Population by country.

The most populous member state is Germany, with an estimated 82.8 million people, and the least populous member state is Malta with 0.48 million. Birth rates in the EU are low with the average woman having 1.6 children. The highest birth-rates are found in Ireland with 16.876 births per thousand people per year and France with 13.013 births per thousand people per year. Germany has the lowest birth rate in Europe with 8.221 births per thousand people per year.

Most populous areas.

The European Union has a significant number of global cities. It contained 13 of the 60 cities which composed the 2008 Global Cities Index, as well as 16 of the 41 "alpha" global cities classified by Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) Research Network (including Paris, Milan, Amsterdam and Brussels among others). The following is a list of the ten most populous cities, urban areas and urban zones in the European Union, with their population:

Population shifts.

Migration.

The movement of people within the Union i.e. internal migration, remains limited; it has traditionally followed two patterns:

Immigration and emigration.

At present, more people immigrate into the European Union than emigrate from it. Immigration is a controversial issue in many member states, including Belgium, Sweden, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, and France.  In 2010, 47.3 million people living in the EU, or 9.4% of the total population, had been born outside their resident country. Of these, 31.4 million (6.3%) had been born outside the EU; 16.0 million (3.2%) had been born in another member state. The largest absolute numbers of people born outside the EU were in Germany (6.4 million), France (5.1 million), Spain (4.1 million), Italy (3.2 million), and the Netherlands (1.4 million).  In 2017, approximately 825,000 persons acquired citizenship of a member state of the European Union, down from 995,000 in 2016. The largest groups were nationals of Morocco, Albania, India, Turkey and Pakistan.  Spain in particular receives most of the immigrants coming illegally to Europe from Africa, probably due to its large coastal area and its proximity to and land borders with Morocco at Ceuta and Melilla; African immigrants try to enter the country by boat from Morocco or Senegal or by jumping the border fences. For example, during just the first weekend of September 2006, more than 1,300 illegal immigrants arrived on beaches in the Canary Islands and estimates are that between 50,000 and 70,000 people enter the European Union illegally through Spanish borders or beaches. Border fences have been built at both the Ceuta and Melilla borders in an attempt to stop illegal entrance to the country. Illegal immigration is an issue in Spanish politics, and also a big human rights problem, since many people die during the journey. Spain has been Europe's largest absorber of migrants for the past six years, with its immigrant population increasing fourfold as 2.8 million people have arrived, mostly from Latin America. Spectacular growth in Spain's immigrant population came as the country's economy created more than half of all the new jobs in the European Union between 2001 and 2006.  The net migration rate for the EU in 2008 was 3.1 per 1,000 inhabitants; this figure is for migration into and out of the European Union, and therefore excludes any internal movements between member states. Annual net migration has varied from 1.5 to 2.0 million people since 2003.

Religion.

The EU has significant religious diversity, mirroring its diverse history and culture. The largest religious group professes Christianity and accounts for 64% of the EU population in 2019, down from 72% in 2012. Largest christian groups are Roman Catholicism, Protestantism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Several EU nations do not have a Christian majority and for example in Estonia and the Czech Republic the majority have no religious affiliation.  European countries have experienced a decline in church attendance as well as a decline in the number of people professing a religious belief. The 2010 Eurobarometer Poll found that, on average, 51% of the citizens of EU Member States state that they believe there is a God, 26% believe there is some sort of spirit or life force and 20% don't believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force. 3% declined to answer. These figures show a 2% change from theism to atheism since 2005.  European indigenous (or native) religions are still alive in small and diverse minorities, especially in Scandinavia, Baltic states, Italy and Greece.  The recent influx of immigrants to the affluent EU nations has brought in various religions of their native homelands, including Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and the Bahá'í Faith. Judaism has had a long history in Europe and has coexisted with the other religions for centuries, despite periods of persecution or genocide by European rulers. Islam too has had a long history in Europe, with Spain and Portugal at one time having a Muslim majority. Large Muslim populations also exist in the Balkans and parts of Eastern Europe, due to a legacy of centuries of Ottoman rule.

Language.

The first official language of each of the 27 Member Countries has the status of an official language of the European Union. In total there are 24, with Irish, Bulgarian and Romanian gaining official language status on 1 January 2007, when the last two countries joined the European Union, and Croatian becoming official in 2013.  Before Brexit, English was the most spoken language in the EU, being spoken by around 51% of its population. This high proportion is because 38% of EU citizens speak it as a language other than their mother tongue (i.e. second or foreign language). German is the most spoken first language, spoken by more than 20% of the population following Brexit.

Demographic future.

The EU faces challenges in its demographic future. Most concerns center around several related issues: an ageing population, growing life expectancy and immigrant flow.  After hitting a historical low of 1.47 children born per female, the total fertility rate of the EU started to increase again, to reach a level of 1.60 in 2008. The positive trend was observed in all member states with the exception of Luxembourg, Malta and Portugal. The largest increases over this period were observed in Bulgaria (from 1.23 children per woman in 2003 to 1.57 in 2009), Slovenia (from 1.20 to 1.53), the Czech Republic (from 1.18 to 1.49) and Lithuania (from 1.26 to 1.55). In 2009, the Member States with the highest fertility rates were Ireland (2.06), France (2.00), Sweden (1.94), and the United Kingdom (1.90), all approaching the replacement level of 2.1 children born per female. The lowest rates were observed in Latvia (1.31), Hungary and Portugal (both 1.32) and Germany (1.36). The increasing fertility rate has also been accompanied by an upward trend in the natural increase of the population which is due to the moderate increase of the crude birth rate that reached 10.9 births per 1000 inhabitants in 2008, an increase of 0.3 compared with 2007. The increase was observed in all member countries except Germany. The EU crude death rate remained stable at 9.7 per 1000 inhabitants. The relatively low fertility rate means retirement age workers are not entirely replaced by younger workers joining the workforce. The EU faces a potential future dominated by an ever-increasing population of retired citizens, without enough younger workers to fund (via taxes) retirement programs or other state welfare agendas.  A low fertility rate, without supplement from immigration, also suggests a declining overall EU population, which further suggests economic contraction or even a possible economic crisis. Some media have noted the 'baby crisis' in the EU, some governments have noted the problem, and the UN and other multinational authorities have warned of a possible crisis. At this point however such a decrease in the population of the EU is not observed as the overall natural growth remains positive and the EU continues to attract large numbers of immigrants. In 2010, a breakdown of the population by citizenship showed that there were 20.1 million foreign citizens living in the EU representing 4% of the population.  Over the last 50 years, life expectancy at birth in the EU27 has increased by around 10 years for both women and men, to reach 82.4 years for women and 76.4 years for men in 2008. The life expectancy at birth rose in all Member States, with the largest increases for both women and men recorded in Estonia and Slovenia.

Population projections.

In 2017, Eurostat released yearly projections up to 2080.  The table figures below are in thousands.

Ethnic composition.

There is no precise or universally accepted definition of the terms "ethnic group" or "nationality". In the context of European ethnography in particular, the terms "ethnic group", "people" (without nation state), "nationality", "national minority", "ethnic minority", "linguistic community", "linguistic group" and "linguistic minority" are used as mostly synonymous, although preference may vary in usage with respect to the situation specific to the individual countries of Europe.  The largest groups that account for about 384 million people in the European Union are: The rest are various smaller ethnic groups include Hungary (c. 9.8 million), Austrians (c. 8.8 million), Bulgarians (c. 7.1 million), Flemish, Croats, Slovaks, Silesians, Danes, Finns, Irish, Walloons, Lithuanians, Slovenes, Latvians, Estonians, Russians, Maltese, Moravians, Frisians and Basques.  More than 5 million ethnic groups  On current trends European populations will become more ethnically diverse, with the possibility that today's majority ethnic groups will no longer comprise a numerical majority in some countries.  In 2011, almost a quarter of new EU citizens were Moroccans, Turks, Ecuadorian or Indians. The new citizens in the old EU27 in 2011 came mainly from Africa (26% of the total number of citizenships acquired), Asia (23%), non-EU27 Europe (19%), North and South America (17%) or another EU27 Member State (11%). In 2011, the largest groups that acquired citizenship of an EU27 Member State were citizens of Morocco (64 300 persons, of which 55% acquired citizenship of France or Spain), Turkey (48 900, 58% acquired German citizenship), Ecuador (33 700, 95% acquired Spanish citizenship) and India (31 700, 83% acquired British citizenship).  In 2012, 34.3 million foreign citizens lived in the old 27 European Union member states, accounting for 6.8% of the European Union population, of whom 20.5 million were third country nationals (i.e. nationals of non-EU countries). The number of foreign-born (which includes those who have naturalised or are dual nationals) was 48.9 million or 9.7 per cent of the total population.  A total of 8.0 million citizens from European countries outside of the old EU-27 were residing in the EU at the beginning of 2012; among these more than half were citizens of Turkey, Albania or Ukraine. The next biggest group was from Africa (24.5%), followed by Asia (22.0%), the Americas (14.2%) and Oceania (0.8%). Romanians (living in another EU Member State) and Turkish citizens made up the biggest groups of non-nationals living in the EU-27 in 2012. There were 4.4 million Romanian citizens living outside of Romania within the EU-27 and 2.3 million Turkish citizens living in the EU-27; each of these two groups of people accounted for 7.0% of all foreigners living in the EU-27 in 2012. The third largest group was Moroccans (1.9 million people, or 5.6% of all foreigners).  Approximately 20 million non-Europeans live in the EU, 4% of the overall population.

Miscellaneous statistics.

Age structure: (2006 est.)  Birth rate: 10.9 births/1,000 population (2008)  Death rate: 9.7 deaths/1,000 population (2008)  Net migration rate: 3.1 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2008)  Marriage rate: 4.9 marriages/1,000 population (2007)  Divorce rate: 2.0 divorces/1,000 population (2005)  Sex ratio: (2006 est.)  Infant mortality rate: (2005)  Life expectancy: (2005)  Total fertility rate: 1.59 children born/woman 2009  Live Births outside marriage: 40% of total live births in 2012

See also.

The demographics of the member states of the European Union:

The demographics of the European Union show a highly populated, culturally diverse union of 27 member states. As of 1 February 2020, the population of the EU is about 445 million people.

Evropská unie představuje vysoce zalidněnou a kulturně rozmanitou unii 27 členských států. K 1. lednu 2020 v členských zemích žilo asi 446 milionů lidí. Nejlidnatějším členským státem je Německo s odhadovaným počtem 83 milionu obyvatel, zatímco nejméně lidnatým členským státem je Malta s necelými 500 tisíci obyvateli.


General overview.

Kolubara is formed by the two small rivers Obnica and Jablanica.  "Obnica" is the river in Western Serbia that springs at the foot of the mountain Medvednik. It flows to the East, through the villages of Suvodanje, Bobova, Majinović, Pričević and Zlatarić, and at the city of Valjevo meets the river "Jablanica" and forms Kolubara. The Obnica is 25 km long.  Jablanica originates on the eastern slopes of the Jablanik mountain, just few kilometers away from Obnica. It curves around Parač mountain and next to the village of Balinović, before it meets Obnica in Valjevo. Jablanica is 21.5 km long.  This is also the beginning of the long region of the Kolubara valley, divided in two large parts, referred to as Upper ("gornja") Kolubara and Lower ("donja") Kolubara (around the Belgrade's suburb of Obrenovac).

Upper Kolubara.

At Valjevo, the Kolubara receives the river "Gradac" from the right and forms the Valjevo valley between the surrounding mountains, in which it spills in several parallel flows. After Valjevo, the most populous city in western Serbia, there are no major settlements on the river, except for the villages of Mlađevo and Slovac and the river receives the right tributaries of "Ribnica" and "Lepenica" and the left tributary of "Rabas". At Slovac, near the confluence of the right tributary of the "Toplica", the Kolubara carved the epigenetic "Slovačka sutjeska", which separates Upper and Lower Kolubara. Upper Kolubara constitutes most of the modern Kolubara District of Serbia.

Lower Kolubara.

The Kolubara turns north and continues to flow in several parallel flows, receiving in this section its major tributaries: Ljig River, Turija, Lukavica and Peštan, from the right; Kladnica and Tamnava, from the left. Due to the floods, even though its valley is densely populated, there are no settlements on the river itself, until it reaches Obrenovac, few kilometers before it empties into the Sava (only navigable near its mouth in Sava). However, many large villages and towns are located in the vicinity of the Kolubara: Lajkovac, Jabučje, Lazarevac, Šopić, Skobalj, Vreoci, Mali Borak, Veliki Crljeni, Draževac, Mislođin and Barič, where it flows into the Sava.  Lower Kolubara itself is divided in two sub-regions, the (upper) Kolubara coal basin and the (lower) Obrenovac micro-region.

Kolubara coal basin.

In Neogene, the region of Kolubara was a huge bay of the Pannonian Sea ("Kolubarski zaliv") As a result of abundant vegetation in the ancient sea, region of Kolubara and neighboring Tamnava (around Kolubara's longest tributary) today are immense lignite field which covers over. It is estimated that coal deposits are as much as 22 billion tons, with coal layers being to deep, and over 20 million tons of coal are being extracted each year. Major mines are "Rudovci", "Kolubara" (at Veliki Crljeni) and "Kosmaj", with many surface digs being developed lately. With the mines actively covering, Kolubara mine is the largest one in the Balkans.  A series of coal based power stations are built in the basin, including "Kolubara" (130 MW, at Veliki Crljeni), "Nikola Tesla B-1" (in 1983) and "Nikola Tesla B-2" (both 615 MW, in Obrenovac).  Because of its importance for industry and economy in general, the municipality of Lazarevac, to which the coal basin mainly belongs, was attached administratively to the City of Belgrade in 1971.  After three years, on 19 September 2007 the river course between Vreoci and Veliki Crljeni was transferred to the new artificial river bed. This will allow the opening of a new surface coal field "Veliki Crljeni" in September 2008 with an estimated coal reserves of over 30 million tons.  The mining projects at Kolubara have been plagued with corruption: in 2011, 16 current and former members of Elektroprivreda Srbije, the operator, were arrested on suspicion of embezzlement. In addition to this, resettlement procedures for affected local communities were, according to civil society organizations, not executed in accordance with Serbian law.  There are possibilities for the development of the tourism, given the vicinity of Belgrade. There are two natural scenic overlooks above the mines. One is "Tamnava", from which the archeological sites within the mines can be observed, and the other is Medoševac, which is considered as the largest scenic overlook in the Balkans, with the view over the entire mines, which look like "the surface of the Moon". The Processing section has an exhibition of the old steam locomotives which were used in the mines. There are also several lakes formed in the former mine shafts.  The process of displacement of the Kolubara river bed in an effort to make possible exploitation of the "Veliko polje G" coal seam began in 2007. Phase 2 of the project was finished in July 2017 when another of the river was conducted into the new, displaced bed. "Veliko polje G" has an estimated coal reserves of 36,4 million tons.

Characteristics.

Due to the lots of long tributaries which create branchy system within the river's drainage area, the short Kolubara drains relatively large area of. It belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin.  The river is not navigable, but its valley is very important for transportation. Here are located Belgrade-Valjevo road, parts of Belgrade-Šabac road, Ibarska magistrala (Highway of Ibar) and the Belgrade-Bar railway.  The Kolubara was the site of one of the major battles on the Balkans in the World War I, the Battle of Kolubara in 1914.  There is a game hunting ground "Kolubara" in the valley of the river, on the territory of the Lazarevac municipality.

The Kolubara (Serbian Cyrillic: Колубара, ), is a long river in western Serbia; it is an eastern, right tributary to the Sava river.

Kolubara (v srbské cyrilici Колубара) je řeka v západní části Srbska, pravý přítok Sávy, v délce okolo 123 km. Vzniká soutokem Obnice a Jablanice ve Valjevu. Jejími většími přítoky jsou Gradac a Ljig na pravé straně, Tamnava jako přítok levý. Kolubara se vlévá do Sávy u Obrenovace. Povodí Kolubary se rozkládá na 3600 km2 a je známé jako bohaté naleziště lignitu. Údolím Kolubary je vedena železniční trať a silnice. Do dějin Evropy se řeka zapsala bitvou první světové války, během které srbská armáda zastavila postup Rakousko-Uherska.


Background and education.

Russell was born small and premature on 18 August 1792 into the highest echelons of the British aristocracy, being the third son of John Russell, later 6th Duke of Bedford, and Georgiana Byng, daughter of George Byng, 4th Viscount Torrington. The Russell family had been one of the principal Whig dynasties in England since the 17th century, and were among the richest handful of aristocratic landowning families in the country, but as a younger son of the 6th Duke of Bedford, he was not expected to inherit the family estates. As a younger son of a duke, he bore the courtesy title "Lord John Russell", but he was not a peer in his own right. He was, therefore, able to sit in the House of Commons until he was made an earl in 1861 and transferred into the House of Lords.  After being withdrawn from Westminster School due to ill health, Russell was educated by tutors. He attended the University of Edinburgh from 1809 to 1812, lodging with Professor John Playfair, who oversaw his studies. He did not take a degree. Although of small stature—he grew to no more than 5 feet 4-and-three-quarter inches tall—and often in poor health, he travelled widely in Britain and on the continent, and held commission as Captain in the Bedfordshire Militia in 1810. During his continental travels, Russell had a 90-minute meeting with Napoleon in December 1814 during the former emperor's exile at Elba.

Public life.

Early career.

Russell entered the House of Commons as a Whig in 1813. The future reformer gained his seat by virtue of his father, the Duke of Bedford, instructing the 30 or so electors of Tavistock to return him as an MP even though at the time Russell was abroad and under age. In 1819, Russell embraced the cause of parliamentary reform, and he led the more reformist wing of the Whigs throughout the 1820s. When the Whigs came to power in 1830 in Earl Grey's government, Russell entered the government as Paymaster of the Forces, and was soon elevated to the Cabinet. He was one of the principal leaders of the fight for the Reform Act 1832, earning the nickname Finality Jack from his complacently pronouncing the Act a final measure. In 1834, when the leader of the Commons, Lord Althorp, succeeded to the peerage as Earl Spencer, Russell became the leader of the Whigs in the Commons. This appointment prompted King William IV to terminate Lord Melbourne's government, the last time in British history that a monarch dismissed a prime minister. Nevertheless Russell retained his position for the rest of the decade, until the Whigs fell from power in 1841. In this position, Russell continued to lead the more reformist wing of the Whig party, calling, in particular, for religious freedom, and, as Home Secretary in the late 1830s, played a large role in democratising the government of British cities other than London. During his career in Parliament, Lord John Russell represented the City of London.  A. J. P. Taylor emphasised Russell's central role in the expansion of liberty and in leading his Whig party to a commitment to a reform agenda. In 1845, as leader of the Opposition, Russell came out in favour of repeal of the Corn Laws, forcing Conservative Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel to follow him. In December 1845, with the Conservatives split over this issue, Queen Victoria asked Russell to form a government, which he was unable to do since Lord Grey refused to serve with Lord Palmerston as Foreign Secretary. In June the following year the Corn Laws were repealed but only by virtue of Whig support. The same day Peel's Irish Coercion Bill, which the Whigs did not support, was defeated and the Prime Minister resigned. Russell became Prime Minister, this time Grey not objecting to Palmerston's appointment.

Prime Minister: June 1846 – February 1852.

Russell's government secured social reforms such as funding teacher training and passage of the Factories Act 1847, which restricted the working hours of women and young persons (aged 13–18) in textile mills to 10 hours per day. His premiership was frustrated, however, because of party disunity and infighting, and he was unable to secure the success of many of the measures he was interested in passing. Russell was religious in a simple non-dogmatic way and supported the "Broad church" element in the Church of England. He opposed the "Oxford Movement" because its "Tractarian" members were too dogmatic and too close to Romanism. He supported Broad Churchmen or Latitudinarians by several appointments of liberal churchmen to vacant sees. In 1859 he reversed himself and decided to free non-Anglicans of the duty of paying rates (taxes) to the local Anglican parish. His political clumsiness and opposition to Church finance made him a target of attack and ridicule in many Church circles.  He fought with his headstrong Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, whose belligerence and support for continental revolution he found embarrassing. In 1847 Palmerston provoked a confrontation with the French government by undermining the plans of the Spanish court to marry the young Spanish Queen and her sister into the French royal family. He subsequently clashed with Russell over plans to augment the army and navy in order to defend against the perceived threat of French invasion, which subsided with the overthrow of the French king in 1848.  In 1850 further tension arose between the two over Palmerston's gunboat diplomacy in the Don Pacifico affair, in which Palmerston sought compensation from the Greek Government for the ransacking and burning of the house of David Pacifico, a Gibraltarian holder of a British passport. Russell considered the matter "hardly worth the interposition of the British lion," and when Palmerston ignored some of his instructions, the Prime Minister wrote to Palmerston telling him he had informed the Queen that he "thought the interests of the country required that a change should take place at the Foreign Department." However, less than a month later Lord Stanley successfully led the House of Lords into passing a motion of censure of the Government over its handling of the affair and Russell realised that he needed to align with Palmerston in order to prevent a similar motion being passed by the House of Commons, which would have obliged the Government to resign. The Government prevailed, but Palmerston came out of the affair with his popularity at new heights since he was seen as the champion of defending British citizens anywhere in the world.  Palmerston was forced to resign when he recognised Napoleon III's coup of 2 December 1851 without royal approval. Russell tried to strengthen his government by recruiting leading Peelites such as Sir James Graham and the Duke of Newcastle to his administration, but they declined.  Palmerston turned the vote on a militia bill into a vote of confidence on the Government. The majority vote in favour of an amendment proposed by Palmerston caused the downfall of Russell's ministry on 21 February 1852. This was Palmerston's famous "tit for tat with Johnny Russell," a revenge for his dismissal by Russell as Foreign Minister.

In opposition: February 1852 – December 1852.

The July 1852 general election saw the election of 330 Conservatives and 324 Whigs to the Parliament. Neither had an overall majority, because 38 members who were technically Conservatives were actually Peelites (followers of the late Robert Peel). The Peelites had deserted the Conservatives to vote for the repeal of the Corn Laws in June 1846. The Corn Laws had imposed a tariff on all cheap imported wheat and thus kept the price of wheat and the bread made from wheat high. This served the interests of landed aristocracy, which was the main body of support for the Conservative Party. However, the high price of wheat and bread added greatly to the desperation of the poor and hungry in England and Ireland.  The new Parliament included 113 "Free Traders" who were more radical than the Peelites. They felt that the tariffs on all imported consumer goods should be removed, not just the tariff on wheat or corn. There were also 63 members of the "Irish Brigade," made up of Irish members interested in the Tenant Rights legislation for the protection of the tenant farmers in Ireland. None of these minor groups were interested in forming a government with the Conservatives because of the bitterness left over from the repeal of the Corn Laws. However, John Russell of the Whigs could not attract enough of the minor party members to form a government either. Other issues handled during the recent Russell government had alienated these three minor groups from the Whigs also. Thus, Queen Victoria asked the Earl of Derby to form a minority government. It only lasted until December 1852.

Foreign Minister in the Aberdeen Government.

Russell, as the leader of the Whig party, then brought it into a new coalition government with the Peelite Conservatives, headed by the Peelite Lord Aberdeen. Palmerston could not possibly be appointed as Foreign Minister but he had to be a part of the new Aberdeen government and became Home Secretary. Russell continued to serve as leader of the Whig party in the House of Commons. As the leader of the largest party in the Aberdeen coalition government, Russell was needed in the new government. Accordingly, on 28 December 1852, Russell was appointed Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.  In the eyes of many, including the Queen and Aberdeen, his jockeying for position against Palmerston was one of the causes of the inability of the administration to take a firm direction. It was a contest that Palmerston won. Having entered the administration as the expected Whig heir, Russell left it having been overtaken by Palmerston.  Together with Palmerston, Russell was instrumental in getting Britain to join France in the Crimean War (1853-1856) to thwart the threat of Russia against the Ottoman Empire. They did so as members of the Aberdeen government and against the wishes of the cautious, Russophile Earl of Aberdeen. Lord Russell, frustrated by the Prime Minister's delays, resigned from the government on 21 February 1853. An 1855 motion in Parliament to investigate the mismanagement became a vote of confidence in the Aberdeen government and in the Secretary for War, the Duke of Newcastle. Accordingly, when the Roebuck motion passed, Aberdeen resigned. Russell was unable to form a government. Lord Palmerston formed a new government. John Russell, accepting the Colonial Office, was sent to Vienna to negotiate, but his proposals were rejected and he temporarily retired from politics in 1855.

Foreign Minister in the Palmerston Government: 1859–1865.

In 1859, following another short-lived Conservative government, Palmerston and Russell made up their differences, and Russell consented to serve as Foreign Secretary in a new Palmerston cabinet, usually considered the first true Liberal cabinet. This period was a particularly eventful one in the world outside Britain, seeing the Unification of Italy (the change of British government to one sympathetic to Italian nationalism had a marked part in this process), the American Civil War, and the 1864 war over Schleswig-Holstein between Denmark and the German states. Russell arranged the London Conference of 1864, but failed to establish peace in the war. His tenure of the Foreign Office was noteworthy for the famous dispatch in which he defended Italian independence: "Her Majesty's Government will turn their eyes rather to the gratifying prospect of a people building up the edifice of their liberties, and consolidating the work of their independence, amid the sympathies and good wishes of Europe" (27 October 1860).

The House of Lords: 1861.

In 1861 Russell was elevated to the peerage as Earl Russell, of Kingston Russell in the County of Dorset, and as Viscount Amberley, of Amberley in the County of Gloucester, and of Ardsalla in the County of Meath in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. As a suo jure peer, he sat in the House of Lords for the remainder of his career.

Prime Minister again: 1865–1866.

When Palmerston suddenly died in late 1865, Russell again became Prime Minister. His second premiership was short and frustrating, and Russell failed in his great ambition of expanding the franchise, a task that would be left to his Conservative successors, Derby and Benjamin Disraeli. In 1866, party disunity again brought down his government. Russell never again held any office. His last contribution to the House of Lords was on 3 August 1875.

Marriages and children.

Lord Russell married Adelaide Lister (widow of Thomas Lister, 2nd Baron Ribblesdale, who had died in 1832.) on 11 April 1835. She died three years later on 1 November 1838. They had two daughters:  He remarried Lady Frances Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound (daughter of Gilbert Elliot, 2nd Earl of Minto) on 20 July 1841. They had four children:  They lived at Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park.  Russell and his second wife brought up the children of his eldest son Lord Amberley, orphaned by the deaths of their mother Katharine Russell, Viscountess Amberley in 1874 and their father two years later. These included philosopher Bertrand Russell, who recalled his grandfather in his later life as "a kindly old man in a wheelchair."  The 1st Earl Russell is buried at the 'Bedford Chapel' at St. Michael's Church, Chenies.

Legacy and reputation.

Scion of one of the most powerful aristocratic families, Russell was a leading reformer who weakened the power of the aristocracy. His great achievements, wrote A. J. P. Taylor, were based on his persistent battles in Parliament over the years on behalf of the expansion of liberty; after each loss he tried again and again, until finally, his efforts were largely successful. E. L. Woodward, however, argued that he was too much the abstract theorist:He was more concerned with the removal of obstacles to civil liberty than with the creation of a more reasonable and civilized society. His political theory centred in the revolution of 1688, and in the clique of aristocratic families to whom the country owed loyalty in return for something like the "" of the reform bill. Nevertheless, Russell led his Whig party into support for reform; he was the principal architect of the Great Reform Act of 1832.  He was succeeded as Liberal leader by former Peelite William Gladstone, and was thus the last true Whig to serve as Prime Minister. Generally taken as the model for Anthony Trollope's Mr Mildmay, aspects of his character may also have suggested those of Plantagenet Palliser. An ideal statesman, said Trollope, should have "unblemished, unextinguishable, inexhaustible love of country... But he should also be scrupulous, and, as being scrupulous, weak."  The 1832 Reform Act and extension of the franchise to British cities are partly attributed to his efforts. He also worked for emancipation, leading the attack on the Test and Corporation acts, which were repealed in 1828, as well as towards legislation limiting working hours in factories in the 1847 Factory Act, and the Public Health Act of 1848.  His government's approach to dealing with the Great Irish Famine is now widely condemned as counterproductive, ill-informed and disastrous. Russell himself was sympathetic to the plight of the Irish poor, and many of his relief proposals were blocked by his cabinet or by the British Parliament.  Queen Victoria's attitude toward Russell had been coloured by his role in the Aberdeen administration. On visiting Windsor Castle to resign, Aberdeen had told the Queen: "Nothing could have been better," he said, "than the feeling of the members towards each other. Had it not been for the incessant attempts of Lord John Russell to keep up party differences, it must be acknowledged that the experiment of a coalition had succeeded admirably," which attitude she shared. The Queen continued to criticise Russell for his behaviour for the rest of his life, and on his death in 1878 her journal records that he was "a man of much talent, who leaves a name behind him, kind, & good, with a great knowledge of the constitution, who behaved very well, on many trying occasions; but he was impulsive, very selfish (as shown on many occasions, especially during Ld Aberdeen's administration) vain, & often reckless & imprudent."  A public house in Bloomsbury, large parts of which are still owned by the Bedford Estate, is named after Russell, located on Marchmont Street.

Literature.

In 1819 Lord John Russell published his book "Life of Lord Russell" about his famous ancestor, William Russell, 1st Duke of Bedford; and a year later his "Essays and Sketches of Life and Character", "By a Gentleman who has left his lodgings" (1820), a series of social and cultural commentaries ostensibly found in a missing lodger's rooms.  In 1822 Russell published a historical drama "Don Carlos: or, Persecution. A tragedy, in five acts".  Between 1853 and 1856, he edited the "Memoirs, Journal and Correspondence of Thomas Moore", which was published by Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans over 8 volumes.  "A Tale of Two Cities" by Charles Dickens was dedicated to Lord John Russell, "In remembrance of many public services and private kindnesses." In speech given in 1869, Dickens remarked of Russell that "there is no man in England whom I respect more in his public capacity, whom I love more in his private capacity."

John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, (18 August 1792 – 28 May 1878), known by his courtesy title Lord John Russell before 1861, was a leading Whig and Liberal politician who served as Prime Minister of Great Britain in 1846–1852, and 1865–1866 during the early Victorian era.

John Russell, 1. hrabě Russell (18. srpen 1792 – 28. květen 1878) byl britský státník, člen strany Whigů, později Liberální a vykonával funkci premiéra.


History of discovery.

Background.

The fossil later known as "Cetiosauriscus" was originally ascribed to the genus "Cetiosaurus"—one of the first sauropods to be named, in 1842 by palaeontologist Richard Owen, and one with a complicated history due to many unfounded referrals of species and specimens, involving almost all English sauropod specimens. The type species of "Cetiosaurus" has changed throughout history because of incomplete remains and the taxon's significance, and many aspects of its anatomy and relationships are still uncertain. "Cetiosaurus" was originally named to include "C. medius", "C. brevis", "C. brachyurus" and "C. longus", which span from the Middle Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous of various localities across England. As none of these species are truly diagnostic, and "Cetiosaurus" is a historically and taxonomically important taxon, the more complete Middle Jurassic species "C. oxoniensis" named by geologist John Phillips in 1871 became the type species. "C. glymptonensis" was also named in the same publication by Phillips, but is less complete and of a questionable validity.  Another English taxon, "Ornithopsis hulkei", was named in 1870 by palaeontologist Harry Govier Seeley for vertebrae from the Early Cretaceous Wessex Formation, younger than the existing species of "Cetiosaurus". Seeley considered "Ornithopsis" to be closely related to "Cetiosaurus", but different due to the internal bone structure. An additional species, "Ornithopsis leedsii" was named in 1887 by John Hulke for a pelvis, vertebrae and ribs collected by Alfred Nicholson Leeds, an English farmer and amateur fossil collector who throughout his life compiled numerous collections of fossils from the Oxford Clay. "O. leedsii", from the Late Jurassic, showed similarities to older "Cetiosaurus oxoniensis" as well as younger "O. hulkei". It was described in more detail by Seeley in 1889, where he considered "O. hulkei", "C. oxoniensis" and "O. leedsii" to all be in the same genus, bearing the name "Cetiosaurus". But naturalist Richard Lydekker discussed with Seeley, before the publication of Seeley's 1889 paper, that "Cetiosaurus" and "Ornithopsis" were not the same taxon. Lydekker suggested that Wealden fossils (including "O. hulkei") belonged to "Ornithopsis" and the Jurassic remains (including "O. leedsii" and "C. oxoniensis") to "Cetiosaurus". Lydekker in 1895 changed his mind and referred the species "O. leedsii" to "Pelorosaurus" (known already from the species "P. brevis", once named "Cetiosaurus brevis")—as "P. leedsi"—and referred the genus to Atlantosauridae. Lydekker's classification of the species was not supported by later authors like palaeontologist Arthur Smith Woodward in 1905, who followed Seeley's classification scheme.

Discovery and naming.

The sauropod fossil today known as "Cetiosauriscus stewarti" was discovered in May 1898 by clay workers in the area around Fletton to the south of Peterborough and east of the Great Northern Railway. Pits in this region expose the fossil-rich sedimentary rocks of the marine Oxford Clay, which is of middle Callovian age and today regarded as one of the classic geological formations of British palaeontology. The sauropod fossil possibly stems from NPBCL pit No. 1, which was the northernmost pit operated by the New Peterborough Brick Company Limited, and which produced the most vertebrate fossils. The discovery was brought to the attention of Leeds, who, after excavation, took the sauropod specimen to Eyebury, the Leeds' family home. In mid-August, after some cleaning and repairing of the specimen, geologist Henry Woodward visited Eyebury and produced a life-sized drawing of the remains for presentation at the British Association for the Advancement of Science Meeting. Following this presentation, on 17 August 1898, Henry Woodward returned with American palaeontologist Othniel Charles Marsh, who considered the sauropod to be closely related to the North American taxon "Diplodocus". Alfred Leeds offered the sauropod to the British Museum of Natural History (BMNH, now abbreviated as NHMUK) for £250, which would equate to about £30,529 in 2017. The NHMUK had earlier in 1890 and 1892 bought the First and Second Collections of Alfred Leeds, respectively. Woodward, Keeper of Geology at the NHMUK, had "great pleasure" to recommend to the Trustees of the NHMUK the fossil be purchased. The purchase was sanctioned on 25 February 1899, along with the purchase of assorted other remains for just over £357 (~£43,596 now), where the Leeds sauropod gained the accession number BMNH R3078 (now NHMUK R3078).  The amount of material made NHMUK R3078 the most complete sauropod specimen from the United Kingdom, only comparable later to the "Rutland Dinosaur" (referred to "Cetiosaurus") discovered in 1967. Known regions of the specimen include the forelimb, hindlimb and vertebral column. The forelimb lacks the manus (hand) and part of the radius and ulna, although the hindlimb lacks only a few bones in the pes (foot) and fragments of the tibia, fibula and ilium. The vertebrae known are four parts of dorsal vertebrae, the neural spines of the sacrum, multiple anterior caudal vertebrae (tail bones), and a series of 27 nearly complete vertebrae from the middle of the tail with associated or articulated chevrons (ribs along the underside of the tail), although the vertebral series is not continuous. A tail tip (NHMUK R1967) from the same locality, but a different individual was thought by palaeontologist Alan Charig in 1980 to belong to "Cetiosauriscus". The assignment of NHMUK R1967 to "Cetiosauriscus" was considered unlikely in alternate studies by palaeontologists Friedrich von Huene, Paul Upchurch and Darren Naish because of the lack of overlap and uncertain phylogenetic positions. In 1903, the skeleton was mounted as preserved in the British Museum, so it could be more easily compared with other mounted sauropods from North America. The mount of "Cetiosauriscus" was put on display just prior to the cast skeleton of "Diplodocus", and was displayed with the dorsal vertebrae NHMUK R1984 and some isolated teeth from a camarasaurid (possibly referable to "Cetiosauriscus"), making it the first sauropod skeleton mounted in the United Kingdom.  NHMUK R3078 was referred in 1905 by Arthur Woodward to the species "Cetiosaurus leedsi", as it was from the same geologic formation as other specimens that were assigned to "C. leedsii". Woodward also referred the dorsal vertebrae NHMUK R1984 and the tail tip NHMUK R1967 to the species. In 1927, Huene briefly described the anatomy of the species "C. leedsii", where he noted that it shared many similarities with "Haplocanthosaurus" and was most likely between "Cetiosaurus" proper and the former genus. For this reason, Huene proposed the new genus name "Cetiosauriscus" for the species. To the genus he referred the specimens NHMUK R1984–R1988 and NHMUK R3078.

Misassigned species.

Huene (1927) assigned ""Ornithopsis" greppini", which he had named in 1922, to the genus "Cetiosauriscus". The known material, discovered in Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian) deposits in the Reuchenette Formation of Switzerland, includes dorsal and caudal vertebrae, forelimb bones and a hindlimb and partial pes, from at least two individuals. The long humerus was built like "Cetiosauriscus stewarti" ("C. leedsi" of von Huene's 1927 usage), and the two species were originally distinguished from "Cetiosaurus" by having shorter dorsal vertebrae, a shorter forelimb, and a longer lower leg. The similarities like the anatomy of the caudal vertebrae were suggested by Christian Meyer and Basil Thüring in 2003 to support referral of "greppini" to "Cetiosauriscus". However, Weishampel et al. (2004) and Whitlock (2011) considered ""Cetiosauriscus" greppini" to be Eusauropoda "incertae sedis", while Hofer (2005) and Schwarz et al. (2007) concluded that ""Cetiosauriscus" greppini" represents an unnamed genus of basal eusauropod. ""Ornithopsis" greppini" was finally named as the new genus "Amanzia" in 2020.  The species "Cetiosaurus longus", named in 1842 by Owen, was referred to the genus "Cetiosauriscus" without comment by sauropod palaeontologist John Stanton McIntosh in 1990. Material the species was named for included a dorsal and caudal vertebrae from the Portland Stone of Garsington, Oxfordshire, two other caudal vertebrae from the same deposit of nearby Thame, and a single vertebra and some metatarsals originally named "Cetiosaurus epioolithicus" (an invalid "nomen nudum"), although the material from Garsington has been lost since its description. One of the vertebrae (OUMNH J13871) may instead be a cervical, as it has one mildly convex and one concave articular face. Characterised as having uniquely elongate vertebral centra (body of the vertebra), "C. longus" is not a diagnostic taxon. As it lacks any diagnostic features of "Cetiosauriscus", the species should be referred to by its original designation, "Cetiosaurus longus".  "Cetiosaurus glymptonensis", named on the basis of nine middle-distal caudal centra from the Forest Marble Formation of Oxfordshire, England, was referred to "Cetiosauriscus" by McIntosh in 1990. These caudal vertebrae were considered to be more elongate than those of "Cetiosaurus oxoniensis", but caudal length proportions vary significantly throughout the tail and in different taxa, "Apatosaurus", "Diplodocus" and "Cetiosauriscus" having similarly elongate caudal vertebrae. The more anterior caudals have a large ridge two-thirds up the centrum and a smaller ridge one-third up. These ridges are similar to the middle caudals of "Cetiosauriscus", but are absent in caudals of the same size and proportions, and because of this difference the species was concluded to be separate from "Cetiosauriscus" by Upchurch and Martin in 2003. "Cetiosaurus" "glymptonensis" is considered to be Eusauropoda "incertae sedis" by Upchurch and Martin (2003), Weishampel and colleagues (2004) and Whitlock (2011), and is in need of a new genus name because it has a single diagnostic feature, the lateral ridges.  In 1980, Charig described a specimen of indeterminate diplodocid from the Early Cretaceous of England, and re-examined the holotype of "Cetiosauriscus leedsii" to compare its characteristics. In this publication he confirmed that the ilium of the holotype of "C. leedsi", NHMUK R1988, was too incomplete to be compared to the also incomplete ilium of the referred specimen NHMUK R3078. Because of the lack of overlap the referral of NHMUK R3078 to "Cetiosauriscus leedsii" was no longer verifiable, so Charig named the new species "Cetiosauriscus stewarti" for NHMUK R3078. The specific name was chosen to honour Sir Ronald Stewart, the chairman of the London Brick Company that owned the clay pit the fossils had been found in. Furthermore, Charig considered "Cetiosauriscus leedsii" and "Cetiosauriscus greppini" to be dubious taxa, making "C. stewarti" the only valid species within "Cetiosauriscus". Because of the invalidity of the type species "C. leedsii", Charig made a petition to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) in 1993 to designate "Cetiosauriscus stewarti" as the type species of its genus, being the taxon containing the specimen Huene had originally named the genus for and distinguished from "Cetiosaurus", and also a taxonomically more stable name. This was accepted by the ICZN in 1995, making "Cetiosauriscus stewarti" the type species of "Cetiosauriscus". The only specimen that can confidently be assigned to "C. stewarti" is the holotype NHMUK R3078, although it is possible that isolated teeth from the Oxford Clay could be from the taxon.

Description.

"Cetiosauriscus" was a moderately sized, quadrupedal eusauropod. It had a moderately long tail, and relatively long arms making the shoulders level with the hips. "Cetiosauriscus" was approximately long based on the known skeleton, comparable to possible relatives like long "Cetiosaurus", and long "Patagosaurus". The weight of "Cetiosauriscus" is less certain, depending on its phylogenetic placement. Restored as a diplodocid, "Cetiosauriscus" was estimated by Paul (2010) as, but restored as a cetiosaur it was estimated by Paul (2016) as.

Vertebrae.

The dorsal vertebrae of NHMUK R3078 are incomplete or fragmentary. A partial anterior dorsal is known from a single centrum, which is about as long as wide, with a strong anterior articular ball (an opisthocoelous condition). On the lateral surfaces (sides) of the centrum there are deep but small pleurocoels (depressions in the sides of vertebrae for air sacs). A single middle dorsal centrum is preserved, being slightly smaller than the anterior dorsal. The pleurocoel is more elongate, but like the anterior dorsal there is no ventral (underside) concavity. A posterior dorsal is also known and is probably the last dorsal before the sacrum (vertebrae between the pelves). It preserves the entire centrum and most of the neural arch, and is significantly shortened in length compared to the other dorsals, although it is about as wide across as tall. A shallow pleurocoel is also present, but is placed higher on the side of the centrum and disappears into the neural arch. Unlike the anterior dorsal, the posterior dorsal is only very slightly opisthocoelous. A tall and narrow hyposphene (thin vertical ridge below the anterior processes of the arch, providing additional vertebral articulation) is present and well expanded off the arch. A single dorsal neural spine is also preserved. It is flattened and not tall, with a narrowed tip, and the only noticeable laminae present are the spinopostzygapophyseal laminae running down the rear corners of the spine to the postzygapophyses. This is unlike most diplodocoids where there are many laminar running along the length of the spines. Four neural spines of the sacrum are preserved, three of which form a single plate and the fourth of which is separate, like in "Diplodocus".  Of the anterior four caudal vertebrae, the anteriormost two are highly incomplete. Both the short, but wider-than-tall, centra preserve traces of the sideways projections (transverse processes) found in other vertebrae, which are very low on the sides compared to following caudals. The neural spines are very thin, thinning to a single ridge in front (the prespinal lamina), but having two spinopostzygapophyseal laminae like the dorsals. The fourth caudal is the most complete anterior caudal. The centrum is concave in front, but flat behind (amphiplatyan). There are no pleurocoels unlike the dorsals, and the transverse processes begin in the top half of the centrum. The centrum is long, tall and wide, with the total vertebra being tall. Anterior caudals of the "Cetiosaurus leedsi" specimen NHMUK R1984 are very similar to those of "Cetiosauriscus", but the neural arches are not as tall in "C. leedsi", and the transverse processes lack a prominent ridge along the top of them. Middle and posterior caudals from a nearly continuous series of 27 bones are well preserved in "Cetiosauriscus". The later vertebrae are slightly more elongate than those in front, and slightly less concave in their anterior face. Moving towards the end of the tail the centra reduce in size and the transverse processes shrink until they are completely absent, with the neural spines becoming shorter, thinner, and more slanted. The seventh vertebrae of the series, at tall, is long, only one cm longer than the 21st of the same series that is tall. A distinguishing characteristic of "Cetiosauriscus" is the presence of a front-to-back concavity on the top of the anterior and middle caudal neural spines.

Appendicular skeleton.

"Cetiosauriscus" preserves a single right scapula (shoulder blade), which is elongate and slender. The scapula is long and wide at the middle, making it very narrow. The inner face is flat across, while the outer face is gently convex. There is no expansion of the far end of the blade. The bone thickens close to the humerus joint, where it also articulates with the coracoid. The coracoid is incomplete, but enough is preserved to show it is rectangular, and longer, at, than it is wide—. A long humerus is known, and complete with minimal crushing. The bone is short and stout, with a robust crest for the deltoid muscle along the upper half of the bone. The shape of the humerus is similar to the shortness of "Neuquensaurus", although overall the forelimb is long, as in "Diplodocus" and "Cetiosaurus", being 69% of the femur length. The distal end is roughened for a large cartilage cap as found in some other eusauropods like "Cetiosauriscus" "greppini". The radius and ulna are broken, but complete they would have been long.  The hindlimb of "Cetiosauriscus" is about 3/2 the length of the forelimb. Both ilia are very fragmentary, but the two sides supplement each other to give a reasonable idea of the proportions of the complete bone. The ilium is long, and has a long and slender pubic peduncle. It is proportionally lower than in "Cetiosaurus", being similar in proportions to "Haplocanthosaurus" and the later "Titanosauridae". The left femur is complete, but part of the shaft is eroded away. It is very slender, being tall but only wide at the middle. This very gracile femoral morphology is shared with "Amphicoelias", "Shunosaurus", "Ligabuesaurus" and a specimen of "Diplodocus", being more gracile than "Cetiosaurus" and most other eusauropods. A prominent fourth trochanter is present, but the remaining shaft is very compressed. The tibia, fibula and pes are also preserved, but are fragmentary and disarticulated making comparisons difficult, the lower hindlimb being about upright. The foot is similar to "Diplodocus" and "Brontosaurus", where the first toes are large and clawed, and the outer ones are small and clawless. Metatarsal III is the longest, followed by metatarsal IV, II, V and I. Metatarsal I is the widest, and the width of the bones decreases numerically.

Classification.

"Cetiosauriscus" was originally classified by Huene as a genus in the family Cetiosauridae, within the subfamily Cardiodontidae. The subfamily, including the other taxa "Cetiosaurus", "Haplocanthosaurus", "Dystrophaeus", "Elosaurus" and "Rhoetosaurus", was founded upon the general basal features of elongate cervicals and shortened dorsals—both opisthocoelous, amphicoelous caudals that are rod-shaped distally, paired sternal plates, an ilium lacking the postacetabular process (region of the ilium behind the ischium joint and acetabulum), a very wide pubis, wide distal ischium, significantly shorter forelimb than hindlimb, fibula lacking the middle muscle attachment, and long metacarpals and short metatarsals. This classification was emmended in 1932 when Huene concluded "Cetiosauriscus" was closer to "Haplocanthosaurus" than "Cetiosaurus" in the family, because of forelimb and hindlimb proportions. Conversely, in 1956, Alfred Romer synonymised "Cetiosauriscus" and "Cetiosaurus", a position that has not been followed by subsequent studies on the taxon.  David S. Berman and McIntosh in 1978 referred "Cetiosauriscus" to the family Diplodocidae along with multiple other genera; "Diplodocus", "Apatosaurus", "Barosaurus", "Mamenchisaurus" "Dicraeosaurus" and "Nemegtosaurus". Like other members of the family, "Cetiosauriscus" possesses wing-like transverse processes, divided chevrons with forward and backward projections, the tail is "whiplash"-like, the humerus is 2/3 the length of the femur, the calcaneum is absent, metatarsal III and IV are the longest, and metatarsal I has a process on the bottom back corner. This referral would make "Cetiosauriscus", known from the Callovian, the oldest diplodocid, millions of years older than "Diplodocus", "Barosaurus" or "Apatosaurus". In the paper naming "Cetiosauriscus stewarti", Charig also described the chevrons of a new specimen and created the term "diplodociform" to describe them. This meant that they were robust and double-beamed, as in "Diplodocus" and its relatives like "Mamenchisaurus". Because of the similarly "diplodociform" chevrons, Charig referred "Cetiosauriscus" to the Diplodocidae along with the new specimen. Elaborating upon his earlier paper, McIntosh (1990) weakly referred "Cetiosauriscus" to the subfamily Diplodocinae, characterised by more cervicals and fewer dorsals, tall sacrum neural spines, short forelimbs, no calcaneum, metatarsals III and IV being the longest, and a small process on the distal end of metatarsal I. The subfamily also included "Diplodocus", "Barosaurus" and "Apatosaurus". In 2004 this placement was followed by Weishampel "et al." without comment.  A phylogenetic analysis of "Cetiosauriscus" was conducted in 2003 by Julia Heathcote and Upchurch, based upon the two most inclusive matrices of the time, those of Jeffrey A. Wilson (2002) and Upchurch (1995), neither of which had included the taxon in the past. Added to the analysis of Upchurch, "Cetiosauriscus" placed as the sister taxon of "Tehuelchesaurus", in a group including "Mamenchisaurus", "Omeisaurus" and "Euhelopus", and a placement within a group of "Omeisaurus" and "Mamenchisaurus" was also found by using the Wilson matrix. Based on these two results, Heathcote and Upchurch concluded "Cetiosauriscus" was not a diplodocid or even within Diplodocoidea, instead being a more basal sauropod outside Neosauropoda. The phylogenetic analysis of Rauhut "et al." (2005) resolved "Cetiosauriscus" in a clade with "Omeisaurus", itself in a group with "Losillasaurus" and "Mamenchisaurus", outside of Neosauropoda. The phylogenetic relationships of "Cetiosauriscus" were also tested in 2015 by Tschopp "et al.", as a potential diplodocid. Although the genus was found to be within Diplodocimorpha with one analysis method, it was also found outside Neosauropoda. In both, "Cetiosauriscus stewarti" was found to be in a clade alone with "Barosaurus affinis", a dubious species known only from foot bones. Tschopp "et al." concluded that "Cetiosauriscus" was not a diplodocid or a diplodocoid, as forcing it to be outside Neosauropoda was more parsimonious than forcing it to be within Diplodocoidea in all analyses. As the paper was only to test relationships within Diplodocidae, more solid conclusions regarding the position of "Cetiosauriscus" could not be made. The results of the favoured cladogram of Tschopp "et al." is shown below:

Palaeobiology.

Palaeopathology.

The series of distal caudal vertebrae NHMUK R1967, once referred to "Cetiosauriscus", is similar to the caudals of "Diplodocus", with two convex ends (biconvex) and a long and thin centrum. These caudals displays signs of injury at two points along the series of 10 vertebrae, where there are signs of breakage in the bone that was later healed. These lesions were identified as the same form of pathologies as found on the tail of "Diplodocus". It has been suggested that the biconvex distal caudal vertebrae in sauropods were used for making whip-like cracking noise, being thin and delicate and not intended for impact, as the joints would be very vulnerable to damage rendering them useless.

Palaeoecology.

"Cetiosauriscus" lived during the Callovian, an epoch in the Middle Jurassic, about 166 to 164 mya. The single specimen is known from the Lower Member of the Oxford Clay Formation, along with multiple other dinosaur genera and many other groups of animals, in the biozone of the index fossil "Kosmoceras jason". The Oxford Clay Formation is a marine deposit of southern and middle England, known for the high-quality preservation of some fossils and the large diversity of taxa. Sediments are generally brownish-grey mudstone, organic-rich with plentiful crushed ammonites and bivalves, at most thick. A large diversity of flora can be seen, preserved in the form of pollen and spores. Gymnosperms are present, along with pteridophytes, unidentifiable wood fragments, other intermediate pollen, and miscellaneous organic plant material.  The intermediate sauropod "Ornithopsis leedsi" is known from the same section of the formation as "Cetiosauriscus", along with the stegosaurids "Lexovisaurus durobrivensis" and "Loricatosaurus priscus" (which are possibly synonyms), the basal ankylosaur "Sarcolestes leedsi", the ornithopod "Callovosaurus leedsi", and a second unnamed ornithopod taxon. Dinosaur eggs that have not yet been assigned to a taxon are also known from the Lower Oxford Clay. The theropods "Eustreptospondylus" and possibly "Megalosaurus" are also known from the Oxford Clay Formation, but slightly younger deposits (the Middle Member). In addition, the theropod "Metriacanthosaurus" is from an unknown level and age in the formation.  Hundreds of invertebrates are known from the marine deposits, including bivalves, gastropods, scaphopods, ammonites, teuthoids, a nautiloid, foraminifera, coelenterates, bryozoans, brachiopods, annelids, crustaceans, ostracods, cirripedes and echinoderms. Fish are known from the clades Elasmobranchii, Chimaera, and Actinopterygii, and the ichthyosaur "Ophthalmosaurus", the plesiosaurs "Cryptoclidus", "Muraenosaurus", "Tricleidus", "Liopleurodon", "Peloneustes", "Pliosaurus" and "Simolestes", the crocodilians "Metriorhynchus" and "Steneosaurus", and the pterosaur "Rhamphorhynchus" were all present.

Cetiosauriscus ( ) is a genus of sauropod dinosaur that lived between 166 and 164 million years ago during the Callovian (Middle Jurassic Period) in what is now England. A herbivore, "Cetiosauriscus" had—for sauropod standards—a moderately long tail, and longer forelimbs, making them as long as its hindlimbs. It has been estimated as about long and between in weight.

Cetiosauriscus ("podobný cetiosaurovi") je rod vyhynulého sauropodního dinosaura z čeledi Diplodocidae. Žil v období střední jury, asi před 165 až 161 miliony let, na území dnešní Anglie.


Location.

The station is located under Boulevard Marguerite-de-Rochechouart, at Place d'Anvers. Oriented approximately along an east-west axis, it is located between Pigalle and Barbès - Rochechouart metro stations. In the direction of Nation, it is the last underground station preceding the above ground section of the line.

History.

The station was opened on 21 October 1902 as part of the extension of Line 2 from Étoile. It was the eastern terminus of the line until its extension to Bagnolet (now called Alexandre Dumas) on 31 January 1903. The station is named after the Place d'Anvers and the Belgian city of Antwerp ("Anvers" in French) where French troops won a victory over the Dutch during of the seat of the citadel of Antwerp in 1832.  The station is located under the Boulevard de Rochechouart, which was built on the route of the Wall of the Farmers-General in order to enforce the collection of taxation between 1784 and 1791 but demolished in the 19th century. Anvers (Sacré-Cœur) is only station on Line 2 between the Charles de Gaulle—Étoile and the Nation stations that is not built on the site of a gate (or "barrière" in French) of the wall, which became important intersections and thus, logical places for stations. Instead, Anvers station was placed as close to the foot of the Montmartre funicular as possible. Nevertheless, the Barrière de Rochechouart was at the east, near the junction of the Boulevard de Rochechouart and the Rue de Rochechouart. Also near are the hill of Montmartre and the Basilica of the Sacré-Cœur.  From the 1950s to the end of the 2000s, the side walls were covered with metal bodywork with blue horizontal uprights and illuminated golden advertising frames. Before the bodyworks removal as part of the RATP's "Renouveau du métro" renovation, it was supplemented with "shell" yellow seats characteristic of the "Motte" style. The platform modernization work was completed in 2010.  On April 1, 2016, half of the nameplates on the station's platforms were replaced by the RATP to make an April Fool joke for a day, as in twelve other stations. They use the name of the station (without its subtitle), but are humorously turned upside down in order to play on the homophony between "Anvers" and "envers" (reverse).  In 2019, 5,643,147 travelers entered this station which placed it at the 67th position of the metro stations for its usage.

Passenger services.

Access.

The station has a single access entitled "Boulevard de Rochechouart - Sacré-Coeur", leading to the central reservation of this boulevard, on Place d'Anvers opposite the similarly named square. Consisting of a fixed staircase, it is adorned with a Guimard entrance, the elements of which were designed by Hector Guimard in 1900 was listed as historic monuments by the decree of 29 May 1978.

Platforms.

Anvers is a standard configuration station. It has two platforms separated by the metro tracks and the vault is elliptical. The decoration is of the style used for most metro stations. The lighting canopies are white and rounded in the "Gaudin" style of the "renouveau du métro des années 2000", and the bevelled white ceramic tiles cover the walls, the vault, the tympans and the outlets of the corridors. The advertising frames are in white ceramic and the name of the station is written in the Parisine font on enameled plates. The seats are a green "Akiko" style.

Bus services.

The station is served by lines 54, 85 and the tourist line OpenTour of the RATP Bus Network and, at night, by lines N01 and N02 of the Noctilien network.  The Montmartre Funicular is accessible a few hundred meters away by taking the Rue de Steinkerque.

Anvers () is a station on Line 2 of the Paris Métro. It is located in Montmartre, on the border of the 9th and the 18th arrondissements.

Anvers je nepřestupní stanice pařížského metra na lince 2 na hranicích 9. a 18. obvodu v Paříži. Leží pod "Boulevardem de Rochechouart".


Biography.

Early years.

He was born Nguam Phanit (; ) in 1906 in Ban Phumriang, Chaiya District, southern Thailand. His father, Sieng Phānit, was a shopkeeper of second generation Thai Chinese (Hokkien) ancestry and his mother, Klaun, was Thai.

Religious life.

Buddhadasa renounced civilian life in 1926. Typical of young monks during the time, he traveled to the capital, Bangkok, for doctrinal training but found the wats there dirty, crowded, and, most troubling to him, the sangha corrupt, "preoccupied with prestige, position, and comfort with little interest in the highest ideals of Buddhism." As a result, he returned to his native rural district and occupied a forest tract near to his village, founding "Suan Mokkh" in 1932.  In later years, Buddhadasa's teachings attracted many international seekers to his hermitage. He held talks with leading scholars and clergy of various faiths. His aim in these discussions was to probe the similarities at the heart of each of the major world religions. Before his death in 1993, he established an International Dhamma Hermitage Center across the highway from his own retreat to aid in the teaching of Buddhism and other yogic practices to international students. The area of "Suan Mokkh" was expanded to approximately 120 acres of forest.  However, Buddhadasa was skeptical of his fame; when reflecting on the busloads of visitors to Suan Mokkh he would say, "sometimes I think many of these people just stop here because they have to visit the bathroom."

Teachings and interpretations.

Buddhadasa strove for a simple, pristine practice in attempt to emulate Gautama Buddha's core teaching, "Do good, avoid bad, and purify the mind." He therefore avoided the customary ritualism and internal politics that dominated Siamese clerical life. His ability to explain complex philosophical and religious ideas in his native Southern Thai attracted many people to his wooded retreat.  His primary teaching mainly focused on the quiet awareness of one's breathing pattern called anapanasati. However, his personal practice was very much grounded in advanced research and interpretation of early Pali texts on the one hand and on his radical private experimentation on the other.

Rejection of rebirth.

Buddhadasa rejected the traditional rebirth and karma doctrine, since he thought it to be incompatible with "sunyata", and not conducive to the extinction of "dukkha".  Buddhadasa, states John Powers – a professor of Asian Studies and Buddhism, offered a "rationalist interpretation" and thought "the whole question of rebirth to be foolish". According to Buddhadasa, the Buddha taught 'no-self' (Skt "anatman", Pali "anatta"), which denies any substantial, ongoing entity or soul. Powers quotes Buddhadasa view as, "because there is no one born, there is no one who dies and is reborn". Therefore, states Buddhadasa, "the whole question of rebirth has nothing to do with Buddhism... in the sphere of the Buddhist teachings there is no question of rebirth or reincarnation". Its goal is "nibbana", which Buddhadasa describes as a state "beyond all suffering that also transcends ordinary conceptions of happiness."  Buddhadasa explains paticcasamupadda as the "birth" of "I" and mine through sense-contact with objects, and the resulting vedana ("feeling"), tanha ("thirst," craving) and upadana (clinging). It is by relinquishing the notion of "I" and "mine" that selfish clinging is abandoned, and Nirvana or true emptiness will be reached. This can be done by "not allow[ing] the dependent arising to take place; to cut it off right at the moment of sense-contact."  Buddhadasa's views have been "strongly criticized" and rejected by many of his fellow Theravada Buddhist monks with a more orthodox view of the Buddhist Dhamma. For example, Bhikkhu Bodhi states that Buddhadasa's approach of jettisoning the rebirth doctrine "would virtually reduce the Dhamma to tatters... the conception of rebirth is an essential plank to its ethical theory, providing an incentive for avoiding all evil and doing good", summarizes Powers.

No religion.

From the earliest period of his religious studies, Buddhadasa utilized a comparative approach and sought to be able to explain "Buddhist's teachings through other thought systems such as Taoism, Hinduism, Confucianism, Jainism and Natural Science." Through such a methodology he came to adopt a religious world-view wherein he stated, "those who have penetrated to the essential nature of religion will regard all religions as being the same. Although they may say there is Buddhism, Judaism, Taoism, Islam, or whatever, they will also say that all religions are inwardly the same."  In his "No Religion" (1993) Buddhadasa further famously remarked:

Influence.

Buddhadasa's interpretations of the Buddhist tradition inspired such persons as the French-schooled Pridi Banomyong, leader of the Siamese revolution of 1932, and a group of Thai social activists and artists of the 20th century.  Religious scholar Donald K. Swearer has compared Buddhadasa to the early Indian philosopher Nagarjuna, and the 5th-century south Indian scholar Buddhaghosa who has "overshadowed the development of Theravada Buddhist thought" in southeast Asia. According to Swearer, the Thai teacher Buddhadasa "stands in polar opposition to such normative figures as Buddhaghosa" in several respects. Buddhadasa's writings, for example, decidedly contrast with the scholastic and highly influential "Visuddhimagga" of Buddhaghosa. Buddhadasa has been influential in the "arannavasi" (forest tradition) of Thai Buddhism, and his ideas have influenced the radical sectarian movement founder Santi Asoke, according to Swearer.  According to scholars such as Peter Jackson and Daniel Lynch, Buddhadasa was heavily influenced by the ideas found in Zen Buddhism. Buddhadasa considered the Zen ideas as a way to reconcile Theravada Buddhism with modern humanism, and thought them to be the reason for Japan's economic strength.

Translated works.

Buddhadasa's works literally take up an entire room in the National Library of Thailand. The following are some of his well-known books in English translation.

Phra Dharmakosacarya (Nguam Indapañño) (; ), also known as Buddhādasa Bhikkhu (;, May 27, 1906 – May 25, 1993) was a famous and influential Thai ascetic-philosopher of the 20th century. Known as an innovative reinterpreter of Buddhist doctrine and Thai folk beliefs, Buddhadasa fostered a reformation in conventional religious perceptions in his home country, Thailand, as well as abroad. Buddhadasa developed a personal view that those who have penetrated the essential nature of religions consider "all religions to be inwardly the same", while those who have the highest understanding of "dhamma" feel "there is no religion".

Buddhadása Bhikkhu (thajsky: พุทธทาสภิกขุ, 27. května 1906 – 25. května 1993) byl jedním z nejvlivnějších buddhistických mnichů a asketických filosofů dvacátého století. Byl to velmi pokrokový vykladač buddhistických doktrín, který pomohl reformovat buddhismus ve své zemi, v Thajsku. Ačkoli byl Buddhadása vysvěceným buddhistickým mnichem v théravádové tradici, který prošel všemi předepsanými rituály, odmítal v zásadě rozlišovat mezi jednotlivými náboženskými tradicemi a všechna náboženství považoval za jedinou Dharmu. Rovněž inspiroval osobnosti jako byl Pridi Phanomyong, vůdce thajské revoluce z roku 1923, měl vliv na thajská sociální hnutí a na umělce šedesátých let dvacátého století.


Franchise-spanning mythology.

The film "Stargate" establishes that five thousand years ago, the god Ra transplanted Earth humans throughout the galaxy via the Stargate. As a result, the people of Earth rose up against him, and buried their Stargate. The modern history of Earth and the Stargate begins when it is unearthed in Egypt in 1928. The device is brought to the United States in 1939 to keep it out of Nazi hands and eventually installed in a facility in Creek Mountain, Colorado (Cheyenne Mountain in "Stargate SG-1"). In the events of the film, Dr. Daniel Jackson deciphers the workings of the Stargate and a team is sent through to the planet on the other side.  "Stargate SG-1" resumes the story of the film, but establishes that Ra was one of many parasitic Goa'uld, aliens who identify as pagan Earth deities to various primitive human communities on planets throughout the Milky Way. In its pilot episode "Children of the Gods", which takes place a year after the film, Stargate Command is established in response to an attack by the Goa'uld Apophis, and given the mandate to explore other worlds and obtain technologies that can be used to defend Earth. They encounter other races, such as the Asgard, who masquerade as Norse gods. "Stargate SG-1" further extended the backstory of Earth humans by introducing the Ancients, an advanced race of humans from another galaxy who lived on Earth until approximately 10,000 years ago.

Stargate device.

A Stargate is a fictional device that allows practical, rapid travel between two distant locations. The first Stargate appears in the 1994 film "Stargate", and subsequently carries over to "Stargate SG-1" and its spin-offs. In these productions the Stargate functions as a plot generator, allowing the main characters to visit alien planets without the need for spaceships or any other fictional technology.  Within the "Stargate" fictional universe, Stargates are large metal rings with nine "chevrons" spaced equally around their circumference. Pairs of Stargates function by generating an artificial stable wormhole between them, allowing one-way travel through. The symbols on the inner ring of the Stargate correspond to constellations and serve to map out coordinates for various destination planets. A typical Stargate measures in diameter, weighs, and is made of the fictional heavy mineral "naqahdah". The Stargates were created millions of years ago by an alien race known as the Ancients; their modern history begins when Egyptologist Daniel Jackson deciphers their workings in the "Stargate" film.  The Stargate device sets apart "SG-1" from other science fiction shows by allowing modern-day people to travel to other planets in an instant, although scholar Dave Hipple argued that "SG-1" "also deploys [science fiction] stereotypes both to acknowledge forebears and to position itself as a deserving heir". With the help of the central Stargate device, the premise of "Stargate SG-1" combines ancient cultures, present-day political and social concerns, aliens and advanced technologies. Near-instantaneous interplanetary travel allows a fundamental difference in plot structure and set design from other series. There is a disjunction between politics on Earth and the realities of fighting an interstellar war. The Stargate also helps to speed up the exposition of the setting.

Ancients.

The race of the Ancients is first mentioned in the "Stargate SG-1" season 2 episode "The Fifth Race" as the original builders of the Stargate network and members of the former Alliance of four great races. They were considered humanity's predecessors, originally establishing Earth as their homeworld after they migrated to the Milky Way, and having seeded multiple galaxies to allow life to evolve on uninhabited worlds. At the time that the "Stargate" franchise takes place, the Ancients have long since "ascended", i.e. they shed their physical bodies and live eternally as pure energy on a higher plane of existence with an increased power and capacity for learning. While they are no longer physically present in the universe, their highly advanced technology—including the Stargate—remains behind, all of which has shown to be almost entirely resilient to the decay of time, and has also proven to be the most advanced technology anyone has ever encountered. With humans from Earth as their closest descendants both from a genetic standpoint and an evolutionary standpoint, they have shown the most proclivity in utilizing Ancient technology when they encounter it.  For the first six seasons of "Stargate SG-1", the ascended Ancients maintain a strict rule of noninterference in mortal affairs of the material galaxy, and the interactions between humans of Earth and the Ancients are restricted to the outcast Ancient characters Oma Desala and Orlin; the Ancients' ascencion was also used as a plot device for the departure of actor Michael Shanks (Daniel Jackson) in season 6 of "Stargate SG-1". The fictional background of the Ancients was extended with the franchise's Atlantis mythos that began in the "Stargate SG-1" season 6 finale "Full Circle", and which also served as the basis for spin-off show "Stargate Atlantis". The Ori arc of "Stargate SG-1"s seasons 9 and 10 expanded the Ancient mythos further.

Asgard.

A benevolent race that, according to the mythology of "Stargate", gave rise to Norse mythology on Earth and inspired accounts of the Roswell Greys. The Asgard can no longer reproduce and therefore perpetuate themselves by transferring their minds into new cloned bodies. Extremely advanced technologically, the threat of their intervention shields many planets in the Milky Way, including Earth, from Goa'uld attack. They also provide much assistance to Earth in the way of technology, equipment, and expertise. Their main adversary in "Stargate SG-1" are the mechanical Replicators, against which they enlist the aid of SG-1 on several occasions. The entire Asgard civilization chooses to self-destruct in "Unending", due to the degenerative effects of repeated cloning. A small rogue colony of Asgard, known as the Vanir, still exist in the Pegasus galaxy. They were able to slow cloning's negative side effects by experimenting on humans.

Mythology of "Stargate SG-1".

"Stargate SG-1" takes place mostly in the Milky Way galaxy. Brad Wright and Jonathan Glassner tried to stay true to the feature film, but also wanted "Stargate SG-1" to be unique in its own way. "Stargate SG-1" gradually evolved away from the basic premise of the film and developed its own unique mythological superstructure. "Stargate SG-1" elaborated on the film's Egyptian hybrid mythology and mixed in other historical mythologies, coming up with a mythological superstructure that explains the existence of all of the other mythologies in the overarching "Stargate" narrative. The series expands upon Egyptian mythology (notably the Egyptian gods Apep/Apophis, and Anubis as Goa'uld villains), Norse mythology (notably the god Thor as an Asgard ally), Arthurian legend (notably Merlin as an Ancient ally), and many other mythologies like Greek and Roman mythology. "SG-1" does not introduce new alien races as often as some other science fiction television series. Most civilizations that the Goa'uld had transplanted maintain much of their original Earth culture, and "Stargate SG-1" does not equate civilization with technology like many other sci-fi shows do. Newly encountered races or visited planets are integrated into the mythology, although plotlines of individual episodes are often new, self-standing and accessible for new audiences, giving a compelling internal coherence.  The writers had to strike a balance in the interaction between the explorers from Earth and advanced races (of which there were only few in the story) so that alliances could be developed where the advanced races do not give Earth all their technology and knowledge. "Stargate SG-1" emphasized its present-day-Earth story frame by frequently referencing popular culture, like "The X-Files" and "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" had done before. According to one critic in 1997, "Stargate SG-1" was designed to have no nationality, which might appeal to viewers all over the world. The final episodes of season 7 (2004) brought a more global approach to the scenario when the Stargate Program was revealed to over a dozen nations, which further helped the international appeal of "Stargate SG-1".

Alliance of four great races.

SG-1 learns in season 1's "The Torment of Tantalus" that although most known habitable planets in the "Stargate" universe are populated by humans, there was once an Alliance of four great races. In season 2's "The Fifth Race", the Asgard tell Jack O'Neill that this strategic alliance had consisted of the Ancients, the Asgard, the Furlings, and the Nox, and that the humans from Earth had taken the first steps towards becoming "the Fifth Race". (This comes full circle in the "Stargate SG-1" finale "Unending", when Thor declares the humans from Earth the Fifth Race.)  SG-1 had encountered the Nox in season 1's "The Nox", a fairy-like people that wants nothing to do with humanity, viewing them as "young" and having "much to learn". The Nox can live to be hundreds of years old and have a great desire for wisdom and understanding. They are extreme pacifists and never employ violence for any reason, even to defend themselves. Although they outwardly seem to be primitive forest-dwellers, they possess superhuman intelligence and advanced technology beyond that of the Goa'uld, including a floating city. As they have the ability to render themselves and other objects invisible and intangible, as well as the ability to resurrect the dead, they never need to fight. The Nox also appear in "Enigma" and "Pretense".  However, "Stargate SG-1" revealed virtually nothing about the Furlings, beside making them the story backdrop of an abandoned site in season 6's "Paradise Lost". Furling skeletons were originally planned to be featured in the episode, but the production of such proved to be too expensive. Jack O'Neill concludes that the Furlings must be cute and cuddly creatures, based solely on their name. In "Citizen Joe", another character equates the Furlings to Ewoks based on their name. The length of time that the Furling nature remained a mystery in the series turned into a running gag. When Executive Producer Robert C. Cooper was asked "Will we ever meet the Furlings?", his answer was "Who says we haven't?". The writers later went on to state that apart from showing Furling technology and legacy, no member of the Furling race has ever appeared on the show. Producer Joseph Mallozzi claimed that more about the Furlings would finally be revealed in "SG-1"s tenth season, which turned out to be an imagined scene from a movie script based on the fictional television series "Wormhole X-Treme!", a parody of "Stargate SG-1" set in the "Stargate SG-1" universe. The Furlings were depicted as Ewok-like, or Koala-like creatures that are destroyed by the Goa'uld soon after making contact with SG-1.

Goa'uld.

The Goauld are the primary adversaries in "Stargate SG-1" from seasons 1 to 8. "Stargate SG-1" creators Brad Wright and Jonathan Glassner established in "SG-1"s 1997 pilot episode "Children of the Gods" that the film's unnamed alien race and the Goa'uld are the same. As such, the look of the series' Goa'uld, including the early archvillain Apophis, was based on Ra in the feature film. The Goa'uld are introduced as the first and most prominent alien race in the Milky Way, and are also one of the few nonhumanoid species to appear in the early seasons of the series. They are a parasitic species that resemble finned snakes, which can burrow themselves into a humanoid's neck and wrap around the spinal column. The Goa'uld parasite (generally, but inaccurately, referred to as a'symbiote') then takes control of its host's body and mind, while providing longevity and perfect health. The Goa'uld are branded as evil by their pretending to be gods and forcing people to submit to their quasi-religious pronouncements. The most powerful Goa'uld in the galaxy are collectively known as the System Lords.  The fictional backstory is established over the course of the series. In season 4's "The First Ones", it is stated that the Goa'uld evolved on the planet P3X-888, where there are still populations of primitive Goa'uld. Their original hosts were the Unas (meaning "First Ones"), a race of large and primitive humanoids also native to the planet and whom SG-1 had first encountered in season 1's "Thor's Hammer". The Goa'uld then found and ruled over Earth for thousands of years, masquerading as gods from ancient mythologies and transplanting humans throughout the galaxy to serve as slaves and hosts. A faction of Goa'uld symbiotes named the Tok'ra (meaning "against Ra"), whom SG-1 first encounter in season 2's "The Tok'ra" and become close allies with, formed in opposition to the Goa'uld culturally and militarily millennia ago to live in true symbiosis with their hosts, both beings sharing the body equally and benefiting from each other.  The Goa'uld modified humans to create the Jaffa to serve as soldiers and as incubators for their young via an abdominal pouch. The story of the Jaffa is primarily told through the main character Teal'c. The Jaffa's look in the series was copied from the Egyptian look of Ra from the film. The Jaffa rely on the symbiotes for their immune system or will die a slow and painful death that can only be avoided by either acquiring a new symbiote or by lifelong regular injections of a replacement drug called Tretonin. Jaffa bear a symbol of their Goa'uld master's insignia on their foreheads, and the highest-ranking Jaffa in the service of a Goa'uld is known as the First Prime. SG-1 encounters three notable Jaffa factions: the all-female Hak'tyl ("liberation") lead by Ishta in season 7's "Birthright", the Ancient-worshipping Sodan in season 9's "Babylon", and the Ori-worshipping Illac Renin (meaning "Kingdom of the Path") in season 10's "Talion".  The planet Dakara, a holy ground for the Goa'uld and Jaffa alike, is the turning point in the Goa'uld–Jaffa power struggle in season 8's "Reckoning"/"Threads": It is where the Ancients first landed in the Milky Way Galaxy after fleeing the Alteran Galaxy and later built a powerful device, capable of destroying existing life or creating it where there was none before, long before the galaxy was colonized by the Goa'uld or the humans. Since season 8 was intended to be the show's last, the producers had finished it with the defeat of the Goa'uld and the Replicators. However, when the Sci Fi Channel renewed the series, the producers had grown tired of writing endings. Having had good experiences with the first season of "Stargate Atlantis", the producers decided to revamp the series by more than just adding new characters, new villains and new missions. Thus they considered the beginning of Season 9 as the pilot of a new show and replaced the Goa'uld with the Ori as the main villains. The Goa'uld still appeared in the show, but on a regular basis under the command of Ba'al.

Ori.

A major threat in the cosmos, the Ori are Ascended beings who use their advanced knowledge of the universe to force lesser beings to worship them. In essence, they used to be Ancients, however they split into separate groups due to different views of life. The Ori are religious while the Ancients prefer science. The Ori sway lesser-developed planets into worshipping them by promising Ascension through an invented and empty religion called "Origin". This religion states that they created humanity and as such are to be worshiped by their creations. It also promises its followers that, on death, they will Ascend. However, Origin was designed to channel energy from the human worshipers to the Ori. As such, the Ori never help anyone else Ascend because then they would have to share the power that they sap from their worshipers. Their ultimate goal is to completely destroy the Ascended Ancients, who they know as "the Others". All of their efforts, including their technology, are for the purpose of garnering worshippers.  As Ascended beings, the Ori do not interfere directly in the mortal plane. They use instead humans called Priors, which they artificially evolve so that they are one step from Ascension, giving the Priors godlike powers. Because the Ori have worshipers across the entire home galaxy of the Ancients, and use their knowledge to spread, they are nearly unstoppable. For example: Ori warships, built using conventional means while operated through the supernatural abilities of the Priors, are generally considered to be the most powerful vessels in the Stargate universe.  The Ori might be regarded as a shadow form of the Goa'uld, with the significant difference that the Ori promise transcension to their followers but never provide it.

Mythology of "Stargate Atlantis".

"Stargate Atlantis" explores the adventures of an elite expedition from Earth, the "Atlantis Expedition", in the Pegasus Galaxy. The story arc of "Stargate Atlantis" begins in the season 6 finale of "Stargate SG-1", "Full Circle", where Daniel Jackson first mentions the Lost City of the Ancients. The search for the Lost City continues through "SG-1" season 7 with the aim to find powerful weapons, and ends with an Ancient outpost found in Antarctica in the season 7 finale "Lost City". In "SG-1"s season 8 premiere "New Order, Daniel Jackson discovers the gate address to the legendary city Atlantis of Greek mythology. The Atlantis Expedition has a multi-nation civilian leadership and a predominantly United States military faction providing security. Their intent is to establish diplomacy with inhabitants of the galaxy and a permanent human base in the city of Atlantis for scientific and military research and exploration.

Atlantis.

The pilot episode "Rising" of "Stargate Atlantis" establishes much of the backstory of Atlantis: The city was built by the Ancients millions of years ago, originally as a central outpost in prehistorical Antarctica, until an unexplained crisis—involving a virulent plague—forced them to relocate the city to the planet Lantea in the Pegasus Galaxy via intergalactic hyperdrive engines. The Ancients (known as "Ancestors" to the denizens of Pegasus, and "Lanteans" to the Wraith) seeded several human populations in the Pegasus galaxy, but rarely interbred with them. As explained in season 1's "The Defiant One", the Wraith drove the Ancients from their holdings until only Atlantis was left, defended by its powerful shield and a network of armed satellites. The Atlantis Expedition learn during their arrival in Atlantis in "Rising" that the Ancients submerged the city in Lantea's ocean to evade detection by the Wraith and returned via stargate to Earth, where survivor recollections formed the basis for the ancient Greek accounts of Lost City of Atlantis. In the "Atlantis" series finale "Enemy at the Gate", Atlantis returns to Earth and lands in the Pacific Ocean near San Francisco.  The producers intended the city of Atlantis to be the size of Manhattan. Many sets used for Atlantis are part of a large sound stage that was built for almost two million dollars. This stage is used for rooms like the brig, several balconies and other interior parts of Atlantis. Green screens were used if an outdoor view was required in an episode. According to digital effects artist Bruce Woloshyn, the series' original CGI model of the city of Atlantis was over four million polygons, which was feature film in size. This allows the city model to still look good and detailed in extreme close view. Since most of the city is modelled rather than textured, the details appear more realistic when the virtual camera revolves around the city model.

Wraith.

The Wraith are the main antagonists in "Stargate Atlantis" and the dominant species in the Pegasus Galaxy. They are biologically immortal hive-based humanoids who maintain the human worlds of the Pegasus Galaxy as livestock to feed on their "life-force". As established in season 1's "The Gift", the Wraith evolved in the Pegasus galaxy after a human population seeded by the Ancients was fed upon by an insect called the irratus bug, which has the ability to draw upon a human's life to heal itself. As they fed, the bugs incorporated human DNA into themselves, giving rise to the Wraith. The Wraith destroyed any civilizations that had the potential to threaten their dominance, and few human races in Pegasus surpass Earth in technological advancement when the Earth expedition arrives.  The existence of the Wraith is restricted to waking en masse every few centuries to replenish their health by galaxy-wide abductions of humans called "cullings", but the arrival of the Atlantis Expedition in the Pegasus Galaxy in the pilot episode "Rising" leads to the Wraith waking prematurely from their hibernation. To sate their hunger, the Wraith try to get to Earth whose population is much bigger than that of the whole Pegasus Galaxy. This can only be achieved either through the Stargate or by getting more advanced Hyper drive technology, both of which are present in the city of Atlantis.

Mythology of "Stargate Universe".

"Stargate Universe" was conceived as "a completely separate, third entity" in the live-action "Stargate" franchise. Although it was firmly entrenched in pre-established "Stargate" mythology, "Stargate Universe" diverged in a new direction. Like the first two series in the franchise, "Stargate Universe" takes place during the present time, not in the distant future. Unlike "SG-1" and "Atlantis", no single dominant villain race is featured.  The show is set on the Ancient ship "Destiny", which is established as a part of an Ancient experiment to seed the universe with Stargates millions of years ago and investigate a groundbreaking discovery they made pertaining to the origins of the universe. The "Destiny" itself was intended to follow a pre-programmed course to explore these galaxies, but was left unmanned and lost at the time of the Ancients' ascension. The series starts when a team of soldiers and scientists from Earth step through the Stargate to find the "Destiny" and are unable to return to Earth. The show focuses mostly on the people aboard the ship and their survival instead of planet-based exploration, and according to Brad Wright, would also "focus on exploration and adventure – and, by extension, the occasional alien encounter as well". In Brad Wright's words, the show was to be "hopefully exploring the truly alien, and avoiding the rubber faced English-speaking one".

The mythology of the "Stargate" franchise is the historical backstory of the series' premise. In the fictional universe of the franchise, the people of Earth have encountered numerous extraterrestrial races on their travels through the Stargate. In addition to a diversity of alien life, there is also an abundance of other humans, scattered across the cosmos by advanced aliens in the distant past. Some of the most significant species in "Stargate SG-1" are the Goa'uld, the Asgard, and the Replicators. "Stargate Atlantis", set in the Pegasus galaxy, introduced the Wraith and the Asurans. One of the most influential species in "Stargate", the Ancients, have moved on to a higher plane of existence. For practical reasons of television productions, almost all of the alien and human cultures in the Stargate's fictional universe speak native English. Because of the time constraints of an hour-long episode, it would become a major hindrance to the story each week if the team had to spend a sizeable part of each episode learning to communicate with a new species.

Ve fiktivním světě Hvězdné brány lidé ze Země kontaktují řadu mimozemským ras a civilizací během jejich cestování napříč galaxií prostřednictvím Hvězdné brány. Ve Hvězdné bráně jsou lidé rozšířeným druhem na řadě planet důsledkem zásahů mimozemských ras a civilizací. V seriálu Hvězdná brána byla většina těchto obyvatel na cizí planety přenesena Goa'uldy, aby pro ně vykonávali otrockou práci. Postupem času zanechali goa'uldi tyto obyvatele svému osudu. Obvykle když byly vyčerpány zásoby drahocenného fiktivního minerálu naqahdahu. Některé z těchto mimozemských lidských civilizací se vyvinuli technologicky mnohem vice než Země. Lidské rasy galaxie Pegasus jsou produktem Antického rozsévání života a jsou zřídkakdy technologicky pokročilé, protože Wraithové zničí každou civilizaci která by mohla mít potenciál stát se hrozbou. V galaxii Oriů je také velké množství lidí, kteří posilují Orie skrze náboženské uctívání.