the reservoir, accessible on footpaths from Wendefurth. It is checkpoint 62 in the Harzer Wandernadel hiking system.

The Wendefurth Dam () near Wendefurth in the Harz is one of the dams downstream of the Rappbode Dam, that provides flood protection as well as impounding the River Bode to provide the lower reservoir for the Wendefurth Power Station. In addition it is a bathing lake and also supports fish farming.

Vodní nádrž Wendefurth (německy: "Talsperre Wendefurth") je pojmenována podle města Wendefurth v Harzu. Je součástí systému vodní ochrany a je po proudu vodní nádrže Rappbode. Byla vystavěna mezi léty 1957–1966. Jezero nádrže je vyhledávaným místem ke koupání a je zde i chov ryb.


Etymology.

The name of the Hakka people who are the predominant original native speakers of the variety literally means "guest families" or "guest people": "Hak" (Mandarin: ) means "guest", and "ka" 家 (Mandarin: ) means "family". Among themselves, Hakka people variously called their language "Hak-ka-fa" ("-va"), "Hak-fa" ("-va"), "Tu-gong-dung-fa" ("-va"), literally "Native Guangdong language", and "Ngai-fa" ("-va"), "My/our language". In Tonggu County, Jiangxi province, people call their language "Huai-yuan-fa" ().

History.

Early history.

It is commonly believed that Hakka people have their origins in several episodes of migration from northern China into southern China during periods of war and civil unrest dating back as far as the end of Western Jin. The forebears of the Hakka came from present-day Central Plains provinces of Henan and Shaanxi, and brought with them features of Chinese varieties spoken in those areas during that time. (Since then, the speech in those regions has evolved into dialects of modern Mandarin). The presence of many archaic features occur in modern Hakka, including final consonants, as are found in other modern southern Chinese varieties, but which have been lost in Mandarin.  Laurent Sagart (2002) considers Hakka and southern Gan Chinese to be sister dialects that descended from a single common ancestral language (Proto-Southern Gan) spoken in central Jiangxi during the Song Dynasty. In Hakka and southern Gan, Sagart (2002) identifies a non-Chinese substratum that is possibly Hmong-Mien, an archaic layer, and a more recent Late Middle Chinese layer. Lexical connections between Hakka, Kra-Dai, and Hmong-Mien have also been suggested by Deng (1999).  Due to the migration of its speakers, Hakka may have been influenced by other language areas through which the Hakka-speaking forebears migrated. For instance, common vocabulary is found in Hakka, Min, and the She (Hmong–Mien) languages. Today, most She people in Fujian and Zhejiang speak Shehua, which is closely related to Hakka.

Linguistic development.

A regular pattern of sound change can generally be detected in Hakka, as in most Chinese varieties, of the derivation of phonemes from earlier forms of Chinese. Some examples:

Dialects.

Hakka has as many regional dialects as there are counties with Hakka speakers as the majority. Some of these Hakka dialects are not mutually intelligible with each other. Meixian is surrounded by the counties of Pingyuan, Dabu, Jiaoling, Xingning, Wuhua, and Fengshun. Each county has its own special phonological points of interest. For instance, Xingning lacks the codas and. These have merged into and, respectively. Further away from Meixian, the Hong Kong dialect lacks the medial, so, whereas Meixian pronounces the character 光 as, Hong Kong Hakka dialect pronounces it as, which is similar to the Hakka spoken in neighbouring Shenzhen.  As much as endings and vowels are important, the tones also vary across the dialects of Hakka. The majority of Hakka dialects have six tones. However, there are dialects which have lost all of their checked tone (Ru Sheng), and the characters originally of this tone class are distributed across the non-Ru tones. Such a dialect is Changting which is situated in the Western Fujian province. Moreover, there is evidence of the retention of an earlier Hakka tone system in the dialects of Haifeng and Lufeng situated on coastal south eastern Guangdong province. They contain a yin-yang splitting in the Qu tone, giving rise to seven tones in all (with yin-yang registers in Ping and Ru tones and a Shang tone).  In Taiwan, there are two main dialects: Sixian and Hailu (alternatively known as Haifeng; Hailu refers to Haifeng County and Lufeng County). Most Hakka dialect speakers found on Taiwan originated from these two regions. Sixian speakers come from Jiaying Prefecture (), mainly from the four counties of Chengxiang (now Meixian District), Zhengping (now Jiaoling), Xingning and Pingyuan. Most dialects of Taiwanese Hakka, except Sixian and Dabu, preserved postalveolar consonants (,, and ), which are uncommon in other southern Chinese varieties.  "Ethnologue" reports the dialects as "Yue-Tai" (Meixian, Wuhua, Raoping, Taiwan Kejia: Meizhou above), "Yuezhong "(Central Guangdong), "Huizhou, Yuebei" (Northern Guangdong), "Tingzhou" (Min-Ke), "Ning-Long" (Longnan), "Yugui, Tonggu."

Vocabulary.

Like other southern Chinese varieties, Hakka retains single syllable words from earlier stages of Chinese; thus a large number of syllables are distinguished by tone and final consonant. This reduces the need for compounding or making words of more than one syllable. However, it is also similar to other Chinese varieties in having words which are made from more than one syllable.  Hakka, as well as numerous other Chinese varieties such as Min and Cantonese, prefers the verb when referring to "saying" rather than the Mandarin (Hakka ).  Hakka uses, like Cantonese for the verb "to eat" and (Hakka ) for "to drink", unlike Mandarin which prefers (Hakka ) as "to eat" and "hē" (Hakka ) as "to drink" where the meanings in Hakka are different, "to stutter" and "to be thirsty" respectively.

Writing systems.

Various dialects of Hakka have been written in a number of Latin orthographies, largely for religious purposes, since at least the mid-19th century.  Previously, the single largest work in Hakka was the New Testament and Psalms (1993, 1138 pp., see The Bible in Chinese: Hakka), but since 2012 that has been surpassed by the publication of the complete Hakka Bible known as the and includes the Old Testament along with audio recordings. These works render Hakka in both romanization (pha̍k-fa-sṳ) and Han characters (including ones unique to Hakka) and are based on the dialects of Taiwanese Hakka speakers. The work of Biblical translation is being performed by missionaries of the Presbyterian Church in Canada.  The popular "The Little Prince" has also been translated into Hakka (2000), specifically the Miaoli dialect of Taiwan (itself a variant of the Sixian dialect). This also was dual-script, albeit using the Tongyong Pinyin scheme.

Media.

Hakka TV is a state-run, primarily Hakka-language television channel in Taiwan that started in 2003. In mainland China, Meizhou Televisions's Hakka Public Channel () has broadcasts 24 hours a day in Hakka since 2006.

Hakka is a language group of varieties of Chinese, spoken natively by the Hakka people throughout southern China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau and throughout the diaspora areas of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and in overseas Chinese communities around the world.

Hakka (či "hakkština", v hakkštině "Hak-kâ-fa" nebo "Hak-kâ-va", ) je jeden z hlavních dialektů čínštiny, kterým mluví převážně Hakkové především v jižní Číně, dále ve východní a jihovýchodní Asii a v ostatních diasporách na celém světě.


Composition and performances.

Under the Empire and Restoration, there were a number of collaborations in which composers worked together in a very short time to produce works to celebrate events of importance to the ruling dynasty, such as a marriage, birth, or baptism. Such a composition was usually the work of a few days and might involve as many as 4 composers. The only notable work by many hands before the composition of "La marquise de Brinvilliers" was "Le congrès des rois", conceived in a revolutionary spirit, the work of 12 composers, and presented at the Opéra-Comique on 26 February 1794.  In 1831, the Opéra-Comique was suffering financially and its Salle Ventadour was no longer fashionable. Émile Lubbert, the director of company, needed to mount a successful production promptly. He engaged Eugène Scribe and Castil-Blaze to produce a libretto and, with no time to spare, divided the work of composition among nine composers: Daniel Auber, Désiré-Alexandre Batton, Henri Montan Berton, Giuseppe Marco Maria Felice Blangini, François-Adrien Boieldieu, Michele Carafa, Luigi Cherubini, Ferdinand Hérold, and Ferdinando Paer. The libretto was the work of Eugène Scribe and Castil-Blaze. A review in the "Courrier de l'Europe" noted the inclusion of a "gigue" by Gossec, a composer of an older generation who died in 1829.  The work premiered on 31 October 1831 and had a very modest run of 32 performances, the last on 9 December, at which point the theater closed. The theater re-opened in January 1832 under a new director and continued to struggle. Before the end of 1831, F. Marcucci composed a "Fantasy for harp on the prettiest motifs from la Marquise de Brinvilliers". The opera was revived in 1836 and presented for 11 performances. No further performances have been documented.

Synopsis.

The action of the opera is based loosely on the story of Marie-Madeleine-Marguerite d'Aubray, Marquise de Brinvilliers, an historical figure of the seventeenth century whose trial for murder initiated the Affair of the Poisons, which saw a number of French aristocrats accused of murder and witchcraft.  The first two acts take place at the home of M. de Vernillac at Versailles. The third act is set in Paris at the hotel of the marquise on the rue Neuve-Saint-Paul.  Time: during the reign of Louis XIV, 1643-1715.  Before the action of the opera begins, Hortense De Montmélian and Arthur Saint-Brice, both without fortunes, love one another, but the Marquise has contrived to separate them and make each believe the other has cut off contact. She has arranged for Hortense to marry Vernillac, a wealthy government official.

Act 1.

As guests arrive for the wedding of Vernillac and Hortense, he rejoices while the future bride expresses her dismay and discusses with her friend Madelon how Arthur's silence has hurt her. The Marquise meets privately with her retainer Galifard and learns he knows more than she imagined of her passion for Arthur and her manipulation of the young lovers. Arthur enters and explains he has come to the Marquise for counsel. Despite a year's separation he needs to see the woman he loves just once more. The Marquise orders him to leave, but he encounters Madelon, who quickly learns that he is as wounded as Hortense and never saw her many letters. As he rushes to stop the wedding, the married couple returns and, amid general rejoicing, Hortense and Arthur recognize one another.

Act 2.

Hortense and Arthur meet and reconcile. The Marquise interrupts them and, hiding her love for Arthur and her hatred of her rival, persuades them to separate lest Vernillac become even more suspicious than he already is. Arthur writes a letter to Hortense and Madelon plans to get it past Vernillac by placing it in a basket under a bouquet of roses meant for Hortense. The Marquise has learned of the letter and added to it a subtle and quick-acting poison that will allow her to rid herself of her rival. Hortense and Vernillac, already a jealous husband, prepare to leave the wedding ball. He hears Madelon whispering to Hortense and catches the phrase "in the basket." When they are finally alone, he questions her with increasing vehemence about any secrets she may be withholding from him. At first she protests her devotion, but can not disguise her feelings and eventually admits there is a letter hidden with the flowers. He snatches the bouquet from the basket, inhales its perfume, and falls dead. Hortense cries out for help and the wedding guests enter and express general astonishment.

Act 3.

Alone, the Marquise reviews the letters Galifard has returned to her of his own accord. She doubts he could have blackmailed her without implicating himself, but she burns them all. In the bottom of his portfolio she finds a secret compartment containing a powder-filled red packet that she determines is his secret antidote that has protected him from her attempt to poison him. She replaces the antidote with a slow-acting poison. Galifard arrives and speaks of their marriage. She is shocked, but pretends to humor him. When tea arrives, she adds sugar to hers while he adds powder from his red packet saying it is medicinal. They discuss their anticipated trip to Italy and future happiness. As he leaves she rejoices that he will be dead within the hour.  The scene changes. Hortense appears in mourning for Vernillac. Arthur begs the Marquise to ask Hortense to see him. The Marquise instead insinuates to Hortense that Arthur poisoned Vernillac. Hortense imagines Arthur will flee France to avoid arrest. She is overcome, newly widowed and now about to lose Arthur. When Arthur approaches Hortense, she refuses to speak to him saying she is prepared to enter the convent. Arthur starts to leave in anger as the Marquise relishes her triumph in separating the lovers. Suddenly Galifard enters, a specter, shriveling and in convulsions. With his last breath he accuses the Marquise of poisoning Vernillac and dies. All becomes instantly clear. Galifard dies. As the Marquise is led away to stand trial, she gazes at him in triumph and vengeance.

Assessments.

A lengthy review in the Courrier d'Europe called it "the most interesting work the Ventadour has offered in a long time." The "Revue des deux mondes" thought the music was "diffuse and without unity" but noted that "a duet by Auber in the third act received much applause. The tragedy is well constructed and affecting. There is lots of poison but it is handled plausibly; unfortunately a duet does not make an opera, not even a comic opera." Frédéric Chopin, on the other hand, wrote that it would have been difficult to assemble a better group for such a joint effort: "I confess I was not bored and that it was not a work to mock."  According to a later assessment of the Paris musical scene at the time of the opera's premiere, Cherubini was the old master of the group, "the Nestor of composers." Batton was the least noted, who wrote a few unsuccessful operas and then worked in the manufacture of artificial flowers. Berton, Paer, Blangini, Carafa were past the height of their careers. Boieldieu had successes in the 1820s as well as one noteworthy failure. Herold's "Zampa" had just premiered to great acclaim. Auber was at the height of his fame and powers.

La marquise de Brinvilliers is an operatic 'drame lyrique' that was written as a collaborative effort on the part of nine composers. It premiered in Paris at the Salle Ventadour of the Opéra-Comique on 31 October 1831.

Markýza de Brinvilliers (francouzsky La Marquise de Brinvilliers) je opera (drame lyrique) napsaná ve spolupráci devíti skladatelů. Premiéru měla v Paříži v Salle Ventadour divadla Théâtre de l'Opéra-Comique dne 31. října 1831.


History.

The MGH was founded in Hanover as a private text publication society by the Prussian reformer Heinrich Friedrich Karl Freiherr vom Stein in 1819. The first volume appeared in 1826. The editor from 1826 until 1874 was Georg Heinrich Pertz, who was succeeded by Georg Waitz. Many eminent medievalists from Germany and, eventually, other countries, joined in the project of searching out and comparing manuscripts and producing scholarly editions. The motto chosen, "Sanctus amor patriae dat animum" ("Holy love for the fatherland gives the spirit"), is explained as linking Romantic nationalism with professional scholarship. In 1875, the MGH was established as a more formal institution with headquarters in Berlin.  In 1935, the organization was taken over by the state and renamed the "Reichsinstitut für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde" (National Institute for Older German History). This was abolished in 1945, at the end of World War II.  However, the institute was subsequently revived under its original name with the support of German institutions and the Austrian Academy of Sciences. The Monumenta Germaniae Historica Institute has been located in Munich since 1949 and possesses a large specialized library on the medieval history of Germany and Europe, including Church history, along with 130,000 monographs and approximately 150,000 dependent writings. It moved into its current premises in the building of the Bavarian State Library in 1967.  The project, a major effort of historical scholarship, continues in the 21st century. In 2004 the MGH, with the support of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, made all of its publications in print for more than five years available online, in photo-digital reproduction, via a link on the MGH homepage.

Divisions.

The series falls into five main divisions, "Antiquitates", "Diplomata", "Epistolae", "Leges" and "Scriptores", with an additional smaller division of "Necrologia". Many subsidiary series have also been established, including a series of more compact volumes for school use ("Scriptores in usum scholarum") and special studies ("MGH Schriften").

The Monumenta Germaniae Historica (MGH) is a comprehensive series of carefully edited and published primary sources, both chronicle and archival, for the study of Northwestern and Central European history from the end of the Roman Empire to 1500. Despite the name, the series covers important sources for the history of many countries besides Germany, since the Society for the Publication of Sources on Germanic Affairs of the Middle Ages has included documents from many other areas subjected to the influence of Germanic tribes or rulers (Britain, Czech lands, Poland, Austria, France, Low Countries, Italy, Spain, etc.). The editor from 1826 until 1874 was Georg Heinrich Pertz (1795–1876); in 1875 he was succeeded by Georg Waitz (1813–1886).

Monumenta Germaniae Historica (MGH) je mnohosvazková edice pramenů k německým dějinám do roku 1500. Vznik tohoto projektu inicioval pruský státník a historik Karl von Stein, který za tímto účelem založil roku 1819 Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde (Společnost pro starší německé dějiny). Projekt vycházel ze zvýšeného zájmu o historii a nacionalismus v romantismu, k romantickému nacionalismu odkazuje i heslo projektu "Sanctus amor patriae dat animum". Prvním prezidentem projektu se stal v roce 1823 Georg Heinrich Pertz.


Taxonomy.

When German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin first described the great frigatebird in 1789, he thought it was a small pelican, and so named it "Pelecanus minor". Due to the rules of taxonomy, its species name of "minor" was retained despite being placed in a separate genus by the Australian ornithologist Gregory Mathews in 1914. This has led to the discrepancy between "minor", Latin for "smaller" in contrast with its common name. It is one of five closely related species of frigatebird that make up their own genus ("Fregata") and family (Fregatidae). Its closest relative within the group is the Christmas Island frigatebird ("F. andrewsi").  A Late Pleistocene fossil wing phalanx and proximal end of humerus indistinguishable from the living great frigatebird were recovered from Ulupau Head on Oahu.

Subspecies.

Five subspecies are usually recognised:

Description.

The great frigatebird measures in length and has a wingspan of. Male great frigatebirds are smaller than females, but the extent of the variation varies geographically. The male birds weigh while the heavier female birds weigh. Frigatebirds have long narrow pointed wings and a long narrow deeply forked tail. They have the highest ratio of wing area to body mass and the lowest wing loading of any bird. This has been hypothesized to enable the birds to use marine thermals created by small differences between tropical air and water temperatures. The plumage of males is black with scapular feathers that have a green iridescence when they refract sunlight. Females are black with a white throat and breast and have a red eye ring. Juveniles are black with a rust-tinged white face, head, and throat.

Distribution and habitat.

The great frigatebird has a wide distribution throughout the world's tropical seas. Hawaii is the northernmost extent of their range in the Pacific Ocean, with around 10,000 pairs nesting mostly in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. In the Central and South Pacific, colonies are found on most islands groups from Wake Island to the Galapagos to New Caledonia with a few pairs nesting on Australian possessions in the Coral Sea. Colonies are also found on numerous Indian Ocean islands including Aldabra, Christmas Island, the Maldives and Mauritius. The Atlantic population, restricted to Trindade and Martin Vaz, is very small.  Great frigatebirds undertake regular migrations across their range, both regular trips and more infrequent widespread dispersals. Birds marked with wing tags on Tern Island in the French Frigate Shoals were found to regularly travel to Johnston Atoll (873 km), one was reported in Quezon City in the Philippines. One male great frigatebird relocated from Europa Island in the Mozambique Channel to the Maldives 4400 km away for four months, where it fed on rich fishing grounds. Despite their extended range, birds also exhibit philopatry, breeding in their natal colony even if they travel to other colonies.

Behaviour.

Feeding.

The great frigatebird forages in pelagic waters within 80 km (50 mi) of the breeding colony or roosting areas. Flying fish from the family Exocoetidae are the most common item in the diet of the great frigatebird; other fish species and squid may be eaten as well. Prey is snatched while in flight, either from just below the surface or from the air in the case of flying fish flushed from the water. Great frigatebirds will make use of schools of predatory tuna or pods of dolphins that push schooling fish to the surface. Like all frigatebirds they will not alight on the water surface and are usually incapable of taking off should they accidentally do so.  Great frigatebirds will also hunt seabird chicks at their breeding colonies, taking mostly the chicks of sooty terns, spectacled terns, brown noddies and black noddies. Studies show that only females (adults and juveniles) hunt in this fashion, and only a few individuals account for most of the kills.  Great frigatebirds will attempt kleptoparasitism, chasing other nesting seabirds (boobies and tropicbirds in particular) in order to make them regurgitate their food. This behaviour is not thought to play a significant part of the diet of the species, and is instead a supplement to food obtained by hunting. A study of great frigatebirds stealing from masked boobies estimated that the frigatebirds could at most obtain 40% of the food they needed, and on average obtained only 5%.

Breeding.

Great frigatebirds are seasonally monogamous, with a breeding season that can take two years from mating to the end of parental care. The species is colonial, nesting in bushes and trees (and on the ground in the absence of vegetation) in colonies of up to several thousand pairs. Nesting bushes are often shared with other species, especially red-footed boobies and other species of frigatebirds.  Both sexes have a patch of skin at the throat that is the gular sac; in male great frigatebirds this skin is red and can be inflated to attract a mate. Groups of males sit in bushes and trees and force air into their sac, causing it to inflate over a period of 20 minutes into a startling red balloon. As females fly overhead the males waggle their heads from side to side, shake their wings and call. Females will observe many groups of males before forming a pair bond. Having formed a bond the pair will sometimes select the display site, or may seek another site, to form a nesting site; once a nesting site has been established both sexes will defend their territory (the area surrounding the nest that can be reached from the nest) from other frigatebirds.  Pair bond formation and nest-building can be completed in a couple of days by some pairs and can take a couple of weeks (up to four) for other pairs. Males collect loose nesting material (twigs, vines, flotsam) from around the colony and off the ocean surface and return to the nesting site where the female builds the nest. Nesting material may be stolen from other seabird species (in the case of black noddies the entire nest may be stolen) either snatched off the nesting site or stolen from other birds themselves foraging for nesting material. Great frigatebird nests are large platforms of loosely woven twigs that quickly become encrusted with guano. There is little attempt to maintain the nests during the breeding season and nests may disintegrate before the end of the season.  A single dull chalky-white egg measuring is laid during each breeding season. If the egg is lost the pair bond breaks; females may acquire a new mate and lay again in that year. Both parents incubate the egg in shifts that last between 3–6 days; the length of shift varies by location, although female shifts are longer than those of males. Incubation can be energetically demanding, birds have been recorded losing between 20–33% of their body mass during a shift.  Incubation lasts for around 55 days. Great frigatebird chicks begin calling a few days before hatching and rub their egg tooth against the shell. The altricial chicks are naked and helpless, and lie prone for several days after hatching. Chicks are brooded for two weeks after hatching after which they are covered in white down, and guarded by a parent for another fortnight after that. Chicks are given numerous meals a day after hatching, once older they are fed every one to two days. Feeding is by regurgitation, the chick sticks its head inside the adults mouth.  Parental care is prolonged in great frigatebirds. Fledging occurs after four to six months, the timing dependent on oceanic conditions and food availability. After fledging chicks continue to receive parental care for between 150–428 days; frigatebirds have the longest period of post-fledging parental care of any bird. The length of this care depends on oceanic conditions, in bad years (particularly El Niño years) the period of care is longer. The diet of these juvenile birds is provided in part by food they obtained for themselves and in part from their parents. Young fledglings will also engage in play; with one bird picking up a stick and being chased by one or more other fledglings. After the chick drops the stick the chaser attempts to catch the stick before it hits the water, after which the game starts again. This play is thought to be important in developing the aerial skills needed to fish.  Great frigatebirds take many years to reach sexual maturity and only breed once they have acquired the full adult plumage. This is attained by female birds when they are eight to nine years of age and for male birds when they are 10 to 11 years of age. The average lifespan is unknown but is assumed to be relatively long. As part of a study conducted in 2002 on Tern Island in Hawaii, 35 ringed great frigatebirds were recaptured. Of these 10 were 37 years or older and one was at least 44 years old.

Status.

Because of the large overall total population and extended range the species is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of Least Concern.  In the South Atlantic, great frigatebirds (subspecies "F. m. nicolli") once bred on both Saint Helena and Trindade. The Saint Helena population disappeared in ancient times and is only known from subfossil remains, estimated to be a few hundred years old. The Trindade archipelago is part of a Brazilian military area and the human population consists only of a few Brazilian Navy personnel, limiting easy access for ornithologists. Once abundant, it has disappeared as a breeding bird from the main island of Trindade, but small numbers remain elsewhere in this archipelago. The main island was once covered in forest but after this was destroyed, overgrazing by the introduced goats prevented any recovery. A series of eradication programs in the second half of the 20th century eliminated all the introduced vertebrates other than house mice. Feral cats that had seriously depleted ground nesting birds were finally eradicated in 1998. In Brazil, the only country where "F. m. nicolli" survives, the great frigatebird is considered critically endangered.

The great frigatebird ("Fregata minor") is a large seabird in the frigatebird family. There are major nesting populations in the tropical Pacific (including the Galapagos Islands) and Indian Oceans, as well as a tiny population in the South Atlantic.

Fregatka obecná ("Fregata minor") je druh ptáka z řádu veslonozí (Pelecaniformes) a čeledi fregatkovití (Fregatidae) vyskytující se na Galapágách, v Asii, Indickém a Atlantském oceánu. Kromě toho žijí také v Brazílii, Severní Americe a východní Africe. Je to částečně tažný pták. Živí se ve vzduchu lovem ryb a občas i malých ptáků a dokonce provokuje ostatní ptáky, aby vydali svou kořist. Dokáže létat nepřetržitě i dva měsíce. V době námluv sameček nafukuje svůj hrdelní vak a vábí samičky. Samci bojující o samici mají nafouknutý vak a hrozí nebezpečí, že ho jiný samec propíchne. Pro fregatku je to smrt. Hnízdem je řídká stavba z větviček na nízkém keři či stromě a obvykle si je vytváří na ostrovech. Samec je černý, ale vak na hrdle má červený a ten, když je vypuštěn, připomíná vyfouknutý balónek. Samice je také černá, ale břicho a předek krku má bílý. Oba mají dlouhý, zahnutý zobák. U tohoto druhu ptáka je obvykle velice snadné rozpoznat pohlaví už při prvním pohledu.


Life.

Born in Toungoo (colonial Burma) of Indian parents, Aaron grew up in Tamil Nadu, India, where he did his schooling, finishing his B.Sc. from Allahabad University. Aaron was Indian National Champion nine times (out of 14 championships between 1959–1981), including a run of five consecutive titles between 1969 and 1973. He also won the Tamil Nadu Chess Championship eleven times (1957–1982); after him, Tamil Nadu emerged as the chess powerhouse of India.  He won the West Asian Zonal against Mongolia's Sukien Momo 3–1 (earning his International Master's rating), and the Asian-Australian Zonal final against Cecil Purdy of Australia 3–0 in 1961. In 1962, he won the Arjuna Award for Indian sportsmen, the first-ever chess player to be so honoured.  These wins at the Asian level qualified him for the Interzonals, and in 1962, he played in the Stockholm interzonal and although finishing last (23rd place), his game was notable for the defeats he inflicted on grandmasters Lajos Portisch and Wolfgang Uhlmann.  Aaron also played thrice with the Indian team at the Chess Olympiads. He captained the Indian team at Leipzig 1960 (+2 –10 =8) including a win over Max Euwe, and at Varna 1962 (+7 –6 =4), including another victory over Lajos Portisch. In 1964, he played at second board in Tel Aviv (+4 –7 =6). He also led India to the 2nd Asian Team Championship at Auckland in 1977 and to the 4th Asian Team championship at Hangchow in China in 1981. He finished fourth in the Commonwealth Championship at Hong Kong 1984. The event was won by Kevin Spraggett and Murray Chandler.  He is the author of "Dubai Olympiad 1986" and a journalist for "The Hindu" newspaper. His son, Arvin, is also a well known journalist.

Contributions to Indian chess culture.

Having emerged in an environment with a minimal chess culture, Aaron was very sensitive to the growth of chess awareness in India. He did much to further chess as the Secretary of the Tamil Nadu Chess Association (1977 and 1997) and also as chairman of the All India Chess Federation. It was 17 years before India had its second International Master, V. Ravikumar (1978), and it had its first grandmaster (Viswanathan Anand) only in 1988.  At the time of the 2013 World Championship match in Chennai, Manuel Aaron was still active in Indian chess circles.

Manuel Aaron (born 30 December 1935) is the first Indian chess master in the second half of the 20th century. He dominated chess in India in the 1960s to the 1980s, was the national champion of India nine times between 1959 and 1981. He is India's first player to be awarded the International Master title, and is one of the key figures in introducing international chess practices to India; until the 1960s, Indian chess (known as "chaturanga") was often played using many local traditional variants (e.g. in lieu of castling, the king could execute a knights move once, if it had not been checked). Aaron helped popularize the international variety, forming many chess groups and urging players to study openings and other formal chess literature.

Manuel Aaron (* 30. prosince 1935, Toungoo, Barma) je indický šachista. Sedminásobný mistr Indie od roku 1959. V roce 1961 se stal mezinárodním mistrem a byl zároveň prvním Indem, který získal tento titul. V roce 1962 hrál mezipásmový turnaj ve Stockholmu. Skončil poslední, ale podařilo se mu porazit významné šachisty Lajose Portische a Wolfganga Uhlmanna


Plot.

The opening introduces O.W. Grant (Gary Oldman), who carries a pipe in the shape of a monkey-head. He demonstrates his mysterious powers in an encounter with a businessman (Michael J. Fox), when granting the man's wish results in the businessman being hit by a truck.  Neal Oliver (James Marsden) aspires to be an artist, despite the lack of support from his domineering father and analytical girlfriend. At a party for his twenty-second birthday, O.W. Grant is the waiter who serves the cake. After Neal blows out the candles, he says he wished for an answer to his life. His father responds by handing him an admission letter to law school. As the family goes outside to look at the red convertible that Neal's dad bought him, a bucket falls onto Neal's head, knocking him out.  Neal wakes up in the hospital, where a doctor named Ray (Christopher Lloyd) comes in and does a quick sight test using playing cards. Neal has to name the suit on the cards. Neal asks if he got it right, and Ray points out that the cards actually had red spades and black hearts, emphasizing that things aren't always what they seem.  After getting out of the hospital, Neal sees the mystery woman that he's been dreaming about in a billboard advertisement, but the billboard company insists that the billboard is blank. When Neal checks the billboard, he sees a new picture of the beautiful blonde, this time with a framed inscription "Call 555-1300". Neal calls the number, and a recorded message tells him that he has an appointment at 555 Olive Street, Suite 1300.  At the appointment, he again meets Ray, who gives him a package to deliver to a Robin Fields in a town called Danver in Colorado (not "Denver"). Ray tells him that he'll find Danver by taking Interstate 60.  With no Interstate 60 on the roadmap, Neal sets out west and encounters O.W. Grant on the roadside. Grant gives Neal directions to the unlisted Interstate 60, and on his journey, Neal meets:  When Neal reaches the town of Morlaw, where all citizens are lawyers who spend their days suing each other, he finally finds Lynn (Amy Smart), the imprisoned mystery woman he has been dreaming about and painting. Lynn explains that she met O.W. Grant and wished to find the right guy. They spend the night together at the "Fork in the Road" motel. Neal also makes a painting of the motel. Neal leaves to deliver the package in Danver, while Lynn stays behind.  On the radio, Neal hears a report of a reported murderer on the loose, and the description matches his car. He abandons his vehicle to hitchhike. Arriving in Danver, Neal meets "Robin Fields", who turns out to be O.W. Grant. After opening the package (which holds a replacement monkey-head pipe for O.W.'s broken one), Grant uses his magic powers to "warp" Neal back in time, where he wakes up in the hospital before he first encountered Ray.  Leaving the hospital, Neal confronts his father and asserts his right to live his life without his father's interference. His sister takes him to an art gallery where Neal sees his painting of the "Fork in the Road". A girl who resembles Lynn talks to him about commissioning him to do a series of paintings on roadside motels and diners.

Critical reception.

Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes lists 4 reviews, and reports 3 positive and 1 negative review.

Deleted scenes on home media.

The DVD includes several deleted scenes and the "bridges" where they would be placed in the film. They include:

Interstate 60 (also known as Interstate 60: Episodes of The Road) is a 2002 road film written and directed by Bob Gale, in his directorial debut, and starring James Marsden, Gary Oldman, Amy Smart, Christopher Lloyd, Chris Cooper and Kurt Russell, with a cameo by Michael J. Fox. One reviewer said the film was about "the ethical fiber of America’s John Everyman, and the moral humanity of each viewer."

Interstate 60 je metafyzická filmová komedie z roku 2002 ve stylu road movie. Hrají James Marsden, Gary Oldman a Amy Smart, postavy cameo Michael J. Fox, Christopher Lloyd, Chris Cooper a Kurt Russell. Film napsal a režíroval Bob Gale.


History.

Kruspe started the band in 2005, writing songs with ex-wife Caron Bernstein, when Rammstein decided to take time off from touring and recording. Kruspe has previously stated that the idea for Emigrate came to him around Rammstein's "Mutter" era.  On 5 September 2006, members of the Rammstein.de newsletter were sent an invitation to the Emigrate newsletter and given the chance to download the song "Wake Up", a sneak peek of the upcoming album. Three song samples were also posted on Emigrate's website: "My World," "Babe," and "Temptation." Fans voted "Babe" as being their favorite, and newsletter recipients were allowed to download “Babe” in its entirety starting 29 November 2006. Babe is the only one of these songs where the subject matter, a parents unconditional love for their child, is not Bernstein's point of view, as she didn't have any children at the time. Kruspe then explained exactly how he felt and she turned his feelings into lyrics. As opposed to "My World" which is entirely about her feelings of her life as it related to her world. On 21 May 2007, Emigrate's official website opened and “My World” was made available for download in its entirety to newsletter subscribers.  The video for "My World" has been released and can be viewed on the official website. The video was also included on the limited edition release of the album Emigrate. In addition to the video, "My World" is featured on the soundtracks to the third Resident Evil movie, "" and "True Confessions of a Hollywood Starlet". The soundtracks to the previous two movies contained "Halleluja" and "Mein Teil" from Rammstein, respectively. On 27 July 2007, Kruspe made an appearance on Bruce Dickinson's rock show on BBC. A video for "New York City" has been released. Kruspe then left the Emigrate project aside due to Rammstein reuniting in the fall of 2007 to work on their new album "Liebe ist für alle da" which was released in October 2009, and also to take part in the subsequent Rammstein tour.  Joe Letz, who had appeared in the video for "My World," updated the Emigrate Facebook page on 24 June 2011, stating that Kruspe had been working on a new record.  On 5 December 2012, an announcement posted on the Emigrate Facebook page announced that demos were being recorded and reviewed, and studio time was being set up in January 2013 to begin official recording of an untitled second album.  In January 2013, Kruspe stated via the Emigrate Facebook page that drums were beginning to be mixed for the new record.  In January 2014, Kruspe, on the Emigrate Facebook page, posted that twenty tracks had been recorded for Emigrate and that mixing would be performed in Los Angeles, California, alongside Ben Grosse, with a projected release in the summer of 2014. On 7 March 2014, Kruspe announced the second album was complete and he is departing back to Berlin.  On 22 July 2014, a post was made to Emigrate's official Facebook page with a teaser trailer to Emigrate's new album, titled "Silent So Long" and an official release date of 17 October 2014.  On 9 December 2014, Emigrate's second album titled "Silent So Long" was released.  On 26 July 2018, a post on the official Facebook page announced the upcoming filming of a new music video with guests Benjamin Kowalewicz and Ian D'Sa of Billy Talent, inviting applications to participate in the recording.  Emigrate's third album, "A Million Degrees", was released on 30 November 2018.

Emigrate is an American industrial metal band based in New York City, led by German Richard Kruspe, the lead guitarist of the Neue Deutsche Härte band Rammstein.

Emigrate je německá industrialmetalová hudební skupina založená Richardem Kruspem, kytaristou skupiny Rammstein. Kromě Kruspeho je ve skupině Olsen Involtini (hraje na kytaru), Arnaud Giroux (hraje na baskytaru) a Henka Johansson (hraje na bicí). Kruspe se stal frontmanem kapely a vedle hry na kytaru ještě zpívá v angličtině. Členkou kapely je také zpěvačka a baskytaristka Margaux Bossieux.


Club career.

Udinese.

Born in Accra, Gyan had his early education at Seven Great Princess Academy in Dansoman completing in 1999, and his secondary education at the Accra Academy from 1999 to 2002.  Gyan started his career at Ghanaian club Liberty Professionals located in Accra.  Having signed for Udinese in 2003, he spent two years on loan at Serie B club Modena to gain match experience. Following some excellent displays during the 2006 World Cup, he attracted interest from Russian club Lokomotiv Moscow. Gyan returned to Udinese at the start of 2006, but on 17 February 2007, Udinese pulled out of a deal to sell him in the January transfer window. The striker was on the verge of signing a 3-year deal with Russian Club Lokomotiv Moscow for US$10.5 million, the fourth largest transfer fee in Russian football history. "The striker Udinese targeted to replace me did not sign for them," Gyan told BBC Sport. "I've been told I will now have to stay in Italy for the rest of the season."  On 10 August 2007, along with Fabio Quagliarella, Gyan signed an improved five-year contract extension to stay at Udinese until 30 June 2012 as a reward for his fine form in the 2007–08 pre-season. "I have decided to stay here because it is one of the top leagues in the world," Asamoah said, "There is the possibility of me playing regular football here to make me a better player. "I am comfortable with the new deal and I know I can help Udinese achieve things for the future". Gyan and Quagliarella marked their contract extensions with a brace each in Udinese's 7–0 friendly win later that evening.  On 29 July 2007 following his impressive pre-season form, including a hat-trick in a friendly against Serie B outfit Spezia on 25 July, before Udinese sealed the long-term deal. Gyan scored 8 goals in 2006–07 to help the Stadio Friuli club finish in 10th place in Serie A.  Gyan was dogged by injury during the 2007–08 season and never appeared for Udinese again after January 2008, having played only 13 Serie A matches and scored 3 times that season.

Rennes.

On 11 July 2008, Gyan was signed by Ligue 1 Club Stade Rennais for 4 years on an €8 million transfer fee. Gyan played 48 times for Rennes, scoring 14 goals. By the end of his stay at Rennes, he became a well known goal scoring figure, scoring 13 league goals in the 2009–10 season. However, Gyan only played three games in Ligue 1 the following season, taking his total appearances to 53, before he departed for Sunderland.

Sunderland.

On 31 August 2010, Gyan signed for Premier League club Sunderland on a four-year deal for a club record £13 million. Gyan was later given the squad number 33 shirt at Sunderland. He scored on his Sunderland debut against Wigan Athletic on 11 September after coming on as a substitute for Danny Welbeck. The match ended in a 1–1 draw with Antolín Alcaraz scoring Wigan's equaliser. He marked his first start for Sunderland by netting their only goal in their League Cup exit at the hands of West Ham United. Gyan scored twice on his first Premier League start for the club in a 2–0 win against Stoke City on 6 November. His first goal came in the 9th minute when a Nedum Onuoha shot was parried by goalkeeper Asmir Begović, with Gyan on hand to tap home the rebound and his second came in the 86th minute, to secure a 2–0 victory for the "Black Cats". Three days later, he followed this up by scoring the equaliser against Tottenham at White Hart Lane in a 1–1 draw as Sunderland moved up to seventh in the table. He also scored a goal in Sunderland's 3–0 victory at Stamford Bridge against Chelsea. Gyan scored Sunderland's third goal in their 3–0 victory over Blackburn Rovers on 1 January 2011.  On 16 January 2011, he started against local rivals Newcastle United, scoring a 94th-minute equaliser, preventing Newcastle gaining their second win of the season against Sunderland. Gyan added to his impressive goalscoring tally with a goal away at Stoke City on 5 February 2011. He scored an 11th-minute goal against Tottenham on 12 February 2011. Gyan's next goal came on 23 April as Sunderland beat Wigan Athletic 4–2, a match which ended prematurely for the forward as he was substituted following a hamstring injury which is expected to see him miss the remainder of the season. Gyan did recover in time to feature in Sunderland's last game of the season at West Ham but didn't add to his tally finishing his first season in English football with 10 league goals. Gyan took the squad number 3 shirt for the 2011–12 season, the same squad number he wears for Ghana.

Al Ain.

On 10 September 2011, it was confirmed on the Sunderland website that Gyan would leave on a season long loan to club Al Ain FC. Amid speculation of a fee of up to £6 million being paid for the loan period, with Gyan receiving up to four times his previous salary, Chairman Niall Quinn emphasised the financial benefits of the deal for both Sunderland and the player. The Ghanaian finished the season with Al Ain by helping them capture their tenth league success and was the top goalscorer in the season with 22 league goals.  When Martin O'Neill became manager of Sunderland on 8 December 2011, he considered the possibility of recalling Gyan from his loan spell away from the club.  Gyan signed a five-year contract with Al Ain on 6 July 2012 worth over £6m per season. He was the top goalscorer in the UAE league in the 2013 season and helped his team retain the league title. On 24 July 2014, Gyan announced on his personal website that he had signed a contract extension at Al-Ain, receiving an improved deal and tying him to the club until 2018.

Shanghai SIPG.

On 7 July 2015, Gyan confirmed on his own website that he had left Al Ain and set to join Chinese Super League club Shanghai SIPG. Shanghai SIPG then officially announced they signed Gyan from Al Ain with an undisclosed fee. It was then revealed that Gyan's weekly salary of £227,000 with his Chinese club instantly made him one of the world's best paid football players.

Kayserispor.

On 5 July 2017, he joined the Turkish club Kayserispor. On August 9, 2019, Gyan left Kayserispor.

North East United.

On 19 September 2019, he joined the Indian Super League side NorthEast United. On 26 October 2019 he scored his first goal for Northeast United FC against Odisha FC in the 84 th minute of the match as his team won the game by 2–1. Halfway through the season he suffered an injury that would keep him out for the rest of the season, and on 15 January 2020 he was officially released from the club as Irish striker Andy Keogh was signed as a replacement. He ended his time with Northeast United with a total of 4 goals in 8 appearances.

International career.

Gyan made his international debut at the age of 17, three days before his 18th birthday. Gyan scored on his senior International debut for Ghana against Somalia on 19 November 2003 in the 90th minute. He came on for Isaac Boakye in the 62nd minute in a 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifier, three days before he turned 18 years; helping Ghana to win that game, and making him the youngest ever player to score for Ghana. He scored four times in seven matches during that successful World Cup qualifying campaign. He was part of the 2004 Ghana Olympic squad, who exited in the first round, having finished in third place in Group B.  He also scored the fastest goal of the tournament after 68 seconds. The strike was also Ghana's first ever goal in the FIFA World Cup, coming in the game against the Czech Republic on 17 June at the RheinEnergieStadion in Cologne, Germany, which set the Black Stars on their way to a 2–0 victory. He missed a penalty later in the game, and received a yellow card ruling him out of the final group game for trying to take the penalty too early. In Ghana's defeat to Brazil in the round of 16, he was sent off in the 81st minute after collecting his second booking of the match (for diving).  On 24 January 2008, during the Africa Cup of Nations, Gyan and his brother Baffour decided to walk out on the Black Stars following criticism after their unconvincing 1–0 win over Namibia. The media learnt the brothers had packed their bags and were ready to leave the team hotel but were persuaded to stay by teammates. In the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations, Asamoah Gyan helped a Ghana team, ravaged by injuries to the finals. Gyan scored three out of the four Ghana goals during the tournament.  Gyan scored with a penalty in the 85th minute of Ghana's first match of the 2010 World Cup against Serbia, in a 1–0 win. He hit the goalpost in the 92nd minute before being substituted to a standing ovation just before the final whistle. In Ghana's second game, he scored a penalty in the 26th minute to level the scores and earn his team a 1–1 draw against Australia.  In the round of 16 match against the United States, he scored a goal in extra time allowing Ghana to win 2–1 and hence become the third African team in history to qualify to the tournament's quarter final, after Cameroon and Senegal. In the quarter final tie against Uruguay, following Luis Suárez's handling of the ball on the goal-line, he missed a penalty kick with no time remaining at end of extra time, hitting the crossbar and necessitating a penalty shootout to decide the game. He converted his kick in the subsequent penalty shootout, but Uruguay went on to win the shootout 4–2.  For the second time in his career, Gyan missed a crucial penalty kick in a major tournament when he missed a penalty kick in the 2012 African Cup of Nations semi-final. Ghana went on to lose 1–0. After missing that penalty kick, Gyan decided to take an "indefinite break" from international football. On 8 May 2012, he announced his return to the Black Stars team.  On 7 June 2013, he scored 2 goals in a 3-1 win over Sudan in a World Cup qualifier to make him the country's leading goalscorer, surpassing Abedi Pele's 33 goals.  On 2 June 2014, Gyan was named in Ghana's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. In the team's opening match, he captained the Black Stars against the United States in a 2–1 defeat. He scored his first goal of the tournament in a 2–2 draw with Germany, equaling Roger Milla's record of five FIFA World Cup goals. In the final group match, he became the top African goalscorer in World Cup finals history by scoring the Black Stars' goal as they were defeated 2–1 by Portugal.  At the 2015 Africa Cup of Nations, Gyan missed Ghana's opening match, a 2–1 loss to Senegal, with a "mild bout" of malaria. He returned for the second match, scoring a last minute winning goal against the tournament favourite Algeria in a 1–0 win for the Black Stars.  An international exile lasting over a year was ended in October 2018 when Gyan was called up to the Ghanaian squad for a pair of 2019 Africa Cup of Nations qualification matches versus Sierra Leone.  He announced his retirement from international football on 20 May 2019, a month to the 2019 Africa Cup of Nations. However, a day later Gyan reversed his decision following a discussion with the president of Ghana, Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo.

Outside football.

Boxing promotion.

In June 2012, Gyan turned his attention towards boxing promotion and announced he would put on his debut boxing show in Ghana. On 6 July, Asamoah Gyan stated:  In February 2019, Gyan hosted his second boxing event.

Baby Jet Airlines.

As of October 2017, Asamoah Gyan has been granted an "Air Carrier Licence" (ACL) by the Ghanaian Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA). According to the Ghana News Agency, the start-up is named Baby Jet Airlines. With the license in hand, the start-up is now permitted to begin with its AOC certification drive.

Honours.

Club.

Al Ain FC

Asamoah Gyan ( ; born 22 November 1985) is a Ghanaian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Ghana national football team and is the former captain of the Ghanaian national team.

Asamoah Gyan (* 22. listopad 1985 Accra, Ghana) je ghanský fotbalový útočník a reprezentant, který v současné době hraje za čínský klub Shanghai SIPG. V roce 2010 obdržel ocenění BBC African Footballer of the Year.


Jazz.

One source for the phrase "jam session" came about in the 1920s when white and black musicians would congregate after their regular paying gigs, to play the jazz they could not play in the "Paul Whiteman" style bands they played in. When Bing Crosby would attend these sessions, the musicians would say he was "jammin' the beat", since he would clap on the one and the three. Thus these sessions became known as "jam sessions". Mezz Mezzrow also gives this more detailed and self-referential description, based on his experience at the jazz speakeasy known as the Three Deuces:  The New York scene during World War II was famous for its after-hours jam sessions. One of the most famous was the regular after-hours jam at Minton's Playhouse in New York City that ran in the 1940s and early 1950s. The jam sessions at Minton's were a fertile meeting place and proving ground for both established soloists like Ben Webster and Lester Young, and the younger jazz musicians who would soon become leading exponents of the bebop movement, including Thelonious Monk (Minton's house pianist), saxophone player Charlie Parker, and trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie. The Minton's jams had competitive "cutting contests", in which soloists would try to keep up with the house band and outdo each other in improvisational skill.

Afro-Cuban music.

Influenced by jazz, Cuban music saw the emergence of improvised jam sessions during the filin movement of the 1940s, where boleros, sones and other song types were performed in an extended form called "descarga". During the 1950s these "descargas" became the basis of a new genre of improvised jams based on the son montuno with notable jazz influences pioneered by the likes of Julio Gutiérrez and Cachao. During the 1960s, descargas played an important role in the development of salsa, especially the salsa dura style.

Rock.

As the instrumental proficiency of pop and rock musicians improved in the 1960s and early 1970s, onstage jamming—free improvisation—also became a regular feature of rock music; bands such as Pink Floyd, Cream, the Jimi Hendrix Experience, Deep Purple, The Who, the Grateful Dead, AC/DC, Led Zeppelin, Santana, King Crimson, Lynyrd Skynyrd and the Allman Brothers Band would feature live improvised performances that could last 10 to 20 minutes or longer.  In this context, jams are not casual get-togethers, but rather improvised portions of rehearsed public concerts.

Jam bands.

Though the Grateful Dead are often credited as being the first jam band, Cream incorporated long improvisations into their songs as early as 1967. However, the Grateful Dead allowed the "jam band" to become a genre unto itself; more recent bands following in their steps include Phish, moe., Umphreys Mcgee, and Widespread Panic, all of which feature extended improvisational sessions. Other bands, such as the Red Hot Chili Peppers also regularly perform live jam sessions. Progressive rock band Coheed and Cambria often end shows with a jam session to their song "The Final Cut" with different instruments.

Bluegrass.

Bluegrass music also features a tradition of jamming. Bluegrass jams happen in the parking lots and campgrounds of bluegrass festivals, in music stores, bars and restaurants and on stages. Bluegrass jams tend to be segregated by the skill level of the players. Slow jams for beginners provide an entry point. Open bluegrass jams are open to all comers, but the players in an open jam will expect a certain level of proficiency from participants. The abilities to hear chord progressions and keep time are essential, and the ability to play improvised leads that contain at least a suggestion of the melody is desirable. Jams that require advanced musical proficiency are generally private events, by invitation only.

A jam session is a relatively informal musical event, process, or activity where musicians, typically instrumentalists, play improvised solos and vamp on tunes, songs and chord progressions. To "jam" is to improvise music without extensive preparation or predefined arrangements, except for when the group is playing well-known jazz standards or covers of existing popular songs. Original jam sessions, also 'free flow sessions', are often used by musicians to develop new material (music) and find suitable arrangements. Both styles can be used simply as a social gathering and communal practice session. Jam sessions may be based upon existing songs or forms, may be loosely based on an agreed chord progression or chart suggested by one participant, or may be wholly improvisational. Jam sessions can range from very loose gatherings of amateurs to evenings where a jam session coordinator or host acts as a "gatekeeper" to ensure that only appropriate-level performers take the stage, to sophisticated improvised recording sessions by professionals which are intended to be broadcast live on radio or TV or edited and released to the public.

Jam session je hudební činnost, kdy muzikanti hrají (tj. „jamují“) pomocí improvizace, bez náležité přípravy nebo předem definované aranže. Jam sessiony se často využívají pro účely tvorby nového materiálu, nalezení vhodných aranží, anebo jednoduše jako sociální setkání anebo společné procvičení. Jam sessiony mohou být založeny na existujících písních nebo skladbách, mohou být volně založeny na dohodnutých akordových postupech anebo schématu navržených jedním z účastníků, anebo mohou být naprosto improvizační. Jam sessiony jsou různého druhu, od velmi volných setkání amatérů až po sofistikované improvizované nahrávací sessiony, jejichž cílem je po editaci vydání v určité formě pro veřejnost.


Early life.

Perez was born on 10 June 1964 in Lausanne, Switzerland, to a Spanish father and a German mother. His mother was a housewife and his father worked in the import-export business. He commenced acting studies in Geneva, followed by the CNSAD and completed his training at the school of the Théâtre Nanterre-Amandiers. He started acting in theatre before starring in films.

Career.

Cinema.

His breakthrough role was starring as Christian opposite Gérard Depardieu in "Cyrano de Bergerac". He was nominated for a César Award. He has since appeared in various films and his onscreen leading ladies have included Catherine Deneuve, Kim Basinger, Isabelle Adjani and Aaliyah.  On television, he starred in "Paris enquêtes criminelles", the French remake of "". Perez starred as Lieutenant Vincent Revel.  He has also gone into directing. Two of his shorts, "L'échange" and "Rien à dire", have been nominated for the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival.

Photography.

He has exhibited his photographic work during festivals and in art galleries. For example, his exhibition entitled "Face to Face", which featured photographs of Carla Bruni, Johnny Hallyday and Gérard Depardieu, was unveiled at Rencontres d'Arles, an annual photography festival in Arles, France. In December 2012, he exhibited his photographs of dancers of the Bolshoi Ballet at the RuArts in Moscow, Russia. Two years later, in December 2014, he exhibited them again at the Accademia Fine Art Gallery in Monte Carlo, Monaco.

Personal life.

He is married to French actress, ex-partner of Gérard Depardieu and sister of French producer Virginie Besson-Silla. Perez and Silla have three children together. His daughter Iman Perez is a well known model.

Vincent Perez (born 10 June 1964) is a Swiss actor, director and photographer. He is best known internationally for playing the title character, Ashe Corven, in "", and for starring in "Queen of the Damned", playing Marius de Romanus. Some of his notable films in French cinema include "Cyrano de Bergerac", "Le Bossu", "La Reine Margot" and "Indochine".

Vincent Perez (* 10. června 1962, Lausanne, Vaud, Švýcarsko) je francouzsko-švýcarský herec a režisér švýcarského původu. Pochází ze frankofonní části Švýcarska, jeho rodiče pocházejí z řad německých a španělských přistěhovalců. Herectví vystudoval v Ženevě a v Paříži.


Plot.

A battle between the Greek armies of King Agamemnon of Mycenae and King Triopas of Thessaly is quickly averted when the great warrior Achilles, fighting for Agamemnon, defeats Boagrius, Triopas' champion, in single combat after Achilles was initially absent from the battle. Thessaly joins Agamemnon's loose alliance of all the Greek kingdoms.  Prince Hector of Troy and his younger brother Paris negotiate a peace treaty with Menelaus, King of Sparta. However, Paris is having an affair with Menelaus' wife, Queen Helen, and smuggles her aboard their home-bound vessel, much to Hector's dismay. Upon learning of this, Menelaus meets with Agamemnon, his elder brother, and asks him to help take Troy. Agamemnon agrees, as conquering Troy will give him control of the Aegean Sea. Agamemnon has Odysseus, King of Ithaca, persuade Achilles to join them. Achilles, who strongly dislikes Agamemnon, eventually decides to go after his mother Thetis tells him that though he will die, he will be forever glorified.  In Troy, King Priam is dismayed when Hector and Paris introduce Helen, but welcomes her and decides to prepare for war. The Greeks eventually invade and take the Trojan beach, thanks largely to Achilles and his Myrmidons. Achilles has the temple of Apollo sacked, and had a brief fight with Hector and his army. They claim Briseis — a priestess and the cousin of Paris and Hector — as a prisoner afterwards. He is angered when Agamemnon spitefully takes her from him, and decides that he will not aid Agamemnon in the siege.  That night in the temple of Troy, Priam discussed a strategy on how would they defend the city from the Greeks. Paris planned to duel Menelaus since he abducted Helen from Menelaus, which caused the war to occur. Later, he and Priam talked about how he loved Helen then gave him the Sword of Troy for his duel with Menelaus the next day.  The Trojan and Greek armies meet outside the walls of Troy; during a parley, Paris offers to duel Menelaus personally for Helen's hand in exchange for the city being spared. Agamemnon, intending to take the city regardless of the outcome, accepts. Menelaus wounds Paris, causing him to cower behind Hector. When Menelaus attempts to kill Paris despite his victory, he himself is killed by Hector. In the ensuing battle, Hector kills Ajax after a brief duel and many Greek soldiers fall to the Trojan defenses with Achilles and the myrmidons watch from a distance during the battle. On Odysseus' insistence, Agamemnon gives the order to fall back. In the camp after Ajax and Menelaus were cremated, Agamemnon and Odysseus argued on why they lost the battle. He gives Briseis to the Greek soldiers for their amusement, but Achilles saves her from them. Later that night, Briseis sneaks into Achilles' quarters to kill him; instead, she falls for him and they become lovers. Achilles then resolves to leave Troy, much to the dismay of Patroclus, his cousin and protégé.  Despite Hector's objections, Priam orders him to retake the Trojan beach by daybreak and force the Greeks home; the attack unifies the Greeks and the Myrmidons enter the battle. Hector duels a man he believes to be Achilles and kills him, only to discover it was actually his cousin Patroclus. Distraught, both armies agree to stop fighting for the day. Achilles is informed of his cousin's death by Eudorus and vows revenge after striking Eudorus. Wary of Achilles, Hector shows his wife Andromache a secret tunnel beneath Troy; should he die and the city fall, he instructs her to take their child and any survivors out of the city to Mount Ida.  The next day, Achilles arrives outside Troy and challenges Hector. Hector says his goodbyes to his loved ones, including his wife and son. The two duel until Hector is killed, and Achilles drags his corpse back to the Trojan beach. Priam, in disguise, sneaks into the camp and implores Achilles to return Hector's body for a proper funeral. Ashamed of his actions, Achilles agrees and allows Briseis to return to Troy with Priam, promising a twelve-day truce so that Hector's funeral rites may be held in peace. He also orders his men to return home without him after apologizing to Eudorus for striking him.  Agamemnon declares that he will take Troy regardless of the cost. Concerned, Odysseus concocts a plan to infiltrate the city. After seeing a carving of a horse by a Greek soldier, he has the Greeks build a gigantic wooden horse as a peace offering and abandon the Trojan beach, hiding their ships in a nearby cove. Despite objections from Paris who requests for it to be burned down, Priam orders the horse be brought into the city after Archeptolemus views it as a gift intended for calming the gods. A Trojan scout later finds the Greek ships hiding in the cove, but he was quickly shot down as he was about to alert the city. That night, Greeks hiding inside the horse emerge, attacking the sleeping Trojans by surprise and open the city gates for the Greek army, commencing the Sack of Troy. While Andromache and Helen guide the Trojans to safety through the tunnel, Paris gives the Sword of Troy to a young boy named Aeneas, instructing him to protect the Trojans and find them a new home. Agamemnon kills Priam and captures Briseis, who then kills Agamemnon using a concealed knife in her hand. Achilles fights his way through the city and reunites with Briseis after killing the two Greek soldiers. Paris, seeking to avenge his brother, shoots an arrow through Achilles' heel and then several into his body. Achilles extracts all the arrows but the one in his heel. He then bids farewell to Briseis, and watches her flee with Paris before dying.  In the aftermath, Troy is finally taken by the Greeks and a funeral is held for Achilles, where Odysseus personally cremates his body.

Production.

The city of Troy was built in the Mediterranean island of Malta at Fort Ricasoli from April to June 2003. Other important scenes were shot in Mellieħa, a small town in the north of Malta, and on the small island of Comino. The outer walls of Troy were built and filmed in Cabo San Lucas, Mexico. Film production was disrupted for a period after Hurricane Marty affected filming areas. The role of Briseis was initially offered to Bollywood actress Aishwarya Rai, but she refused it because she was not comfortable doing the lovemaking scenes that were included. The role eventually went to Rose Byrne.  Brad Pitt years later expressed disappointment with the film saying “I had to do "Troy" because [...] I pulled out of another movie and then had to do something for the studio. So I was put in "Troy." It wasn’t painful, but I realized that the way that movie was being told was not how I wanted it to be. I made my own mistakes in it. What am I trying to say about "Troy"? I could not get out of the middle of the frame. It was driving me crazy. I’d become spoiled working with David Fincher. It’s no slight on Wolfgang Petersen. "Das Boot" is one of the all-time great films. But somewhere in it, "Troy" became a commercial kind of thing. Every shot was like, Here’s the hero! There was no mystery.”

Music.

Composer Gabriel Yared originally worked on the score for "Troy" for over a year, having been hired by the director, Wolfgang Petersen. Tanja Carovska provided vocals on various portions of the music, as she later would on composer James Horner's version of the soundtrack. However, the reactions at test screenings which used an incomplete version of the score were negative, and in less than a day Yared was off the project without a chance to fix or change his music. James Horner composed a replacement score in about four weeks. He used Carovska's vocals again and also included traditional Eastern Mediterranean music and brass instruments. Horner also collaborated with American singer-songwriter Josh Groban and lyricist Cynthia Weil to write an original song for the film's end credits. The product of this collaboration, "Remember" was performed by Groban with additional vocals by Carovska.  The soundtrack for the film was released on May 11, 2004, through Reprise Records.

Director's cut.

"Troy: Director's Cut" was screened at the 57th Berlin International Film Festival on February 17, 2007, and received a limited release in Germany in April 2007. Warner Home Video reportedly spent more than $1 million for the director's cut, which includes "at least 1,000 new cuts" or almost 30 minutes extra footage (with a new running time of 196 minutes). The DVD was released on September 18, 2007, in the US. The score of the film was changed dramatically, with many of the female vocals being cut. An addition to the music is the use of Danny Elfman's theme for "Planet of the Apes" during the pivotal fight between Hector and Achilles in front of the Gates of Troy.  Various shots were recut and extended. For instance, the love scene between Helen and Paris was reframed to include more nudity of Diane Kruger. The love scene between Achilles and Briseis is also extended. Only one scene was removed: the scene where Helen tends to the wound of Paris is taken out. The battle scenes were also extended, showing much more of Ajax's bloody rampage on the Trojans during the initial attack by the Greek Army. Perhaps most significant was the sacking of Troy, barely present in the theatrical cut, but shown fully here, depicting the soldiers raping women and murdering babies. Characters were given more time to develop, specifically Priam and Odysseus, the latter being given a humorous introduction scene. Lastly, bookend scenes were added: the beginning being a soldier's dog finding its dead master and the end including a sequence where the few surviving Trojans escape to Mount Ida. In one of the commentary sequences, the film's writer, David Benioff, said that when it came to deciding whether to follow "The Iliad" or to do what was best for the film, they always decided with what was best for the film.

Home media.

Troy was released on DVD on January 4, 2005. The director's cut was released on Blu-Ray and DVD on September 18, 2007. The directors cut is the only edition of the film available on Blu-Ray, however the theatrical cut was released on HD-DVD.

Reception.

Commercial performance.

When the film was completed, total production costs were approximately $185 million. This made "Troy" one of the most expensive films produced in modern cinema. It was screened out of competition at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival.  "Troy" screenings have earned US$133,378,256 in the United States.  "Troy" made more than 73% of its revenues outside the United States. Eventually, "Troy" made over US$497 million worldwide, temporarily placing it in the #60 spot of top box office hits of all time. It was the 8th highest-grossing film of 2004 and currently is in the top 250 highest-grossing films of all time.

Critical reception.

"Troy" was met with mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 54%, based on 228 reviews, with an average rating of 6.04/10. The site's consensus describes the film as "A brawny, entertaining spectacle, but lacking emotional resonance." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 56 out of 100, based on 43 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".  Roger Ebert rated the film 2/4 stars. "Pitt is modern, nuanced, introspective; he brings complexity to a role where it is not required."

Troy is a 2004 epic historical war drama film directed by Wolfgang Petersen and written by David Benioff. Produced by units in Malta, Mexico and Britain's Shepperton Studios, the film features an ensemble cast led by Brad Pitt, Eric Bana, and Orlando Bloom. It is loosely based on Homer's "Iliad" in its narration of the entire story of the decade-long Trojan War—condensed into little more than a couple of weeks, rather than just the quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon in the ninth year. Achilles leads his Myrmidons along with the rest of the Greek army invading the historical city of Troy, defended by Hector's Trojan army. The end of the film (the sack of Troy) is not taken from the "Iliad", but rather from Quintus Smyrnaeus's "Posthomerica" as the "Iliad" concludes with Hector's death and funeral.

Troja (v originále Troy) je americký historický film na motivy Illiady, který režíroval Wolfgang Petersen. Děj se odehrává v okolí Tróji. V příběhu spolu bojují dvě země: Sparta a Trója. Spor nezi nimi vznikne, když syn Trójského krále unese Helenu, nejkrásnější ženu na světě. Hlavními herci filmu jsou Brad Pitt, Eric Bana, Orlando Bloom, Diane Kruger, Brendan Gleeson, Brian Cox, Sean Bean, Julie Christie, Peter O'Toole a Rose Byrne. Film měl premiéru v USA 13. května 2004.