The resistance group and its actions.

Following World War II, Mašín's sons, who were both born in Prague, attended a high school in Poděbrady. After the Communists seized power, they witnessed how some of their family's friends—opponents of the regime—were silenced, vanished without a trace or were sentenced to death in public show trials. For instance Milada Horáková, a famous early judicial murder victim, had been a friend of their mother. Both ladies spent time in Nazi Theresienstadt concentration camp during the WWII. The Mašíns shared the idea that the Americans, who had helped to establish the Czechoslovakian state, would soon come and "wipe out Communism". The radio stations "Radio Free Europe" (RFE) and "Voice Of America" (VOA) seemed to promise an imminent invasion. Therefore, they formed a military resistance group with a few friends. The Mašín brothers' uncle Ctibor Novák, a former Secret Service Officer, became an adviser of the group. One source says that Novak had actually put up with the fact of Communist rule and was satisfied if the Communists didn't bother him. He engaged in the group mainly because he hoped he could control his hot-tempered nephews and prevent them from doing the most dangerous actions. But that was just his defense strategy when he was on trial in 1954. Indeed, he was very supportive and encouraged the brothers' actions. The brothers and Novak were the only ones in the whole "no-name group" who knew all other members by name. The following actions of the group are documented:  In 1951 the group raided two police stations in order to get weapons and ammunition. In both cases one policeman was killed (one of them previously chloroformed and handcuffed).  Since it was becoming increasingly difficult to conduct actions, the brothers decided to go West. Their goal was to get some real training in partisan warfare techniques from the Americans. They believed a shooting war was imminent, and they wanted to return to Czechoslovakia in the vanguard of the "liberating" western armies. A first escape attempt failed when a CIC agent who was supposed to accompany them was arrested by the Czechoslovak Secret Service StB. During interrogation, he named Ctirad Mašín. Shortly thereafter, both brothers and Novák were arrested by the StB and were tortured. The StB never found out that they had seized the men responsible for the police station raids. Josef Mašín and his uncle were released after a few months.  Ctirad Mašín was sentenced to two years of slave labor for knowing about someone else's planned escape but failing to denounce them, and was sent to work in a uranium mine near Jáchymov, noted for its high death rate. Mašín states that his time in the Czechoslovak equivalent of the Gulag made him even more determined to fight the regime.  During Ctirad Mašín's imprisonment the others attacked a payroll transport and obtained 846,000 Czechoslovak crowns. One of the car's occupants raised his pistol against Josef Mašín and was shot by him.  After Ctirad Mašín's release, the group stole four chests totaling 100 kg of donarit explosives from a quarry. They planned to blow up a uranium train with these explosives, or possibly President Gottwald's personal train.  The last action before their escape was the "Night of Great Fires". In several Moravian villages Václav Švéda and Ctirad Mašín placed incendiary composition with time fuses into straw stacks. They all lit up in the middle of the night. The action was a protest against the Socialist collectivization of agriculture. At that time, even straw was in short supply, so the Mašíns' intention was not only spreading "shock and awe" but really harming the economy of the agricultural collectives. A firefighter was gunned down. While one source states he died with one bullet in his eye and one in his lungs, most others mention only three casualties in Czechoslovakia which means he must have survived.

Through the curtain.

In October, 1953 the group made a second attempt to escape to the West. Radio Free Europe broadcasts made it sound like World War III was imminent, and the Mašíns and their friends wanted to take part in the invasion. They claimed that the police still had no leads on their actions, therefore the danger of being arrested was not a reason for their escape. In the night from the 3rd to the 4th of October,, Milan Paumer and the Mašín brothers crossed the border to East Germany near Hora Svaté Kateřiny ("Deutschkatharinenberg") in order to get to the western part of Berlin.  West Berlin was the last gap in the Iron Curtain. The Berlin Wall had not yet been erected, and numerous streets and footpathes, trams and suburban trains connected the parts of the divided city. The border guards could not manage to check the identity of every passenger. So there was a chance for the five to reach their destination without being discovered, especially because their names and their activities were not yet known to the East German police. After three days of walking through the cold they tried to hijack a car. The attempt failed, but now the police started searching for "five armed foreigners". The fugitives made another mistake taking a train which they thought would bring them closer to Berlin. But on the train they misunderstood an announcement that the train would go back to where they had started from.  The next time they took a train ended in a disaster: the women who sold the tickets informed the police about some "suspicious foreigners". At Uckro station (today: Luckau-Uckro) the police waited for the train and checked the passengers. When challenged the group started shooting, killing one policeman and injuring two others. The policeman in charge, hit by 6 bullets, quit his job when the head of the East German police (Volkspolizei) held him responsible for the Mašín brothers finally escaping to the West.  Shortly after that incident Zbyněk Janata, separated from the others, was caught. Only after interrogating him and consulting the Czechoslovak authorities did the East German police know who they were dealing with. Now the biggest manhunt of the Volkspolizei started. After finding and losing the track of the refugees several times, more and more troops were ordered to support the manhunt. East Germany did not have an army at that time. There was only a predecessor of the East German Army, the so-called "Kasernierte Volkspolizei" ("Baracked People's Police"). Those troops and eventually even Soviet Red Army troops based in the GDR were asked for assistance.  Eventually thousands of people hunted the four anti-Communists. Right after their arrival in West Berlin, western newspapers wrote of "20,000 Vopos" ("Vopo" stands for "Volkspolizei officer"). (1939–2006), a true crime author and former member of the Volkspolizei states that according to the final report there were only 5,000 policemen involved in the manhunt, plus troops of the Secret Service plus troops of the Red Army. Their number does not appear in the police files. Barbara Mašín assumes that the number of 5,000 was a first attempt by East German officialdom to minimize the manhunt and the scope of the humiliation.  Altogether three pursuers were shot by the group. At least three more bystanders died in friendly fire.  At Waldow, about from Berlin, the group was encircled. They waited for the night and then managed to run through the encirclement. The next day, hurt by a stray bullet, surrendered and was eventually found by the police. He was executed in Czechoslovakia in 1955.  Several times the police were called because of rumours that someone had seen the Czechs. Many of the troops were inexperienced young men who had joined the armed forces only weeks or months before. They did not get any official information from their officers, and therefore rumours spread in which the Czechs were depicted as savages who had killed countless pursuers. Therefore, the troops, whenever assuming the fugitives were near, shot at "anything and everything that moved" and afterwards wrote into their reports that they had fired at the Czechs but missed. As a result, one can find gun battles at places that the fugitives never passed near in the police files. Moreover, the Mašíns, after arriving in the West, consciously changed some details of their story in order to protect people who had helped them. For instance they claimed they had crossed the autobahn between Berlin and Dresden after the Waldow battle and found refuge with a family in "Schönwalde". Though later there were people in Schönwalde who "remembered" the Mašíns' visit, several researchers found out that they never made it there: the highway was under permanent surveillance; passing it was simply impossible.  On 2 November 1953 the Mašíns and Paumer reached their destination: Ctirad Mašín under the floor of a suburban train, Milan Paumer and Josef Mašín somehow managed to cross the border on foot.

The follow-up.

Back in Czechoslovakia, people who had any association with the Mašíns received harsh treatment. Václav Švéda, Zbyněk Janata and Ctibor Novak were sentenced to death and executed. Their bodies were not delivered to their families but buried in anonymous common graves. Farewell letters to their families were found 45 years later, only after the Velvet Revolution. Other friends and relatives were sentenced to many years of imprisonment. The Mašíns' mother, Zdena Mašínová, who was not involved at all in the military resistance of her sons, died in prison on June 12, 1956. According to the family, their mother received no medical aid, nor were the scandalous conditions of detention improved when she was terminally ill. Even the Mašíns little sister—her name also Zdena Mašínová (born 1933)—was jailed. Today she is seen as an icon by the Czech anti-Communist movement.  In East Germany, whose armed forces had been humiliated, the manhunt was swept under the rug. In Czechoslovakia, communist propaganda made full use of the Mašín's actions, describing them as looters and brutal murderers of innocent passersby. Their actions were used to justify tight control over the society and brutal treatment of any opponents.  The fugitives moved to the United States and served in the U.S. Army Special Forces at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, for five years. Milan Paumer fought in Korea. In the '60s, Josef Mašín Jr. settled down in Cologne, West Germany. The Czechoslovak Security Service StB several times planned to kidnap or kill him. Later he moved to the U.S. again. Both the brothers continued to live there and refused to enter Czech soil again unless they were fully rehabilitated. In 2001, Milan Paumer sold his home in Florida and moved back to Poděbrady, where he died in 2010. Ctirad Mašín died in Cleveland, Ohio, in 2011.

Books and documentaries.

Various fictional and documentary versions of the Mašín Brothers' story exist. The authors of most cannot be considered neutral. Therefore, an overview of the existing literature shall be given. According to Barbara Mašín, three books on the Mašíns were published in Czechoslovakia. The last one, "Mrtví nemluví" "(Dead do not talk)" was translated into German and published in the GDR in 1989, a few months before the end of Socialism. It was the only book in the GDR mentioning the story at all. Surprisingly, the book does not claim the Mašíns were American spies. Their activities are described as a kind of personal retaliation upon the Communist government by frustrated high-society kids. The book doesn't mention the penalties against the Mašíns' family and friends.  Besides the Mašíns had to serve as culprits in one episode of the infamous detective series "Major Zeman". In contrast to reality, "Major Zeman" caught them. The Mašíns themselves, after losing the illusion that the West would wage a war to end Communism in Eastern Europe, were reluctant to talk about their past. Eventually another expatriate made them tell their story again: Ota Rambousek (1923–2010) had been a political prisoner in Czechoslovakia. While many people sat in East European jails accused of being American spies, Rambousek was one of the few who were not innocent: He had indeed been an agent of the US Counter Intelligence Corps. First he was sentenced to death, later his death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. In jail he heard about the Mašíns In 1968 he was released and moved to the USA. Only in 1984 did Rambousek manage to meet the brothers in New York and wrote his novel "Jenom ne strach" "(Just No Fear)". The Czech expatriate publishing house 68 Publishers in Toronto refused to publish the book. Eventually it was published in Prague after the Velvet Revolution. 1987 Radio Free Europe broadcast a series of interviews with Ctirad Mašín by Ota Rambousek. As Eastern archives were not yet open, the book and the interviews were based only on the Mašíns' memories and on what they read about the manhunt in the newspapers after arriving in West Berlin. They contain the "Schönwalde Fake" (see above) and wrongly claim the group shot four instead of three Volkspolizei officers: Western press had copied the East German propaganda account which had added one of the friendly fire casualties to the Mašín's victims.  In East Germany, Wolfgang Mittmann (1939–2006), policeman and true crime writer, rediscovered the manhunt in the 90s. He states that he found the names of four killed policemen, killed near the town where he lived, which were not mentioned in the official chronicle of the Volkspolizei. He started interviewing local people and found them reluctant to talk about the "Czechs' War". As long as the GDR existed, files on the manhunt were top secret. Mittmann went to Prague where he acquired a leaked copy of the RFE interviews, made by employees of Prague Broadcasting Service, studied exhibits of the Prague Police Museum, which included the Czechoslovak police records on the Mašín's police station raids and also viewed the papers of the late author of "Mrtví nemluví" "(Dead do not talk)". Only after the Reunification of Germany—Mittmann had retired and writing had become his full-time occupation —could he read the German files as well as Rambousek's book. For Mittmann the Mašíns were killers. He accused Rambousek and the Mašíns to consciously play down the actions in the Czechoslovak Republic. Mittmann's critics say, he never questioned the account he found in police files. Also he failed to see the political reasons for the vast number of troops involved in the manhunt. For him this overreaction was due to the ambitions of a single person, Chefinspekteur "(Lieutenant General)" Willi Seifert, proxy of the head of the Volkspolizei, who wanted to catch the "fascist bandits", no matter what the cost.  After reading Mittmann's report, two German journalists decided to find and interview the Mašíns. Their documentary "Der Luckauer Krieg" "(The Luckau War)" met with severe criticism because they "displayed murderers as heroes".  In 2004 the Czech-American writer Jan Novák (not related to Ctibor Novak) wrote a biographical novel on the father's and the sons' stories. Its title: "So far so good" "(Zatim Dobry)". It won the coveted Magnesia Litera Prize in the Czech Republic. Although Novak wrote in English, only the Czech Edition is available so far. The Czech film maker Ivan Passer (a former classmate of Josef Mašín and of film director Miloš Forman) announced he is going to make a movie based on the book.  Eventually, Barbara Mašín, Josef Mašín's daughter spent several years researching to reconstruct the story of her father and uncle. She had spent most of her childhood in Germany before her family moved to the USA. Later she studied Czech and was thus able to read all the relevant documents in Germany, the Czech Republic and the USA. "Gauntlet", the result of her research was published in September 2006 and has become the most important source for non-Czech speakers.

Controversy.

After the fall of communism in Czechoslovakia (1989), the communist era was officially condemned by the new regime, and those sentenced during the communist era for political crimes were generally recognised in law as innocent victims. The Mašíns became the most disputed exceptions.  Armed resistance after 1948 was very small (compared to that of neighbouring countries in the Eastern Bloc) and killings were uncommon. Ota Rambousek's book "Jenom ne strach" (see below) was published in Czechoslovakia in 1990 and realistic descriptions of how the brothers killed a cashier or how they cut the throat of an unarmed policeman rendered incapable by chloroform did not fit well into "velvet" mood of Czechs.  Even fifty-five years later the case of Mašíns is able to deeply divide the Czech public into two groups: one seeing them as heroes, the other abhorring their sometimes brutal killings. Politicians in the Czech Republic face uneasy difficulty when trying to take a clear stand on the Mašíns.  In 2005, the Czech and Slovak Association of Canada gave the Thomas Masaryk Award to the Mašín Brothers and Milan Paumer.  On 28 February 2008 the Czech Prime Minister Mirek Topolánek awarded the Mašíns with the new "Prime Minister's Medal" at a ceremony at the Czech Embassy in Washington. At a later ceremony in the Czech Republic on 4 March 2008, he also decorated Milan Paumer. As its name suggests, the award is a personal decoration, not one given in the name of the Czech state. Topolánek wishes to start a new discussion on the "third resistance", as the anti-Communist struggle is sometimes, but controversially termed (the first and second resistance being the fight against the Austro-Hungarian empire in 1914–1918 and Nazi occupation in 1939–1945). He hopes that as a result of such discussion the Mašíns will eventually receive official state recognition.

Ctirad Mašín (August 11, 1930 – August 13, 2011) and Josef Mašín (b. March 8, 1932) were armed resistance group against the communist regime in Czechoslovakia during the period 1951-1953. Their father was the late general Josef Mašín.

Skupina bratří Mašínů byla ozbrojená odbojová antikomunistická skupina operující v letech 1951 až 1953 na území komunistického Československa a také v Německé demokratické republice. Jejími nejznámějšími členy byli Ctirad Mašín a Josef Mašín, synové protinacistického odbojáře Josefa Mašína. Dalšími členy skupiny byli Milan Paumer, Zbyněk Janata a Václav Švéda.


History.

The skill of righting a capsized kayak was devised by the hunter-gatherer societies that also developed the kayak as a hunting boat; the Aleut and Inuit people. The Greenland Inuit used several techniques that allowed the kayak to be righted with or without a paddle, also using only one hand, or without hands at all. A survey in Greenland in 1911 found that of a total of 2,228 hunters with a kayak of their own, 867 were able to roll.  In 1605, some Inuit men and their kayaks were brought back to Europe by a Danish expedition; they gave a demonstration of rolling and racing against rowing boats in Copenhagen harbour, watched by King Christian IV. A similar exhibition was held at The Hague in 1625. Paul Egede, the teenaged son of a missionary living with the Inuit, was probably the first non-native to learn to roll a kayak in the 1730s. Rolling was demonstrated in 1889 at Sandviken, Norway by Oluf Dietrichson, a member of Nansen's 1888 Greenland expedition. With the rapid growth in the sport of kayaking in Europe and the USA during the 1920s, the ability to roll was popularised by an Austrian kayaker, Edi Hans Pawlata (1900–1966). Although not, as he claimed, the first European to acquire the skill, he developed a technique in which the hand grips the end of the paddle, which proved easy to master. His "Pawlata roll" is still sometimes taught to beginners. Greenlandic kalaaleq, Manasse Mathæussen (1915–1989), earned a living giving rolling demonstrations and kayak stunts for films. In 1949, he set a record by performing 10 successive rolls in 18 seconds.

Types of rolls.

There are many types of roll, which involve subtle variations on the common technique of combining a paddle stroke at the surface with a hip-flick. Different rolls are more or less useful in different situations. One key to all rolls is that the head comes out of the water last, following the paddler's torso—not first, which presents a non-hydrodynamic profile and tends to oppose the angular momentum which is the hallmark of a successful roll. Thirty-five different types of roll and related maneuvers are performed at the Greenland Kayaking Championships. Different rolls have different purposes, such as righting the kayak if the arms are entangled or injured, if the paddle is lost, if the akuilisaq has come off or is not worn, or if the kayaker has to keep hold of something (in competition, an inflated avataq or an eight-kilogram weight),

Screw roll.

This is the main roll that is usually taught to beginners first and is often what is referred to as "the roll". It is good on open or flat water but requires a reasonably large area to perform well so can be less useful in tight spaces or on whitewater.

C-to-C roll.

The C-to-C roll is another common roll that tends to be used more on whitewater. The name was inspired by the two curved shapes adopted by the body during the roll.

Reverse Screw roll (a.k.a. "Back Deck Roll").

As the name suggests this is similar to the screw roll but performed in reverse, it is often used in playboating or in general when the paddler goes over whilst on the back deck. In this scenario it is far quicker to perform this roll than to move the paddle into a set-up position for a more standard roll. The disadvantage of this roll is that it leaves the face exposed and poses some risk to the shoulder.

Hand roll.

This roll is a bit of a 'party trick' but can also be useful if the paddler has lost their paddle and is also useful in the game of canoe polo. It relies heavily on the hip-flick. It is also frequently used by paddlers who run big waterfalls, as landing at high speed without a paddle is considered to pose less risk than landing with a paddle.

Tallit paarlatsillugit timaannarmik (body roll, no-hand roll).

Rolling up without a paddle, with the arms crossed against the chest throughout.

Obsolete rolls.

Some techniques are rarely used by modern paddlers. The Pawlata roll is performed while gripping the far end of one paddle blade and sweeping the other from front to back. The Steyr roll is a reverse Pawlata. In the put across roll, one paddle blade is gripped while the rest of the paddle extends out at right angles to the kayak; the paddler pulls down on the paddle to right the kayak without any sweeping action. The storm roll utilises a vertical rather than horizontal sweeping action.

See also.

Kayak rescue

A kayak roll (often referred to as an Eskimo roll) is the act of righting a capsized kayak by use of body motion and/or a paddle. Typically this is done by lifting the torso towards the surface, flicking the hips to right the kayak, and applying a small force by means of the paddle to assist the torso back over the boat.

Eskymácký obrat je záchranný manévr (obvykle jednočlenné) posádky po převrácení zavřeného sportovního plavidla, nejčastěji kajaku. Při převrácení otevřené lodě například dvoumístné turistické kánoe dojde okamžitě k zalití vnitřních prostor lodi a posádka vypadne do vody. V tomto případě nezbývá než doplavat i s pádly a převrácenou lodí ke břehu, tam ji vylít a převrátit zpět. Celý záchranný proces je pracný a zdlouhavý, ale v létě na klidných vodách zhruba do WW 1 až WW 2 není nebezpečný a nevyžaduje ani nějaké zvláštní schopnosti.


Background.

Since her debut in 1990, Carey's career was heavily calculated and controlled by her husband and head of her label Sony Music Entertainment, Tommy Mottola. For years, Carey's albums had consisted of slow and meaningful ballads, devoid of any guest appearances or hip hop-influenced melodies. In January 1995, as she recorded "Daydream", Carey began taking more control over her musical style and genre influences. She enlisted the production skills and rap styles of Ol' Dirty Bastard, who was featured on the remix of her song "Fantasy." While Mottola was hesitant at first, Carey's persistence paid off when the song became an international chart topper, with critics calling the collaboration one of the pioneering songs of pop and R&B musical collaborations.  During the recording and production of Carey's "Butterfly" in 1997, she and Mottola separated, giving Carey an extended amount of control over the unfinished album. Following their separation, Carey began working with younger hip hop and R&B producers and songwriters, aside from her usual work with balladeers Walter Afanasieff and Kenneth Edmonds. While the album incorporated several different genres and components that were not present in Carey's previous releases, "Butterfly" also included a balance of her classic ballads and newer R&B-infused jams. While Sony accepted Carey's new collaborations with writers and producers such as P. Diddy and Bone Thugs-n-Harmony, they continued to focus their promotion on the ballads. After "Honey," the debut single from "Butterfly", was released in August 1997, Sony halted the release of the succeeding R&B-influenced jams, and released the ballad "My All" as the second worldwide single. "Rainbow" followed in its predecessors' footsteps, featuring even more hip hop and R&B.

Writing and recording.

During the spring of 1999, Carey began working on the final album of her record contract with Sony, her ex-husband's label. Carey's lover at the time, Luis Miguel, was in the midst of a European tour. In order to spend more time with him, she opted to record the album on the secluded island of Capri, Italy, figuring the seclusion would also help her complete the album sooner. During this time, Carey's strained relationship with Sony affected her work with writing partner Afanasieff, who had worked extensively with Carey throughout the first half of her career. Aside from their growing creative differences, Mottola had given Afanasieff more opportunities to work with other artists. She felt Mottola was trying to separate her from Afanasieff, in hopes of keeping their relationship permanently strained. Due to the pressure and the awkward relationship Carey had now developed with Sony, she completed the album in a period of three months in the summer of 1999, quicker than any of her other albums. In an interview with "Blitz TV", Carey spoke of her decision to record the album in Capri:  I love New York. But if I'm there, I want to go out, friends come to the studio, the phone rings constantly. But in Capri, I am in a remote place, and there is no one I can run into. I felt that in Capri I would be able to effectively finish the album on a shorter schedule. And I did. I made it in three months, I was like 'Get me off this label!' I couldn't take it. The situation there [Sony] was becoming increasingly difficult.  Like her previous releases, Carey co-wrote and co-produced the album's material, working with several hip hop and R&B producers such as Jay-Z, Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, Usher, Snoop Dogg, Missy Elliott, Jermaine Dupri, and Brian Michael Cox. For the album's debut single release, Carey collaborated with Jay-Z and DJ Clue. During the spring of 1999, Carey began working with Clue on several hooks and melodies for the lead single. After a few hours, they decided to include a hip hop star on the track, which eventually led to Jay-Z. Carey's longtime friend and back-up vocalist Trey Lorenz, who was featured on her remake of the Jackson 5 song "I'll Be There," added "some soft male [back-up] vocals." Carey worked with Lewis and Jam on the ballad "Thank God I Found You." She had already been in the studio with the duo several times when she contacted them to meet her at the studio, where she told them that she had come up with the title, hook, and melody. Usually, when Carey was writing the songs for "Rainbow", James "Big Jim" Wright would play the organ or piano and assist Carey to find the "right melody." However, since Wright was not present, Lewis played the organ while Carey directed him with her lower registers, providing the chord progression. They composed the song and recorded Carey's vocals. Knowing she wanted to introduce a male vocalist on the track, Lewis brought R&B singer Joe and pop group 98 Degrees into the studio. After a few hours, the group and Joe had recorded all their vocals and the song was complete. In an interview with Bronson, Lewis discussed the night Carey wrote "Thank God I Found You:"  It all happened that night. She told us the title of the song, the concept and sang us the melody. We usually have Big Jim Wright sit in on those kind of sessions to work out the chords. he wasn't there so I had to work on the chord myself. So I was playing and there was a part where I said 'Man, what chord am I supposed to do here?' and Mariah has such a good ear that she sang me the chord. While the album was immersed further into mainstream R&B territory, Carey included some of her classic ballads and tender love songs on the album, working with writers and producers such as David Foster and Diane Warren. The idea to work with Warren was suggested by Foster, who thought that the two would be able to "hammer out one hell of a ballad" together. The two wrote and produced the song titled "After Tonight." Carey felt the song was a perfect metaphor for her relationship with Miguel, describing their romance in Capri. While the song was deemed a success by both parties, they described their working relationship with mixed feelings. According to Foster, who was involved in the writing session, Carey and Warren would not always agree on the lyrics and melodious structure of the song. He described it as a "give and take relationship"; Warren would offer lyrics and Carey would not like them; she wanted something more intricate and detailed. Carey would produce a hook or lyrics that Warren did not feel were a perfect fit. In the end, Foster felt that they worked "well together." After recording the song, Carey invited Miguel to record the song with her as a duet. However, after recording his verses several times, Foster and Carey realized that the song would not turn out the way they planned. Foster said the song's key was "too high for him"; the voices did not harmonize well. Carey did not have time to re-record her vocals in a lower key to accommodate Miguel's verses. Miguel, furious over the failed collaboration, later sent a cut-up tape of the demo to Foster. Carey, Warren, and Foster also wrote "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)," one of the other ballads featured on "Rainbow".

Music and lyrics.

As with "Butterfly", songs for "Rainbow" were chosen to solidify Carey's reputation as a multi-genre artist. Throughout the first phase of her career, Carey's albums predominantly consisted of pop and adult contemporary ballads. "Rainbow" mixed hip hop and R&B-flavored upbeat songs with softer and lyrically intense ballads resembling those that Carey had previously recorded. "Heartbreaker," Carey's first collaboration with Jay-Z, used a sample from "Attack of the Name Game," recorded by Stacy Lattisaw, as its hook. The loop originated from "The Name Game" by Shirley Ellis; Ellis and co-writer Lincoln Chase are credited as songwriters on the track. Carey incorporated the hook into the song's melody, and added instrumentation. Lyrically, the song chronicles the heartbreak the protagonist feels after learning of her lover's infidelity. "Thank God I Found You" features vocals from Joe and 98 Degrees, as well as songwriting and production from Carey and Lewis. According to Carey, the song reflects on events in her own life at the time, with the lyrics describing the completion the protagonist feels after "finding" their lover. Joe provides the main male vocal throughout each verse, and 98 Degrees sing the background vocals and the bridge.  Prior to the album's recording, Mariah and her sister, Alison Carey had a falling out in their relationship. Alison had contracted AIDS in 1988, when she was 27, and in 1994 she blamed Mariah for many of her problems and heartbreaks throughout the years. Her children were taken away while she received treatment for AIDS and for mental health issues. Carey wrote a song titled "Petals," which she describes as the most honest lyrics she has ever written. The song tells of Carey's feelings for her sister, while illustrating the pain Allison's betrayal and suffering have caused. In an interview with Bronson, Carey described the meaning of the lyrics of "Petals":  It is a great outlet for me to go into the studio and write a song like 'Petals', which is one of my most personal songs and remains one of my favorites. I think [it had the most] honest lyrics I've ever written. The song chronicles a lot of past emotions I've felt to certain people close to me, and the way I feel towards them and how their actions have impacted me personally. For that reason, I sang in my lower registers, trying to add that breathy effect to go hand in hand with the song's composition.  "After Tonight" was a song Carey wrote with David Foster and Diane Warren. Carey had strong feelings about the song, as she wrote it about her relationship with Luis Miguel. The song was compared instrumentally to "My All" from "Butterfly", which features traces of Latin and guitar instrumentation. In the lyrics, the protagonist asks her lover if he will still love her and come back to her "after tonight." Carey's cover of the Phil Collins song "Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)" was originally intended to be a solo ballad. The song was re-done after the album was released, with music by the Irish band Westlife replacing the song's instrumental bridge. "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" was one of the album's most uplifting ballads, lyrically serving as an anthem for fans and listeners. The message, Carey said, was a personal theme of hers growing up, of not letting others "bring her down" and not allowing them to take away the light inside her. "How Much" is a duet with Usher and features a sample from Tupac Shakur's "Me and My Girlfriend."

Conflict with Sony.

As with "Butterfly" two years earlier, "Rainbow" became the center of conflict between Carey and her label. After her divorce from Sony record official and Columbia CEO Tommy Mottola, Carey's working relationship with the label deteriorated. She intended for "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" to be the third single from "Rainbow", as it held very personal lyrical content. However, Sony made it clear that they intended the third single should be a more upbeat and urban track. The difference in opinion led to a very public feud, as Carey began posting messages on her webpage in early and mid-2000, telling fans inside information on the dispute, as well as instructing them to request "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" on radio stations. One of the messages Carey left on her page read:  Basically, a lot of you know the political situation in my professional career is not positive. It's been really, really hard. I don't even know if this message is going to get to you because I don't know if they want you to hear this. I'm getting a lot of negative feedback from certain corporate people. But I am not willing to give up.  Carey's actions were given mixed reception, with critics and executives commending her bold actions regarding a song she felt needed to be heard, while others criticized her for publicizing the dispute further. Soon after, Sony stripped Carey's webpage of messages and began negotiations. Fearing to lose their label's highest seller and the best-selling artist of the decade, Sony chose to release the song. Carey, initially content with the agreement, soon found out that the song had only been given a very limited and low-promotion release, which meant the song failed to chart on the official US chart, and made international charting extremely difficult and unlikely.

Promotion.

Prior to the album's release, Carey made an appearance on "Pavarotti & Friends for Guatemala and Kosovo", performing "My All" and "Hero" alongside Luciano Pavarotti in a live duet. The concert benefit was filmed live in Modena, Italy, during the summer of 1999 and was released for sale on September 21, with funds being donated to relief efforts for natural disasters in Guatemala and Kosovo. Carey made several live television and award show appearances at this time, and recorded her own Fox Broadcasting Company special, titled "The Mariah Carey Homecoming Special". A mini-concert filmed at Carey's old high school in Huntington, New York, the special aired on Fox on December 21, 1999. Carey performed "Heartbreaker" and its accompanying remix at the MTV European Music Awards, held on November 11, 1999, in Dublin, Ireland. Additionally, the song was performed on "The Oprah Winfrey Show", the British music chart program "Top of the Pops", and "The Today Show", which included a performance of "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" and "Hero." "Thank God I Found You was performed live at the 2000 American Music Awards as well as on several European programs, including "Top of the Pops" and "Friday Night's All Wright" in the United Kingdom, NRJ and "Soulier d'Or" in France, "Wetten, dass..?" in Germany, and "Quelli che... il Calcio" in Italy. The album's final two releases, "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" and "Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)," were performed on "The View" and at the 2000 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards.  In order to promote "Rainbow", Carey embarked of her fourth headlining and third worldwide tour. Titled the Rainbow World Tour, it included nineteen shows: six in Europe, four in Asia, eight in the United States, and one in Canada. For Carey's previous two tours, she had only visited Europe and Asia, due to the mixed reception of her debut stateside tour in 1993. However, after achieving record-breaking ticket sales throughout Asia and instant sellouts in Europe, Carey felt secure enough to once again tour her native country. The set list featured songs from most of Carey's previous studio albums, as well as some tracks from "Rainbow". Missy Elliott and Da Brat served as opening acts for the US leg of the tour. Ticket sales were very strong; the entire US leg sold out in a matter of days. The Asian and European leg mirrored the commercial success of her previous two tours. Reviews for the tour varied from positive to mixed. Some critics and fans reproached her of having a "tired and hoarse voice," while others commented on Carey's choice of wardrobe. Several critics and many concert-goers praised the tour, calling it an intense celebration of Carey's career.

Singles.

Five singles were released from "Rainbow"; two were worldwide international releases and three were limited promotional releases. "Heartbreaker," the album's first worldwide release, became Carey's fourteenth chart topper in the United States. Aside from staying atop the US chart for two weeks, the song reached the chart's summit in Canada and New Zealand. Elsewhere, "Heartbreaker" achieved high charting, peaking within the top five in France and the United Kingdom, and within the top ten in Australia, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland. The song received mixed reviews from critics. Arion Berger from "Rolling Stone" called the song Carey's "most insinuating: nasal, silken, declarative, riding the percolating beat." However, while dismissing some of the song's vocals and the incorporation of the hook, he complimented its marriage of pop and hip hop through Jay-Z's verses. The song's music video became one of the most expensive music videos of all time, costing an estimated $2.5 million. The video features Carey visiting a movie theater with her friends, where she finds her lover with another woman. "Thank God I Found You" was released as the second worldwide single from the album. While becoming Carey's fifteenth chart topper in the US, the song achieved moderate chart success in Europe and other territories. Berger called it a "gospel soar" and complimented Carey's vocals, as well as the harmonies by 98 Degrees. The music video features footage from a live concert with Carey and the band performing the song.  "Crybaby" and "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" were released simultaneously as a double A-side, with very limited promotion from Sony. These two songs, especially the latter, became the center of a very public controversy between Carey and her label, due to their alleged low promotion of the album. Carey and Snoop Dogg were featured in the music video for "Crybaby," with Carey playing an anxious woman who can't sleep at night due to her lover's infidelity. A music video for "Can't Take That Away" was released around the same time, which features Carey on a rooftop garden. Carey sings during a rain storm, and towards the video's conclusion, the sun arises, bring forth a "new day." The final single from "Rainbow", "Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)," was given a limited release as well. After performing moderately around the world, a new version of the song, featuring Westlife, was released in Ireland and the United Kingdom. It became successful there, peaking at number one in both territories, and became Carey's second UK chart topper. The song's video features Carey and Westlife on a boat in Capri. Scenes of the group exploring the island are cut with scenes of them in the studio, though Carey never re-recorded her vocals from the original version.

Critical reception.

"Rainbow" received positive reviews from critics, many of whom noted the new direction in Carey's music. In "Entertainment Weekly", Danyel Smith wrote that "what began on "Butterfly" as a departure ends up on "Rainbow" a progression – perhaps the first compelling proof of Carey's true colors as an artist." Arion Berger from "Rolling Stone" viewed it as a genuine R&B and hip hop album, a "sterling chronicle of the state of accessible hip-hop balladeering at the close of 1999." Aside from calling some of the ballads "banal," Berger concluded his review that ""Rainbow" is at its best—and Carey at her most comfortable—when urbane hip-hop stylings and faux R&B coexist in smooth middle-of-the-road harmony." Elysa Gardner from the "Los Angeles Times" wrote in her review: "Exhibiting an emotional authority to match her technical prowess, Carey gives us a vision of love that's dynamic without being ostentatious." Steve Jones from "USA Today" deemed the record "colorful" and "some of her most compelling work." "Village Voice" critic Robert Christgau gave the album a two-star honorable mention, indicating a "likable effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well enjoy." He cited "Heartbreaker" and "Crybaby" as highlights while writing that Carey was "not a'real' r&b thrush, but good enough to fake it."  Amy Linden from "Vibe" was less impressed by the album, particularly the songs on which Carey sings over hip hop samples or alongside guest rappers, deeming it a commonplace formula--"pairing a singing thrush with a rhyming thug." Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic said it was "the first Carey album where she's written personal lyrics, and allusions to her separation from Mottola." He called the lyrics "true" and "deep," but found the songs "ballad-heavy" and "repetitious," adding that the album followed the formula of Carey's previous records too precisely. In his opinion, "it would have been a more effective album if the heartbreak, sorrow, and joy that bubbles underneath the music were brought to the surface."

Commercial performance.

"Rainbow" debuted at number two on the "Billboard" 200 chart with 323,000 units sold, the highest first-week sales of Carey's career at that time. In its second week, the album stayed at number two, selling an additional 228,000 copies, barred from the top by Faith Hill's "Breathe". In its eighth week, "Rainbow" experienced its highest weekly sales—during the Christmas week of 1999—selling 369,000 copies, while placing at number nine. It became Carey's first studio album since "Merry Christmas" (1994) to not reach the top position in the United States. In total, "Rainbow" stayed in the top twenty for ten weeks and on the chart for thirty-five, making one re-entry. It was certified triple-Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of three million copies throughout the United States. According to Nielsen SoundScan, the album's sales in the US are estimated at 2,968,000 copies. In Canada, "Rainbow" debuted at number two on the Canadian Albums Chart, and was certified triple-Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA). Sales in Canada are estimated at 300,000 units.  "Rainbow" debuted at number three on the Australian Albums Chart, staying within the chart for seven weeks. The album was Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of 70,000 copies. In France, the album experienced strong success, debuting atop the albums chart and remaining inside the top forty for thirty-four weeks. The album was certified triple-Platinum by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP), with estimated sales of 900,000 copies. In Germany, "Rainbow" peaked at number three, and received a Platinum certification from the Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI), denoting shipments of 500,000 units. in the United Kingdom Rainbow debuted at number eight and stayed within the top 100 for 20 weeks. "Rainbow" was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), denoting shipments of 300,000 units. Additionally, "Rainbow" received Platinum certification in Brazil, with 250,000 copies, Platinum in New Zealand, triple-Platinum in Spain, Platinum in Argentina,<ref name="Argentina's Gold/Platinum Certifications for Mariah Carey"></ref> Gold in Belgium, Platinum in the Netherlands, and Gold in Switzerland. The album has sold an estimated eight million copies worldwide.

Track listing.

Notes

Personnel.

Personnel  Production

References.

Works cited

Rainbow is the seventh studio album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey. It was released on November 2, 1999, by Columbia Records. The album followed the same pattern as Carey's previous two albums, "Daydream" (1995) and "Butterfly" (1997), in which she began her transition into the urban market. "Rainbow" contains a mix of hip hop-influenced R&B jams, as well as a variety of slow ballads. On the album, Carey worked with David Foster and Diane Warren, who, as well as Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis, replaced Walter Afanasieff, the main balladeer Carey worked with throughout the 90s. As a result of her separation from her husband, Tommy Mottola, Carey had more control over the musical style of this album, so she collaborated with several artists such as Jay-Z, Usher, and Snoop Dogg, as well as Missy Elliott, Joe, Da Brat, Master P, 98°, and Mystikal.

Rainbow je šesté studiové album americké zpěvačky Mariah Carey, které vyšlo v listopadu 1999 pod nahrávací společností Columbia Records. Na albu spolupracovala Mariah se spoustou producentů a prestižní hudební časopis Rolling Stone to popsal jako kroniku všech přístupných hip hopových mágů na sklonku roku 1999. Album se v prvním týdnu prodeje umístilo v USA na druhém místě s celkovým týdenním prodejem 323 000 kusů, což je největší týdenní prodej v kariéře Mariah.


Background.

Much of the interior of the Lika region of southern Croatia was captured by the forces of the self-proclaimed Republic of Serb Krajina (RSK) and the Serb-dominated Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) during 1991. In Lika, almost all of the Croatian population in the Serb-held area was killed, expelled or forced to seek refuge in government-held areas, while the Serbs continued shelling of the Croatian city of Gospić throughout the year from their positions, killing hundreds of civilians. A ceasefire was agreed in the January 1992 Sarajevo Agreement and a United Nations peacekeeping force UNPROFOR was installed to police the armistice lines and act as negotiators, aid-workers, and combat soldiers.  Despite this, sporadic sniping and shelling continued to take place between the two sides. Gospić, which was close to the front lines, was repeatedly subjected to shellfire from the Serbian Army of Krajina (SVK). The town was of great importance in securing lines of communication between Zagreb, Dalmatia and Rijeka. Much of the shelling took place from the Serb-controlled Medak Pocket, an area of high ground near Medak, Croatia approximately four to five kilometres wide and five to six kilometres long which consisted of the localities of Divoselo, Čitluk and part of Počitelj plus numerous small hamlets. The pocket was primarily a rural area with a combination of forest and open fields. It was fairly lightly inhabited

The offensive.

9–14 September.

Croatian forces began their offensive at approximately 06:00 on 9 September 1993. The attack involved around 2,500 troops drawn from the Croatian Army's Gospić Operational Zone, including the 9th Guards Brigade, 111th Brigade, Gospić Home Guard Battalion, Lovinac Home Guard Battalion and Special Police Units of the Croatian Ministry of the Interior (MUP). The Croatians were largely armed with equipment captured from the Yugoslav People's Army, including M-84 tanks, as well as large numbers of artillery pieces and an array of small arms.  The SVK was taken by surprise and fell back. After two days of fighting the Croatian forces had taken control of Divoselo, Čitluk and part of Počitelj. The salient was pinched out with the new front line running just in front of the village of Medak. In retaliation for the offensive, Serb forces began to use long-range artillery

15–17 September.

Ceasefire.

The offensive attracted strong international criticism and, facing political and military pressure at home and from abroad, the Croatian government agreed to a ceasefire. Major-General Petar Stipetić recalled that he was summoned in Zagreb by General Janko Bobetko on 15 September where he met with him and four other UN officers. Bobetko handed him the ceasefire agreement and after Stipetić put his signature on the page of the document, Bobetko commented that he himself would never signed that agreement, which angered Stipetić. Stipetić also said that order of withdrawal caused a lot of dissatisfaction among Croatian troops, although he expected nothing less. According to him, certain commanders warned him not to go to their sector because their men want to kill him

Canadian buffer.

"Operation Harmony" was the name given to the Canadian participation in UNPROFOR. The initial Canadian contingent, which deployed in March and April 1992, was drawn primarily from the 4 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group based in Lahr, Germany. It was based on troops of the Royal 22 Régiment, along with detachments from the Royal Canadian Regiment and 4 Combat Engineer Regiment. The Canadians were among the best trained troops at UNPROFOR's disposal, making them a natural choice for this dangerous task. They were equipped with M-113 armoured personnel carriers and carried a mix of M2.50 caliber machine guns, C6 medium machine guns, C7 assault rifles, C9 light machine guns, and 84 mm Carl Gustav RCL's. The attached Heavy Weapons Support Company brought 81 mm mortars and a specially fitted APC armed with anti-tank guided missiles.  Croatian forces and other officials involved with the Medak Pocket Mission lost confidence in the UN's ability due to failed attacks on forces in the zone of separation between Krajinan Serb forces. Earlier that year Croatian troops had launched an attack in order to seize a Peruća Lake power dam and reservoir. The dam was gravely damaged on 28 January 1993, in the aftermath of Operation Maslenica, at 10:48 a.m., when it was blown up in an intentional effort to destroy it by RSK forces. of explosive was used, causing heavy damage, but ultimately the effort to demolish the dam failed. The Croatian communities in the Cetina valley were nevertheless in great danger of being flooded by the lake

Croatian denial.

According to Domazet Lošo (retired admiral), colonel Vagn Ove Moebjerg Nielsen, news sites, official documents and other types of sources, there is no single evidence, report, document or a statement about "The biggest Canadian battle since Korean War" as well as from either of these resources:  - UNPROFOR Sector South HQ  - UNPROFOR HQ Croatia  - CANBAT HQ  - CANBAT soldiers statements in September 1993.  - CANBAT Commander Jim Calvin statement in September 1993.  - FREBAT HQ  - UN Military observers  - UN Civil police  - UN Security Councile  - Serb HQ, field units or intelligence  - Croat HQ, field units or intelligence  - Human rights watch and similar organisations  - US State department  Among all of these, there is only a mention the incident, reporting "minor incident" as sporadic firefight or few shootouts. Serbs also do not mention "the battle" in their own view of operation Medak pocket.  Of its 875 soldiers (2PPCLI), only 375 came from the regular unit: the rest were augmentees, 385 Primary Reserve soldiers and 165 from other regular force units. In fact, reserve soldiers made up 70% of rifle company strength during the mission due to the requirement for highly skilled and experienced regular soldiers in support and technical trade positions. This includes 7 out of the 12 platoon commanders who came from reserve battalions as Reserve Entry Scheme Officers (RESO). Nevertheless the 2 PPCLI Battlegroup in Croatia contained the highest concentration of reserve soldiers on an operational mission to date.  Alpha and Bravo Companies, arrived in the area (Sector South's Medak Pocket) from Sector West on September 7, 1993, just 48 hours before the Croatian offensive started.  UNTV reports (1993-09-18) on the actions of CANBAT and CIVPOL after UNPROFOR had successfully crossed Croatian lines to set up a buffer between Croatian and Serbian forces in the Medak pocket. Includes interviews with civilians caught up in the recent Croatian

Serbian denial.

Croatian author Miroslav Međimorec gained access to the battle reports of ARSK 3rd Motorised Brigade (3. mtb), which was stationed near the Canadian UNPROFOR forces on 16 and 17 September 1993. The reports, although written in confusing

Nielsen denial.

Retired Royal Danish Army colonel Vagn Ove Moebjerg Nielsen, UNPROFOR commanding officer in the area at the time, but who was not present for the battle, testifying at the Ademi–Norac trial, denied that there

Canadian denial.

Some Canadian analysts wrote that the skirmish between Croatian and Canadian troops could not be called a real battle, especially if perceived through western standards in which the opposing sides are attached by fire and movement. Croats took no sweeping tank thrusts or infantry movements in order to overtake the ground held by the UN. Skirmish can only be perceived as a battle by what they call "the Balkan standards" in which the opposing side is forced to abandon their positions under pressure

Mine incident.

On 25 September 1993, a Canadian infantry patrol stumbled on a mine which wounded two of its soldiers. They dispatched the APC, which triggered another mine, so two more Canadian soldiers were wounded. Croatian help was asked, received and declined twice before the wounded soldiers were taken to hospital in Zagreb across the Serb-held territory. After this, General Cot again accused Croatian Army of opening fire on the UN personnel, but on 28 September, General Bebetko sent a letter in which he strongly dismissed these claims and suggested establishing a mixed committee to determine the truth. Cot then admitted it was a misunderstanding and apparently apologized for falsely accusing the Croatian side.

War crimes investigations.

The UN immediately began an investigation into the events at Medak. The task was hampered by the systematic destruction that had been carried out by the withdrawing Croatians. The UN forces found that (in the words of an official Canadian study on the incident) "each and every building in the Medak Pocket had been leveled to the ground", in a total of eleven villages and hamlets. UNPROFOR units recovered 18 bodies in the Medak Pocket at the immediate aftermath of the operation. Croatian authorities turned over another 64 bodies which they claimed they recovered at the Medak Pocket which were given to the Serbs authorities. The investigation claimed that one of the factors which complicated the determination of military status was that many civilians wore items of military clothing and many local military wore items of civilian clothing. The Croatians claimed that there were cases of two elderly women killed during the attack. They said that one was killed while operating anti-aircraft battery and onother blew herself up using a grenade to avoid the capture. UN dismissed these claims in their report in 1994., however, several eyewitness on Norac-Ademi trial in 2006., described in detail on how that grenade incident happened.  Investigators from the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) determined that at least 100 Serb civilians had been unlawfully killed and many others had suffered serious injuries; many of the victims were women and elderly people. 29 executed Serb civilians have been identified, as well as five Serb soldiers who had been captured or wounded. More were thought to have been killed, but the bodies were said to have been removed or destroyed by the Croatians. In addition,

Aftermath.

After the offensive, most of the villages in the area were destroyed and depopulated. Even today, the region is still largely abandoned, though some Serbs have since returned to it. The region remained, in effect, neutral ground between the warring sides until near the end of the war. It was recaptured by the Croatian Army on 4 August 1995 during Operation Storm, which ended in the defeat of the self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina.  The offensive also exposed serious weaknesses in the Croatian Army's command, control, and communications, which had also been a problem in Operation Maslenica earlier in the year.  The operation caused serious political difficulties for the Croatian government, which was heavily criticised abroad for its actions at Medak. The well-publicised accusations of war crimes, along with the Muslim-Croat bloodshed in Bosnia, led to Croatia's image being severely tarnished; in many quarters abroad, the country was viewed as having moved from being a victim to an aggressor.  The war crimes committed during the operation damaged the credibility of UNPROFOR as well, as its forces had been unable to prevent them despite being in the vicinity at the time. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, the UN Secretary-General, admitted that  The 2nd Battalion PPCLI Battle Group, was later awarded the Commander-in-Chief Unit Commendation for its actions in the Medak Pocket, the first Canadian unit ever presented this unit commendation.

Operation Medak Pocket (, Операција Медачки џеп) was a military operation undertaken by the Croatian Army between 9 – 17 September 1993, in which a salient reaching the south suburbs of Gospić, in the south-central Lika region of Croatia then under the control of the self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina, was attacked by Croatian forces. The pocket was named after the village of Medak.

Operace Medacká kapsa (chorvatsky: Operacija Medački džep, anglicky: Operation Medak Pocket) se uskutečnila ve dnech 9. až 17. září 1993. Jednalo se o vojenskou operaci chorvatské armády proti srbským separatistům z Republiky Srbská Krajina, jejímž výsledkem byl masakr Srbů. Proto je tato operace známa také jako Medacký masakr.


Early life.

Purcell was born in Wallasey, Cheshire, England. He is the son of Phil Myrtvedt and Mary T. "Maureen" (née Hassett) Purcell. His mother was Irish and his father was a Norwegian of French descent. In 1972, he and his family moved to Bondi, New South Wales in Australia, and later to Western Sydney in Penrith. He attended Blaxland East Public School and Blaxland High School, as well as St Dominic's College and McCarthy Catholic College, Emu Plains. He later attended the Australian Theatre for Young People and then enrolled at the Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts, where he studied with Hugh Jackman. He holds triple British-Irish-Australian citizenship, being British by virtue of being born in the United Kingdom before the country abolished unconditional birthright citizenship in 1983 and being Irish automatically through his Irish mother.

Personal life.

Purcell was married to Rebecca Williamson from 1998 until 2008, during which time the couple had four children. In 2011, he started dating former "90210" actress AnnaLynne McCord; in 2014, the couple announced an amicable split, though they rekindled their romance a year later. McCord told "People Magazine" she came back into his life as a friend when the actor was diagnosed with skin cancer, but the relationship soon turned romantic again. In January 2018, McCord ended the relationship.  On 1 June 2016 Purcell suffered severe injuries on set in Morocco, after a misplaced iron bar used as a "Prison Break" season 5 set piece fell on his head. He was immediately airlifted from Ouarzazate to Casablanca, where he received emergency treatment for nasal fractures and various other injuries.

Dominic Haakon Myrtved Purcell (born 17 February 1970) is an Australian actor. He is best known for his portrayals of Lincoln Burrows in Fox's "Prison Break" (2005–2009; 2017) and Mick Rory / Heat Wave in The CW's "The Flash" (2014–2016) and "Legends of Tomorrow" (2016–present), as well as Drake in "" (2004).

Dominic Haakon Myrtvedt Purcell (17. únor 1970, Merseyside, Anglie) je australský herec, narozený v Anglii, ale nejvíce pracující v USA. Má také irský pas. Nejlépe známý je díky hlavní roli v seriálu "John Doe," roli Lincolna Burrowse v seriálu "Útěk z vězení" a roli Micka Roryho v seriálech "The Flash" a "Legends of Tomorrow".


Early life.

Burns was born in Dallas, Texas, the daughter of Brad and Betsy Burns. Burns has two sisters. She was a ballet dancer for 12 years during childhood and started modeling at age 15 after tearing her anterior cruciate ligament in a skiing accident. At age 16, Burns and her family moved to Europe, where she later lived in Paris, Milan, and Munich.

Career.

Television.

From 1998 to 2001, Burns starred in "Baywatch" as the character Jessie Owens. In 2001, she appeared as Vicki Vale in one of several "Batman" commercials for OnStar, opposite Bruce Thomas's Batman. Burns hosted NBC's "Dog Eat Dog" from June 2002 to August 2003 and was nominated for a Teen Choice Award. Burns starred in "North Shore", a prime-time soap opera that ran for 21 episodes in 2004 and 2005. In 2006, she starred in the WB series "Pepper Dennis" playing Kathy Dinkle. In 2009, Burns appeared in the first twelve episodes of the updated "Melrose Place" playing Vanessa, the most recent wife of Dr. Michael Mancini (Thomas Calabro) and mother of his older son's five-year-old son, Noah. Burns was given the chance to participate in the first season of the ABC celebrity diving reality competition "Splash" but turned it down because of an injury she had received when diving a few years before.  Burns has also appeared on "Ally McBeal", "Just Shoot Me!", "Dog Eat Dog", "Drop Dead Diva", "", "Out of the Blue", "To Tell the Truth", "Average Joe: Hawaii". She was nominated for an Emmy in 2016 for best game show host on the GSN game show "The Chase" with Mark Labbett and is currently host of "Master Minds".

Film.

For her role in the 2001 film "Shallow Hal", the Farrelly brothers wrote a specific part for Burns after deciding during her audition that she was the "prettiest dorky girl" they'd ever met. She appeared in a Hallmark Channel Christmas movie, "The Most Wonderful Time of the Year", co-starring Henry Winkler, on December 13, 2008. Other films include "Smokejumpers", "Dancing Trees", "Trophy Wife", "Art of Travel", and "Time and Again". Burns appears in the Nickelback video "Trying Not to Love You" opposite Jason Alexander. Burns and Alexander both appeared in the 2001 movie "Shallow Hal".

Personal life.

Burns grew up in Texas in a Christian family. Her father was in the oil business and also did missionary work. Burns was married to actor Julian McMahon from 1999 to 2001. McMahon is the son of the former Prime Minister of Australia Sir William McMahon. They have a daughter – Madison Elizabeth McMahon – who was born in June 2000.  On June 22, 2013, she married film director Gavin O'Connor. She currently resides in Los Angeles.  In October 2016, it was announced that Burns was expecting her second child, a girl; Burns announced that her daughter, Declan Welles, was born January 22, 2017.

Health and injuries.

On November 10, 2005, Burns broke her neck in a diving accident. Although she made a full recovery, she has a titanium fusion in her neck consisting of a plate, rod, and 10 screws. In May 2014, Burns was involved in a car crash in Los Angeles.

Charitable activities.

When Burns was filming "Baywatch", she was involved with Camp Baywatch, teaching inner-city children to swim and lifeguard. Burns also supports the Life Rolls On Foundation, an organization that aims to help people with spinal cord injuries return to an active lifestyle. In 2006, as a result of her diving injury, she became involved with the Think First National Injury Prevention Foundation and the North American Spine Society, which aim to raise awareness of spinal injuries.

Brooke Elizabeth Burns (born March 16, 1978) is an American fashion model, game show host, actress, and television personality. Burns began her television career in 1995, portraying the supporting character Peg, in the Spanish-American teen sitcom "Out of the Blue" (1995–1996), appearing in all episodes. Burns joined the cast of the action drama series "Baywatch" in 1998, and subsequently starred in "Baywatch's" second rendition, "Baywatch: Hawaii", until she left the show due to her first pregnancy. She appeared in 33 episodes.

Brooke Elizabeth Burnsová (16. března 1978, Dallas, Texas) je americká herečka a bývalá modelka, asi nejlépe známá díky seriálům "Pobřežní hlídka" a "".


Life and career.

Early life and career (1936–1955).

Holly was born Charles Hardin Holley on September 7, 1936, in Lubbock, Texas, the fourth child of Lawrence Odell "L.O." Holley (1901–1985) and Ella Pauline Drake (1902–1990). His elder siblings were Larry (born in 1925), Travis (1927–2016), and Patricia Lou (1929–2008). Buddy Holly was of mostly English and Welsh descent but had small amounts of Native American ancestry as well. From early childhood, he was nicknamed "Buddy". During the Great Depression, the Holleys frequently moved residence within Lubbock; L.O. changed jobs several times. Buddy Holly was baptized a Baptist, and the family were members of the Tabernacle Baptist Church.  The Holleys had an interest in music; all the family members except L.O. were able to play an instrument or sing. The elder Holley brothers performed in local

The Crickets (1956–1957).

Holly was unhappy with the results of his time with Decca; he was inspired by the success of Buddy Knox's "Party Doll" and Jimmy Bowen's "I'm Stickin' with You", and visited Norman Petty, who had produced and promoted both records. Together with Allison, bassist Joe B. Mauldin, and rhythm guitarist Niki Sullivan, he went to Petty's studio in Clovis, New Mexico. The group recorded a demo of "That'll Be the Day", a song they had previously recorded in Nashville. Now playing lead guitar, Holly achieved the sound he desired. Petty became his manager and sent the record to Brunswick Records in New York City. Holly, still under contract with Decca, could not release the

International tours and breakaway (1958).

On January 8, 1958, Holly and the Crickets joined "America's Greatest Teenage Recording Stars" tour. On January 25, Holly recorded "Rave On"; the next day, he made his second appearance on "The Ed Sullivan Show", singing "Oh, Boy!" He departed to perform in Honolulu, Hawaii, on January 27, and then started a week-long tour of Australia billed as the "Big Show" with Paul Anka, Jerry Lee Lewis and Jodie Sands. In March, the band toured the United Kingdom, playing 50 shows in 25 days. The same month, his debut solo album, "Buddy Holly", was released. Upon their return to the United States, Holly and the Crickets joined Alan Freed's "Big Beat Show" tour for 41 dates. In April, Decca released "That'll Be the Day", featuring the songs recorded with Bradley during

Winter Dance Party tour and death (1959).

Holly vacationed with his wife in Lubbock and visited Jennings's radio station in December 1958. For the start of the Winter Dance Party tour, he assembled a band consisting of Waylon Jennings (electric bass), Tommy Allsup (guitar), and Carl Bunch (drums). Holly and Jennings left for New York City, arriving on January 15, 1959. Jennings stayed at Holly's apartment by Washington Square Park on the days prior to a meeting scheduled at the headquarters of the General Artists Corporation, which organized the tour. They then traveled by train to Chicago to join the rest of the band. The Winter Dance Party tour began in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on January 23, 1959.

Image and style.

Holly's singing style was characterized by his vocal hiccups and his alternation between his regular voice and falsetto. His "stuttering vocals" were complemented by his percussive guitar playing, solos, stops, bent notes, and rhythm and blues chord progressions. He often strummed downstrokes that were accompanied by Allison's "driving" percussion.  Holly bought his first Fender Stratocaster, which became his signature guitar, at Harrod Music in Lubbock for US$249.50. Fender Stratocasters were popular with country musicians; Holly chose it for its loud sound. His "innovative" playing style was characterized by its blending of "chunky rhythm" and "high string lead work". He played his first Stratocaster, a 1954 model, until it was stolen during a tour stop in Michigan in 1957. To replace it, he purchased a 1957 model before a show in Detroit. Holly owned four or five Stratocasters during his career.  At the beginning of their music careers, Holly and his band wore

Legacy.

Buddy Holly left behind dozens of unfinished recordings — solo transcriptions of his new compositions, informal jam sessions with bandmates, or tapes demonstrating songs intended for other artists. The most recent recordings, made in Holly's apartment in late 1958, were his last six original songs. In June 1959, Coral Records overdubbed two of them with backing vocals by the Ray Charles Singers and studio musicians in an attempt to simulate the established Crickets sound. The finished tracks became the first posthumous Holly single, "Peggy Sue Got Married"/"Crying, Waiting, Hoping". The new release was successful enough to warrant an album drawing upon the other Holly demos, using the same studio personnel, in January 1960. All six songs were included in "The Buddy Holly Story, Vol. 2" (1960).  The demand for Holly records was so great, and Holly had recorded so prolifically, that his record label was able to release new Holly albums and singles for the next 10 years. Norman Petty produced most of these new editions, drawing upon unreleased studio masters, alternative takes, audition tapes, and even amateur recordings (some dating back to 1954 with low-fidelity vocals). The final "new" Buddy Holly album, "Giant", was released in 1969; the single chosen from the album was "Love Is Strange". "Encyclopædia Britannica" stated that Holly "produced some of the most distinctive and influential work in rock music". AllMusic defined him as "the single most influential creative force in early rock and roll". "Rolling Stone" ranked him number 13 on its list of "100 Greatest Artists". The "Telegraph" called him a "pioneer and a revolutionary [...] a multidimensional talent [...] (who) co-wrote and performed (songs that) remain as fresh and potent today".  The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame included Holly among its first class in 1986. On its entry, the Hall of Fame remarked upon the large quantity of material he produced during his short musical career, and said it "made a major and lasting impact on popular music". It called him an "innovator" for writing his own material, his experimentation with double tracking and the use of orchestration; he is also said to have "pioneered and popularized the now-standard" use of two guitars, bass, and drums by rock bands. The Songwriters Hall of Fame also inducted Holly in 1986, and said his contributions "changed the face of Rock 'n' Roll". Holly developed in collaboration with Petty techniques of overdubbing and reverberation, while he used innovative instrumentation later implemented by other artists. Holly became "one of the most influential pioneers of rock and roll" who had a "lasting influence" on genre performers of the 1960s. In 1980, Grant Speed sculpted a statue of Holly playing his Fender guitar. This statue is the centerpiece of Lubbock's Walk of Fame, which honors notable people who contributed to Lubbock's musical history. Other memorials to Buddy Holly include a street named in his honor and the Buddy Holly Center, which contains a museum of Holly memorabilia and fine arts gallery. The Center is located on Crickets Avenue, one street east of Buddy Holly Avenue, in a building that previously housed the Fort Worth and Denver South Plains Railway Depot.  In 1997, the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences gave Holly the Lifetime Achievement Award. Holly was inducted into the Iowa Rock 'n' Roll Hall of Fame in 2000. In 2010, Grant Speed's statue was taken down for refurbishment and construction of a new Walk of Fame began. On May 9, 2011, the City of Lubbock held a ribbon-cutting ceremony for the Buddy and Maria Elena Holly Plaza, the new home of the statue and the Walk of Fame. The same year, a star bearing Holly's name was placed on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, commemorating his 75th birthday.  Groundbreaking was held on April 20, 2017, for the construction of a new performing arts center in Lubbock, the Buddy Holly Hall of Performing Arts and Sciences, a downtown $153 million project expected to be completed in 2020. Thus far, the private group, the Lubbock Entertainment and Performing Arts Association, has raised or received pledges in the amount of $93 million to underwrite the project.  According to a June 2019 article in "The New York Times Magazine", "virtually all of Holly's masters were lost" in the 2008 Universal fire. This is disputed by Chad Kassem of Analogue Productions, who claims to have used the master tapes of Holly's first two albums in Analogue Productions reissues of these albums on LP and SACD in 2017.

Influence.

John Lennon and Paul McCartney saw Holly for the first time when he appeared on "Sunday Night at the London Palladium". The two had recently met and begun their musical association. They studied Holly's records, learned his performance style and lyricism, and based their act around his persona. Inspired by Holly's insect-themed Crickets, they chose to name their band "The Beatles". Lennon and McCartney later cited Holly as one of their main influences.  Lennon's band the Quarrymen covered "That'll Be the Day" in their first recording session, in 1958. During breaks in the Beatles' first appearance on "The Ed Sullivan Show", on February 9, 1964, Lennon asked CBS coordinator Vic Calandra about Holly's performances; Calandra said Lennon and McCartney repeatedly expressed their appreciation of Holly. The Beatles recorded a close cover of Holly's version of "Words of Love", which was released on their 1964 album "Beatles for Sale" (in the U.S., in June 1965 on "Beatles VI"). During the January 1969 recording sessions for their album "Let It Be", the Beatles played a slow, impromptu version of "Mailman, Bring Me No More Blues" – which Holly popularized but did not write – with Lennon mimicking Holly's vocal style. Lennon recorded a cover version of "Peggy Sue" on his 1975 album "Rock 'n' Roll". McCartney owns the publishing rights to Holly's song catalogue.  On January 31, 1959, two nights before Holly's death, 17-year-old Bob Dylan attended Holly's performance in Duluth. Dylan referred to this in his acceptance speech when he received the Grammy Award for Album of the Year for "Time Out of Mind" in 1998: "... when I was sixteen or seventeen years old, I went to see Buddy Holly play at Duluth National Guard Armory and I was three feet away from him... and he looked at me. And I just have some sort of feeling that he was... with us all the time we were making this record in some kind of way".  Mick Jagger saw Holly performing live in Woolwich, London, during a tour of England; Jagger particularly remembered Holly's performance of

Film and musical depictions.

Holly's life story inspired a Hollywood biographical film, "The Buddy Holly Story" (1978); its lead actor Gary Busey received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Holly. The film was widely criticized by the rock press, and by Holly's friends and family, for its inaccuracies. This led Paul McCartney (whose MPL Communications by then controlled the publishing rights to Buddy Holly's song catalog) to produce and host his own documentary about Holly in 1985, titled "The Real Buddy Holly Story". This video includes interviews with Keith Richards, Phil and Don Everly, Sonny Curtis, Jerry Allison, Holly's family, and McCartney, among others.  In 1987, musician Marshall Crenshaw portrayed Buddy Holly in the movie "La Bamba", which depicts him performing at the Surf Ballroom and boarding the fatal airplane with Ritchie Valens and the Big Bopper. Crenshaw's version of "Crying, Waiting, Hoping" is featured on the "La Bamba" original motion picture soundtrack. "Buddy – The Buddy Holly Story", a jukebox musical depicting Holly's life, is credited for being the first of its kind. It spawned the genre that later included

Charles Hardin Holley (September 7, 1936 – February 3, 1959), known professionally as Buddy Holly, was an American musician and singer-songwriter who was a central and pioneering figure of mid-1950s rock and roll. He was born in Lubbock, Texas, to a musical family during the Great Depression, and learned to play guitar and sing alongside his siblings. His style was influenced by gospel music, country music, and rhythm and blues acts, which he performed in Lubbock with his friends from high school.

Charles Hardin Holley (7. září 1936 – 3. února 1959), známější spíše pod pseudonymem Buddy Holly, byl americký kytarista, zpěvák, autor písní, jeden z průkopníků rock'n'rollu. Změna příjmení z „Holley” na „Holly” vznikla náhodou. Měl totiž podepsat připravenou smlouvu s hudebním vydavatelstvím, ale jeho jméno bylo zkomoleno na „Holly”. Pod tímto pseudonymem později budoval svoji profesionální kariéru.


Design details.

The IWI Negev is a gas-operated selective fire light machine gun that uses propellant gases from the barrel to cycle a short-stroke gas piston operating system under the barrel and a rotary bolt locking mechanism. The bolt itself features 4 radial locking lugs that engage the barrel extension and its rotation is controlled by a pin on the bolt body, which rides inside a camming guide machined into the bolt carrier. The bolt contains a spring-powered casing extractor unit, while a lever ejector is housed inside the receiver (it is rotated by the recoiling bolt carrier).  The design was meant to be reliable, especially in adverse conditions. In 1997, it was officially adopted by the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF).

Striker firing mechanism.

The Negev is striker-fired, where the bolt carrier assembly acts as the striker, and fires from an open bolt position. A lever-type fire control selector switch is provided (“A”— for fully automatic fire and “R”— for semi-automatic fire), installed on the left side of the pistol grip, which doubles as a manual safety against accidental firing. The safe “S” position disables the sear mechanism (which makes it impossible to cock the bolt carrier), by lifting the lever responsible for holding the bolt carrier in the forward position and disconnects the trigger mechanism from the sear. The weapon can be secured safe regardless of the position of the bolt carrier group. The cocking handle is equipped with a ratcheting mechanism that immobilizes the partially cocked bolt carrier.

Gas regulator.

The Negev's adjustable gas regulator has three settings: Early prototypes used a different 3-position gas adjustment system:

Barrel.

The Negev has a quick-change chrome-lined barrel that is manufactured using a cold hammer forging process. The barrel is fitted with a slotted flash suppressor and a fixed carry handle, which is used to transport the weapon and change-out an overheated barrel. The barrel can be changed only after lifting open the feed tray cover.  During the weapon's initial development a barrel with a 1 in 305 mm (1:12 in) rifling twist rate was also planned, adapted for the lightweight M193 cartridge. Additionally, a multifunction muzzle device was designed, used to launch rifle grenades.

Sights.

The Negev's iron sights (closed-type) consist of a front post (adjustable for both windage and elevation) and a rear aperture sight with an elevation adjustment drum, with 300 to 1,000 m range settings in 100 m increments. The sight line radius is. For night-time operation the weapon is equipped with gaseoustritium-illuminated vials (supplied by Betalight): one installed in the front sight post, and two—on a notch sight under the standard aperture sight arm (before use, the rear sight leaf is pivoted forward to expose the night notch sight). A rail is integrated into the receiver top cover that allows optical day and night-time sights to be mounted to the weapon. The barrel can also be optionally fitted with mounting hardware that would allow the Negev to mount a laser pointer or reflex sight.  The machine gun has a metal side-folding (right side) stock and a removable bipod, installed to the forward end of the handguard and folded under the handguard when stowed. The receiver also has slots and hooks used to secure the weapon to vehicle mounting hardware.

Cartridges.

The Negev uses the 5.56×45mm NATO intermediate cartridge and is optimized for the SS109 bullet. Field maintenance involves stripping the weapon down to six main groups: the barrel, stock, bolt carrier, bolt, bipod and return mechanism. All parts, including the quick-change barrels are fully interchangeable. The Negev NG-7 uses the 7.62×51mm NATO full-power battle rifle cartridge.

Ammunition feeding.

The Negev feeds from an M27 disintegrating, open-link ammunition belt, carried in a 150-round fabric container that clips into the magazine well, or alternatively from a 35-round box magazine from the Galil assault rifle, or a 30-round STANAG magazine from the M16 rifle (with the use of an adapter). 200-round ammunition belt containers are also available. Belted ammunition is introduced into the feed tray port from the left side, while the magazine is inserted vertically into the magazine well at the base of the receiver. The feed system uses a pawl feeding mechanism, driven by the recoiling bolt carrier, but the belt is moved only during the rearward movement of the bolt carrier. The non-reciprocating charging handle is located on the right side of the weapon.

The Negev is a 5.56×45mm NATO light machine gun developed by the Israeli firearm manufacturer, Israel Weapon Industries (IWI) (formerly Israel Military Industries Ltd. (IMI)) of Ramat HaSharon.

IMI Negev je kulomet izraelské výroby ráže 5,56 × 45 mm NATO, vyráběný firmou Israel Military Industries Ltd. (dnes Israel Weapon Industries) jako náhrada pěchotního kulometu Galil ARM (assault rifle and machine gun) stejné ráže. Vývoj zbraně započal již v roce 1985, od devadesátých let je kulomet nasazen v jednotkách Izraelských obranných sil. Kromě Izraele jej využívají ještě armády Estonska, Kolumbie, Thajska a policejní sbory Kostariky.


Introduction.

Most modern internal combustion engines are cooled by a closed circuit carrying liquid coolant through channels in the engine block and cylinder head, where the coolant absorbs heat, to a heat exchanger or radiator where the coolant releases heat into the air (or raw water, in the case of marine engines). Thus, while they are not "ultimately" cooled by the liquid, because of the liquid-coolant circuit they are known as "water-cooled". In contrast, heat generated by an air-cooled engine is released directly into the air. Typically this is facilitated with metal fins covering the outside of the Cylinder Head and cylinders which increase the surface area that air can act on. Air may be force fed with the use of a fan and shroud to achieve efficient cooling with high volumes of air or simply by natural air flow with well designed and angled fins.  In all combustion engines, a great percentage of the heat generated (around 44%) escapes through the exhaust, not through either a liquid cooling system nor through the metal fins of an air-cooled engine (12%). About 8% of the heat energy finds its way into the oil, which although primarily meant for lubrication, also plays a role in heat dissipation via a cooler. Air cooled engines usually run noisier, however it provides more simplicity which gives benefits when it comes to servicing and part replacement and is usually cheaper to be maintained.

Applications.

Road vehicles.

Many motorcycles use air cooling for the sake of reducing weight and complexity. Few current production automobiles have air-cooled engines (such as Tatra 815), but historically it was common for many high-volume vehicles. Examples of past air-cooled road vehicles, in roughly chronological order, include:

Aviation.

Most aviation piston engines are air-cooled. While water cooled engines were widely used from the early days of flight, air cooled engines were the dominant choice in aircraft. Following the Second World War, turbojets and jet turbine powered aircraft have come to dominate flight regimes where water cooled piston engines offered the advantage of reduced drag. Today, piston engines are mostly used in slower general aviation aircraft where the greater drag produced by air cooled engines is not a major disadvantage. Therefore, most aero engines produced today are of the air cooled variety. Today, most of the engines currently (2005) manufactured by Lycoming and Continental and used by major manufacturers of light aircraft Cirrus, Cessna and so on.  Other engine manufactures using air-cooled engine technology are ULPower and Jabiru, more active in the Light-Sport Aircraft (LSA) and ultralight aircraft market. Rotax uses a combination of air-cooled cylinders and liquid-cooled cylinder heads.

Diesel engines.

Some small diesel engines, e.g. those made by Deutz AG and Lister Petter are air-cooled. Probably the only big Euro 5 truck air-cooled engine (V8 320 kW power 2100 N·m torque one) is being produced by Tatra.

Stationary or portable engines.

Stationary or portable engines were commercially introduced early in the 1900s. The first commercial production was by the New Way Motor Company of Lansing, Michigan, US. The company produced air-cooled engines in single and twin cylinders in both horizontal and vertical cylinder format. Subsequent to their initial production which was exported worldwide, other companies took up the advantages of this cooling method, especially in small portable engines. Applications include mowers, generators, outboard motors, pump sets, saw benches and auxiliary power plants and more.

Air-cooled engines rely on the circulation of air directly over heat dissipation fins or hot areas of the engine to cool them in order to keep the engine within operating temperatures. In all combustion engines, a great percentage of the heat generated (around 44%) escapes through the exhaust, not through the metal fins of an air-cooled engine (12%). About 8% of the heat energy is transferred to the oil, which although primarily meant for lubrication, also plays a role in heat dissipation via a cooler. "Air-cooled engines" are used generally in applications which would not suit liquid cooling, as such modern air-cooled engines are used in motorcycles, general aviation aircraft, lawn mowers, generators, outboard motors, pump sets, saw benches and auxiliary power units.

Vzduchové chlazení je způsob chlazení spalovacích motorů. Oproti kapalinovému chlazení má menší tepelnou setrvačnost, což je výhodné v extrémních teplotních podmínkách. Účelem chlazení je udržet provozní teplotu motoru (85–95 °C) a odvést přebytečné teplo, které není využito k mechanické práci ani není odvedeno výfukem. Jedná se o chlazení přímé (odvod tepla do okolí není zprostředkován jiným médiem).


Playing career.

Early career.

Aragonés began his playing career with CD Getafe in 1957 and that was also where he picked up his nickname "the elf". In 1958, he signed for Real Madrid but never made it into the senior team. He spent most of his time at Real Madrid on loan to other clubs, including Recreativo de Huelva and Hércules and playing for AD Plus Ultra, the Real Madrid reserve team. In 1960, he joined Real Oviedo and made his debut in the Primera División. Between 1961 and 1964, he played for Real Betis, making 86 league appearances and scoring 33 goals.

Atlético Madrid.

In 1964, Aragonés was signed by Atlético Madrid where he acquired the nickname ""Zapatones"", meaning "big boots", since he was known as a free kick specialist. Aragonés picked up silverware in his first season at the club, winning the Copa del Rey (then known as the Copa del Generalísimo). He then helped Atlético to the La Liga title in 1965–66 and again in 1969–70, where he shared the "Pichichi" trophy for the highest scorer in the league with his fellow Atlético forward José Eulogio Gárate and Real Madrid's Amancio. A second Copa followed in 1973 and the team achieved a third league title in 1973–74. The following year, Atlético reached the final of the European Cup played against German champions Bayern Munich. During the match, Aragonés scored a goal late in extra time to give Atlético a 1–0 lead. A 119th-minute equaliser from Georg Schwarzenbeck, however, sent the final to a replay, where Bayern prevailed with a convincing 4–0 victory. His retirement followed soon after and he was appointed Atlético coach for the first time in the same year. To date, Aragonés remains Atlético's all-time top goalscorer and is ninth in the club's all-time appearance list.

International.

Aragonés made his international debut for Spain on 8 May 1965 in a 0–0 friendly draw away to Scotland. The first of his three goals for Spain was in a friendly against France in Lyon, in a 3–1 win on his seventh cap on 17 October 1968. He captained the side for the sole time on his 10th of 11 caps, a 3–0 win over Northern Ireland in Seville on 11 November 1970 in qualification for UEFA Euro 1972. He scored in the match.

Managerial career.

Spanish clubs.

In his first season in charge at Atlético Madrid, Aragonés led Atlético to success over two legs in the 1974 Intercontinental Cup, where the team beat Copa Libertadores winners Independiente of Argentina 2–1 on aggregate. Atlético went on to claim the Copa del Generalísimo and La Liga title in 1976 and 1977 respectively.  After six years in charge of Atlético, Aragonés took over at Real Betis in 1981. His time in Andalusia, however, was brief and he returned to the Vicente Calderón in 1982. In his second spell at the club, his Atlético side came close to achieving a historic double during the 1984–85 season, winning the Copa del Rey and finishing runner-up in La Liga. The following season, the team reached the final of the European Cup Winners' Cup, where it was beaten 3–0 by Dynamo Kyiv.  Aragonés' success saw him appointed as manager of Barcelona in 1987, where he spent one season, winning the Copa del Rey. He then spent a season at fellow Barcelona based club Espanyol before rejoining Atlético for a third spell, where he won the sixth Copa del Rey of his career in 1992.  After leaving the club for a third time in 1993, he went on to coach Sevilla, Valencia, Real Betis, Real Oviedo and Mallorca. His biggest success during this period was coming within four points of winning the 1995–96 La Liga title with Valencia.  In 2001, with the club in the Segunda División, Aragonés took over at Atlético for a fourth time and led the team to promotion back to the Primera División as champions in the 2001–02 season. He left the club for the final time in 2003 and remains its most successful manager with eight trophies won.  Aragonés returned to Mallorca on 2 October of the 2003–04 season, after the dismissal of Jaime Pacheco for a poor start to the season. He steered the club to 11th by the end of the season. On 1 July 2004, he took the job of Spain national team after Iñaki Sáez resigned due to public disapproval for failing to qualify the team from the group stage at UEFA Euro 2004.

Spanish national football team.

On taking over the national team, Aragonés made changes to the team, dropping experienced players such as Míchel Salgado and Raúl. He also employed "tiki-taka", a system of short passing which subsequently would also be identified with the playing style of Barcelona. Spain were unbeaten in qualification for the 2006 FIFA World Cup under Aragonés, but finished as group runner-up to Serbia and Montenegro, and thus required a play-off against Slovakia to secure their place. Spain won the play-off 6–2 on aggregate, with Luis García scoring a hat-trick in the first-leg 5–1 win. At the finals, Spain won all three group games before facing France in the Second Round. After taking the lead through David Villa, they lost 3–1 following goals from Franck Ribéry, Patrick Vieira and Zinedine Zidane.  Aragonés stayed on as manager and presided over the following qualifications for the European Championship. The initial phase of the qualifiers started on a poor note with a 3–2 defeat to Northern Ireland and a 2–0 defeat to Sweden both away from home, a pair of results that put tremendous pressure on Aragonés' position. Spain recovered strongly to seal a ticket as group winners ahead of Sweden that also qualified directly to the tournament, while Denmark missed out.  Aragonés then presided over Spain's victorious campaign at Euro 2008, beating Germany 1–0 in the final with a goal from Fernando Torres for their first international honour since 1964. Aragonés had a superstitious fear of the colour yellow, and referred to Spain's change kit for the semi-final match against Russia as "mustard" and not "yellow".  His "tiki-taka" style of play was retained by his successor, Vicente del Bosque, who led Spain to further tournament victories.

Fenerbahçe.

After denying an approach in late June, Aragonés replaced Zico as manager of Turkish Süper Lig club Fenerbahçe on 5 July 2008. He signed a two-year deal and declared his intention to win the league title in his first season. The club, however, finished in fourth, and he was dismissed on 2 June 2009 after the season had ended.

Honours.

Player.

Atlético Madrid

Individual.

Records

Manager.

Atlético Madrid  Barcelona  Spain

Thierry Henry controversy.

In 2004, Aragonés was appointed coach of Spain. During a training session in the same year, a Spanish TV crew filmed Aragonés making offensive comments to José Antonio Reyes about Reyes' black Arsenal teammate Thierry Henry, saying: The incident caused uproar in the English media with calls for Aragonés to be sacked or suspended of his duties, however the Spanish Football Federation stated that "his offence has not been deemed serious enough to warrant a suspension of his duties, or his sacking" After an investigation into the events during the match, UEFA fined the Royal Spanish Football Federation 100,000 Swiss francs/US$87,000 and warned that any future incidents would be punished more severely. UEFA noted that possible punishments could include suspension from major international tournaments or the closure of Spain's home international matches to supporters.  In response to this, Aragonés said in public that he was not a racist, and claimed that he had black friends. Brazilian-born black midfielder Marcos Senna stated:  Aragonés later criticised England's colonial past in the build-up to a match between the two national teams in November 2004 which was also overshadowed by racist abuse aimed at non-white English players. These comments were criticised by Bobby Barnes, a member of the Professional Footballers' Association's executive and a trustee of the football anti-racism organisation Kick It Out, who suggested that Aragonés' comments on colonialism were an attempt "...to justify his offensive and disgraceful statement".

Death & legacy.

Aragonés died on 1 February 2014 at 6:15am in Clínica CEMTRO hospital in Madrid, from leukemia.  The Royal Spanish Football Federation released a statement of "grief and shock" at the death of the man who was the coach at "the start of its most glorious era of successes on the world stage". Diego Simeone, incumbent manager of Atlético Madrid, spoke on the day of Aragonés' death, saying, "From here I want to send a very strong message to his family. Everyone at Atletico is hurting at the loss of such an important part of the club and for the Spanish football." Aragonés' successor as the coach of Spanish national team, Vicente Del Bosque gave his word, “ We’ve woken up to a sad news. Luis has been the father of the successes for the National Team. We are in his hall and I think we will always carry him in our memory. ”  His funeral was held on 2 February in Madrid with the attendance including Spanish players Carles Puyol, Cesc Fàbregas, Andrés Iniesta and Xavi. He was buried in the cemetery of La Paz in Alcobendas.  At the 2014 UEFA Champions League Final, Atlético Madrid wore shirts with Aragonés' name written in gold on the inside of the collar.  Atlético Madrid pays tribute to Luis Aragonés in the club membership cards for 2019-20 season.  A statue dedicated to him will be erected outside Atlético Madrid's home-ground, the Metropolitano Stadium.

Luis Aragonés Suárez (; 28 July 1938 – 1 February 2014) was a Spanish footballer and manager. Aragonés spent the majority of his career as a player and coach at Atlético Madrid. He was a prominent player and then coach of the successful Atlético team of the late 1960s and early 1970s. The team were national champions four times, reached the 1974 European Cup Final. Between 1964 and 1974, he played 265 Primera Liga games for Atlético and scored 123 goals. He also played for several other clubs, including Real Madrid, and played 11 times for Spain, scoring three goals.

José Luis Aragonés Suárez (28. července 1938 Madrid - 1. února 2014 Madrid) byl španělský fotbalista a trenér. Jako trenér dovedl Španělsko k titulu mistrů Evropy 2008.