Origin.

Ahrensburg culture belongs to a Late Paleolithic and early Mesolithic (or Epipaleolithic) cultural complex that started with the glacial recession and the subsequent disintegration of Late Palaeolithic cultures between 15,000 and 10,000 BCE. The extinction of mammoth and other megafauna provided for an incentive to exploit other forms of subsistence that included maritime resources. Northward migrations coincided with the warm Bølling and Allerød events, but much of northern Eurasia remained inhabited during the Younger Dryas. During the holocene climatic optimum, the increased biomass led to a marked intensification in foraging by all groups, the development of inter-group contacts, and ultimately, the initiation of agriculture.  The different technolithic complexes are chronologically associated with the climatic chronozones. The re-colonisation of Northern Germany is connected to the onset of the late Glacial Interstadial between Weichsel and the Dryas I glaciation, at the beginning of the Meiendorf Interstadial around 12,700 BCE. Palynological results demonstrate a close connection between the prominent temperature rise at the beginning of the Interstadial and the expansion of the hunter-gatherers into the northern Lowlands. The existence of a primary “pioneer phase” in the re-colonisation is contradicted by proof of e.g. an early Central European Magdalenian in Poland. Today it is commonly accepted that the Hamburgian, featured by ""Shouldered Point"" lithics, is a techno-complex closely related to the Creswellian and rooted in the Magdalenian. Within the Hamburgian techno-complex, a younger dating is found for the Havelte phase, sometimes interpreted as a northwestern phenomenon, perhaps oriented towards the former coastline. The Hamburgian culture existed during the warm Bølling period, the brief Dryas II glaciation (lasting 300 years) and in the early warmer Allerød period.  However, the distribution of the Hamburgian east of the Oder River has been confirmed and Hamburgian culture can also be distinguished in Lithuania. Finds in Jutland indicates the expansion of early Hamburgian hunters and gatherers reached further north than previously expected. The Hamburgian sites with shouldered point lithics reach as far north as the Pomeranian ice margin. The younger Havelte phase has been proven for the area beyond the Pomeranian ice margin and on the Danish Isles after c. 12,300 BCE.  The "Backed Point" lithics of Federmesser culture are usually dated in the Allerød Interstadial. Early Federmesser finds follows shortly or are contemporary to Havelte. The culture lasted approximately 1200 years from 11,900 to 10,700 BCE., and is located in Northern Germany and Poland to south Lithuania. Fish-hooks were discovered in Allerød layers and emphasize the importance of fishing in the Late Palaeolithic. A certain survival of late Upper Palaeolithic traditions similar to contemporary Azilian (France, Spain) becomes apparent, such as the amber elk from Weitsche that can be considered as a link to the Mesolithic, amber animal sculptures.  Bromme culture sites are found in the entire southern and southeastern Baltic, and are dated to the second half of Allerød and the early cold Dryas III period. The "classical" Brommian complex is typified by simple and fast, but uneconomical, flint processing using unipolar (single-platform) cores. A new development noticed in Lithuania introduced both massive and smaller ""tanged Points"". In Bromme culture this technology is proposed to be an innovation derived from tanged Havelte groups. As such, derivation of Bromme culture and even migration of its representatives from the territories of Denmark and northern Germany have been proposed, although other sources hold early Bromme not to be very well defined in (late Allerød) Northern Germany, where it groups with Federmesser.  Ahrensburg culture is normally associated with the Younger Dryas glacialization and the Pre-boreal period. The traditional view of the Ahrensburg culture being a direct inheritor of the Bromme culture in the late Dryas period is contradicted by new information that the Ahrensburgian techno-complex probably already started before the Younger Dryas, strengthening proposals to a direct derivation from the Havelte stage of the Hamburg culture. Some recent finds, such as the Hintersee 24 site in southern "Landkreis" Vorpommern-Greifswald, would contribute to the argument of an early Ahrensburgian in northern Germany. Alternatively, flint artefacts of Bromme tanged-point groups is considered to prelude the techno-complex of the Ahrensburg culture and would point to the provenience of Ahrensburg from Bromme culture. As such, the Grensk culture in Bromme territory at the source of the Dnieper River was proposed to be the direct originator of Ahrensburgian culture. However, the exact typological chronology of this culture is still unclear. Though associated with the Bromme complex, Grensk culture has its roots more defined in the local Mammoth Hunters' culture.  Another possibility derives from the observation that on a regional scale, the Hamburgian culture is succeeded geographically as well as chronologically by the Federmesser culture, or Arch-Backed Piece Complex. The existence of a genuine Federmesser occupation in southern Scandinavia is highly controversial, and there is wide, though not unanimous, agreement that some Federmesser types constitute an integral part of the early Brommean artefact inventory. Still, Federmesser types are also often found in close association with Hamburgian assemblages (e.g. at Slotseng and Sølbjerg) and tentative, dating from northern Germany shows some degree of contemporaneity between the late Hamburgian Havelte sites and the Federmesser ones. Therefore, in southern Scandinavia the Federmesser may represent a brief transitory phase between the Hamburgian and the Brommean. This corresponds with the notion that "tanged point cultures" such as "Brommian" or "Bromme-Lyngby" appear to be based on the Magdalenian, during the Allerød and were closely associated with reindeer hunting.

Stellmoor.

Stellmoor was a seasonal settlement inhabited primarily during October, and bones from 650 reindeer have been found there. The hunting tool was bow and arrow. From Stellmoor there are also well-preserved arrow shafts of pine intended for the culture's characteristic "skaftunge" arrowheads of flint. A number of intact reindeer skeletons, with arrowheads in the chest, has been found, and they were probably sacrifices to higher powers. At the settlements, archaeologists have found circles of stone, which probably were the foundations of hide teepees.

Scandinavia, Hensbacka group.

The earliest reliable traces of habitation in the northern territories of Norway and western Sweden date to the transition period from the Younger Dryas to the Preboreal. More favourable living conditions, and past experience gained through seasonal rounds, prompted increased maritime resource exploitation in the northern territories. The Hensbacka group on the west coast of Sweden exemplifies the cultural fragmentation process that took place within the Continental Ahrensburgian. Instead of new immigrations at the beginning of the Mesolithic, the discovery of deposited bones and new dating indicate that there was no (significant) break in settlement continuity. New knowledge provides aspects for a further autochthonous development, with a rapid climatic change stimulating a swift cultural change.

The Ahrensburg culture or Ahrensburgian (c. 12,900 to 11,700 BP) was a late Upper Paleolithic nomadic hunter culture (or technocomplex) in north-central Europe during the Younger Dryas, the last spell of cold at the end of the Weichsel glaciation resulting in deforestation and the formation of a tundra with bushy arctic white birch and rowan. The most important prey was the wild reindeer. The earliest definite finds of arrow and bow date to this culture, though these weapons might have been invented earlier. The Ahrensburgian was preceded by the Hamburg and Federmesser cultures and superseded by the Maglemosian and Swiderian cultures. Ahrensburgian finds were made in southern and western Scandinavia, the North German plain and western Poland. The Ahrensburgian area also included vast stretches of land now at the bottom of the North and Baltic Sea, since during the Younger Dryas the coastline took a much more northern course than today.

Ahrensburgien je kulturní celek v Německu, jehož název je odvozen od Ahrensburgu. Byl součástí technokomplexu nacházejícím se v severoevropských nížinách v 9. - 7. tis. před. n. l.


Origins.

The Abashevo culture is believed to have formed on the northern Don in the early 3rd millennium BC. It occupied part of the area of the earlier Fatyanovo-Balanovo culture, the eastern variant of the earlier Corded Ware culture.  Influences from further west played a decisive role in the formation of the Abashevo culture. It belongs to a circle of Central European cultures deriving from the Corded Ware culture. The peoples of this environment would eventually develop into Balts, Celts, Italic peoples, Germanic peoples and Slavs. It is from Central Europe that the Abashevo peoples ultimately originated.  Influences from the Yamnaya culture and Catacomb culture on the Abashevo culture are detected. The pre-eminent expert on the Abashevo culture,, concluded that it originated from contacts between Fatyanovo-Balanovo, Catacomb and Poltavka peoples in the southern forest-steppe.  The Abashevo culture represents an extension of steppe culture into the forest zone.

Distribution.

The Abashevo culture flourished in the forest steppe areas of the middle Volga and upper Don.  The Abashevo culture appears to have absorbed parts of the Volosovo culture. Contacts with the Volosovo culture appears to have facilitated the spread pastoralism and metallurgy into northern forest cultures.  The easternmost sites of the Abashevo culture are located along the southern Urals. Those sites are associated with the origins of the Sintashta culture. The Abashevo culture is divided into a Don-Volga variant, a middle Volga variant and a southern Ural variant. On the northern Don, the Abashevo culture replaced the Catacomb culture. Along the middle Volga, it co-existed with the Poltavka culture.  Elena E. Kuzmina suggests that the Seima-Turbino phenomenon emerged as a result of interaction between the Abashevo culture, the Catacomb culture and the early Andronovo culture.

Characteristics.

Settlements.

The type site of the Abashevo culture is at Abashevo, Chuvash Republic. More than two hundred settlements have been found. Some of them appear to have been occupied only briefly, and just two of them appear to have been fortified.

Burials.

The Abashevo culture is primarily represented by various kurgan cemeteries. Kurgans were surrounded by a circular ditch, and the grave pit had ledges at its edges. The body was either contracted on the side, or supine with raised knees, with legs flexed. Its funerary customs appear to have been derived from the Poltavka culture. Its inhumation practices in tumuli are similar to the Yamnaya culture and Fatyanovo-Balanovo culture.  Flat graves are a component of the Abashevo culture burial rite, as in the earlier Fatyanovo culture. The kurgans of the Abashevo culture are to be distinguished from the flat graves of the Fatyanovo-Balanovo culture. A well-known Abashevo kurgan in Pepkino contained the remains of twenty-eight males who appear to have died violent deaths.  Grave offerings are scant, little more than a pot or two usually a made with crushed-shell temper. Some graves show evidence of a birch bark floor and a timber construction forming walls and roof. High-status Abashevo graves contain silver and copper ornaments, and weapons. Crucibles for smelting copper and moulds for casting were found in some graves, most likely funerals reserved to bronzesmiths.

Clothing.

High-status Abashevo women are notable for wearing a distinctive type of headband with pendants made of copper and silver. These headbands are unique to the Abashevo culture, and are probably an ethnic marker and symbol of political status.  The diadems of the Abashevo women are very similar to those of elite women in Mycenaean Greece. Elena Efimovna Kuzmina cites this as evidence of cultural synchronization between these ancient cultures.

Ceramics.

Abashevo ceramics display influences from the Catacomb culture, which was located further south. Its ceramics in turn influence those of the Sintashta culture.

Metal.

The Abashevo culture was an important center of metallurgy, as the southern Urals provided a major source of local copper. There is evidence of copper smelting, and the culture engaged in copper mining activities, which stimulated the formation of Sintashta metallurgy.  About half of Abashevo metal objects are of copper, while the other half is of bronze. Silver-bearing ores were also extracted, from which silver ornaments were made. Abashevo metal types, such as knives were very similar to those of the Catacomb culture and the Poltavka culture.

Economy.

The economy of the Abashevo culture was mixed agriculture. Cattle, sheep, pig and goats, as well as other domestic animals were kept. Horses were evidently used, inferred by cheek pieces typical of neighboring steppe cultures and Mycenaean Greece. Stone grinders and metal sickles are evidences of agriculture  The population of Sintashta derived their stock-breeding from Abashevo. Abashevo cattle was of the Ukrainian Grey type, and this cattle had previously been raised among earlier Neolithic cultures of the Pontic steppe and along the Danube. This type of cattle was later adopted by the Sintashta culture and the Srubnaya culture.

Warfare.

Archaeological evidence suggests that Abashevo society was intensely warlike. Mass graves reveal that inter-tribal battles involved hundreds of warriors of both sides, which indicates a significant degree of inter-regional political integration. Warfare appears to have been more frequent in the late Abashevo period, and it was in this turbulent environment in which the Sintashta culture emerged.

Linguistics.

David Anthony assumes that the Abashevo people spoke Pre-Indo-Iranian or Proto-Indian-Iranian, since it is a possible source of Indo-Iranian loanwords in Uralic..  It probably witnessed a bilingual population undergo a process of assimilation.

Physical type.

Physical remains of the Abashevo people has revealed that they were Europoids with dolichocephalic skulls. Abashevo skulls are very similar to those of the preceding Fatyanovo–Balanovo culture, and the succeeding Sintashta culture, Andronovo culture and Srubnaya culture, while differing from those of the Yamnaya culture, Poltavka culture, Catacomb culture and Potapovka culture, which although being of a similar robust Europoid type, are less dolichocephalic. The physical type of Abashevo, Sintashta, Andronovo and Srubnaya is later observed among the Scythians.

Successors.

The Abashevo culture is closely associated with the Sintashta culture, and must have played a role in its origin. The Sintashta culture however differs from the Abashevo culture through having fortified settlements, conducting large-scale animal sacrifices, and in its metal types and ornaments.  Continuity between the Abashevo culture and the later Srubnaya culture have been pointed out. Along with the Potapovka culture, the Abashevo culture is considered an ancestor of the Srubnaya culture. The Potapovka culture itself emerged from the Poltavka culture with influences from the Abashevo culture.

The Abashevo culture is an early Bronze Age (ca. 2500–1900 BC) archaeological culture found in the valleys of the Volga and Kama River north of the Samara bend and into the southern Ural Mountains. It receives its name from the village of Abashevo in Chuvashia.

Abaševská kultura je kultura z oblasti Povolží, existující v 2. tisíciletí př. Kr., v době bronzové. Jméno dostala podle pohřebiště Abaševo v Čuvašsku.


Site.

The site is located in a fertile river valley that has been an important trade route; a railway still runs between the present-day village and the tell, transecting the neolithic site. The tell lies between the current village and the Quweiq river to the east, and its summit is measured at 444 m above sea level; the neolithic site extends to the south and lies about 20m lower (Mazurowski p. 12,p. 20).

Excavations.

A survey in the late 1970s found evidence of settlement at the site from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A period through to the Hellenistic period. The later phases of occupation are closely associated with the mound of the tell itself. The pre-pottery Neolithic phase however is associated with a wider area of about 3.5 hectares, extending to the south and south-west of the tell and covered by up to 2.5 m of later deposits through the Bronze Age and Iron Age. It is this area that has been the focus of detailed investigation since 1999 by a joint Polish-Syrian team led by Prof. Ryszard F. Mazurowski of Warsaw University and Dr Youssef Kanjou from DGAM, Syria. Thusfar about six areas have been investigated and four excavated: only about 1.5% of the entire site (Mazurowski p. 18). After 2007 the excavations have been suspended due to the civil war in Syria.  Before the excavations began, it was assumed that permanent sedentary settlements would occur only in combination with the first farming of cereals, and the first domestication and keeping of animals such as sheep and goats, marking the start of the Neolithic period, part of a transition between the proto-Neolithic and Pre-Pottery Neolithic A cultures. However the remains of the structures uncovered at Tell Qaramel appear to be older than this, giving the first evidence of permanent stone-built settlement. The site is roughly contemporary to that of Göbekli Tepe in Turkey.

Stratigraphy and chronology.

The archeologists distinguish a preliminary epipaleolithic phase (Horizon 0) attested mostly by flint tools but no certain carbon samples. For the subsequent settlement they recognise 4 Early Aceramic Neolithic layers (Horizon 1 to 4) which according to radiocarbon dating have been partially overlapping (contemporary).  The excavators find an unbroken development (in contrast to "e.g." in Jericho in the southern Levant) so are skeptical about the common division in "Pre-Pottery Neolithic A" and "Pre-Pottery Neolithic B" phases, instead preferring "Early Aceramic Neolithic" for the proto-neolithic and PPNA, and "Late Aceramic Neolithic" for PPNB and PPNC.  The dating is not without problems. The archeologists rejected several samples because the radiocarbon dates were inconsistent with the stratigraphy, but also otherwise the very early dates at Tell Qaramel appear too old as compared to dating of similar cultural phases at other sites. Comparison of the laboratory in Gliwice, Poland (code Gd) that executed the C14 analyses, with other laboratories, showed differences in either direction.

Highlights.

Particularly striking are the remains of a succession of five round stone structures which the excavators recognise as the remains of towers (Mazurowski a.o. 2012 pp. 48..52 ). The lower, oldest one was about 6 m in diameter and appears to have had some communal function, having an elevated hearth at the center with two benches centered on it. The fourth phase was most massive, at about 7.5m in diameter with stone walls of about 2.25 m thick; it had no internal structure. It was damaged by fire and rebuilt, and may have been a defensive structure. The earliest phase has been carbon-dated to between the eleventh millennium and 9670 BC. This dating makes the structure roughly two millennia older than the stone tower found at Jericho, which was previously believed to be the oldest known tower structure in the world.  Among the ornaments found was a rather large (52×40×26 mm) polished copper nugget from Horizon 2 - one of the earliest finds of metal in an archeological site. As malachite (copper carbonate) has been excavated too in Tell Qaramel, the copper nugget may have been collected from the (as yet unidentified) malachite source. An attempt had been made to drill a hole through the copper like with other stone beads, but technology was not yet sufficiently advanced to process metal (Mazurowski 2012 p. 80; Plate 137A p. 280 ).

Mortuary practices.

Remains of 20 individuals have been excavated, all adults: this may indicate that burial practice for infants and children was different, at another (as yet undiscovered) location or treated with less regard. Most bodies had their head removed, either by cutting shortly after dead (as indicated by cut marks, and having the 1st vertebra remain with the skull), or after decay (leaving the vertebrae and lower mandible with the skeleton). This indicates a head cult, as is also attested in other pre-pottery Neolithic sites (notably Jericho, Tell Aswad, and Cayonu). While in some skulls teeth showed wear and caries, which is typical for a diet with carbohydrates like from grain, others were in good condition, which may indicate a pre-Neolithic diet.

Tell Qaramel (also "Tel Qaramel" or "Tel al-Qaramel", ) is a "tell", or archaeological mound, located in the north of present-day Syria, 25 km north of Aleppo and about 65 km south of the Taurus mountains, adjacent to the river Quweiq that flows to Aleppo.

Tel Quaramel, též podle lokální výslovnosti Tel Karámel ( تل القرامل ["Tel al-Qaramel"], také "Tel Qarámil" nebo "Tel Qarámel") je tel resp. archeologické naleziště na severu Sýrie, 25 km na sever od města Halab a 65 km od pohoří Taurus. Stavba byla postavena asi v roce 10000 př. Kr. Pochází z období neolitu.


Biography.

Gáspár Miklós Tamás was born in today's Cluj, Romania, but he has been living in Budapest, Hungary, for years. His mother was Jewish and escaped being deported to Auschwitz because she was imprisoned for being a communist. As a dissident at the end of the state socialist (communist) period, he was initially a libertarian socialist. While in contact with libertarian authors, his perspective is distinct from the Budapest School, a major school of thought in Hungarian Neo-Marxism. He was also the member of the informal group called democratic opposition. From 1986 to 1988, he taught in the U.S., Britain, and France, and also continued his studies at Oxford University. At the beginning of the post-socialist era in 1989, he became committed to a liberal program, and was a leader of the Alliance of Free Democrats. He served in the Hungarian Parliament as a representative of the Alliance of Free Democrats (SZDSZ), from 1989 to 1994. He re-identified as a Marxist in the early years of the 21st century. He served as President of the extra-parliamentary Green Left between 2010 and 2011.  He is a vocal opponent of the Hungarian government led by Viktor Orbán and the Fidesz party, as well as capitalism and neoliberalism. His theoretical work draws on the ideas of Italian autonomism (Antonio Negri), German Neue Marx-Lektüre (Hans-Georg Backhaus and Helmut Reichelt), and American Political Marxism (Robert Brenner and Ellen Meiksins Wood). He also refers to the insights of - among others - Georges Bataille and Moishe Postone.  He is known for developing the concept of post-fascism. and also invented the term ethnicism. In his words,

Gáspár Miklós Tamás ("G. M. Tamás"; ; born 28 November 1948), often referred to in the media as TGM, is a Hungarian marxist-anarcho-syndicalist philosopher and public intellectual. He is currently a contributor to online newspaper "Mérce" and to "OpenDemocracy", where he writes primarily about political and aesthetic questions.

Gáspár Miklós Tamás (maďarsky někdy zkráceně jako "TGM") (* 28. listopadu 1948 Kluž) je sedmihradský filozof, politik a publicista maďarské národnosti.


Life.

Verrocchio was born in Florence in around 1435. His father, Michele di Francesco Cioni, initially worked as a tile and brick maker, then later as a tax collector. Verrocchio never married, and had to provide financial support for some members of his family. He was at first apprenticed to a goldsmith. It has been suggested that he was later apprenticed to Donatello, but there is no evidence of this and John Pope-Hennessy considered that it is contradicted by the style of his early works. It has been suggested that he was trained as a painter under Fra Filippo Lippi. Little is known about his life. His main works are dated in his last twenty years and his advancement owed much to the patronage of Lorenzo de' Medici and his son Piero. His workshop was in Florence where he was a member of the Guild of St Luke. Several great artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Lorenzo di Credi passed through his workshop as apprentices. Beyond this, artists like Domenico Ghirlandaio, Francesco Botticini, and Pietro Perugino were also involved and their early works can be hard to distinguish from works by Verrocchio. Giovanni Santi records that Botticelli, Luca Signorelli, and a young Filippino Lippi also visited or worked in Verrocchio's studio. Of the artist's pedagougery the Florentine poet Ugolino Verino wrote that.. "Whatever painters have that is good they drank from Verrocchio’s spring"...  At the end of his life, Verrocchio opened a new workshop in Venice, where he was working on the statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni, leaving the Florentine workshop in charge of Lorenzo di Credi. He died in Venice in 1488. The name has gradually evolved into the name Verrochi. Andrea is also the several generation grandfather of Italian entrepreneur, Paul M. Verrochi.

Painting.

Despite the importance of Verrocchio's workshop in the training of younger painters, very few paintings are universally recognised as his own work and there are many problems of attribution.  A painting of the Madonna with seated child in tempera on panel (now in the Berlin State Museums, Gemäldegalerie) is considered an early work of 1468-1470.  A painting in the National Gallery in London (cat. no.NG2508) of the Virgin and Child with two angels in tempera on panel, which had not previously been attributed to Verrocchio, was cleaned and restored about 2010 and is now attributed to him with a date of about 1467-1469.  A small painting on panel of Tobias setting out on his journey with the Archangel Raphael, carrying the fish with which he was to heal his father's blindness, was probably painted as a private devotional picture. It is an early work which has formerly been attributed to Pollaiuolo and other artists. Covi thinks that it was probably painted with assistance from Ghirlandaio. It is now in London at the National Gallery.  The "Baptism of Christ", now in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence, was painted in 1474–75. In this work Verrocchio was assisted by Leonardo da Vinci, then a youth and a member of his workshop, who painted the angel on the left and the part of the background above. According to Giorgio Vasari, Andrea resolved never to touch the brush again because Leonardo, his pupil, had far surpassed him, but later critics consider this story apocryphal.  The "Madonna enthroned with John the Baptist and St Donato" is in the Pistoia Cathedral. It had been left unfinished and was completed by Lorenzo di Credi when Verrocchio was in Venice near the end of his life.

Sculpture.

Around 1465 Verrocchio is believed to have worked on the lavabo of the Old Sacristy in San Lorenzo, Florence.  Between 1465 and 1467 he executed the funerary monument Cosimo de' Medici for the crypt under the altar of the same church, and in 1472 he completed the monument to Piero and Giovanni de' Medici in the Old Sacristy.  In 1467 the Tribunale della Mercanzia, the judicial organ of the Guilds in Florence, commissioned from Verrocchio a bronze group portraying "Christ and St. Thomas" for the centre tabernacle, which the Tribunale had recently purchased, on the east facade of Orsanmichele to replace a statue of St. Louis of Toulouse, which had been removed. He therefore had the problem of placing two statues (more than life size) in a tabernacle originally intended for one. As Covi says, the problem was resolved "in a most felicitous manner". The work was placed in position in 1483 and "has been acclaimed since the day of its unveiling and almost without exception recognised as a masterpiece."  In 1468 Verrocchio made a bronze candlestick (1.57metres high), now in the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, for the Signoria of Florence.  Also in 1468 he contracted to make a golden ball ("palla") to be placed on top of the lantern of Brunelleschi's cupola on the Duomo in Florence. The ball was ingeniously made of sheets of copper soldered together and hammered into shape and then gilded. It was completed by the spring of 1471. (The cross on top was made by other hands). The ball was struck by lightning and fell on 27January 1601 but was reconstructed in 1602.  In the early 1470s he made a voyage to Rome, while in 1474 he executed the Forteguerri monument for the Cathedral of Pistoia, which he left unfinished.  A bronze statue of "David" was commissioned by Piero de'Medici. On grounds of style and technique it was dated by Butterfield to the mid-1460s; he considered it a masterpiece of Verrocchio's early career. It was purchased by the Signoria of Florence from Piero's heirs Lorenzo and Giuliano de' Medici in 1476 and is now at the Bargello in Florence. Verrocchio's David is a young lad, modestly clad, contrasting with Donatello's provocative "David". For this figure, the Master is purported to have used the young Leonardo, a newcomer to his workshop, as his model.  At a date unknown (suggestions range from 1465 to 1480: Pope-Hennessy said about 1470) he finished in bronze a Putto (winged boy) with Dolphin, originally intended for a fountain in the Medici villa of Careggi and later brought to Florence for a fountain in the Palazzo della Signoria by the Grand Duke Cosimo de' Medici. It was replaced with a copy by Bruno Bearzi and since 1959 has been kept in a room in the Palazzo Vecchio.  The marble bust of a lady with a bunch of flowers ("Dama col mazzolino") in the Bargello at Florence is probably from the later 1470s. The identity of the lady is unknown.  The relief for the funerary monument of Francesca Tornabuoni for Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome is also now in the Bargello at Florence. Verrochio had been at work in the Funerary Monument to Cardinal Niccolo Forteguerri, Pistoia, when he departed for Venice in 1483.

Statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni.

In 1475 the Condottiero Colleoni, a former Captain General of the Republic of Venice, died and by his will left a substantial part of his estate to the Republic on condition that a statue of himself should be commissioned and set up in the Piazza San Marco. In 1479 the Republic announced that it would accept the legacy, but that (as statues were not permitted in the Piazza) the statue would be placed in the open space in front of the "Scuola" San Marco. A competition was arranged to enable a sculptor to be selected. Three sculptors competed for the contract, Verrocchio from Florence, Alessandro Leopardi from Venice and Bartolomeo Vellano from Padua. Verrocchio made a model of his proposed sculpture using wood and black leather, while the others made models of wax and clay. The three models were exhibited in Venice in 1483 and the contract was awarded to Verrocchio. He then opened a workshop in Venice and made the final clay model which was ready to be cast in bronze, but he died in 1488, before this was done. He had asked that his pupil Lorenzo di Credi, who was then in charge of his workshop in Florence, should be entrusted with the finishing of the statue, but after the considerable delay the Venetian state commissioned Alessandro Leopardi to do this. The statue was eventually erected on a pedestal made by Leopardi in the Santi Giovanni e Paolo in Venice, where it stands today.  Leopardi cast the bronze very successfully and the statue is universally admired, but Pope-Hennessy suggests that, if Verrocchio had been able to do this himself, he would have finished the head and other parts more smoothly and made it even better than it is. Although it was not placed where Colleoni had intended, Passavent emphasised how fine it looks in its actual position, writing that "the magnificent sense of movement in this figure is shown to superb advantage in its present setting" and that, as sculpture, "it far surpasses anything the century had yet aspired to or thought possible". He points out that both man and horse are equally fine and together are inseparable parts of the sculpture.  Verrocchio is unlikely to have ever seen Colleoni and the statue is not a portrait of the man but of the idea of a strong and ruthless military commander "bursting with titanic power and energy". This is in contrast to Donatello's statue at Padua of the condottiere known as Gattamelata with its "air of calm command" and all Verrocchio's effort "has been devoted to the rendering of movement and of a sense of strain and energy".

Andrea del Verrocchio (,, ; – 1488), born Andrea di Michele di Francesco de' Cioni, was an Italian painter, sculptor, and goldsmith who was a master of an important workshop in Florence. He apparently became known as "Verrocchio" after the surname of his master, a goldsmith. Few paintings are attributed to him with certainty, but a number of important painters were trained at his workshop. His pupils included Leonardo da Vinci, Pietro Perugino and Lorenzo di Credi. His greatest importance was as a sculptor and his last work, the Equestrian statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice, is generally accepted as a masterpiece.

Andrea del Verrocchio, vlastním jménem Andrea di Michele di Francesco di Cioni (1435, Florencie – 10. října 1488, Benátky) byl italský renesanční malíř, zlatník a sochař, který pracoval na dvoře Lorenza I. Medicejského ve Florencii. Byl Donattelovým pokračovatelem a všestranným umělcem. Mezi jeho žáky patřili i Leonardo da Vinci, Pietro Perugino, Domenico Ghirlandaio a Sandro Botticelli, ovlivnil i Michelangela.


Biography.

McNaughton was born in Cornwall, Ontario, and grew up in Vancouver, British Columbia. At the 1930 British Empire Games he finished fourth in the high jump event. He competed for Canada in the 1932 Summer Olympics, held in Los Angeles, United States, in the high jump where he won the gold medal. Bob Van Osdel, who took home the silver medal, was a close friend and teammate from the University of Southern California. Van Osdel helped coach McNaughton to his win during the final minutes of the competition. Later, in 1933 when McNaughton's medal was stolen from his car, Van Osdel—then a dentist—made a replica to replace it with a cast of his silver medal. The men remained friends until Van Osdel's death in 1987; McNaughton stayed in contact with his widow until his death in 1998.  McNaughton studied geology at the University of Southern California and went on to receive a Master's degree from the California Institute of Technology. He worked for the Geological Survey of Canada, then explored for oil in South America and later served with the Royal Canadian Air Force during World War II. He received a PhD in geology from USC and was also an assistant professor of geology there. McNaughton later helped initiate oil and gas exploration in the Amadeus Basin of central Australia and Palm Valley.  McNaughton died at his home in Austin, Texas in 1998.

Honors.

McNaughton was inducted into the Canada's Sports Hall of Fame in 1955. An annual grant is awarded in his name to a graduate student by the American Association of Petroleum Geologists.

Duncan Anderson McNaughton (December 7, 1910 – January 15, 1998) was a Canadian athlete, who competed mainly in the high jump. He went on to a career in petroleum geology.

Duncan Anderson McNaughton (7. prosince 1910 - 15. ledna 1998, Austin) byl kanadský atlet, olympijský vítěz ve skoku do výšky.


Club career.

Early career.

Cabaye began his football career playing for hometown club Tourcoing FC. He started out at the club at the age of six. Cabaye, initially, did not meet the age requirement to enter the club's youth academy, however, due to his father working at the club at the time, he was allowed entrance into the club's academy. Cabaye spent several years developing at the club and, after excelling in youth games, gained the attention of professional club Lille. In July 1998, he signed youth papers with Lille and was inserted into the club's academy. Cabaye developed quickly in the club's academy and, by the 2003–04 season, was playing on the club's reserve team in the Championnat de France amateur, the fourth level of French football. Cabaye appeared in ten matches and scored one goal in his first season with the team. In the next season, Cabaye rotated between the reserve team and the first team. He played in 15 matches and scored two goals with the reserve team helping the team finish in 2nd place in its group, which resulted in qualification to the league playoffs.

Lille.

2004–2008.

Ahead of the 2004–05 season, Cabaye signed his first professional contract with Lille agreeing to a three-year deal. He trained with the team in the pre-season and participated in the 2004 UEFA Intertoto Cup, which Lille won, appearing in four matches. Cabaye was called up to the senior team for the first time under coach Claude Puel in November 2004. He made his league debut on 7 November 2004 in a league match against Istres. Cabaye started the match and played over 75 minutes in a 2–0 victory. He played with the team for the rest of the campaign contributing infrequently. On 21 December, Cabaye played 120 minutes in a 4–2 penalty shootout defeat to Strasbourg in the Coupe de la Ligue. Cabaye was one of two players who converted their penalty shots for Lille. On 20 February 2005, he received his first-ever red card in a 1–1 draw with Metz. Cabaye finished the campaign with 12 total appearances without scoring.  In the following season, Cabaye's playing time increased significantly as he appeared in 27 league matches, including 20 starts. Cabaye also played in the 2003–04 editions of the UEFA Champions League and UEFA Cup playing in five total appearances in both competitions. He officially made his European debut on 14 September 2005 in a Champions League group stage match against Portuguese club Benfica. On 2 November, he appeared as a substitute in the team's 1–0 upset victory over English club Manchester United. In the league, Cabaye scored his first professional goal in a 3–2 defeat to Auxerre on 19 November. Cabaye's successful individual season was overshadowed by the team's performance as Lille finished in the top of the table, which resulted in the club qualifying for European competition for the third consecutive season. Midway through the season, Lille and Cabaye reached an agreement on a two-year contract extension, which was to expired in June 2010.  Cabaye struggled with ankle injuries in the 2006–07 campaign featuring in only five league matches in the first three months of the season. He scored his first goal of the year on 26 August 2006 in a 3–0 victory over Bordeaux. On 4 November, he scored his second goal of the season in another 3–0 victory, this time against rivals Valenciennes. Cabaye consistently appeared with the team in the league and Champions League before suffering a relapse of his previous ankle injury in a league match against Le Mans in March 2007. He was substituted out of the match and was subsequently rested for the rest of the season. Lille finished the season in 10th-place resulting in the club failing to qualify for European competition for the first time in three seasons.  Cabaye returned to action in the 2007–08 season appearing in 39 matches; 37 of which were starts. He scored a career-high seven goals in the league and assisted on several goals, as well. Lille went undefeated in all six matches Cabaye scored in, which were against such clubs as Bordeaux, Saint-Étienne, Metz, Le Mans, Caen, and Derby du Nord rivals Lens. Against Caen, Cabaye scored a double in a 5–0 thrashing. During the season, he signed another extension agreeing to a three-year deal until 2013. Included in the extension was a release clause of €75 million.

2008–2011.

Ahead of the 2008–09 season, Puel departed the club for Lyon and Rudi Garcia was tipped to replace him. In Garcia's formation, Cabaye was paired in the midfield alongside new signing Florent Balmont who acted as a protector of Cabaye and a distributor of the ball along with defensive midfielder Rio Mavuba. Without the constant pressure of tracking back to defend, Cabaye was allowed to act as a playmaker for the talented trio of attackers Eden Hazard, Gervinho, and Pierre-Alain Frau. He appeared in 32 league matches starting them all as Lille finished in 5th place, thus returning to European competition in the next season. Cabaye scored five goals in the league and one in the Coupe de France, which came against amateur club Dunkerque in a 3–0 victory in the Round of 32.  Cabaye had arguably one of the best seasons of his career in the 2009–10 season. He appeared in 46 total matches scoring a career-high 15 goals, seven of which were penalty conversions, and assisting on ten. Cabaye scored his first goal of the season on 31 October 2009 in a 2–0 win over Grenoble. In the next five league matches, he scored five goals; four penalty conversions against Valenciennes, Lyon, Monaco, and Saint-Étienne and one from open play against Bordeaux. On 13 February 2010, Cabaye assisted on two goals in 3–1 win against Boulogne. On 18 April, he scored a penalty, another goal in open play, and assisted on one in 4–0 victory over Monaco. His goal in open play against Monaco was nominated for the Goal of the Season. In the UEFA Europa League, Cabaye scored goals against Serbian club Sevojno in the qualifying rounds and Czech club Slavia Prague in the group stage as Lille reached the knockout stage of the competition. The club was eliminated by English club Liverpool in the Round of 16. Lille finished the campaign in fourth place having lost out on qualification to the UEFA Champions League on the final match day of the season.  In the 2010–11 season, Cabaye remained a fixture in the starting eleven under Garcia, however, unlike last season, the midfielder did not play as the primary play-maker as these duties were relinquished to wing forwards Hazard and Gervinho. On 24 October 2010, Cabaye scored his first goal of the campaign in a 3–1 defeat to Marseille. Three days later, he scored two goals, one from open play and another from the penalty spot, in a 4–1 win over Caen in the Coupe de la Ligue. After failing to score or assist on a goal in nearly two months, Cabaye provided assists for two Moussa Sow goals in a 6–3 hammering of Lorient in December 2010. In April 2011, Cabaye provided three assists in three league matches against Caen, Bordeaux, and Arles-Avignon. Cabaye also scored a goal in the match against the latter club. Lille went unbeaten in the three matches, which gave the club a four-point lead in the table heading into the final month of the season.  Cabaye was also instrumental in the team's advancement to the 2011 Coupe de France Final appearing in all five matches the team contested, four of them as a starter. In the final, Cabaye played the entire match as Lille defeated Paris Saint-Germain 1–0 at the Stade de France. A week later, Lille clinched the Ligue 1 title by drawing 2–2 away to Paris Saint-Germain, achieving the club's first league championship since the 1953–54 season and the club's first double since the 1945–46 season. The domestic cup and league title were the first two domestic honours of Cabaye's career.

Newcastle United.

Following Lille's final game of the 2010–11 season, a 3–2 win over Rennes, Lille manager Rudi Garcia confirmed that Cabaye would be departing the club to sign with Newcastle United in England, stating, "Yohan told us yesterday – first me, then the whole group before the game – that he has chosen to join Newcastle. It is a choice that I respect, although I wish he continued the adventure with us." The transfer was confirmed on 10 June 2011, with Cabaye agreeing to a five-year deal with Newcastle. The transfer fee was undisclosed. Cabaye described the move to Newcastle as "fantastic" while also stating, "I have enjoyed great times with Lille, but the time is right now to test myself against the best and playing for Newcastle United in the Premier League does just that." On 15 July, Cabaye made his debut for Newcastle in a pre-season friendly win over against Conference National side Darlington, after coming on as a substitute in the 12th minute. Days before the season began, Cabaye was handed the number 4 shirt, which had been made available following the departure of ex-captain Kevin Nolan early in the transfer window. on 13 August, he made his league debut in a 0–0 draw against Arsenal. On 22 October, Cabaye scored his first goal for Newcastle against Wigan Athletic. Four days later, he netted his second goal for the club in a 4–3 defeat to Blackburn Rovers in the Football League Cup. On 17 December, in the team's 0–0 draw with Swansea City, Cabaye covered the most distance by any Newcastle player all season in the match, having traveled over. A fortnight later, Cabaye netted the team's second goal in a 3–0 win against Manchester United with a 30-yard free kick. On 6 April 2012, Cabaye assisted on both team goals, scored by Papiss Cissé, in Newcastle's 2–0 victory over Swansea City. On 21 April, Cabaye assisted another Cissé goal and scored two himself in a 3–0 home victory against Stoke City, lifting Newcastle into the top four in the league table.  On 21 October 2012, Cabaye scored his first goal of the 2012–13 season with a neat finish in the Tyne-Wear derby against Sunderland in a 1–1 draw. On 4 November, he scored the opening goal against Liverpool in a 1–1 draw. It was first goal scored at Anfield by a Newcastle player since 2004. Later that month, it was announced that Cabaye needed groin surgery and would be out until February 2013. On 19 January 2013, he made his return and scored the first goal in an eventual 2–1 home defeat to Reading from another trademark free kick. On his second start following his return, Cabaye scored a half-volley from outside the penalty box against Aston Villa. In two home games against Southampton and Stoke City, he converted a penalty and scored a free kick goal, respectively. On 2 March, Cabaye made his first start as captain against Swansea City, replacing the injured regular captain Fabricio Coloccini.  On 19 August 2013, the eve of Newcastle's Premier League season opener against Manchester City, Arsenal made a bid of £10 million for Cabaye which was rejected. After Newcastle lost the match 4–0, manager Alan Pardew confirmed that Cabaye had been omitted from the squad that evening because his head had been turned by the bid, which he condemned as disrespectful in both value and timing. The midfielder also refused to play for the club in their following game against West Ham United on 24 August. On 19 October 2013, Cabaye scored his second goal of the season with a 30-yard strike against Liverpool at St James' Park in a 2–2 draw. On 7 December, Cabaye wrote his name into Newcastle folklore by scoring the winner in the 1–0 victory over Manchester United, their first victory at Old Trafford for 41 years. On 21 December, he scored the first goal in a comprehensive 3–0 victory at Crystal Palace, before again scoring in the 5–1 win against Stoke City on Boxing Day. In his final game, on 18 January 2014, Cabaye bagged a brace in a 3–1 win over West Ham United, equalling his 2012–13 goal tally in just half a season. His first goal was a shot from just inside the box after good skill and with his last kick for Newcastle, Cabaye scored a free-kick from the edge of the box.

Paris Saint-Germain.

On 29 January 2014, Paris Saint-Germain announced that Cabaye had joined the Ligue 1 club for an undisclosed fee, estimated around £19 million plus add-ons. Cabaye signed a three-and-a-half-year deal with the club and was allocated the number 4 shirt. On 18 February, Cabaye scored his first PSG goal in a 4–0 victory over German side Bayer Leverkusen in the UEFA Champions League round-of-16. On 19 April, Cabaye won his first trophy with PSG as they beat Lyon 2–1 in the 2014 Coupe de la Ligue Final.  On 22 August 2014, Cabaye was sent off for two bookings in a goalless draw away to Evian. On 17 October, Cabaye scored his first league goal since returning to France in PSG's 3–1 away win over Lens.

Crystal Palace.

On 10 July 2015, Cabaye joined Premier League team Crystal Palace, on a three-year contract for a club record, but undisclosed, fee. He made his debut away to Norwich City on 8 August, scoring the final goal of a 3–1 win.  Cabaye quickly became the club's first choice penalty taker, and scored three penalties in three consecutive matches against Watford, West Bromwich Albion and West Ham United. On 12 December, he scored his second goal from open play and his fifth of the season, against Southampton. On 11 March 2016, he opened the scoring with a penalty against Reading, during Palace's FA Cup run, where they would finish runners-up. On 30 April, his return to St James' Park, he had his penalty saved by Karl Darlow, in an eventual 1–0 loss.  On 27 August 2016, Cabaye had his penalty saved by Artur Boruc, in an eventual 1–1 draw with Bournemouth. He scored his first goal of the season against Leicester City; the consolation goal in a 3–1 loss. On 26 December, Cabaye opened the scoring in a 1–1 draw with Watford, the first match under new Palace manager Sam Allardyce. After providing consecutive assists against Middlesbrough and West Bromwich Albion for the first time since April 2012, Cabaye ended a run of forty-seven Premier League matches without doing so. On 1 July 2018, Cabaye was released by Crystal Palace following the conclusion of his contract.

Al-Nasr.

On 3 July 2018, Cabaye joined Dubai-based Al-Nasr on a free transfer, signing a two-year deal. He will wear the number 7 shirt at his new club, his previous jersey number at Palace.  On 13 January 2019, it was announced Cabaye had left the club.

Saint-Étienne.

On 27 August 2019, Cabaye returned to France and penned a one-year contract with AS Saint-Étienne.

International career.

Youth.

Cabaye is a former French youth international having represented his nation internationally at under-16, under-18, under-19, under-20, and under-21 level. He earned his first call-up at international level in August 2001 at a training camp headed by Pierre Mankowski. Cabaye earned his first selection on 26 September 2001 in a 4–0 win over Iceland. He was later selected to appear in the "Tournoi du Val-de-Marne". France won the competition. Cabaye was called up to the under-18 team by coach Jean Gallice on 5 March 2004 as a replacement for the injured Yoann Gourcuff for matches in Germany. He was selected for the team on 9 March in a 1–1 draw with Germany at the Hardtwaldstadion in Sandhausen. Cabaye appeared in the next five matches with the team, which included victories over Scotland, Ukraine, and the Czech Republic in the Slovakia Cup, a youth international tournament catered to under-18 players.  At under-19 level, Cabaye was an early call-up to the team. He was selected for the team's first match of the season against Turkey, which France won 2–1. In first round qualification for the 2005 UEFA European Under-19 Championship, Cabaye appeared in two group stage matches. He scored his first youth international goal on 30 September 2004 in qualification against Azerbaijan in a 3–0 victory. France later reached the tournament and Cabaye participated in the competition, which was held in Northern Ireland. Cabaye appeared in four of the five matches France contested as the nation won the competition; its 6th UEFA U-19 Championship title. In the semi-finals against Germany, he scored the game-winning goal in a 3–2 victory. In the final, France defeated England 3–1. Cabaye played the entire match and finished his under-19 career with 15 appearances and two goals. In the following season, Cabaye was called up to the under-20 team to participate in the 2006 edition of the Toulon Tournament. In the competition, he appeared in four of the five matches France contested scoring a free-kick goal in a 2–0 semi-final victory over China. France later won the competition defeating the Dutch 5–3 on penalties in the final.  Cabaye earned his first call up to the under-21 team under coach René Girard in the team's first match following the 2006 UEFA European Under-21 Championship against Belgium appearing as a half-time substitute for Ronald Zubar. Cabaye appeared with the team in qualifiers for the 2009 UEFA European Under-21 Championship. On 12 October 2007, he captained the team for the first time in a 4–0 qualification victory over Bosnia and Herzegovina. Cabaye later captained the team in victories over the Czech Republic and the Netherlands in a summer tournament held in Sweden. He scored his first under-21 goal in the victory over the Dutch. On 20 August 2008, Cabaye scored his second under-21 goal in a 2–2 draw with Slovakia and converted his final under-21 goal in a 5–0 victory over Luxembourg 15 days later. Cabaye's under-21 career came to an end following the team's defeat to Germany in a two-legged playoff, which determined who would earn a berth in the 2009 UEFA European Under-21 Championship. Cabaye missed the two-legged tie due to injury.

Senior.

After failing to appear at international level for nearly two years, on 5 August 2010, Cabaye was called up to the senior team for the first time by new manager Laurent Blanc for the team's friendly match against Norway on 11 August 2010. Cabaye made his senior international debut in the match appearing as a substitute for Yann M'Vila. He was called back into the team in September for UEFA Euro 2012 qualification matches against Belarus and Bosnia and Herzegovina, however, he was forced to drop out of the selection due to injury.  On 9 February 2011, Cabaye earned his second career cap in the team's 1–0 victory over Brazil. After appearing regularly in qualifying for UEFA Euro 2012, on 29 May 2012, Cabaye was named to the squad to participate in the competition. He made his debut at a senior international competition on 11 June in the team's opening match against England. Cabaye started the match, which ended in a 1–1 draw, and was replaced by Hatem Ben Arfa in the 84th minute. In the team's ensuing group game against the Ukraine, he scored his first senior international goal netting France's second goal in a 2–0 victory. On 19 November 2013, Cabaye was part of the France team that staged a remarkable comeback in the second leg of the World Cup play-off against Ukraine. Trailing 2–0 in the first leg, France won the return game in Paris 3–0 to qualify for the 2014 FIFA World Cup.  Cabaye started in four of France's five matches at the 2014 World Cup, having been suspended from their third group match against Ecuador after receiving cautions against Honduras and Switzerland. Cabaye featured as the deepest lying of France's midfield three, playing behind then-PSG teammate Blaise Matuidi and either Paul Pogba or Moussa Sissoko. France impressed early in the tournament, but lost 1–0 to eventual winners Germany in the quarter-finals.  Cabaye found it hard to displace the impressive partnership of Matuidi and N'Golo Kanté at UEFA Euro 2016. He only appeared twice in the tournament; playing the full match against Switzerland, and as an injury-time substitute against Germany. France ended the tournament as runners-up to Portugal.

Personal life.

Cabaye was born in the northern commune of Tourcoing in the department of Nord. His father, Didier, is a former football player who now works in the health care field in the city of Roubaix. At the age of 16, Cabaye's father played for professional club Lens and spent a year there training before a double leg fracture abruptly ended his career at the club. After healing, he spent time playing for amateur clubs Stade Jean-Macé and US Tourcoing. The two clubs later merged to form Tourcoing FC.  Cabaye has a younger brother Geoffrey, who also plays football; he currently plies his trade with R.F.C. Tournai in the Belgian Second Division. He is of Vietnamese descent through his paternal grandmother, and has stated he would like to visit the country, possibly to contribute to the development of football there. Cabaye is a Roman Catholic. Subsequently, he attended one of Vietnam's matches during the 2019 AFC Asian Cup.  In 2010, Cabaye married Fiona; they had been in a relationship since 2008. They have three daughters together: Myla (born 2009), Charlize (born 2013) and Romy (born 2015). However, the couple decided to separate in 2016, and in the same year, Cabaye became a father for the fourth time as Linoï was born to his current partner, Laëtitia Bernardini.

Honours.

Lille  Paris Saint-Germain  Crystal Palace  France U19

Yohan Cabaye (; born 14 January 1986) is a French professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Ligue 1 club Saint-Étienne and the France national team.

Yohan Cabaye (* 14. ledna 1986, Tourcoing, Francie) je francouzský fotbalový záložník a reprezentant, který od ledna 2015 působí v klubu Crystal Palace.


Early life.

Fishburne was born in Augusta, Georgia, the son of Hattie Bell (née Crawford), a junior high school mathematics and science teacher, and Laurence John Fishburne, Jr., a juvenile corrections officer. After his parents divorced during his childhood, he moved with his mother to Brooklyn, New York, where he was raised. His father saw him once a month. Fishburne is a graduate of Lincoln Square Academy in New York, which closed in the 1980s.

Career.

1973–1989.

For most of his early career, he was credited as Larry Fishburne. In 1973, Fishburne had his first acting role portraying Joshua Hall on the ABC soap opera "One Life to Live". His most memorable childhood role was in "Cornbread, Earl and Me", in which he played a young boy who witnessed the police shooting of a popular high school basketball star. He later earned a supporting role in "Apocalypse Now", in which he played Tyrone Miller, a cocky 17-year-old Gunner's Mate 3rd Class from the Bronx, nicknamed Mr. Clean. When production began in March 1976, he was just 14 years old, having lied about his age to get the part. Filming took so long that he actually was 17 years old upon its completion.  Fishburne spent much of the 1980s in and out of television and periodically on stage. In the early 1980s, he worked as a bouncer at punk rock clubs. He appeared in the early 1980s movies "Band of the Hand", "Death Wish 2" and "The Cotton Club", and had a minor role in the critically acclaimed Steven Spielberg film "The Color Purple". Fishburne had a recurring role as Cowboy Curtis on Paul Reubens' CBS children's television series "Pee-wee's Playhouse". He also appeared in the "M*A*S*H" episode, "The Tooth Shall Set You Free". In "", he was a guest star for the second-season episode "Personal Demons". He also appeared alongside Kevin Bacon in "Quicksilver". His stage work during the 1980s included "Short Eyes" (1984), and "Loose Ends" (1987), both produced at Second Stage Theatre in New York City. Also in 1987 he played a part in as a hospital orderly. Fishburne featured in "Red Heat" (1988) beside Arnold Schwarzenegger and James Belushi. Fishburne also starred as "Dap" in Spike Lee's "School Daze" (1988). Fishburne's character was a depiction of an African American, culturally inclined college student at a historically black college.

1990–2007.

In 1990, Fishburne played Jimmy Jump in the controversial "King of New York", and in 1991, starred in "Boyz n the Hood". The following year, in 1992, he won a Tony Award for his stage performance in the August Wilson play "Two Trains Running" and an Emmy Award for his performance in the opening episode, "The Box," of the short-lived anthology series television drama "TriBeCa". He also starred in "Deep Cover" alongside Jeff Goldblum. In 1993, he received his first Oscar nomination for his portrayal of Ike Turner in "What's Love Got to Do With It". Fishburne won an Image Award for "Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture" for his performance as West Indian Professor Maurice Phipps in the 1995 American drama ensemble film, "Higher Learning". He played the title role in "Othello", the second African-American actor, after Paul Robeson, to perform the role. In 1997, Fishburne starred in the science fiction horror "Event Horizon" alongside Sam Neill. Fishburne is perhaps best known for his role as Morpheus, the hacker-mentor of Neo, played by Keanu Reeves, in the 1999 blockbuster science fiction film "The Matrix".  Fishburne provided the voice of Thrax in "Osmosis Jones" in 2001. He reprised his role as Morpheus in the "Matrix" sequels "The Matrix Reloaded", and "The Matrix Revolutions" in 2003. He briefly featured as a stretcher-bearer in one version of the video for The Spooks' song "Things I've Seen" (2000) and appeared with Tom Cruise as Theodore Brassell, IMF superior of Cruise's character in "". Fishburne has worked with actress Angela Bassett on four projects. He said that "An electrifying thing happens when the two of us work together. I haven't experienced it with anyone else. A freedom happens when we work together." In 2006, they appeared onstage in a Pasadena Playhouse production of August Wilson's "Fences". He played terrorist leader, Ahmat who was revealed to be CIA in the 2006 film "Five Fingers".  He provided the voice of the narrator in the 2007 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles film, "TMNT". The same year, he provided the voice of the Silver Surfer in 2007 film "". On February 24, 2007, Fishburne was honored with the Harvard Foundation's Artist of the Year award at the annual show "Cultural Rhythms". He received this honor for his achievements as an actor and entertainer and for his humanitarian pursuits. Fishburne is a UNICEF ambassador.

2008–present.

In April 2008, Fishburne returned to the stage in the Broadway production of "Thurgood", a new play by George Stevens, Jr. "Thurgood" opened at the Booth Theatre on April 30, 2008. He won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding One-Person Show for his performance. On February 24, 2011, HBO screened a filmed version of the play performed at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. On February 16, 2011, the White House hosted a screening of the film as part of its celebrations of Black History Month.  On August 18, 2008, it was reported that Laurence Fishburne would join the cast of "" after William Petersen, who played Gil Grissom, left the series. John Malkovich was also considered for the role prior to the announcement. Fishburne joined the show on the ninth episode of the 9th season as a college professor and former pathologist whose area of expertise involves some criminals' predisposition to commit acts of violence. The character was introduced as a consultant on a case ("19 Down"), who winds up joining the CSI team ("One to Go"). In May 2009, Fishburne performed on-stage in the National Memorial Day Concert on the Mall in Washington, D.C.  Fishburne starred in "Predators" in 2010 and "Contagion" in 2011. On June 7, 2011, Fishburne announced that he was leaving "CSI" to return to movies and theatre, opting not to renew his contract and would not appear in Season 12. Fishburne played Perry White in the Zack Snyder-directed Superman reboot "Man of Steel" (2013). In 2013, Fishburne joined the cast of "Hannibal", as Dr. Jack Crawford, head of Behavioral Sciences at the FBI. In 2014, Fishburne reprised his role as Morpheus in a series of Kia K900 commercials. In 2015, Fishburne joined the ABC sitcom "Black-ish" in the recurring role of Pops; Fishburne is also an executive producer on the show. Fishburne also serves as an executive producer for the Freeform sitcom "Grown-ish", a spin-off series to "Black-ish".  In 2016, Fishburne reprised his role as White in the sequel "" and appeared in the science fiction/romance movie "Passengers".  In 2017, he appeared in the neo-noir action thriller film "" as The Bowery King, in his first collaboration with Keanu Reeves since "The Matrix" trilogy. Also in 2017, Fishburne starred in the comedy-drama "Last Flag Flying", as the character Rev. Richard Mueller. In 2018, Fishburne played Bill Foster in Marvel's "Ant-Man and the Wasp", directed by Peyton Reed. The film was released July 6. Fishburne is currently set to serve as co-creator and executive producer in the Marvel Animation/Walt Disney Television Animation series "Moon Girl and Devil Dinosaur".

Personal life.

Fishburne married actress Hajna O. Moss in 1985, in New York. They have two children, son Langston born 1987 and daughter Montana Fishburne born 1991. Hajna and Laurence divorced in the 1990s.  Fishburne dated actress Victoria Dillard from 1992 to 1995.  Fishburne met actress Gina Torres and they were engaged in February 2001 and married on September 22, 2002, at The Cloisters museum in New York City. On January 8, 2007, Fishburne's spokesman Alan Nierob announced the couple were expecting their first child together. A daughter, Delilah, was born to the couple in June 2007. On September 20, 2017, it was confirmed that Torres and Fishburne were separated and had been keeping the separation private for the last year. Fishburne filed for divorce on November 2, 2017, and the divorce was finalized effective May 11, 2018, after Torres and Fishburne reached a final settlement on April 16, 2018.  Fishburne lives in Hollywood, and also maintains a residence in New York City, in the Castle Village Co-Op in the Hudson Heights section of Washington Heights. He is a big fan of Brazilian author Paulo Coelho and plans to produce a movie based on his novel "The Alchemist".

Laurence John Fishburne III (born July 30, 1961) is an American actor, playwright, producer, screenwriter, and film director. He is known for playing Morpheus in "The Matrix" trilogy, Jason "Furious" Styles in the 1991 drama film "Boyz n the Hood", Tyrone "Mr. Clean" Miller in the 1979 war film "Apocalypse Now", and "The Bowery King" in the "John Wick" film series.

Laurence John Fishburne (* 30. červenec 1961, Augusta, Georgie, USA) je americký herec. Proslavil se především rolí Morphea ve sci-fi trilogii "Matrix", Perryho Whitea v supermanském snímku "Muž z oceli" či vyšetřovatele Raymonda Langstona v 9-11 sérii seriálu "Kriminálka Las Vegas". Kasovním trhákem byl i snímek "Mystic River" z roku 2003. V Hollywoodu prorazil roku 1979 díky dramatu Francise Forda Coppoly z vietnamské války "Apocalypse Now". Za roli Ike Turnera v životopisném snímku o zpěvačce Tině Turnerové "What's Love Got to Do with It" byl roku 1994 nominován na Oscara. Dvakrát získal televizní cenu Emmy, roku 1997 za televizní film "Miss Evers' Boys", roku 1993 za seriál "TriBeCa". V roce 1992 získal též divadelní cenu Tony za představení "Two Trains Running". Ke krimi "Once in the Life" napsal scénář a celý film i režíroval.


Early life.

Pulver was born in Southend-on-Sea, Essex. Her father is from a Jewish family and her mother converted to Judaism. Her parents separated when she was eleven. Pulver attended the National Youth Music Theatre between 1994 and 1998, as well as The Liz Burville Dance Centre, Bexley. In 1997, she began studying at the Doreen Bird College of Performing Arts, and graduated in 2000. She has since worked as an actress, singer and dancer in West End musicals.

Career.

Pulver was nominated for the 2008 Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical for the role of Lucille Frank in the first West End production of the musical "Parade" at the Donmar Warehouse. She reprised the role in the Los Angeles production at the Mark Taper Forum opposite T.R. Knight.  In 2008, Pulver recorded a song for the CD "Act One – Songs from the Musicals of Alexander S. Bermange". Pulver joined the cast of the BBC's "Robin Hood" in 2009 as Isabella, the sister of Guy of Gisbourne.  In 2010, Pulver joined the cast of the third series of HBO's "True Blood" as Sookie Stackhouse's fairy godmother, Claudine Crane.  Pulver played Erin Watts, the new chief of Section D, in the tenth and final series of BBC spy drama "Spooks", a role she reprised in the 2015 feature film ""  Pulver played Irene Adler in "A Scandal in Belgravia", the first episode of the second series of "Sherlock". Her appearance caused an "enormous" response, with the Evening Standard calling the scene where she greets Sherlock Holmes nude "infamous".. To The Telegraph, Pulver called the scene "empowering". The BBC received over 100 complaints about the footage.  In 2012 she joined the cast of "Da Vinci's Demons" as the "seductive and minded" Clarice Orsini, a series regular and wife of Lorenzo Medici.  In 2014, she played Louise in a revival of "Gypsy" at the Chichester Festival Theatre. The production transferred to the West End in April 2015. Miss Pulver won the 2016 Olivier Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Musical for the same role in the Savoy Theatre production of "Gypsy". Louise is actually the title role, as "Louise" becomes the real-life early-20th-century American strip-tease sensation Gypsy Rose Lee, on whose memoirs the musical is based. Pulver's co-star in the Savoy production, Imelda Staunton, won the 2016 Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical for her role as the larger-than-life Mama Rose.

Personal life.

In 2003, Pulver met American actor Josh Dallas while he was in the UK studying at the Mountview Academy of Theatre Arts. They married over Christmas 2007 in a 16th-century barn in Devon. The couple honeymooned in the Maldives. Dallas confirmed their divorce in an interview on Bob Rivers's radio show on 2 December 2011.  Pulver began dating actor Raza Jaffrey in 2012 and the two were married on 27 December 2014. She currently resides in Los Angeles  The couple had a child in 2017.

Lara Pulver (born 1 September 1980) is an English actress. She has played Erin Watts in the BBC spy drama "Spooks", and Irene Adler on BBC's TV adaptation "Sherlock". She won the 2016 Olivier Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Musical in the West End's revival of the hit Broadway musical "Gypsy".

Lara Pulver (* 1. září 1980, Essex, Spojené království) je britská divadelní a televizní herečka. Její nejznámější role jsou Erin Watts v seriálu "MI5" a Irene Adler v minisérii "Sherlock".


Cognitive development.

The process of assimilating and expanding our intellectual horizon is termed as cognitive development. We have a complex physiological structure that absorbs a variety of stimuli from the environment, stimuli being the interactions which are able to produce knowledge and skills. Parents process knowledge informally in the home while teachers process knowledge formally in school. Knowledge should be pursued with zest and zeal; if not, then learning becomes a burden.

Attention.

Attention is the first part of cognitive development. It pertains to a person's ability to focus and sustain concentration. It is differentiated from other temperamental characteristics like persistence and distractibility in the sense that the latter modulates an individual's daily interaction with the environment. Attention, on the other hand, involves his behavior when performing specific tasks. Learning, for instance, takes place when the student gives attention towards the teacher. Interest and effort closely relate to attention. Attention is an active process which involves numerous outside stimuli. The attention of an organism at any point in time involves three concentric circles; beyond awareness, margin, and focus.  A theory of cognitive development called information processing holds that memory and attention are the foundation of cognition. It is suggested that children's attention is initially selective and is based on situations that are important to their goals. This capacity increases as the child grows older since they are more able to absorb stimuli from tasks. Another conceptualization classified attention into mental attention and perceptual attention. The former is described as the executive-driven attentional "brain energy" that activates task-relevant processes in the brain while the latter are immediate or spontaneous attention driven by novel perceptual experiences.

How does learning occur?

Cognitive theory mainly stresses the acquisition of knowledge and growth of the mental structure. Cognitive theory tends to focus on conceptualizing the student's learning process: how information is received; how information is processed and organized into existing schema; how information is retrieved upon recall. In other words, cognitive theory seeks to explain the process of knowledge acquisition and the subsequent effects on the mental structures within the mind. Learning is not about the mechanics of what a learner does, but rather a process depending on what the learner already knows (existing information) and their method of acquiring new knowledge (how they integrate new information into their existing schemas). Knowledge acquisition is an activity consisting of internal codification of mental structures within the student's mind. Inherent to the theory, the student must be an active participant in their own learning process. Cognitive approaches mainly focus on the mental activities of the learner like mental planning, goal setting, and organizational strategies (Shell, 1980). In cognitive theories not only the environmental factors and instructional components play an important role in learning. There are additional key elements like learning to code, transform, rehearse, and store and retrieve the information. Learning process includes learner's thoughts, beliefs, and attitude values(Winna, 1988).

What is the role of memory?

Memory plays a vital role in the learning process. Information is stored within memory in an organised, meaningful manner. Here, teacher and designers play different roles in the learning process. Teachers supposedly facilitate learning and the organization of information in an optimal way. Whereas designers supposedly use advanced techniques (such as analogies and hierarchical relationships) to help learners acquire new information to add to their prior knowledge. Forgetting is described as an inability to retrieve information from memory. Memory loss may be a mechanism used to discard situationally irrelevant information by assessing the relevance of newly acquired information.

How does transfer occur?

According to cognitive theory, if a learner knows how to implement knowledge in different contexts and conditions then we can say that transfer has occurred. (Schunk, 1991) Understanding is composed of knowledge - in the form of rules, concepts and discrimination (Duffy and Jonassen, 1991). Knowledge stored in memory is important, but the use of such knowledge is also important. Prior knowledge will be used for identifying similarities and differences between itself and novel information.

What types of learning are explained in detail by this position?

Cognitive theory mostly explains complex forms of learning in terms of reasoning, problem solving and information processing (Schunk, 1991). Emphasis must be placed on the fact that the goal of all aforementioned viewpoints is considered to be the same - the transfer of knowledge to the student in the most efficient and effective manner possible (Bednar et al., 1991). Simplification and standardization are two techniques used to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of knowledge transfer. Knowledge can be analysed, decomposed and simplified into basic building blocks. There is a correlation with the behaviorist model of the knowledge transfer environment. Cognitivists stress the importance of efficient processing strategies.

What are the basic principles of the cognitive theory? How are these relevant to instructional design?

A behaviorist uses feedback (reinforcement) to change the behavior in the desired direction, while the cognitivist uses the feedback for guiding and supporting the accurate mental connections (Thomson, Simon son. & Hargrave, 1992). For different reasons learners' task analyzers are critical to both cognitivists and behaviorists. Cognitivists look at the learner's predisposition to learning (How does the learner activate, maintain and direct his/her learning?) (Thompson et. al., 1992). Additionally, cognitivists examine the learner's 'how to design' instruction that it can be assimilated. (i. e., what about the learners existing mental structures?) In contrast, the behaviorists look at learners how to determine where the lesson should begin (i. e., At what level the learners are performing successfully?) and what are the most effective reinforcements (i.e., What are the consequences that are most desired by the learner?).  There are some specific assumptions or principles that direct the instructional design: active involvement of the learner in the learning process, learner control, meta cognitive training (e.g., self-planning, monitoring and revising techniques), the use of hierarchical analyses to identify and illustrate prerequisite relationships (cognitive task analysis procedure), facilitating optimal processing of structuring, organizing and sequencing information (use of cognitive strategies such as outlining, summaries, synthesizers, advance organizers etc.), encouraging the students to make connections with previously learned material, and creating learning environments (recall of prerequisite skills; use of relevant examples, analogies).

How should instruction be structured?

Cognitive theories emphasize mainly on making knowledge meaningful and helping learners to organizing relate new information to existing knowledge in memory. Instruction should be based on students existing schema or mental structures, to be effective. The organisation of information is connected in such a manner that it should relate to the existing knowledge in some meaningful way. The examples of cognitive strategy are Analogies metaphors. The other cognitive strategies includes the use of framing, outlining the mnemonics, concept mapping, advance organizers and so forth (West, Farmer, and Wolff,1991). The cognitive theory mainly emphasizes the major tasks of the teacher / designer and includes analyzing that various learning experiences to the learning situation which can impact learning outcomes of different individuals. Organizing and structuring the new information to connect the learners previously acquired knowledge abilities and experiences. The new information is effectively and efficiently assimilated/accommodated within the learners cognitive structure (Stepich and Newby, 1988 ).

Theoretical approach.

Cognitivism has two major components, one methodological, the other theoretical. Methodologically, cognitivism has a positivist approach and says that psychology can be (in principle) fully explained by the use of the scientific method, there is speculation on whether or not this is true. This is also largely a reductionist goal, with the belief that individual components of mental function (the 'cognitive architecture') can be identified and meaningfully understood. The second says that cognition contains discrete and internal mental states (representations or symbols) that can be changed using rules or algorithms..  Cognitivism became the dominant force in psychology in the late-20th century, replacing behaviorism as the most popular paradigm for understanding mental function. Cognitive psychology is not a wholesale refutation of behaviorism, but rather an expansion that accepts that mental states exist. This was due to the increasing criticism towards the end of the 1950s of simplistic learning models. One of the most notable criticisms was Noam Chomsky's argument that language could not be acquired purely through conditioning, and must be at least partly explained by the existence of internal mental states.  The main issues that interest cognitive psychologists are the inner mechanisms of human thought and the processes of knowing. Cognitive psychologists have attempted to shed some light on the alleged mental structures that stand in a causal relationship to our physical actions.

Criticisms of psychological cognitivism.

In the 1990s, various new theories emerged and challenged cognitivism and the idea that thought was best described as computation. Some of these new approaches, often influenced by phenomenological and postmodern philosophy, include situated cognition, distributed cognition, dynamicism, embodied cognition. Some thinkers working in the field of artificial life (for example Rodney Brooks) have also produced non-cognitivist models of cognition. On the other hand, much of early cognitive psychology, and the work of many currently active cognitive psychologists does not treat cognitive processes as computational. The idea that mental functions can be described as information processing models has been criticised by philosopher John Searle and mathematician Roger Penrose who both argue that computation has some inherent shortcomings which cannot capture the fundamentals of mental processes.  Another argument against cognitivism is the problems of Ryle's Regress or the homunculus fallacy. Cognitivists have offered a number of arguments attempting to refute these attacks.

In psychology, cognitivism is a theoretical framework for understanding the mind that gained credence in the 1950s. The movement was a response to behaviorism, which cognitivists said neglected to explain cognition. Cognitive psychology derived its name from the Latin "cognoscere", referring to knowing and information, thus cognitive psychology is an information-processing psychology derived in part from earlier traditions of the investigation of thought and problem solving.

Kognitivismus (z lat. "cognoscere", kognitivní, poznávací) je teoretický přístup v psychologii, který se začal prosazovat od 50. let 20. století jako odpověď na do té doby převládající behaviorismus. Zaměřuje se zejména na vnitřní psychické pochody a snaží se o porozumění takovým mentálním procesům, jako je paměť, učení, myšlení nebo řešení problémů. Chování představuje z pohledu kognitivních psychologů výsledek zpracování informací, přičemž na mysl je možné nahlížet jako na metaforu počítače.


History.

Elvas lies on a hill northwest of the Guadiana river. The Amoreira Aqueduct long supplies the city with pure water; it was begun early in the 15th century and completed in 1622. For some distance it includes four tiers of superimposed arches, with a total height of.  It was wrested from the Moors by Afonso I of Portugal in 1166 but was temporarily recaptured before its final occupation by the Portuguese in 1226. In 1570 it became an episcopal see, the Roman Catholic Diocese of Elvas, until 1818. The late Gothic Our Lady of the Assumption Cathedral, which has many traces of Moorish influence in its architecture, dates from the reign of Manuel I of Portugal (1495–1521).  It was defended by seven bastions and the two forts of Santa Luzia and the Nossa Senhora da Graça Fort. From 1642 it was the chief frontier fortress south of the Tagus, which withstood sieges by the Spanish in 1659, 1711 and 1801. Elvas was the site of the Battle of the Lines of Elvas in 1659, during which the garrison and citizens of the city assisted in the rout of a Spanish Army. The Napoleonic French under Marshal Junot took it in March 1808 during the Peninsular War, but evacuated it in August after the conclusion of the Convention of Sintra. The fortress of Campo Maior to the northeast is known for its Napoleonic era siege by the French and relief by the British under Marshal Beresford in 1811, an exploit commemorated in a ballad by Sir Walter Scott.  The Garrison Border Town of Elvas and its Fortifications were added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 2012.

Civil Parishes.

Administratively, the municipality is divided in seven civil parishes ("freguesias"):

Elvas () is a Portuguese municipality, former episcopal city and frontier fortress of easternmost central Portugal, located in the district of Portalegre in Alentejo. It is situated about east of Lisbon, and about west of the Spanish fortress of Badajoz, by the Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon railway. The municipality population was 23,078, in an area of. The city itself had a population of 16,640.

Elvas je město v Portugalsku v údolí řeky Guadiana. Vzdušnou čarou je vzdáleno 195 km od Lisabonu a jen 8 km od španělského města Badajoz. Je nejdůležitějším městem distriktu Portalegre. Město dostalo městská práva v roce 1513. Je to prosperující a živé město s rozvinutou zdravotnickou, školní a sportovní infrastrukturou.


History.

Prior to 1885, the city of Hickman was known as Heckman; named after founder Reverend C.H. Heckman. Prior to 1866, the land was open prairie. Reverend Heckman was an early settler purchasing land near the Salt Creek. Heckman was platted in 1872 by Reverend Heckman and Samuel Egger after a station was accepted on the route of the Atchison and Nebraska Railroad from Rulo, Nebraska to Lincoln, Nebraska. However, when Reverend Heckman and Samuel Egger submitted the plat for Heckman to Lancaster County for recording, Heckman was misspelled as Hickman. The city was incorporated as Hickman in 1885.

Geography.

Hickman is located at (40.621488, -96.631780). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all of it land.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 1,657 people, 587 households, and 463 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 609 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 98.2% White, 0.4% African American, 0.2% Asian, 0.3% from other races, and 0.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.6% of the population.  There were 587 households of which 46.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.9% were married couples living together, 8.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 21.1% were non-families. 18.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.82 and the average family size was 3.22.  The median age in the city was 31.8 years. 33.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 30.2% were from 25 to 44; 23.1% were from 45 to 64; and 7.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51.7% male and 48.3% female.

Hickman is a city in Lancaster County, Nebraska, United States. It is part of the Lincoln, Nebraska Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 1,657 at the 2010 census. Hickman was founded by Reverend C.H. Heckman and incorporated in 1885.

Hickman je městečko v okrese Lancaster v americkém státě Nebraska. Je součástí metropolitní oblasti města Lincolnu. Podle sčítání lidu z roku 2017 zde žilo 2 221 obyvatel. Město zabírá plochu 1,86 km2.