Structure.

The ileum is the third and final part of the small intestine. It follows the jejunum and ends at the ileocecal junction, where the terminal ileum communicates with the cecum of the large intestine through the ileocecal valve. The ileum, along with the jejunum, is suspended inside the mesentery, a peritoneal formation that carries the blood vessels supplying them (the superior mesenteric artery and vein), lymphatic vessels and nerve fibers.  There is no line of demarcation between the jejunum and the ileum. There are, however, subtle differences between the two:

Histology.

The four layers that make up the wall of the ileum are consistent with those of the gastrointestinal tract. From the inner to the outer surface, these are:

Development.

The small intestine develops from the midgut of the primitive gut tube. By the fifth week of embryological life, the ileum begins to grow longer at a very fast rate, forming a U-shaped fold called the primary intestinal loop. The proximal half of this loop will form the ileum. The loop grows so fast in length that it outgrows the abdomen and protrudes through the umbilicus. By week 10, the loop retracts back into the abdomen. Between weeks six and ten the small intestine rotates anticlockwise, as viewed from the front of the embryo. It rotates a further 180 degrees after it has moved back into the abdomen. This process creates the twisted shape of the large intestine.  In the fetus the ileum is connected to the navel by the vitelline duct. In roughly 2−4% of humans, this duct fails to close during the first seven weeks after birth, leaving a remnant called Meckel's diverticulum.

Function.

The main function of the ileum is to absorb vitamin B, bile salts, and whatever products of digestion were not absorbed by the jejunum. The wall itself is made up of folds, each of which has many tiny finger-like projections known as villi on its surface. In turn, the epithelial cells that line these villi possess even larger numbers of microvilli. Therefore, the ileum has an extremely large surface area both for the adsorption (attachment) of enzyme molecules and for the absorption of products of digestion. The DNES (diffuse neuroendocrine system) cells of the ileum secrete various hormones (gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin) into the blood. Cells in the lining of the ileum secrete the protease and carbohydrase enzymes responsible for the final stages of protein and carbohydrate digestion into the lumen of the intestine. These enzymes are present in the cytoplasm of the epithelial cells.  The villi contain large numbers of capillaries that take the amino acids and glucose produced by digestion to the hepatic portal vein and the liver. Lacteals are small lymph vessels, and are present in villi. They absorb fatty acid and glycerol, the products of fat digestion. Layers of circular and longitudinal smooth muscle enable the chyme (partly digested food and water) to be pushed along the ileum by waves of muscle contractions called peristalsis. The remaining chyme is passed to the colon.

Clinical significance.

It is of importance in medicine as it can be affected in a number of diseases, including:

Other animals.

In veterinary anatomy, the ileum is distinguished from the jejunum by being that portion of the jejunoileum that is connected to the caecum by the ileocecal fold.  The ileum is the short termi of the small intestine and the connection to the large intestine. It is suspended by the caudal part of the mesentery (mesoileum) and is attached, in addition, to the cecum by the ileocecal fold. The ileum terminates at the cecocolic junction of the large intestine forming the ileal orifice. In the dog the ileal orifice is located at the level of the first or second lumbar vertebra, in the ox in the level of the fourth lumbar vertebrae, in the sheep and goat at the level of the caudal point of the costal arch. By active muscular contraction of the ileum, and closure of the ileal opening as a result of engorgement, the ileum prevents the backflow of ingesta and the equalization of pressure between jejunum and the base of the cecum. Disturbance of this sensitive balance is not uncommon and is one of the causes of colic in horses. During any intestinal surgery, for instance, during appendectomy, distal 2 feet of ileum should be checked for the presence of Meckel's diverticulum.

The ileum () is the final section of the small intestine in most higher vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. In fish, the divisions of the small intestine are not as clear and the terms posterior intestine or distal intestine may be used instead of ileum. Its main function is to absorb vitamin B, bile salts, and whatever products of digestion that were not absorbed by the jejunum.

Kyčelník ( "ileum") je spodní úsek tenkého střeva u většiny vyšších obratlovců včetně savců, plazů a ptáků. Přechází do tlustého střeva ("colon"), přesněji do jeho slepého výběžku neboli slepého střeva, od něhož jej odděluje Bauhinova chlopeň ("valvula ileoceacalis"), jejímž úkolem je zabraňovat pronikání obsahu tlustého střeva zpět do tenkého střeva.


Nomenclature.

"α Fornacis" (Latinised to "Alpha Fornacis") is the system's Bayer designation. The designations of the two components as "Alpha Fornacis A" and "B" derive from the convention used by the Washington Multiplicity Catalog (WMC) for multiple star systems, and adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Formerly it was designated as the 12th of Eridanus (12 Eri) by Flamsteed.  Indigenous Arabs had named both Alpha Eridani and Fomalhaut ظَلِيم "al-ẓalīm", a local word for 'ostrich'. Later, Arabian astronomer would transfer the appellation to Theta Eridani, as they could not see those other stars from their location. In recent times, Italian astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi applied it with the spelling "Dalim" to his "III 13" (= α For) in his "Palermo Catalogue". And American "fogatton" astronomer applied to "Fornacis" in his Atlas.  In 2016, the IAU organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN decided to attribute proper names to individual stars rather than entire multiple systems. It approved the name "Dalim" for the component Alpha Fornacis A on 5 September 2017 and it is now so included in the List of IAU-approved Star Names.

Properties.

Alpha Fornacis has a high proper motion and the system displays an excess of infrared emission, which may indicate the presence of circumstellar material such as a debris disk. The space velocity components of this star are (U, V, W) = (−35, +20, +30) km/s. Approximately 350,000 years ago, Alpha Fornacis experienced a close encounter with the A-type main-sequence star Nu Horologii. The two came within an estimated of each other, and both stars have debris disks.  Alpha Fornacis A has a stellar classification of F8IV, where the luminosity class IV indicates this is a subgiant star that has just evolved off the main sequence. It has 33% more mass than the Sun and is an estimated 2.9 billion years old.  The secondary, Alpha Fornacis B, has been identified as a blue straggler, and has either accumulated material from, or merged with, a third star in the past. It is a strong source of X-rays and is 78% as massive as the Sun.

Alpha Fornacis (α Fornacis, abbreviated Alpha For, α For) is a binary star system in the southern constellation of Fornax. It is the brightest star in the constellation and the only one brighter than magnitude 4.0. Based on parallax measurements obtained during the Hipparcos mission, it is approximately 46 light-years (14 parsecs) distant from the Sun.

Dalim, též Alfa Fornacis je nejjasnější hvězda (a dvojhvězda) v souhvězdí Pece a je v tomto souhvězdí jedinou hvězdou jasnější než 4. Dříve patřila do souhvězdí Eridanu a proto se někdy také označuje jako 12 Eridani.


Early life and education.

Gossett was born in Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn, New York, on May 27, 1936, to Hellen Rebecca (née Wray), a nurse, and Louis Gossett Sr., a porter. He is an alumnus of Mark Twain Intermediate School 239 and Abraham Lincoln High School. His stage debut came at the age of 17, in a school production of "You Can't Take It with You" when a sports injury resulted in the decision to take an acting class. Polio had already delayed his graduation.  After graduating from Abraham Lincoln High School in 1954, he attended New York University, declining an athletic scholarship. Standing 6'1" (1.86 m), he was offered the opportunity to play varsity basketball during his college years at NYU, which he declined to concentrate on theater. His high school teacher had encouraged him to audition for a Broadway part, which resulted in his selection for a starring role on Broadway in 1953 from among 200 other actors well before he entered NYU.

Career.

Gossett replaced Bill Gunn as Spencer Scott in Broadway's "Take a Giant Step", which was selected by "The New York Times" drama critics as one of the 10 best shows of the year. He was 17, and still a student at Abraham Lincoln High School, with no formal drama training.  Gossett's Broadway theatre credits include "A Raisin in the Sun" (1959). Gossett stepped into the world of cinema in the Sidney Poitier vehicle "A Raisin in the Sun" in 1961.  Also in 1961, Gossett appeared in the original cast of Jean Genet's "The Blacks", the longest running off-Broadway play of the decade, running for 1,408 performances. The original cast also featured James Earl Jones, Roscoe Lee Browne, Cicely Tyson, Godfrey Cambridge, Maya Angelou and Charles Gordone.  In 1965, Gossett appeared in the musical play "Zulu and the Zayda" on Broadway as Paulus with music and lyrics by Harold Rome.  Gossett wrote the antiwar folk song "Handsome Johnny" with Richie Havens which Havens recorded in 1966.  His Emmy Award-winning role of Fiddler in the 1977 television miniseries "Roots" first brought Gossett to the audience's attention.  In 1983, he was cast in the title role in "Sadat", a miniseries which chronicled the life and assassination of Anwar Sadat. While filming "An Officer and a Gentleman", Gossett was also starring in the 1982–1983 science fiction series, "The Powers of Matthew Star". His role as drill instructor Gunnery Sergeant Emil Foley in the 1982 film "An Officer and a Gentleman" won him an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. He was the first black male to win an Oscar in a supporting role, the second black male to win for acting, and the third black actor to win overall.  In 1986, Gossett starred in another role as a military man (Colonel Chappy Sinclair) in the film "Iron Eagle". It was followed by three sequels.  In 1989, Gossett co-starred in the Marvel Comics adaptation "The Punisher," with Dolph Lundgren in the title role. The film was directed by Mark Goldblatt, with a screenplay by Boaz Yakin. "The Punisher" was filmed in Sydney, Australia and also featured Jeroen Krabbé, Kim Miyori, and Barry Otto.  In 1991, Gossett starred in Manny Coto's action film "Cover Up" opposite Dolph Lundgren.  Gossett is the voice of the Vortigaunts in the video game "Half-Life 2" and is the Free Jaffa Leader Gerak in Season 9 of the sci-fi television series "Stargate SG-1". He provides the voice of Lucius Fox in "The Batman" animated series. He recorded several commercials for a Nashville-based diabetic company, AmMed Direct, LLC. In 1997, Gossett presented "When Animals Attack! 4", a one-hour special on Fox.  He played the role of fictional U.S. President Gerald Fitzhugh in the 2005 film "". In 2008, he filmed the "Keep It Real" series of commercials for the Namibian lager Windhoek.  In 2009, Gossett also lent his voice talents in the Thomas Nelson audio Bible production known as The Word of Promise. In this dramatized audio, Gossett played the character of John the Apostle. The project also featured a large ensemble of well known Hollywood actors including Jim Caviezel, John Rhys-Davies, Jon Voight, Gary Sinise, Jason Alexander, Christopher McDonald, Marisa Tomei and John Schneider.  In 2013, Gossett starred in the controversial drama "Boiling Pot", which is based on true events of racism that occurred on college campuses across the US during the 2008 Presidential election. The film, written and directed by the Ashmawey brothers under AshmaweyFilms, also stars Danielle Fishel, Keith David, M. Emmet Walsh, and John Heard. Gossett plays a detective attempting to decipher a murder case that was fueled by racism, all while putting aside his own prejudices. "Boiling Pot" was released in 2014. Gossett returned to television in the CBS All Access series, "The Good Fight", guest starring as founding partner Carl Reddick of Diane Lockhart's new firm. He narrated an audiobook based on "Twelve Years a Slave".

Personal life.

Gossett has been married three times and fathered one son and adopted one son. His first marriage was to Hattie Glascoe; it was annulled. His second, to Christina Mangosing, took place on August 21, 1973. Their son Satie was born in 1974. Gossett and Mangosing divorced in 1975. His third marriage, to "Star Search" champion Cyndi James-Reese, took place on December 25, 1987. They adopted a son, Sharron (born 1977). Gossett and James-Reese divorced in 1992.  Louis is the first cousin of actor Robert Gossett who starred on TNT's "The Closer".  According to DNA analysis, he is descended, chiefly, from people of Liberia and Sierra Leone.  On February 9, 2010, Gossett announced that he had prostate cancer. He added the disease was caught in its early stages, and he expected to make a full recovery.  On July 18, 2016, Gossett cohosted as a guest programmer on Turner Classic Movies' primetime lineup. Allowed to choose four movies to air, he selected "Blackboard Jungle," "Lifeboat," "Touch of Evil" and "The Night of the Hunter."

Louis Cameron Gossett Jr. (born May 27, 1936) is an American actor. He is best known for his Academy Award winning role as Gunnery Sergeant Emil Foley in the 1982 film "An Officer and a Gentleman" and his Emmy Award winning role as Fiddler in the 1977 ABC television miniseries "Roots". Gossett has also starred in numerous other film productions including "A Raisin in the Sun", "The Landlord", "Skin Game", "Travels with My Aunt", "The Laughing Policeman", "The Deep", "Jaws 3-D", Wolfgang Petersen's "Enemy Mine", the "Iron Eagle" series, "Toy Soldiers" and "The Punisher", in an acting career that spans over five decades.

Louis Cameron Gossett Jr. známý jen jako Louis Gossett Jr. (* 27. května 1936, Brooklyn, New York, USA) je americký herec a dabér. Nejvíce se proslavil již roku 1982 v Oscarovém snímku "Důstojník a džentlmen". Jedná se ale hlavně o televizního herce: objevil se například v "Hvězdné bráně" nebo v seriálu "Griffinovi". Aktivně se herectví věnuje již od roku 1959.


Plot.

David Banner (Bill Bixby) masquerades as David Bellamy, a mentally challenged janitor, to gain access to a scientific research facility in Portland, Oregon. He believes that the studies of one of the scientists there, Dr. Ronald Pratt (Philip Sterling), may hold the key to curing his gamma-induced condition that, in times of stress, turns him into a superhuman green creature known as the Hulk.  One night after making a transaction at the bank, David is trapped by street thieves and is beaten and robbed. The stress of his injuries induces another transformation. The Hulk makes short work of the criminals but attracts the attention of authorities before escaping.  The next day, bypassing security, Banner enters Pratt's laboratory and examines the formula on his blackboard, making corrections. At the same time, a Russian spy named Jasmin (Elizabeth Gracen), thinking she has completed her last act of espionage, is approached by former superior Kasha for one last job: infiltrate Pratt's lab and steal the files on his experiments. When she refuses, Kasha blackmails Jasmin with her sister Bella's life. Jasmin then disguises herself and obtains a fingerprint from one of the security guards.  The following morning, Pratt examines the formula on his blackboard and discovers that it is now correct. Determined to find out who is guiding him, he hides in the lab in wait for his secret helper. He catches David in the act and asks him to tell him something that would keep him from sounding the security alarm. Banner reveals his true identity and recounts the events that led to his self-experimentation that resulted in the Hulk. He notes that his condition also dives into Pratt's own research on a human's capacity to heal, for in Hulk-form David's accelerated metabolism allows any wound to close in seconds, leaving him with hardly a scar.  Pratt believes he can cure David, but he needs to first study the creature. Over the course of a week, both scientists, with the help of Pratt's scientist wife Amy (Barbara Tarbuck), construct a force field cage and sensors to track Banner's vitals. On the night of the observation, David is rigged with a tranquilizer to sedate him once the readings have been recorded. Banner shocks himself with an electrical rod and transforms into the Hulk. The energy cage restrains the Hulk until Pratt has his readings, and Amy activates the tranquilizer. Banner reverts to normal, and Pratt and Amy photograph the closing puncture wound from the tranquilizer. Banner later watches the video of his transformation – claiming it is the first time he has seen the Hulk – and fails to see any humanity in him despite Amy's beliefs.  The next day, the facility's board announces to Pratt that they are pulling his funding for his lack of results, which forces him to move up his proposed cure for David. An eastern European spy network dedicated to using Pratt's (and Banner's) work for corrupt purposes breaks into the lab, halting the experiment and kidnapping the Pratts. Banner has fallen in love with Jasmin, who returns his affections, and with her help, he rushes to the Pratts' aid.  While pursuing the kidnappers, Banner and Jasmin learn that her sister, Bella (Anna Katarina), is the true leader of the spy network, and Banner turns into the Hulk, who tries to protect Pratt and Jasmin. The Hulk runs towards the plane, on which Bella and Zed are attempting to escape, and breaks it open. He climbs aboard before takeoff. Bella tries to shoot the Hulk, but ends up shooting the fuel tank below. As a result, the plane explodes, killing the villains and the Hulk is thrown into the night, falling onto the concrete. After one last return transformation, Banner tells Jasmin he is free, then succumbs to his injuries. Jasmin, Pratt, and Amy mourn for him.

Production.

This third post-Hulk-series telefilm was initially announced to feature the Marvel Comics character She-Hulk, just as the previous two had featured Thor and Daredevil. As of early July 1989, it was still firmly expected to do so, and to air that autumn, with Iron Man under consideration for a follow-up.

Canceled sequel.

Despite the Hulk's death in the 1990 film, the movie's makers had intended from the start for him to return in "The Revenge of the Incredible Hulk", again with Gerald Di Pego as writer. As of July 10, 1990, a script was being written. It has been reported that the fourth film would have featured the Hulk with Banner's mind, and that the project was canceled because of Bill Bixby's struggle with cancer, but Di Pego has refuted both these claims as fan rumors, pointing out that Bixby's health had not yet begun to decline at the time the film was canceled. Di Pego said that the plot for "The Revenge of the Incredible Hulk" began with Banner being revived, but no longer able to change into the Hulk. Banner then begins to work for the government in order to prevent accidents like the one that turned him into the Hulk, but is captured by villains and coerced into turning their agents into Hulk-like beings. According to Di Pego, at the film's climax Banner would be forced to recreate the accident that transformed him into the Hulk in order to stop the villains' plans.  The sequel was canceled because of the disappointing ratings for "The Death of the Incredible Hulk".

Home media.

This telefilm was originally released on VHS by Rhino Home Video in 1992. It was released on DVD by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on June 3, 2003.

The Death of the Incredible Hulk is a 1990 American made-for-television superhero film, the last of three revival films based on the 1978–1982 television series "The Incredible Hulk". Bill Bixby reprises his role as Dr. David Bruce Banner and Lou Ferrigno returns to play the Hulk. It was filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Prior to Bill Bixby's death in 1993, there was talk of a movie "The Revenge of the Incredible Hulk" television movie which would resurrect the character.

The Death of the Incredible Hulk je americký televizní akční film z roku 1990, který natočil Bill Bixby podle komiksových příběhů o Hulkovi. Snímek je posledním z trojice televizních filmů, které navazují na seriál "The Incredible Hulk", jehož vysílání bylo ukončeno v roce 1982. V předchozích letech vznikly také snímky "Návrat neuvěřitelného Hulka" (1988) a "Proces s neuvěřitelným Hulkem" (1989).


Gradually escalating action.

Background.

In response to President Ngo Dinh Diem's abrogation of the 1956 reunification election and suppression of communists during the late 1950s, Hanoi had begun sending arms and materiel to the Vietcong (VC), who were fighting an insurgency to topple the American-supported Saigon government. To combat the VC and to shore up the government in the south, the U.S. initially delivered monetary aid, military advisors, and supplies. Between 1957 and 1963, the U.S. found itself committed, through its acceptance of the policy of containment and belief in the domino theory, to defending South Vietnam from what it saw as expansive communist aggression.  U.S. policy was for a time dictated by its perception of improvement in the Saigon government. No further commitment by the Americans would occur without tangible proof of the regime's survivability. Events in South Vietnam, however, outpaced this plan. By the beginning of 1965, the policy was reversed in the belief that without further American action the Saigon government could not survive. As late as 8 February, however, in a cable to US Ambassador to South Vietnam Maxwell Taylor, Johnson stressed that the

Implementation.

In March 1964 the Commander in Chief Pacific (CINCPAC) began developing plans for a sustained eight-week air campaign designed to escalate in three stages. This was published at the end of August as CINCPAC OPLAN 37-64, which included the "94 target list". Bridges, rail yards, docks, barracks and supply dumps were all targeted, and selected based on a criterion system considering:  There was widespread concern that an air campaign could lead to a wider conflict involving the Chinese or Soviets. Westmoreland

Over the north.

Strategic persuasion.

Under the doctrine of "gradualism", in which threatening destruction would serve as a more influential signal of American determination than destruction itself, it was thought better to hold important targets "hostage" by bombing trivial ones. From the beginning of "Rolling Thunder", Washington dictated which targets would be struck, the day and hour of the attack, the number, and types of aircraft and the tonnages and types of ordnance utilized, and sometimes even the direction of the attack. Airstrikes were strictly forbidden within of Hanoi and within of the port of Haiphong. A thirty-mile buffer zone also extended along the length of the Chinese frontier. According to U.S. Air

Changing priorities and POL strikes.

If "Rolling Thunder" was supposed to "send signals" to Hanoi to desist in its actions, it did not seem to be working. On 8 April, responding to requests for peace negotiations, North Vietnamese premier, Pham Van Dong, stated that they could only begin when: the bombing was halted; the U.S. had removed all of its troops from the south; the Saigon government recognized the demands of the VC, and it was agreed that the reunification of Vietnam would be settled by the Vietnamese themselves.  As part of a large attack on the Thanh Hóa Bridge on 3 April, the VPAF first appeared as two flights

Reactions.

Problems.

"Rolling Thunder" exposed many problems within the American military services committed to it and tended to exacerbate others. A key interservice issue (and one which was not solved until 1968) was the command and control arrangement in Southeast Asia. The USAF's 2nd Air Division (replaced by the Seventh Air Force on 1 April 1966) was ostensibly responsible for aerial operations over North and South Vietnam. It was subordinate, however, to MACV and its commander, U.S. Army General William C. Westmoreland, who tended to see his problems centered in the south. The U.S. Seventh/Thirteenth Air Force, based in Thailand (which carried out the majority of the Air Force's strikes in North Vietnam), had a dual command structure. It reported to the Seventh on operational matters and to the Thirteenth Air Force (whose headquarters was in the Philippines) for logistical and administrative concerns. These command and control complexities grew even more tangled with the division of the aerial effort into four competing

People's War in the air.

Before "Rolling Thunder" even began the North Vietnamese leadership knew what was coming. It issued a February 1965 directive to the military and the population to "maintain communication and transportation and to expect the complete destruction of the entire country, including Hanoi and Haiphong." The communist leadership declared "a people's war against the air war of destruction...each citizen is a soldier, each village, street, and plant a fortress on the anti-American battlefront." All except those deemed "truly indispensable to the life of the capital" were evacuated to the countryside. By 1967, Hanoi's population had

Biggest shooting gallery on Earth.

SAMs and Wild Weasels.

Between 1964 and early 1965, the Vietnamese had nothing to threaten American pilots in the air. U.S aircraft flew at an altitude of 4−5 kilometers, and the Vietnamese anti-aircraft guns were unable to reach them. However, after an SA-2 shot down some U.S aircraft, the U.S bombers began to descend below three kilometers. This brought them within the reach of Vietnamese anti-aircraft guns.  On July 24, 1965, four USAF F-4C Phantoms took part in an airstrike against the Dien Ben Phu munitions storage depot and the Lang Chi munitions factory west of Hanoi. One was shot down and three were damaged by SA-2 missiles. This was the first time that U.S aircraft had been attacked by SAMs.  After two days, President Johnson gave the order to attack all known SA-2 positions, which had also been discovered outside the 30-mile exclusion zone. On the morning of July 27, 48 F-105s were to participate in the strike, designated Operation Spring High. But the Vietnamese knew that U.S. aircraft were coming and set up many 23 mm and 37 mm anti-aircraft guns at the site. These anti-aircraft guns were lethal at close range, the Vietnamese shot down six aircraft, and more than half

MiGs and interdiction.

"Rolling Thunder" reached the last stage of its operational evolution during 1967 and 1968. The chief purpose of the American air effort in the higher Route Packages of North Vietnam was slowly transformed into that of interdicting the flow of supplies and materiel and the destruction of those segments of the north's infrastructure that supported its military effort. In 1965, the VPAF had only 36 MiG-17s and a similar number of qualified pilots, which increased to 180 MiGs and 72 pilots by 1968. The Americans have at least 200 USAF F-4s and 140 USAF F-105s, plus at least 100 U.S Navy aircraft (F-8s, A-4s and F-4s) which operated from the aircraft carriers in the Gulf of Tonkin, plus scores of other support aircraft. The Americans had a multiple numerical advantage.  Although

End of the line.

Opposition.

Writing after the war, Robert McNamara stated that by spring 1967 he and other civilians in the administration had become convinced that both "Rolling Thunder" and the ground war in South Vietnam were not working. McNamara claimed that he and others within the administration continuously opposed the Joint Chief's recommendations for an increased tempo of bombing and the loosening of target restrictions. The generals found themselves on the horns of a dilemma of their own making. They continuously claimed that the campaign was working, yet they also had to continuously demand greater latitude in order to make the campaign succeed. The limited goals entailed in American foreign

Conclusions.

Between March 1965 and November 1968, USAF aircraft had flown 153,784 attack sorties against North Vietnam, while the Navy and Marine Corps had added another 152,399. On 31 December 1967, the Department of Defense announced that 864,000 tons of American bombs had been dropped on North Vietnam during "Rolling Thunder", compared with 653,000 tons dropped during the entire Korean War and 503,000 tons in the Pacific theater during the Second World War.  The CIA privately estimated that damage inflicted in the north totaled $500 million in total damage. They also estimated that by April 1967, 52,000 casualties including 21,000 deaths had occurred as a result of the operation. The CIA estimated that 75 percent of casualties were involved in military or quasi military operations including civilians working on military and logistical operations. 45 percent of casualties in 1965 were civilians and logistics workers while that figure was 80 percent in 1966. In June 1967, they estimated 19,000 to 26,000 deaths including 13,000 to 17,000 civilian deaths were caused by the bombing. At the end of 1967, the CIA estimated 27,900

Legacy.

Studying the outcome of the events in Rolling Thunder, the Air Force and Navy came to very different conclusions on how to adapt. The Air Force noted that most of their air-to-air losses were due to unseen attacks from the rear, and thus the problem could be addressed through additional technology that would provide early warning of such attacks. They began modifying their aircraft with built-in M61 Vulcans for close-in use, adopted the Sidewinder and began upgrading them to improve their performance, and introduced new ground and air-based radars to provide an overall watch over the battlefield. The Navy concluded that the primary problem was that their pilots had not been given proper air combat maneuvering training, and were forced to rely on missiles that were not performing as expected. In 1968 they introduced the TOPGUN program, a move that was welcomed by the F-8 pilots who had been campaigning for this all along.  Which of these two policies was more effective was immediately clear: during Rolling Thunder the US claimed a 3.7:1 kill ratio over the VPAF as a whole, but the Air Force's portion of that was closer to 2:1. By 1970 the Navy's kill ratio had climbed to 13:1. The Air Force, however, saw its ratio stagnate and actually decrease, for a short time being less than one. More critically, in 1970 the VPAF inflicted a kill on the USAF every three times they tried, while it took six missions to do the same against the Navy, and inversely, the VPAF lost a MiG every two engagements with the Air Force, but every time they engaged the Navy.  From April 1965 to November 1968, in 268 air battles conducted over North Vietnam, VPAF claimed to have shot down 244 US or RVNAF's aircraft, and they lost 85 MiGs. During the war, 13 VPAF's flying aces attained their status while flying the MiG-21 (compared to three in the MiG-17).  It was not until Operation Linebacker in 1972 that the problem became acute enough for the Air Force to finally take note. In the three months following the start of Linebacker in May 1972, the U.S. lost 48 aircraft, 21 to VPAF MiGs and 27 to improved ground defenses. In the same period, only 31 MiGs killed were claimed by U.S. aircraft and things worsened in the summer with 13 U.S. aircraft lost to MiGs and only 11 MiGs shot down were claimed. General John W. Vogt Jr., commander of the Seventh Air Force, reported to the USAF Chief of Staff that they were losing the air war. One immediate outcome was Operation Teaball, which reorganized the entire operational side of the Air Force's early warning systems, and tying them with the Navy's, so that every aircraft had a channel providing immediate warning of incoming aircraft. It was not until 1975, however, that the Air Force introduced Exercise Red Flag to match the performance of the Navy's TOPGUN.

Operation Rolling Thunder was the title of a gradual and sustained aerial bombardment campaign conducted by the United States (U.S.) 2nd Air Division (later Seventh Air Force), U.S. Navy, and Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) from 2 March 1965 until 2 November 1968, during the Vietnam War.

Operace Rolling Thunder byl název pro postupné a dlouhotrvající letecké bombardování Severního Vietnamu jednotkami americké 2. letecké divize (později 7. Air Force) amerického námořnictva a leteckých sil Jižního Vietnamu od 2. března 1965 do 1. listopadu 1968 během vietnamské války.


History.

The rise of digital literacy.

Digital literacy is often discussed in the context of its precursor media literacy. Media literacy education began in the United Kingdom and the United States as a result of war propaganda in the 1930s and the rise of advertising in the 1960s, respectively. Manipulative messaging and the increase in various forms of media further concerned educators. Educators began to promote media literacy education in order to teach individuals how to judge and access the media messages they were receiving. The ability to critique digital and media content allows individuals to identify biases and evaluate messages independently.  Danah boyd stresses the importance of critical media literacy, especially for teens. She advocates that critical media literacy skills are the first step in identifying biases in media content, such as online or print advertising. Technical skills and knowledge of navigating computer systems further helps individuals in evaluating information on their own. Barriers in acquiring technical skills and computer knowledge set forth a limit for individuals in fully participating in the digital world.  In order for individuals to evaluate digital and media messages independently, they must demonstrate digital and media literacy competence. Renee Hobbs developed a list of skills that demonstrate digital and media literacy competence. Digital and media literacy includes the ability to examine and comprehend the meaning of messages, judging credibility, and assess the quality of a digital work. A digitally literate individual becomes a socially responsible member of their community by spreading awareness and helping others find digital solutions at home, work, or on a national platform. Digital literacy doesn't just pertain to reading and writing on a digital device. It also involves knowledge of producing other forces of media, like recording and uploading video.

Digital divide.

Digital divide refers to the disparities among people - such as those living in developed and developing world - concerning access to and the use of information and communication technologies (ICT), particularly computer hardware, software, and the Internet. Individuals within societies that lack economic resources to build ICT infrastructure do not have adequate digital literacy, which means that their digital skills are limited. The divide can be explained by Max Weber's social stratification theory, which focuses on access to production rather ownership of the capital. The former becomes access to ICT so that an individual can accomplish interaction and produce information or create a product and that, without it, he or she cannot participate in the learning, collaboration, and production processes. Digital literacy and digital access have become increasingly important competitive differentiators for individuals using the internet meaningfully. Increasing digital literacy and access to technology for peoples who have been left out of the information revolution is of common concern. In an article by Jen Schradie called, The Great Class Wedge and the Internet’s Hidden Costs, she discusses how social class can affect digital literacy. This creates a digital divide.  Research published in 2012 found that the digital divide, as defined by access to information technology, does not exist amongst youth in the United States. Young people report being connected to the internet at rates of 94-98%. There remains, however, a civic opportunity gap, where youth from poorer families and those attending lower socioeconomic status schools are less likely to have opportunities to apply their digital literacy. The digital divide is also defined as a emphasizing the distinction between the “haves” and “have-nots,” and presented all data separately for rural, urban, and central-city categories. Also, existing research on digital divide reveal the existence of personal categorical inequalities between young and old people. An interpretation also identify digital divide between technology accessed by the youth outside the school and inside the classroom.

Digital natives and digital immigrants.

Marc Prensky invented and popularized the terms digital natives and digital immigrants to describe respectively an born into the digital age and one adopting the appropriate skills later in life. A digital immigrant refers to an individual who adopts technology later in life. These two groups of people have had different interactions with technology since birth, a generational gap. This directly links to their individual unique relationship with digital literacy. Digital natives brought upon the creation of ubiquitous information systems (UIS). These systems include mobile phones, laptop computers and personal digital assistants. They have also expanded to cars and buildings (smart cars and smart homes), creating a new unique technological experience.  Carr claims that digital immigrants, although they adapt to the same technology as natives, possess a sort of accent which restricts them from communicating the way natives do. In fact, research shows that, due to the brain's malleable nature, technology has changed the way today's students read, perceive, and process information. Marc Prensky believes this is a problem because today's students have a vocabulary and skill set educators (who at the time of his writing would be digital immigrants) may not fully understand.  Statistics and popular representations of the elderly portray them as digital immigrants. For example, Canada in 2010 found that 29% of its citizens 75 years of age and older, and 60% of its citizens between the ages of 65-74 had browsed the internet in the past month. Conversely, internet activity reached almost 100% among its 15 through 24-year-old citizens.

Participation gap.

Media theorist Henry Jenkins coined the term participation gap and distinguished the participation gap from the digital divide. According to Jenkins, the "participation gap" is the disparity in skills that emerge when individuals have different levels of access to technology. Jenkins states that students learn different sets of technology skills if they only have access to the internet in a library or school. In particular Jenkins observes that students who have access to the internet at home have more opportunities to develop their skills and have fewer limitations, such as computer time limits and website filters commonly used in libraries. The participation gap is geared toward millennials. As of 2008, when this study was created they were the oldest generation to be born in the age of technology. As of 2008 more technology has been integrated into the classroom. The issue with digital literacy is that students having access to the internet at home that is equivalent to what they interact with in class. Some students only have access while at school and in a library. They aren't getting enough or the same quality of the digital experience. This creates the participation gap, along with an inability to understand digital literacy.

Digital Equivalents.

Digital workflows for classic media have largely superseded, but not supplanted their analog equivalents. The ability of computers to perfectly replicate, backup and revert changes in digital documents significantly lowers the cost of mass production and economic penalty for making an error while making a work. In many instances digital methods are inadequate to completely process a work as in the case of removing flashing from CNC models, necessitating the persistence of some analog skills. In other instances an amount of imperfection in execution is desirable to achieve a particular aesthetic as in wabisabi, which a machine may have difficulty automatically producing.

Academic and pedagogical concepts.

In academia digital literacy is a part of the computing subject area alongside computer science and information technology.  Given the many varied implications that digital literacy has on students and educators, pedagogy has responded by emphasizing four specific models of engaging with digital mediums. Those four models are text participating, code breaking, text analyzing, and text using. These methods present students (and other learners) with the ability to fully engage with the media, but also enhance the way the individual is able to relate the digital text to their lived experiences.

21st-century skills.

Digital literacy requires certain skill sets that are interdisciplinary in nature. Warschauer and Matuchniak (2010) list three skill sets, or 21st century skills, that individuals need to master in order to be digitally literate: information, media, and technology; learning and innovation skills; and life and career skills.. Aviram "et al." assert that order to be competent in Life and Career Skills, it is also necessary to be able to exercise flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social and cross-cultural skills, productivity and accountability, leadership and responsibility. Digital literacy is composed of different literacies, because of this fact there is no need to search for similarities and differences. Some of these literacies are media literacy and information literacy.  Aviram & Eshet-Alkalai contend that there are five types of literacies that are encompassed in the umbrella term that is digital literacy.

Applications of digital literacy.

In education.

Schools are continuously updating their curricula to keep up with accelerating technological developments. This often includes computers in the classroom, the use of educational software to teach curricula, and course materials being made available to students online. Students are often taught literacy skills such as how to verify credible sources online, cite web sites, and prevent plagiarism. Google and Wikipedia are frequently used by students "for everyday life research," and are just two common tools that facilitate modern education. Digital technology has impacted the way material is taught in the classroom. With the use of technology rising over the past decade, educators are altering traditional forms of teaching to include course material on concepts related to digital literacy. Several websites are assisting in these efforts such as Google Docs, Prezi, and, Easybib. Each service has assisted students by teaching collaboration, allowing students to use pre-made, creative presentation templates, and helping generate citations in any given format. Additionally, educators have also turned to social media platforms to communicate and share ideas with one another. New standards have been put into place as digital technology has augmented classrooms, with many classrooms being designed to use smartboards and audience response systems in replacement of traditional chalkboards or whiteboards. “The development of Teacher’s Digital Competence (TDC) should start in initial teacher training, and continue throughout the following years of practice. All this with the purpose of using Digital Technologies (DT) to improve teaching and professional development.”

Digital competences.

In 2013 the Open Universiteit Nederland release an article defining twelve digital competence areas. These areas are based on the knowledge and skills people have to acquire to be a literate person.  The competences mentioned are based on each other. Competences A, B, and C are the basic knowledge and skills a person has to have to be a fully digital literate person. When these three competences are acquired you can build upon this knowledge and those skills to build the other competences.

Digital writing.

University of Southern Mississippi professor, Dr. Suzanne Mckee-Waddell conceptualized the idea of digital composition as the ability to integrate multiple forms of communication technologies and research to create a better understanding of a topic. Digital writing is a pedagogy being taught increasingly in universities. It is focused on the impact technology has had on various writing environments; it is not simply the process of using a computer to write. Educators in favor of digital writing argue that it is necessary because "technology fundamentally changes how writing is produced, delivered, and received." The goal of teaching digital writing is that students will increase their ability to produce a relevant, high-quality product, instead of just a standard academic paper.  One aspect of digital writing is the use of hypertext or LaTeX. As opposed to printed text, hypertext invites readers to explore information in a non-linear fashion. Hypertext consists of traditional text and hyperlinks that send readers to other texts. These links may refer to related terms or concepts (such is the case on Wikipedia), or they may enable readers to choose the order in which they read. The process of digital writing requires the composer to make unique "decisions regarding linking and omission." These decisions "give rise to questions about the author's responsibilities to the [text] and to objectivity."

In society.

Digital literacy is necessary for the correct use of various digital platforms. Literacy in social network services and Web 2.0 sites helps people stay in contact with others, pass timely information, and even buy and sell goods and services. Digital literacy can also prevent people from being taken advantage of online, as photo manipulation, E-mail frauds and phishing often can fool the digitally illiterate, costing victims money and making them vulnerable to identity theft. However, those using technology and the internet to commit these manipulations and fraudulent acts possess the digital literacy abilities to fool victims by understanding the technical trends and consistencies; it becomes important to be digitally literate to always think one step ahead when utilizing the digital world.  With the emergence of social media, individuals who are digitally literate now have a major voice online. Websites like Facebook and Twitter, as well as personal websites and blogs, have enabled a new type of journalism that is subjective, personal, and "represents a global conversation that is connected through its community of readers." These online communities foster group interactivity among the digitally literate. Social media also help users establish a digital identity or a "symbolic digital representation of identity attributes." Without digital literacy or the assistance of someone who is digitally literate, one cannot possess a personal digital identity (this is closely allied to web literacy).  Research has demonstrated that the differences in the level of digital literacy depend mainly on age and education level, while the influence of gender is decreasing. Among young people, digital literacy is high in its operational dimension. Young people rapidly move through hypertext and have a familiarity with different kinds of online resources. However, the skills to critically evaluate content found online show a deficit.

In the workforce.

The 2014 Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) defines digital literacy skills as a workforce preparation activity. In the modern world employees are expected to be digitally literate, having full digital competence. Those who are digitally literate are more likely to be economically secure, as many jobs require a working knowledge of computers and the Internet to perform basic tasks.  White collar jobs are today performed primarily on computers and portable devices. Many of these jobs require proof of digital literacy to be hired or promoted. Sometimes companies will administer their own tests to employees, or official certification will be required.  As technology has become cheaper and more readily available, more blue-collar jobs have required digital literacy as well. Manufacturers and retailers, for example, are expected to collect and analyze data about productivity and market trends to stay competitive. Construction workers often use computers to increase employee safety.

In entrepreneurship.

The acquisition of digital literacy is also important when it comes to starting and growing new ventures. The emergence of world wide web and digital platforms has led to a plethora of new digital products or services that can be bought and sold. Entrepreneurs are at the forefront of this development, using digital tools or infrastructure to deliver physical products, digital artifacts, or Internet-enabled service innovations. Research has shown that digital literacy for entrepreneurs consists of four levels (basic usage, application, development, and transformation) and three dimensions (cognitive, social, and technical). At the lowest level, entrepreneurs need to be able to use access devices as well as basic communication technologies to balance safety and information needs. As they move to higher levels of digital literacy, entrepreneurs will be able to master and manipulate more complex digital technologies and tools, enhancing the absorptive capacity and innovative capability of their venture.

Global impact.

The United Nations included digital literacy in its 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, under thematic indicator 4.4.2, which encourages the development of digital literacy proficiency in teens and adults to facilitate educational and professional opportunities and growth. International initiatives like the Global Digital Literacy Council (GDLC) and the Coalition for Digital Intelligence (CDI) have also highlighted the need for, and strategies to address, digital literacy on a global scale. The CDI, under the umbrella of the DQ Institute, created a Common Framework for Digital Literacy, Skills, and Readiness in 2019 that conceptualizes eight areas of digital life (identity, use, safety, security, emotional intelligence, communication, literacy, and rights), three levels of maturity (citizenship, creativity, and competitiveness), and three components of competency (knowledge, attitudes and values, and skills; or, what, why, and how). The UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) also works to create, gather, map, and assess common frameworks on digital literacy across multiple member states around the world.  The Philippines' Education Secretary Jesli Lapus has emphasized the importance of digital literacy in Filipino education. He claims a resistance to change is the main obstacle to improving the nation's education in the globalized world. In 2008, Lapus was inducted into Certiport's "Champions of Digital Literacy" Hall of Fame for his work to emphasize digital literacy.  A study done in 2011 by the Southern African Linguistics & Applied Language Studies program observed some South African university students regarding their digital literacy. It was found that while their courses did require some sort of digital literacy, very few students actually had access to a computer. Many had to pay others to type any work, as they their digital literacy was almost nonexistent. Findings show that class, ignorance, and inexperience still affect any access to learning South African university students may need.

Digital literacy refers to an individual's ability to find, evaluate, and compose clear information through writing and other media on various digital platforms. Digital literacy is evaluated by an individual's grammar, composition, typing skills and ability to produce text, images, audio and designs using technology. While digital literacy initially focused on digital skills and stand-alone computers, the advent of the internet and use of social media, has caused some of its focus to shift to mobile devices. Similar to other expanding definitions of literacy that recognize cultural and historical ways of making meaning, digital literacy does not replace traditional forms of literacy, and instead builds upon and expands the skills that form the foundation of traditional forms of literacy. Digital literacy should be considered to be a part of the path to knowledge.

Digitální gramotnost "(anglicky: digital literacy)" může být vymezena jako:,soubor kompetencí nutných k identifikaci, pochopení, interpretaci, vytváření, komunikování a účelnému a bezpečnému užití digitálních technologií (jejich technických vlastností i obsahu) za účelem udržení či zlepšení své kvality života a kvality života svého okolí, tj. např. za účelem pracovní i osobní seberealizace, rozvoje svého potenciálu a udržení či zvýšení participace na společnosti." Nedostatek digitální gramotnosti vede naopak k digitálnímu vyloučení.


Description.

Rüppell's fox is a small fox, measuring in total length, including a tail measuring long. Males appear somewhat larger than females, but both sexes are reported to have an average weight of. The coat is sandy in color, ticked with numerous white hairs, and fading from reddish along the middle of the back to pure white on the animal's underparts and on the tip of its tail. The head has a more rusty tone on the muzzle and forehead, with dark brown patches on the sides of the muzzle, stretching up towards the eyes. The chin and the sides of the face are white. The whiskers are long, reaching, and the tail is bushy.  Rüppell's fox has fur on the pads on its feet, that possibly helps distribute its weight and move easily on sand, and keeps the hot sand from burning its feet. Similar to other desert-dwelling foxes, Rüppell's fox has large ears to cool it off. Although adults are too large to confuse with fennec foxes, which live in the same area, young Rüppell's foxes can be confused with adults of that species. The larger ears, however, make them easy to distinguish from red and pale foxes, which also live in some the same areas. In addition, the coat of a Rüppell's fox is much paler than that of a red fox, while pale foxes lack the white tips on their tails.

Distribution and habitat.

Rüppell's fox is found across North Africa south of the Atlas Mountains, from Mauritania and Morocco in the west to Egypt and Djibouti in the east. It is also found in the Arabian Peninsula southwards from Syria, Palestine, Jordan and Iraq, and as far east as Iran, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. Within this region, it prefers sandy or rocky deserts, but may also be found in semiarid steppes and sparse scrub.

Behavior and ecology.

Rüppell's foxes are monogamous and either crepuscular or nocturnal, sheltering during the day in dens. Outside of the breeding season, these are small dens that can hold only one adult fox, and the animal typically changes dens every five days or so. Breeding dens are larger, and occupied by a pair of adults and their kits. Such dens can sometimes have more than one entrance, although this is unusual. They make a series of short barks during mating and, at other times, can also produce hisses, trills, and sharp whistles. They have been reported to wag their tails, like domestic dogs.  Rüppell's foxes occupy distinct territories, which they mark with urine, but not with dung as red foxes do. The territories of the members of a mated pair overlap almost completely, but are entirely separate from those of any neighboring pairs. These territories are maintained throughout the year, although the pair occupy separate dens outside of the mating season. The size of the territories varies with the local terrain, but has been reported as around in Oman, with those of males being larger, on average, than those of females. The foxes range widely during their nocturnal foraging, travelling over in a night.  Its only natural predators are the steppe eagle and the eagle-owl.

Diet.

Rüppell's foxes are omnivores, with a diet that varies considerably depending on what is locally available. In some regions, they are reported to be mainly insectivorous, especially feeding on beetles and orthopterans, while in others, small mammals, lizards, and birds form a larger part of their diet. Plants eaten include grasses and desert succulents, along with fruits such as dates, and they have also been known to scavenge from human garbage.

Reproduction.

Mating occurs in November, a few weeks after the female has prepared her breeding den. Litters up to six kits, although more usually just two or three, are born after a gestation period around 52–53 days. The young are born blind. They reach independence at about four months, when they may travel up to in search of a suitable territory. They can live an average of seven years in the wild, but have been reported to live up to 12 years in captivity.

Subspecies.

Although some authors consider Rüppell's fox to be monotypic, others list up to five subspecies:

Philately.

The Libyan General Posts and Telecommunications Company (GPTC), in cooperation with the World Wide Fund for Nature, dedicated a postal stamp issue to Rüppell's fox on May 1, 2008. The issue is made of a set of four stamps printed in minisheets of two sets. The issue was completed with a special first day of issue cover having a special postmark.

Rüppell's fox ("Vulpes rueppellii"), also called Rüppell’s sand fox, is a fox species living in desert and semi-desert regions of North Africa, the Middle East, and southwestern Asia. It has listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List since 2008. It is named after the German naturalist Eduard Rüppell.

Liška pouštní ("Vulpes rueppellii") je druh lišky z čeledi psovitých, vyskytující se především na severu Afriky, obzvláště v Maroku. Výjimečně je možné pozorovat ji i v západní Asii. Byla popsána již roku 1825 a její populace je velká. Tvoří několik poddruhů, které se liší především rozšířením: "Vulpes rueppellii caesia", "Vulpes rueppellii cyrenaica", "Vulpes rueppellii rueppellii", "Vulpes rueppellii sabaea" a "Vulpes rueppellii zarudnyi".


Early life.

Ludovic Trarieux was born on 30 November 1840 in Aubeterre-sur-Dronne (Charente). He was called to the Bar of Bordeaux in 1862 and practiced there until 1881. He was elected President of the Bar in 1877, at the age of thirty-seven and became a member of the local republican party.

Political life.

On 6 April 1879 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies and became a member of the Opportunist Republican parliamentary group, "Gauche républicaine", where he was quickly noticed, making numerous interventions in debates. Nevertheless, his stay in power was short-lived. He approved the bill on the liberty of higher education, while supporting various amendments. He also voted for the invalidation of the election of Auguste Blanqui and against the plenary amnesty on cases concerning The Paris Commune. In the debate on the status of professional trade unions (that was finally voted in 1884), he intervened to seek guarantees.  Beaten in the new elections in 1881, he was called to the Parisian bar and pursued his political career there.  He was elected Senator of the Gironde on 5 January 1888, then re-elected in 1897, remaining in the post until his death. As a member of the Republican Left and soon President of the group of the Moderate Left (the most moderate in the High Assembly), at first he adopted some very conservative positions in cases on social laws (modification of article 1780 concerning service contracts, arbitration between employers and employees, the work of women and juveniles) and, in his report, rejected the bill of modification of the law on professional trade unions.  He distinguished himself, especially in 1893 and 1894, as the reporter on the voting of three of the four laws aimed at the repression of anarchist attacks (the famous "lois scélérates"). However, he fought energetically against an amendment that aimed to transfer infringements concerning the detention of explosives to the War Council, which had become more repressive, since it had refused to allow the removal of common law jurisdiction from these courts. In the same vein, on 28 May 1897, he pushed for the voting of the law that put an end to secret investigations in the absence of a lawyer, and fought for the institution of a system of competing experts in criminal matters, comparable to the adversarial system. In 1889, he was chosen by his peers of the Senate to become a member of the Commission of the Nine, in charge of the instruction of the lawsuit against General Boulanger.

The Dreyfus affair.

On 26 January 1885 he became Minister of Justice. He adopted a law that allowed more extensive opportunities of appeal in criminal cases, better compensation for injury suffered by victims of miscarriages of justice, and came up against a "legal event" that had just rocked France: one cold day, twenty-one days earlier, Captain Alfred Dreyfus had been convicted of treason, dishonourably discharged and, since 18 January, had been waiting on Ile de Re to be transported to Devil's Island in French Guiana.  However, since his conviction in 1894, Dreyfus and his family had not stopped protesting his innocence. His conviction had been pronounced "in camera", with the help of false secret documents which had not been communicated to the defence. Very few people at this time were convinced of Dreyfus' innocence. The case was closed and the Dreyfus affair had not yet begun.  While Minister of Justice, Trarieux obtained copies of Dreyfus' writing and discovered discrepancies between the convict's handwriting and that of the author of the document that had established his guilt. Besides, one of Dreyfus’ lawyers, M. Demange, had come to reveal to him that a secret document had been communicated to the War Council unknown to the defence. After his departure from the Chancery, (10 November 1895), Trarieux sacrificed his professional and his political career to becoming the untiring defender of the innocence of Captain Dreyfus. On 7 December 1897 Trarieux was the only Senator to support Dreyfus' defender Auguste Scheurer-Kestner and praise his civic courage. When evidence pointed to Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy as the real guilty party, Esterhazy himself asked to be tried by a military court. Just before Esterhazy’s trial on 8 January 1898, Trarieux published an open letter in "Le Temps", addressed to the War Minister, Billot, to denounce "the parody of justice". Esterhazy was acquitted.  In the trial of Émile Zola following his accusations against the army, Trarieux was an essential witness for the defence. He recounted evidence that he had collected, revealing what he had discovered concerning essential documents and explaining how he had become convinced that Esterhazy was guilty. As a former Minister of Justice, his support was much appreciated by Dreyfus' supporters.  Trarieux was a witness in Dreyfus's second trial in Rennes, from 7 August to 9 September 1899. Though reducing the sentence, the War Council in Rennes convicted Dreyfus a second time. Trarieux remarked, "Our defeat is of the kind that does not discourage, but foster courages and give grandeur to certain situations". He then challenged the Senate to pardon Dreyfus, in the name of justice, though initially this was only granted on the nominal grounds of the convict's ill health. This was pronounced by President Emile Loubet, in September 1899. A full amnesty followed in June 1900, granted by the Waldeck-Rousseau government, in order to calm the situation down.

League of Human Rights.

Between two hearings of the Zola case, on 17 or 18 February, at the tenth or eleventh hearing, Trarieux thought about creating the "Ligue des droits de l'homme" (LDH, "Human Rights League")  On 20 February 1898 a first meeting took place in his home, at 4 Logelbach Street. After several months of tireless activity, having united the support of a thousand people, Trarieux and his friends convened a general assembly, in the hall of the "Sociétés Savantes", in Paris.  It was there that, on 4 June 1898, was finally formed the Ligue des droits de l'homme (LDH, "Human Rights League"), of which Trarieux was proclaimed President and entrusted with the drawing up of its statutes. On 4 July 1898 the first manifesto of the League of Human Rights proclaimed: "from this day, anyone whose liberty is threatened or whose rights are violated can be ensured of obtaining help and assistance from us".  On 20 August 1898, after the humiliating arrest of Dreyfus supporter Colonel Georges Picquart, found "guilty – of having denounced the Henry forgery", on the orders of Jacques Cavaignac, the War Minister, Trarieux wrote another open letter to Cavaignac, and distributed 400 000 copies of it all over France. Cavaignac had to resign on 5 September 1898 and nearly one year day-for-day after the constitution of the League of Human Rights, on 3 June 1899, the Supreme Court quashed the Dreyfus judgment of 1894 and referred the case to the War Council in Rennes.  He continued to develop the Ligue des droits de l'homme (LDH, "Human Rights League"), that soon had several tens of thousands of members.

Final years.

Exhausted by his efforts and by ill health, in 1903, he was forced to hand over the presidency of the League of Human Rights to his friend, Francis de Pressensé. Until his death, he dedicated his last efforts to Dreyfus' rehabilitation, (which he did not live to see, since it took place on 12 July 1906) and to the defence of human rights.  He died on 13 March 1904 in his Parisian apartment at 4 Rue de Logelbach.

The "Ludovic-Trarieux International Human Rights Prize".

Created in 1984, in Bordeaux by the French lawyer Bertrand Favreau, "The Ludovic-Trarieux International Human Rights Prize" is awarded each year to a lawyer, regardless of nationality or Bar, who, by his work, has demonstrated through his work or experiences, the defence of human rights, of defence rights, the supremacy of law, the struggle against racism and intolerance in any form. The prize-winner is chosen after consulting humanitarian associations and NGOs.  The Prize, also called "The international tribute from Lawyers to a Lawyer", is presented in partnership by the Human Rights Institute of The Bar of Bordeaux, the Human Rights Institute of the Bar of Paris, the Human Rights Institute of The Bar of Brussels, l'Unione forense per la tutela dei diritti dell'uomo (Roma) and the European Bar Human Rights Institute (IDHAE) whose members are the biggest European law societies fighting for human rights such as Union Internationale des Avocats (UIA), Rechtsanwaltskammer Berlin, Ordre français des Avocats du barreau de Bruxelles, barreau de Luxembourg or Polish National Council of the Bar (Warsaw).  The first Ludovic Trarieux Prize was awarded on 29 March 1985 to Nelson Mandela, then in jail. It was officially handed over to his daughter, Zenani Mandela Dlamini, on 27 April 1985.

Ludovic Trarieux (30 November 1840 in Aubeterre-sur-Dronne, Charente – 13 March 1904) was a French Republican statesman, prominent Dreyfusard, and pioneer of international human rights.

Ludovic Trarieux (30. listopadu 1840, Aubeterre-sur-Dronne, Francie – 13. března 1904 Paříž) byl francouzský politik a advokát v Bordeaux a Paříži. V průběhu roku 1885 zastával funkci ministra spravedlnosti. V roce 1898 se stal zakladatelem a prvním předsedou Ligy práv člověka a občana ("Ligue des Droits de l ́Homme et des Citoyen").


Geography.

The elevation of this region varies from 750 to 1,400 m and the annual rainfall from 350 mm in the west to 600 mm in parts of the northeast. There are four significant mountain ranges in this region:the Magaliesberg which runs from Rustenburg in the west to Bronkhorstspruit in the east and forms the southern border of the Bushveld; the Drakensberg escarpment that forms the eastern border of the Bushveld and runs from Tzaneen in the north to Belfast in the south; the Waterberg range that is in the middle of the Bushveld and the Soutpansberg range just north of Louis Trichardt. The latter is the northernmost mountain range in South Africa.

Flora and fauna.

As implied by the region's name, the Bushveld's well-grassed plains are dotted by dense clusters of trees and tall shrubs. The grasses found here are generally tall and turn brown or pale in winter, which is the dry season throughout most of Southern Africa. The undisturbed portions of this habitat, such as much of the Waterberg Biosphere, are home to many large mammal species including white rhino, black rhino, giraffe, blue wildebeest, kudu, impala and a variety of further antelope species and other game.

Geology.

The Bushveld is one of the most mineral-rich regions of the world. This is due to the Bushveld igneous complex, an extremely rich saucer-shaped geological formation that stretches over more than 50,000 square kilometers. This formation contains most of the world's reserves of minerals such as andalusite, chromium, fluorspar, platinum and vanadium. The complex includes the Merensky Reef, which is the world's biggest source of platinum as well as platinum-group metals.

Farming.

As most of the region tends to be dry, the Bushveld is mostly beef cattle and game farming country, with only a few drought-resistant crops such as sorghum and millet being farmed, usually under irrigation.

Middleveld.

The term "Middleveld" is sometimes used to describe land lying between an altitude of 600m and 1200m and has been synonymous with the term "Bushveld".

Towns and cities.

Towns and cities in the region include:

The Bushveld is a sub-tropical woodland ecoregion of Southern Africa named after the term "veld". It encompasses most of Limpopo Province and a small part of the North West Province of South Africa, the Central and North-East Districts of Botswana and the Matabeleland South and part of the Matabeleland North provinces of Zimbabwe. Kruger National Park in South Africa has a number of 'Bushveld' camps.

Bushveld (česky "Křovinatý Veld") je přírodní oblast v jižní Africe. Leží na severovýchodě Jihoafrické republiky, v provinciích Limpopo a Severozápadní provincii, dále ve východní části Botswany a v provinciích Severní a Jižní Matabelsko v Zimbabwe.


History.

Urban legend says that Bobtails are the result of a cross breeding between a domestic tabby cat and a wild bobcat. The unusual tail is actually the result of a random spontaneous genetic mutation within the domestic cat population, and may be related to the Manx gene, which is also dominant. Yodie, a short-tailed brown tabby male, was mated with a seal-point Siamese female to create the American Bobtail's original bloodline. Most of the early bloodlines have died out.  This cat's original appearance genetics were modified in the breed to form a new and improved strain which comes in essentially all colors and coat types. The breed was first recognized by The International Cat Association (TICA, US-based), in 1989. The breed has been accepted for championship competition by TICA, the Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA, also US-based) and the American Cat Fanciers Association (ACFA). The breed is technically also sanctioned in the Cat Aficionado Association (CAA) of China, by virtue of the CAA having adopted all of ACFA's breed standards; it is unknown if any specimens are actually in China. The breed is "recognized" (as existing), as both American Bobtail Longhair and American Bobtail Shorthair, in the Germany-based World Cat Federation (WCF), but is not "accepted" for competition and has no WCF breed standard.

Appearance.

American Bobtails require two to three years to develop, slower than many domestic cat breeds.  The American Bobtail is hearty, short-tailed cat. Its body is moderately long, with substantial boning, and stocky. The stance is noticeably rectangular. The torso is full and broad. The hips are substantial, almost as wide as chest, and hind legs longer than fore legs with large round feet which may have toe tufts. The head is a broad wedge without flat planes, size proportionate to body. There is a concave curve from nose to brow, or rise to prominent brow, a broad unpinched muzzle, prominent whisker pads, a gently sloped wide nose and full, strong jaws. The ears are medium-sized, wide-based, and equally mounted on top and the side of head with rounded tips. The eyes are almost almond shape, with size proportionate to head. The aperture is angled to base of ear, and with medium wide spacing and deep sockets. Eye color varies with coat color. The end of the tail is visible above the back, but not beyond the hock while the animal is in repose. The tail is straight or curved, slightly knotted or may have bumps.

Behavior.

American Bobtails are playful, social and moderately energetic. They reportedly have enough clever ingenuity to escape from rooms with closed doors and from secured cages. Being social with their owners and caretakers, they will ask for the attention they want by meowing or just by hopping into laps.

The American Bobtail is an uncommon breed of domestic cat which was developed in the late 1960s. It is most notable for its stubby "bobbed" tail about one-third to one-half the length of a normal cat's tail. This is the result of a cat body type genetic mutation affecting the tail development, similar to that of a Manx cat. The breed is not related to the Japanese Bobtail despite the similar name and physical type—the breeding programs are entirely unrelated, and the genetic mutation causing the bobbed tail are known to be different because the mutation causing the American Bobtail's tail is dominant, whereas the Japanese Bobtail tail mutation is recessive.

Americký bobtail je neobvyklé kočičí plemeno vyšlechtěné z kočky domácí v 60. letech 20. století v USA. Je pozoruhodné hlavně díky svému krátkému ocasu. Plemeno je uznáno organizací TICA (The International Cat Association).


Plot.

A rash of suspicious suicides among scientists and businessmen, all found holding a small scarab, gets the attention of Mayor Randolph. He demands that Police Commissioner Dryden and District Attorney Grant Gardner get to the bottom of the case, while openly wishing that Captain America, a masked man who has helped defeat crime in the past, were around to solve the mystery. Gail Richards, Grant Gardner's secretary, investigates and realizes someone knows of the "Purple Death", a hypnotic chemical responsible for the suicides. However he then pulls out a gun and takes her into another room. He then orders an associate to tie her up. The D.A. realizes she is there and forces the man to take him to her. He finds her tied up and gagged. He frees her but it is threatened that the purple death will be dropped killing them all. But the D.A. shoots him then gets out of the room with Gail.  All of the suicides were members of an expedition to some Mayan ruins. One of the few remaining survivors, Professor Lyman, turns to his friend Dr. Maldor for support. Dr. Maldor, however, reveals that he is the man responsible for the deaths. He wants revenge because he planned and organized the expedition but everyone else claimed the fame and fortune. However, Lyman has developed the "Dynamic Vibrator" - a device intended for mining operations but one that can be amplified into a devastating weapon. Using his purple death Dr. Maldor forces Lyman to disclose the location of his plans.  Captain America intervenes as the Scarab's heavies attempt to steal the plans and this leads to a sequence of plots by the Scarab to acquire a working version, as well as other devices, while trying to eliminate the interfering Captain before he succeeds in discovering Dr. Maldor's true identity or defeats him.

Production.

"Captain America" was budgeted at $182,623 although the final negative cost was $222,906 (a $40,283, or 22.1%, overspend). It was the most expensive of all Republic serials (as well as the most over budget). It was filmed between October 12 and November 24, 1943. The serial's production number was 1297. "Captain America" was written by seven of the top serial screenwriters, including Harry Fraser’s only work at Republic.  The Captain America costume was really grey, white and dark blue as these colours photographed better in black and white. The costume also lost the wings on the head, the pirate boots became high shoes and the chainmail became normal cloth. Miniature flags were added to the gloves and the belt buckle became a small shield.  Republic was notorious for making changes in their adaptations. This occurred with "Captain America" more than most. Timely, the owner of Captain America, was unhappy with the omission of Steve Rogers, the lack of an army setting and his use of a gun. Republic responded in writing that the sample pages provided by Timely did not indicate that Captain America was a soldier called Steve Rogers, nor that he did not carry a revolver. They also noted that the serial was well into production by this point and they could not return to the original concept without expensive retakes and dubbing. Finally they pointed out that Republic was under no contractual obligation to do any of this.  The differences between the comic book and film versions of the title character in this serial are more extreme than with other Republic comic adaptations, such as "Adventures of Captain Marvel" and "Spy Smasher". For example:  The reason for the differences appears not to be arbitrary, but that the script for the serial originally featured an entirely different licensed lead character and it was only decided later to replace the original character with Captain America. Film historians Jim Harmon and Don Glut speculated that the script was originally written as a sequel to 1940's "Mysterious Doctor Satan", which featured the masked hero The Copperhead. This character was himself a substitution for DC's Superman, after Republic's bid for that character's film rights lost to Paramount, who had a series of cartoon shorts made by the Fleischer Studios, and would later on acquire Republic, as well as distribute a.  Republic previously had adapted Fawcett Comics characters (Captain Marvel and Spy Smasher). Due to the fact that the lead in "Captain America" is a crime-fighting district attorney aided by a female secretary who knows his identity, and that the serial includes a chapter entitled "The Scarlet Shroud" in which nothing scarlet appears, film restoration director Eric Stedman suggests that it is more likely that the script was originally developed to feature Fawcett's comic book hero Mr. Scarlet, secretly D.A. Brian Butler, whose comic book appearances had proved unpopular and who had actually disappeared from comic book covers and been relegated to being a backup feature between the time the serial was planned and the final film produced.  Writer Raymond William Stedman believes that the differences between the comic-book and film versions of Captain America were "for the better" as, for example, the hero did not have to sneak out of an army base every time he needed to change identities.

Stunts.

Dale Van Sickel was the "ram rod" of the stunt crew, doubling Dick Purcell as Captain America. Ken Terrell doubled George J. Lewis and Fred Graham doubled Lionel Atwill. Additional stunts were performed by Duke Green and Joe Yrigoyen. Tom Steele only appeared in chapter one as he was busy on The Masked Marvel.

Special effects.

All the special effects in "Captain America" were created by Republic's in-house team, the Lydecker brothers.

Release.

"Captain America"'s official release date is 5 February 1944, although this is actually the date the seventh chapter was made available to film exchanges. (The serial was actually filmed in 1943.) The serial was re-released on 30 September 1953, under the new title "Return of Captain America", between the first runs of "Canadian Mounties vs. Atomic Invaders" and "Trader Tom of the China Seas".

Critical reception.

"Captain America" is regarded as the "apex of the traditional action film fight...[in the] opinion of many cliffhanger enthusiasts." Stedman wrote that this was a "much better serial than either "Batman" or "The Masked Marvel"". Dr. Maldor is, in Cline's opinion, Lionel Atwill's best serial role.

References to the serial.

In "Captain America" V1 issue 219 (March 1978), it is revealed that a Captain America serial also exists within the Marvel Continuity. In this version, Captain America himself plays the role (in secret), taking the place of the stunt man who was shot during production due to the prop master being the Nazi spy Lyle Decker. Like the real-life serial, Cap's shield is replaced with a standard gun, his identity is changed, and his sidekick Bucky is absent.  In 2007, after Marvel's Civil War event, Captain America (Steve Rogers) was seemingly killed off. News channel CNN produced a special on the death, showing the serial with Grant Gardner as Captain America while it was focusing on the death of Steve Rogers. In Issue 27 of "Captain America", the movie poster is seen in The Captain America Museum.  Steve Rogers' ex-girlfriend in the Ultimate Marvel continuity is named after Gail Richards, Grant Gardner's secretary.  The 2011 film "" features the title character starring in a serial early in his career.

Captain America is a 1944 Republic black-and-white serial film loosely based on the Timely Comics (today known as Marvel Comics) character Captain America. It was the last Republic serial made about a superhero. It also has the distinction of being the most expensive serial that Republic ever made. It stands as the first theatrical release connected to a Marvel character; the next theatrical release featuring a Marvel hero would not occur for more than 40 years. It was the last live-action rendition of a Marvel character in any media until Spider-Man appeared in the "Spidey Super Stories" segment of the children's TV series "The Electric Company" in 1974.

Captain America je americký dobrodružný filmový seriál z roku 1944 režisérů Elmera Cliftona a Johna Englishe, vyrobený studiem Republic Pictures. Snímek vznikl na motivy komiksů o Captainu Amerikovi od tehdejšího vydavatelství Timely Comics. Jedná se o poslední superhrdinský seriál Republic Pictures a zároveň první a na více jak 30 let poslední hraný snímek o postavě vydavatelství Marvel. Černobílý filmový seriál, který byl rozdělen do patnácti částí, měl premiéru 5. února 1944, v titulní roli se představil Dick Purcell.


Club career.

Skjelbred was born in Trondheim and started his career at local football club Trygg/Lade. He made an impression, and was selected to compete in a football talent competition entitled "Proffdrømmen" ("Pro player dreams") on Norwegian TV3. Skjelbred won this competition and as first prize, he got a week's training with Liverpool. The English club offered him a contract for their youth team, but he declined.  Instead, he went to hometown club Rosenborg, where he soon came into first-team reckoning. Skjelbred made his senior debut in the Tippeligaen against Bodø/Glimt in 2004, and aged 16 years and 358 days became the second-youngest player to play for Rosenborg.  After scoring a goal in the first match of the 2005 Champions League against Olympiacos, he was tackled in the return match at Lerkendal on 23 November by Ieroklis Stoltidis; both bones in Skjelbred's lower leg snapped just above the ankle. Although he went in with both legs and had no chance of getting the ball, Stoltidis said he had not meant to harm Skjelbred. Skjelbred returned to football on 10 March 2006 in Rosenborg's match against Aalesund, playing the first half of the match which Rosenborg won 5–1.  Skjelbred joined the German side Hamburger SV in August 2011. After playing 268 minutes for the club in the Bundesliga, Skjelbred's transfer was called a "mistake" (Bisher Fehlgriff) by "Kicker" in November 2011, and in November 2012 Skjelbred was named one of five players that HSV stated they would sell when the transfer window opened in January 2013.  However, after the 2013 January transfer window closed, Skjelbred remained a Hamburg player. In the summer of 2013, he was loaned for one season to Hertha BSC, who in turn loaned Pierre-Michel Lasogga to Hamburg.  After a very successful loan spell at Hertha (he was also voted Bundesliga Norwegian Player of the Season during this time), Skjelbred finally moved to Berlin permanently during the 2014 Summer transfer window.  In February 2020, Skjelbred confirmed he would return to Rosenborg beginning from the summer 2020 after his contract with Hertha Berlin expires.

International career.

Skjelbred was first called up for the Norwegian under-21 team in September 2005, at the age of 18. He made his debut for senior team against Malta on 28 March 2007.  On 3 September 2014 Skjelbred captained the Norwegian national side for the first time against England at Wembley. England won the match 1-0 thanks to a Wayne Rooney penalty. Per was handed the captain's armband after previous captain, Brede Hangeland retired from international football.  On 22 February 2017 Skjelbred retired from the national team.

Personal life.

Skjelbred married Kristina Jørgensen in October 2012. Together they have two children Eline Sofie and Jonathan.

Career statistics.

"Statistics accurate as of 8 June 2020"  "Continental competition includes UEFA Intertoto Cup, UEFA Cup/UEFA Europa League, and UEFA Champions League matches, as well as qualification matches."

Honours.

Rosenborg

Per Ciljan Skjelbred (born 16 June 1987) is a Norwegian footballer who currently plays as a midfielder for Hertha Berlin. He has previously played for Rosenborg and Hamburger SV, and has been capped 43 times playing for Norway, but as of 2017, retired from international football.

Per Ciljan Skjelbred (* 16. června 1987, Trondheim, Norsko) je norský fotbalový záložník a reprezentant. Mimo Norsko hrál na klubové úrovni v Německu.


Overview.

A protection racket is an operation where criminals provide protection to persons and properties, settle disputes and enforce contracts in markets where the police and judicial system cannot be relied upon.  Gambetta's "The Sicilian Mafia" (1996) and Varese's "The Russian Mafia" (2001) define the mafia as a type of organized crime group that specializes in the provision of private protection.  Protection racketeers or mafia groups operate mostly in the black market, providing buyers and sellers the security they need for smooth transactions; but empirical data collected by Gambetta and Varese suggests that mafia groups are able to offer private protection to corporations and individuals in legal markets when the state fails to offer sufficient and efficient protection to the people in need. Two elements distinguish racketeers from legal security firms. The first element is their willingness to deploy violent forms of retribution (going as far as premeditated murder) that fall outside the limits the law normally extends to civilian security firms. The other element is that racketeers are willing to involve themselves in illegal markets.  Recent studies show that mafia groups or gangs are not the only form of protection racket or extra-legal protector, and another important form of protection racket is corrupt networks consisting of public officials, especially those from criminal justice agencies. For example, Wang's "The Chinese Mafia" (2017) examines protection rackets in China and suggests two types of extra-legal protectors, namely the Black Mafia (local gangs) and the Red Mafia (networks of corrupt government officials). Wang's narrative suggests that local gangs are quasi law enforcers in both legal and illegal markets, and corrupt public officials are extra-legal protectors, safeguarding local gangs, protecting illegal entrepreneurs in the criminal underworld, offering protection to businesspeople, and selling public appointments to buyers.

Territorial monopolies.

A protection racketeer cannot tolerate competition within his sphere of influence from another racketeer. If a dispute erupted between two clients (e.g. businessmen competing for a construction contract) who are protected by rival racketeers, the two racketeers would have to fight each other to win the dispute for their respective clients. The outcomes of such fights can be unpredictable, and neither racketeer would be able to guarantee a victory for his client. This would make their protection unreliable and of little value; their clients would likely dismiss them and settle the dispute by other means. Therefore, racketeers negotiate territories in which they can monopolize the use of violence in settling disputes. These territories may be geographical, or they may be a certain type of business or form of transaction.

Providing genuine protection.

Sometimes racketeers will warn other criminals that the client is under their protection and that they will punish anyone who harms the client. Services that the racketeers may offer may include the recovery of stolen property or punishing vandals. The racketeers may even advance the interests of the client by forcing out (or otherwise hindering or intimidating) unprotected competitors.  Protection from theft and vandalism is one service the racketeer may offer. For instance, in Sicily, mafiosi know all the thieves and fences in their territory, and can track down stolen goods and punish thieves who attack their clients.  Protection racketeers establish what they hope will be indefinitely long bonds with their clients. This allows the racketeers to publicly declare a client to be under their protection. Thus, thieves and other predators will have little confusion as to who is and is not protected.  Protection racketeers are not necessarily criminals. In "A Short History of Progress", Ronald Wright notes on p.49, "The warrior caste, supposedly society's protectors, often become protection racketeers. In times of war or crisis, power is easily stolen from the many by the few on a promise of security. The more elusive or imaginary the foe, the better for manufacturing consent."

Government protection rackets.

Government officials may demand bribes to look the other way or extort something of value from citizens or corporations in the form of a kickback. It need not always be money. A lucrative job after leaving office may have been in exchange for protection offered when in office. Payment may also show up indirectly in the form of a campaign contribution. Stopping governments agencies as a whole, and buying protection in the government is called regulatory capture.

A protection racket is a scheme where a group provides protection to businesses or other groups through violence outside the sanction of the law. In other words, it is a racket that sells security, traditionally physical security but now also computer security. Through the credible threat of violence, the racketeers deter people from swindling, robbing, injuring, sabotaging or otherwise harming their clients. Protection rackets tend to appear in markets in which the police and judiciary cannot be counted on to provide legal protection, because of incompetence (as in weak or failed states) or illegality (black markets).

Výpalné byla platba, kterou se dobyté město či země mohly vykoupit, aby byly ušetřeny plenění. V modernějším významu je to finanční částka vyplácená pravidelně nebo jednorázově mafii nebo jiné zločinecké organizaci za „ochranu“, tedy za to, že na dotyčného nebude útočit nebo jej jinak obtěžovat. Označení je odvozeno od toho, že podnik, jehož majitel odmítá platit výpalné, někdy býval vypálen.


Education and early life.

George Wells Beadle was born in Wahoo, Nebraska. He was the son of Chauncey Elmer Beadle and Hattie Albro, who owned and operated a farm nearby. George was educated at the Wahoo High School and might himself have become a farmer if one of his teachers at school had not directed his mind towards science and persuaded him to go to the College of Agriculture in Lincoln, Nebraska. In 1926 he took his Bachelor of Science degree at the University of Nebraska and subsequently worked for a year with Professor F.D. Keim, who was studying hybrid wheat. In 1927 he took his Master of Science degree, and Professor Keim secured for him a post as Teaching Assistant at Cornell University, where he worked, until 1931, with Professors R.A. Emerson and L.W. Sharp on Mendelian asynapsis in "Zea mays". For this work he obtained, in 1931, his Doctor of Philosophy degree.

Career and research.

In 1931 Beadle was awarded a National Research Council Fellowship at the California Institute of Technology at Pasadena, where he remained from 1931 until 1936. During this period he continued his work on Indian corn and began, in collaboration with Professors Theodosius Dobzhansky, S. Emerson, and Alfred Sturtevant, work on crossing-over in the fruit fly, "Drosophila melanogaster".  In 1935 Beadle visited Paris for six months to work with Professor Boris Ephrussi at the Institut de Biologie physico-chimique. Together they began the study of the development of eye pigment in Drosophila which later led to the work on the biochemistry of the genetics of the fungus Neurospora for which Beadle and Edward Lawrie Tatum were together awarded the 1958 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine.  In 1936 Beadle left the California Institute of Technology to become Assistant Professor of Genetics at Harvard University. A year later he was appointed Professor of Biology (Genetics) at Stanford University and there he remained for nine years, working for most of this period in collaboration with Tatum. In 1946 he returned to the California Institute of Technology as Professor of Biology and Chairman of the Division of Biology. Here he remained until January 1961 when he was elected Chancellor of the University of Chicago and, in the autumn of the same year, President of this University.  After retiring, Beadle undertook a remarkable experiment in maize genetics. In several laboratories he grew a series of Teosinte/Maize crosses. Then he crossed these progeny with each other. He looked for the rate of appearance of parent phenotypes among this second generation. The vast majority of these plants were intermediate between maize and Teosinte in their features, but about 1 in 500 of the plants were identical to either the parent maize or the parent teosinte. Using the mathematics of Mendelian genetics, he calculated that this showed a difference between maize and teosinte of about 5 or 6 genetic loci. This demonstration was so compelling that most scientists now agree that Teosinte is the wild progenitor of maize.  During his career, Beadle has received many honors. These include the Honorary Doctor of Science of the following Universities: Yale (1947), Nebraska (1949), Northwestern University (1952), Rutgers University (1954), Kenyon College (1955), Wesleyan University (1956), the University of Birmingham and the University of Oxford, England (1959), Pomona College (1961), and Lake Forest College (1962). In 1962 he was also given the honorary degree of LL.D. by the University of California, Los Angeles. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1946. He also received the Lasker Award of the American Public Health Association (1950), the Dyer Award (1951), the Emil Christian Hansen Prize of Denmark (1953), the Albert Einstein Commemorative Award in Science (1958), the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1958 with Edward Tatum and Joshua Lederberg, the National Award of the American Cancer Society (1959), and the Kimber Genetics Award of the National Academy of Sciences (1960).

Awards and honors.

In addition to the Nobel Prize, Beadle received numerous other awards. Beadle was a member of several learned societies, he was a Member of the National Academy of Sciences (and Chairman of Committee on Genetic Effects of Atomic Radiation), the Genetics Society of America (President in 1946), the American Association for the Advancement of Science (President in 1955), the American Cancer Society (Chairman of Scientific Advisory Council), a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) of London, the Danish Royal Academy of Science and the American Philosophical Society.  The George W. Beadle Award of the Genetics Society of America is named in his honor. George Beadle Middle School in Millard, Nebraska (Part of the Millard Public Schools district) was named after him. It opened in 2001. The Beadle Center, which houses the Department of Biochemistry at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, is also named after George Beadle.

Personal life.

Beadle was married twice. By his first wife he had a son, David, who now lives at The Hague, the Netherlands. His second wife, Muriel McClure (1915-1994), a well-known writer, was born in California. Beadle's chief hobbies were rockclimbing, skiing, and gardening. He was a member of FarmHouse fraternity while at the University of Nebraska.  Beadle died on June 9, 1989. He was an atheist.

George Wells Beadle (October 22, 1903 – June 9, 1989) was an American geneticist. In 1958 he shared one-half of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Edward Tatum for their discovery of the role of genes in regulating biochemical events within cells. He also served as the 7th President of the University of Chicago.

George Wells Beadle (22. října 1903 – 9. června 1989) byl americký genetik, společně s Edwardem L. Tatumem a Joshuou Lederbergem nositel Nobelovy ceny za fyziologii a lékařství za rok 1958. Spolu s Tatumem cenu získali za objev toho, že geny regulují určité chemické procesy v buňkách. Jejich experimenty vedly k hypotéze o přímém vztahu mezi geny a enzymatickými reakcemi, zvané „jeden gen – jeden enzym“.