History.

The Congregation of the "Missionary Sons of the Immaculate Heart of Mary" was founded by Anthony Mary Claret on July 16, 1849 at the seminary in Vic, in the province of Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.  Claret had been thinking for a long time about preparing priests to proclaim the Gospel and bring together a group of priests who shared his vision to accomplish work he could not do alone. Through his missionary work in Catalonia and the Canary Islands he was convinced that people needed to be evangelized and there were not enough priests who were sufficiently prepared or zealous enough for this mission. Only 20 days after the CMF's founding, Claret received news of his appointment as Archbishop of Cuba, which he accepted despite his reluctance. The Congregation was left under the guidance of one of the co-founders, Esteban Sala, who died in 1858. Another co-founder, José Xifré, took over the directorship. Under his leadership the Congregation established its first mission was in Equatorial Guinea.  With the coming of the Revolution of 1868, the Congregation was suppressed by the state and all the Missionaries had to seek refuge in France. Archbishop Claret also went into exile there. He played a major role editing the Constitutions, which the Holy See approved on February 11, 1870, only a few months before his death. At this time the institute had its first holy martyr, Francisco Crusats. Archbishop Claret, the founder, had the great satisfaction of seeing new foundations established throughout Spain, as well as in Africa (Argel), and in Latin America in México, Chile, and also, in the Philippines.  The missionaries often faced extreme hardships. Of the eleven that made up the first expedition to Cuba all but two died a few days after arriving on the island. During the Mexican Revolution, Father Andres Sola died a martyr; and in the Spanish Civil War, 270 missionary priests, brothers and students were killed. Among them are the "51 Blessed Martyrs of Barbastro", members of the Claretian community at the seminary in Barbastro, Spain who were executed in August 1936, including nine priests and five brothers. Two were spared as they were foreigners from Argentina. These 51 Claretian Martyrs were the companions of the 18 Benedictine Martyrs of El Pueyo, Barbastro. They were beatified by Pope John Paul II on 25 October 1992, and are commemorated on 25 October. The relics of all fifty-one martyrs are kept at their original seminary in Barbastro, which now functions as a museum and chapel.  In 1949 all the missionaries were expelled from China. In 1973 through the instrumentality of Fr Christian Ihedoro, the Congregation came to Nigeria. In May 2000 Father Rhoel Gallardo was murdered by Islamic separatists in Mindanao.

Publications.

The Congregation has an academic publishing company, "Editiones Institutum Iuridicum Claretianum" (Ediurcla), based in Rome. Their journal "Commentarium pro Religiosis" has been appearing since 1920, from 1935 as "Commentarium pro Religiosis et Missionariis" (abbreviated "CRM", ISSN 1124-0172).  A number of "Claretian publishing houses" are united in the "Claret Publishing Group", including "Misioneros Claretianos " (Sevilla), "Editorial Claretiana" (Buenos Aires), "Misioneros Claretianos" (Madrid), "Claretian Communications Foundation Inc." (Quezon City, formerly "Claretian Publications", established 1981) "Claretian Publications" (Bangalore) and "Congregation Des Missionaires Claretians" (Yaoundé). Another publisher called "Claretian Publications" is based in Chicago, Illinois and Skokie, Illinois. It issues the magazine U.S. Catholic.

By location.

California.

The Missionary Sons of the Immaculate Heart of Mary in Rome (aka: The Claretians), had come to Southern California by way of Mexico in the early 1900s, working in Los Angeles inner city missions. Since 1908 the Claretians have operated the historic La Iglesia de Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles in Pueblo de Los Angeles near Downtown Los Angeles, as well as Mission San Gabriel, one of the original Spanish missions in California.  One noted member of the Claretian community in the Los Angeles area was Aloysius Ellacuria, C.M.F., born in Spain, who arrived there in 1930. He spent nearly fifty years in various position of the congregation in the American Southwest, but mostly Los Angeles. He became known as a man of deep faith, who touched thousands in his ministry and is considered by many as a mystic. The cause for his canonization is under consideration by the congregation, after hundreds of requests prompted the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles to refer the matter to them.  From 1952 to 1977 The Claretians also served from the Theological Seminary of Claretville and Immaculate Heart Claretian novitiate, on the former King Gillette Ranch in Calabasas, located in the Santa Monica Mountains of rural western Los Angeles County. The Thomas Aquinas College was also here from 1971 until moving to a permanent campus in Santa Paula, California in 1975. The land and structures are now part of Malibu Creek State Park.  The Claretians returned to their original Southern California location, the Dominguez Seminary near the Dominguez Rancho Adobe of Rancho San Pedro, in Rancho Dominguez, California near Long Beach.

National Shrine of St. Jude, Chicago.

The national shrine of St. Jude was founded by Father James Tort, C.M.F., pastor of Our Lady of Guadalupe Church in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Many of Tort’s parishioners were laborers in the nearby steel mills, which were drastically cutting back their work forces early in 1929. Tort was saddened to see that about 90% of his parishioners were without jobs and in difficult financial situations.  In an effort to lift the spirits of his parishioners, Tort began regular devotions to Saint Jude. The first novena honoring the saint was held on February 17, 1929. During the Depression of the 1930s and during World War II, thousands of men, women, and children attended novenas at the shrine and devotion to the patron saint of desperate causes spread throughout the country.

United Kingdom.

The community established the parish of the Immaculate Heart of Mary in Hayes in 1912 to offer services to Spanish speaking immigrants in the London area. The parish ministry continues to serve the different immigrant communities that pass through Hayes. Buckden Towers was left by a Mrs Edelston to the diocese of Northampton. It served as the Claretians Junior Seminary until 1965. Parish work was undertaken in the area, especially in the American Air bases at Chalveston, Alconbury and Molesworth. Then in 1969 the diocese of Northampton asked the Claretians to make Buckden Towers a parish under the title of St Hugh of Lincoln. The parish has grown in numbers and the Bishop of East Anglia asked the Claretians to take over the parish of St Neots as well in 2011. In 1997 the Claretians took over the multi-ethnic and multi-lingual parish of St Josephs, Leyton, Brentwood diocese.

In India.

At the invitation by the Bishop of Quilon, Fr. Peter Schweiger, the Claretian General Superior visited India in May 1956 to see the conditions for Claretian mission expansion. Later in 1961 Bishop Sebastian Vayalil of Pala diocese, Kerala, facilitated the selection of candidates for the congregation. Accordingly, five students from India were sent to Germany for their studies, of whom Fr. Joseph Madhavath is the first Indian Claretian priest, ordained on 27 July 1968. Under the guidance of Fr. Franz Dirnberger, the Claretians grew in numbers and spread all over India. As of January 2018 there are three provinces, one independent delegation and one dependent delegation of Claretians in India with more than 500 full pledged members.

In the Philippines.

After the end of World War II, the Claretians arrived in the Philippines and took over Sta. Barbara Parish, Sta. Barbara, Pangasinan upon the invitation by the late Bishop Mariano Aspiras Madriaga, D.D. of the then Diocese of Lingayen-Dagupan. The first Claretian missionaries in the Philippines were Fr. Raymond Catalan, CMF, Fr. Arcadio Hortelano Martin, CMF and Fr. Thomas Mitchell, CMF. Through the years, the Claretians were able to establish different institutions like Claret Schools of Quezon City and Zamboanga, Claret College of Isabela, Claretian Publications Philippines (now Claretian Communications Foundation, Inc.). Likewise, they managed mission areas especially in Mindanao.

In Portugal.

In Portugal, the Claretians direct the Pio XII University College, in Lisbon, and the Internal College of Carvalhos, in Vila Nova de Gaia, and also they have the Seminary of the Heart of Mary and a large Host and Spirituality House in Cova da Iria, Fatima, near the Sanctuary of Our Lady of the Rosary of Fatima.

The Claretians, formally the Congregation of Missionaries, Sons of the Immaculate Heart of the Blessed Virgin Mary (; abbreviation C.M.F. for "Cordis Mariae Filii"), are a community of Roman Catholic priests and brothers, founded in 1849 by Anthony Mary Claret. They are active as missionaries worldwide, in more than 65 countries on five continents. The number of Claretian priests and brothers is estimated at more than 3,000. The Congregation has a particular devotion to the Immaculate Heart of Mary and members have published extensively in Mariology.

Kongregace misionářů synů Neposkvrněného srdce blahoslavené Panny Marie (latinsky "Congregatio Missionariorum Filiorum Immaculati Cordis Beatae Mariae Virginis"), obvykle označovaní podle svého zakladatele krátce jako klaretiáni, je kongregace založená svatým Antonínem María Klaretem v roce 1849 a potvrzená papežem v roce 1865. Sídlí v Římě a v jejím čele je generální představený (od roku 2003 je jím Josep Maria Abella Batlle). V současnosti mají asi 3 000 členů (z toho asi 2 000 jsou kněží) přibližně ve třiceti provinciích, z nichž čtyři jsou ve Španělsku, a působí asi v šedesáti zemích. Členové kongregace užívají za svým jménem označení CMF (z latinského "Congregatio Missionariorum Filiorum").


Concept.

Systems design is a process of defining and engineering the architecture, methods, and interfaces necessary to accomplish a goal or fulfill a set of requirements. In open systems architecture the design includes intentional provisions to make it possible to expand or modify the system at a later stage after initial operation. There is no one specific universal OSA, but it is essential the specific OSA applicable to a system is rigorously defined and documented. For example, in information technology and telecommunication, such design principles lead to open systems.

Telecommunications.

In telecommunication, open systems architecture (OSA) is a standard that describes the layered hierarchical structure, configuration, or model of a communications or distributed data processing system. It enables system description, design, development, installation, operation, improvement, and maintenance to be performed at the abstraction layers in the hierarchical structure. Each layer provides a set of accessible functions that can be controlled and used by the functions in the layer above it. Each layer can be implemented without affecting the implementation of other layers. The alteration of system performance by the modification of one or more layers may be accomplished without altering the existing equipment, procedures, and protocols at the remaining layers.  Examples of independent alterations include the conversion from wire to optical fiber at a physical layer without affecting the data link layer or the network layer, except to provide more traffic capacity, and the altering of the operational protocols at the network level without altering the physical layer.

Open systems architecture is a system design approach which aims to produce systems that are inherently interoperable and connectable without recourse to retrofit and redesign.

Architektura otevřených systémů (, zkratka OSA) je síťová architektura, která byla normalizována organizací ISO. Jedná se o standard popisující vrstvy hierarchické struktury a jejich procesy.


Origins and etymology.

Beads are among the earliest human ornaments and ostrich shell beads in Africa date to 10,000 BC. Over the centuries various cultures have made beads from a variety of materials from stone and shells to clay.  The English word bead derives from the Old English noun "bede" which means a prayer. The oldest image of a string of beads in a religious context and resembling a string of prayer beads is found on the fresco of the "Adorants" (or "Worshipers") at the Xeste 3 building of the prehistoric settlement of Akrotiri, Santorini (Thera,) Greece (Wall Paintings of Thera.) dating from the 17th c. BC (c. 1613 BC.) The exact origins of prayer beads remain uncertain, but their earliest historical use probably traces to Hindu prayers in India. Buddhism probably borrowed the concept from Hinduism. The statue of a Hindu holy man with beads dates to the third century BC.

Structure.

The number of beads varies by religion or use. Islamic prayer beads, called Misbaha or Tasbih, usually have 100 beads (99 +1 = 100 beads in total or 33 beads read thrice and +1). Buddhists and Hindus use the Japa Mala, which usually has 108 beads, or 27 which are counted four times. Baha'i prayer beads consist of either 95 beads or 19 beads, which are strung with the addition of five beads below. The Sikh Mala also has 108 beads.  Roman Catholics use the Rosary (Latin "rosarium", meaning "rose garden") with 59 beads. However, Eastern Orthodox Christians use a knotted prayer rope called either a komboskini or chotki, with 100 knots, although prayer ropes with 50 or 33 knots can also be used. In Vita of Saint Paul of Thebes (227 A.D. to 342 A.D.), written by Saint Jerome (347 A.D. to 420 A.D.) it states that Saint Paul of Thebes used pebbles and knotted cord to count prayers. Although Anglo-Catholics have used the Dominican rosary since the 19th century, in the 1980s Rev. Lynn Bauman from the Episcopal Church in the United States of America introduced a Rosary for Anglicans with 33 beads.  The Greek "komboloi" (which are worry beads and have no religious purpose) has an odd number of beads—usually one more than a multiple of four, e.g. (4x4)+1, (5x4)+1.

Use.

Since the beads are fingered in an automatic manner, they allow the user to keep track of how many prayers have been said with a minimal amount of conscious effort, which in turn allows greater attention to be paid to the prayers themselves.

Pre-Christianity.

A fresco picture dating from 1600 B.C., recently discovered in Akrotiri of Santorini (ancient Thira), shows women handling a prayer rope of beads.

Christianity.

The Desert Fathers of the 3rd to 5th centuries, used pebbles or knotted ropes to count prayers, typically the Jesus Prayer ("Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner"). The invention is attributed to Anthony the Great or his associate Pachomius the Great in the 4th century.  The "Catholic Encyclopedia" mentions strings of beads, presumably for prayer, found in the tombs of Saint Gertrude of Nivelles (7th century) and Saint Norbert and Saint Rosalia (12th century). A more explicit reference is that in 1125 William of Malmesbury mentioned a string of gems that Lady Godiva used to count prayers.  These strings of beads were known as "paternosters" and were presumably used to count repetitions of the Lord's Prayer. Later, Roman Catholics and eventually Anglicans prayed the rosary with strings of 59 beads. The term "rosary" comes from the Latin "rosarium" "rose garden" and is an important and traditional devotion of the Catholic Church, combining prayer and meditation in sequences (called "decades") of the Lord's Prayer, 10 Hail Marys, and a Gloria Patri as well as a number of other prayers (such as the Apostles' Creed and the Salve Regina) at the beginning and end. The prayers are accompanied by meditation on the Mysteries, events in the life and ministry of Jesus. This traditional Catholic form of the rosary is attributed to Saint Dominic, though some Catholic writers have doubted this claim.  Catholic rosary beads are composed of crucifix and center which can be made of sterling silver and/or gold, and beads which are usually made of glass, amethyst, rose quartz stone, crystal, black onyx, lavender glass or pearl, but all parts can be made of any material. Catholics also use prayer beads to pray chaplets.  The Eastern Orthodox Church uses prayer ropes that usually come with 33, 50 or 100 knots. The loops of knotted wool (or occasionally of beads), called "chotki" or "komboskini" to pray the Jesus Prayer. Although among the Orthodox, their use is mainly restricted to monks and bishops, being less common among laity or secular clergy. Among Russian Old Believers, a prayer rope made of leather, called 'lestovka', is more common, although this type is no longer commonly used now by the Russian Orthodox Church. According to the "Catholic Encyclopedia", "The rosary is conferred upon the Greek Orthodox monk as a part of his investiture with the mandyas or full monastic habit, as the second step in monastic life, and is called his'spiritual sword'." Ethiopian and Coptic prayer rope (called "mequetaria/mequteria") employ numbers such as 41, 64, and 100 as their length and is primarily used for reciting the Kyrie Eleison. In regards to the first two numbers, the former represent the number of wounds inflicted on Jesus from lashing, the nails, and the lance while the latter represents Mary's age upon her Assumption.  In the mid-1980s, Anglican prayer beads or "Christian prayer beads" was developed in the Episcopal Church of the United States by Episcopalians participating in a study group dealing with methods of prayer. The set consists of 33 beads (representing the 33 years of the life of Christ) arranged in four groupings of symbolic significance. These "Anglican Rosaries" continue to be promoted via internet websites but it is not known whether they have been adopted by any Protestant group in any formal sense. Many Anglo-Catholics use the Catholic rosary and may also be using Anglican prayer beads.  The contemporary Wreath of Christ, invented by Martin Lönnebo, Bishop Emeritus of the Diocese of Linköping of the Swedish Lutheran Church, is a set of 18 beads, some round and some elongated, arranged in an irregular pattern. Each one has its own significance as a stimulus and reminder for meditation, although they can also be used for repetitive prayer.  While there are liturgical churches using prayer beads in prayer, non-liturgical Christian churches do not use them.

Islam.

In Islam, prayer beads are referred to as Misbaha (Arabic: مسبحة "mas'baha" ), Tasbih or Sibha and contain 99 normal-sized beads, (corresponding to the Names of God in Islam) and two smaller or mini beads separating every 33 beads. Sometimes only 33 beads are used, in which case one would cycle through them three times. The beads are traditionally used to keep count while saying the prayer. The prayer is considered a form of dhikr that involves the repetitive utterances of short sentences in the praise and glorification of Allah, in Islam. The prayer is recited as follows: 33 times "Subhan Allah" (Glory be to God), 33 times "Al-hamdu lilah" (Praise be to God), and 33 times "Allahu Akbar" (God is the greatest) which equals 99, the number of beads in the misbaha.  To keep track of counting either the phalanges of the right hand or a misbaha is used. Use of the misbaha to count prayers and recitations is considered an acceptable practice within mainstream Islam. While they are widely used today in Sunni and Shia Islam, adherents of the Salafi sects shun them as an intolerable innovation.  Ahmadiyya  In the Ahmadiyya religion, misbaha and other forms of prayer beads are considered an “innovation”. According to Mirza Tahir Ahmad of the Ahmadiyya community, the use of prayer beads is a form of innovation which was not practised by the early Muslim community

Sikhism.

Sikh worshipers may use "mala" (prayer beads) while reciting verses from the Guru Granth Sahib. These prayer beads may be used as a part of the Sikh attire and worn around turbans or wrists.

Hinduism.

An early use of prayer beads can be traced to Hinduism where they are called "japa mala". Japa is the repeating of the name of a deity or a mantra. "Mala" ( ) means "garland" or "wreath". Japa mala are used for repetition of a mantra, for other forms of sādhanā or "spiritual exercise" and as an aid to meditation. The most common "mala" have 108 beads. The most common materials used for making the beads are Rudraksha seeds (used by Shaivites) and Ocimum tenuiflorum ("tulsi") stems (used by Vaishnavites).  According to Vedic scriptures 103 beads were used during Treta Yuga, 108 beads during Dvapara Yuga, and 111 beads in Kali Yuga.

Buddhism.

Prayer beads (,, (yeomju), ) are also used in many forms of Mahayana Buddhism, often with a lesser number of beads (usually a divisor of 108). In Pure Land Buddhism, for instance, 27-bead "mala"s are common. These shorter malas are sometimes called "prostration rosaries" because they are easier to hold when enumerating repeated prostrations. In Tibetan Buddhism malas are also 108 beads: one mala counts as 100 mantras, and the eight extra are meant to be dedicated to all sentient beings (the practice as a whole is dedicated at its end as well). In Tibetan Buddhism, often larger malas are used; for example, malas of 111 beads. When counting, they calculate one mala as 100 mantras and the 11 additional beads are taken as extra to compensate for errors.  Various type of materials are used to make mala beads such as seeds of the rudraksha, beads made from the wood of the tulsi plant, animal bone, wood or seeds from the Bodhi Tree (a particularly sacred tree of the species Ficus religiosa) or of Nelumbo nucifera (the lotus plant). Semi-precious stones like carnelian and amethyst are also used. Another commonly used material is sandalwood.

The Bahá’í Faith.

The Bahá'í Faith stipulates that the verse Alláh-u-Abhá "God the All-Glorious" be recited 95 times daily after the performance of ablutions. To help facilitate this recitation Bahá’ís often use prayer beads, though they are not required to. Most commonly, Bahá’í prayer beads consist of 95 individual beads on a strand or a strand of 19 beads with 5 set counters. In the latter case, the person reciting the verses typically tracks the 19 individual verses in a set with one hand and tracks the sets of verses with the other (19 verses times 5 sets for a total of 95 total verses). Bahá’í prayer beads are made of any number of natural and man-made materials including glass, precious and semi-precious stones, various metals and wood. There are no traditions regarding the structure of the prayer bead strand or the materials used.

Prayer beads are used by members of various religious traditions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism and the Bahá'í Faith to mark the repetitions of prayers, chants or devotions, such as the rosary of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Catholicism, dhikr (remembrance of God) in Islam and jaap in Hinduism.

Růženec je pomůcka používaná při modlitbě růžence. Obvykle je to řetízek, který se skládá z 5 skupin po 10 korálcích oddělených většími korálky nebo mezerami. V jednom místě je namísto velkého korálku odbočka s třemi menšími a dvěma většími korálky, na konci s křížkem. Existují i provedení ve formě prstenu nebo náramku.


History.

The island has been linked to the rest of Rome by two bridges since antiquity, and was once called "Insula Inter-Duos-Pontes" which means "the island between the two bridges". The Ponte Fabricio, the only original bridge in Rome, connects the island from the northeast to the Field of Mars in the rione Sant'Angelo (left bank). The Ponte Cestio, of which only some original parts survived, connects the island to Trastevere on the south (right bank).  There is a legend which says that after the fall of the hated tyrant Tarquinius Superbus (510 BC), the angry Romans threw his body into the Tiber. His body then settled onto the bottom where dirt and silt accumulated around it and eventually formed Tiber Island. Another version of the legend says that the people gathered up the wheat and grain of their despised ruler and threw it into the Tiber, where it eventually became the foundation of the island.  In ancient times, before Christianity spread through Rome, Tiber Island was avoided because of the negative stories associated with it. Only the worst criminals and the contagiously ill were condemned there. This however changed when a temple was built on the island.

Temple of Aesculapius (3rd century BC).

Tiber Island was once the location of an ancient temple to Aesculapius, the Greek god of medicine and healing.  Accounts say that in 293 BC, there was a great plague in Rome. Upon consulting the Sibyl, the Roman Senate was instructed to build a temple to Aesculapius, the Greek god of healing, and sent a delegation to Epidauros to obtain a statue of the deity. The delegation went on board a ship to sail out and obtain a statue.  Following their belief system, they obtained a snake from a temple and put it on board their ship. It immediately curled itself around the ship's mast and this was deemed as a good sign by them. Upon their return up the Tiber river, the snake slithered off the ship and swam onto the island. They believed that this was a sign from Aesculapius, a sign which meant that he wanted his temple to be built on that island.  This location may have been chosen for the Aesculapius Temple because it was separate from the rest of the city, which could help protect whoever was there from plague and illnesses.  The island eventually became so identified with the temple it supported that it was modeled to resemble a ship as a reminder of how it came to be. Travertine facing was added in mid or late first century by the banks to resemble a ship's prow and stern, and an obelisk was erected in the middle, symbolizing the vessel's mast. Walls were put around the island, and it came to resemble a Roman ship. Faint vestiges of Aesculapius' rod with an entwining snake are still visible on the "prow".

Additional Roman shrines.

After the Temple of Aesculapius, shrines dedicated to other deities were also erected after the 2nd century BC, namely:

After Ancient Rome.

In time, the obelisk was removed and replaced with a cross-topped column. After it was destroyed in 1867, Pope Pius IX had an aedicula, called "Spire", put in its place. This monument, designed by Ignazio Jacometti, is decorated with statues of four saints related to the island: St. Bartholomew, St. Paulinus of Nola, St. Francis and St. John. Parts of the obelisk are now in the museum in Naples.  In 998 Emperor Otto III had a basilica, that of San Bartolomeo all'Isola, built over the Aesculapius temple's ruins on the eastern side (downstream end) of the island. This was dedicated to his friend, the martyr Adalbert of Prague; the name of St. Bartholomew was added only later. In the early 20th century, prior to the Fascist regime's restoration of ancient place names, the Tiber Island was called the Isola di S. Bartolomeo. Likewise, Cestius' Bridge was called the Ponte S. Bartolomeo.  The island is still considered a place of healing because a hospital, founded in 1584, was built on the island and is still operating. It is staffed by the Hospitaller Order of St. John of God or "Fatebenefratelli". The hospital was not built on the same spot as the temple, but stands on the western half of the island.  According to the documentary My Italian Secret, when the Nazis occupied Rome in 1943 and started rounding up the Jews, Dr. Borromeo, head of the hospital, invented a “deadly” and highly contagious illness he dubbed “Il Morbo di K” to keep the SS away and protect those Jews hiding inside the wards, just a stone’s throw from the Ghetto.

Festivals.

During summer, the island hosts the "Isola del Cinema" film festival.

Popular culture.

The island serves as the player's headquarters in the 2010 action-adventure stealth video game "".

The Tiber Island (, Latin: "Insula Tiberina") is the only island in the part of the Tiber which runs through Rome. Tiber Island is located in the southern bend of the Tiber.

Tiberský ostrov (Isola Tiberina), zvaný také "Aeskulapův ostrov", "Ostrov svatého Bartoloměje" nebo "Ostrov mezi dvěma mosty", je ostrov ležící na řece Tibeře v centru Říma. Měří 270 m na délku a 67 m na šířku.


Applications.

Ripstop fabrics are used in yacht sails and spinnakers, hot air balloons, kites, free-flight models, parachutes, and hovercraft skirts. High-quality camping equipment such as lightweight tents, sleeping bags, and camping hammocks tend to use ripstop in order to reduce the wear on their fabrics which are in direct contact with the ground or the wind. Swags, flags, banners, and other applications requiring a strong lightweight fabric use ripstop too. Ripstop reinforcements are incorporated into heavier fabrics requiring extreme durability, such as those used in Army Combat Uniforms, Nomex protective clothing for firefighters and other workwear, Brazilian Jiu Jitsu uniforms, outdoor and sports clothing, backpacks, and luggage bags. Self-adhesive ripstop patches are used to repair both rips and tears in other fabrics.  Ejector seat parachutes made with ripstop are woven with an elastic-like fabric so that they stretch to allow more air to pass through at high speed. Then as the ejector seat slows, the weave closes and acts like a conventional parachute. This allows the pilot seat to slow gently, avoiding compression that could result in spinal injury.

Ripstop nylon.

"Ripstop nylon" is a light-weight nylon fabric with interwoven ripstop reinforcement threads in a crosshatch pattern. The material comes in many different colors, sizes, and thicknesses. It is woven with coarse, strong warp and filling yarns at intervals so that tears will not spread.  Ripstop nylon may be waterproof, water resistant, fire resistant, or have zero porosity (will not allow air or water through), and comes in light, medium and heavy weights. Textures range from a soft and silk-like material to a crisp or stiff fabric that sounds like a paper bag when moved.  Nylon was developed in World War II as a replacement for silk in the production of parachutes.

Ripstop fabrics are woven fabrics, often made of nylon, using a special reinforcing technique that makes them resistant to tearing and ripping. During weaving, (thick) reinforcement yarns are interwoven at regular intervals in a crosshatch pattern. The intervals are typically 5 to 8 millimeters (0.2 to 0.3 in). Thin and lightweight ripstop fabrics have a 2-dimensional structure due to the thicker yarns being interwoven in thinner cloth. Older lightweight ripstop fabrics display the thicker interlocking thread patterns in the material quite prominently, but more modern weaving techniques make the ripstop threads less obvious. A similar effect can be achieved by weaving two or three fine yarns together at smaller intervals.

Ripstop je tkanina s vysokou pevností, vyrobená zvláštní technikou. Do tenké textilie jsou zatkány s odstupem 5-8 mm tlustější osnovní nebo i útkové niti, zboží tak dostává členitou strukturu.


Power source.

A simple log splitter may be powered by an electric motor driving a hydraulic pump or by gasoline or diesel engine with or without a tractor. The non-electric versions can be used remotely where the splitter can be moved to the location of the cut wood source. Split logs can then be loaded into trucks, trailers or bulk bags.  No matter what the power source, a log splitter either uses a hydraulic piston to drive the log through a stationary blade or a rotating cone shaped screw mandrel that pulls the log up over a wedge. Some models have attachments that prevent the split logs from falling to the ground allowing the operator to reposition the logs quickly for a second pass on the log splitter. Some cone or screw splitters are mounted on steel platforms mounted on a 3-point linkage that allow the log to be repeatedly split into smaller pieces without putting the wood down and up again.

Uses.

Although smaller firewood splitters are intended for home, there are now many commercial units available. Some commercial splitters are part of a 'firewood processor' that saw logs of timber into lengths, split them, and then carry the wood up an inclined conveyor onto a pile or into a bag, truck or trailer. Specialty producers such as those producing maple syrup use units that split 4 foot lengths. Machines that split and point wood for fence post also exist though they are few in number as it is generally safer and more convenient to saw the posts.  The rising cost of domestic heating gas oil has reawakened a desire for alternative fuel sources and burning wood is carbon neutral. Modern wood-burning stoves are efficient and safe. Many consumers that would not have considered splitting their own logs a few years ago are now burning wood fuel for both ecological and economical reasons.

Safety.

Although a good log splitter can save the operator hours of labor, it is not possible to make it completely safe. Only trained users should operate a log splitter, since anything caught between the log and the splitting blade will be subjected to a force of at least 10 tons. Most hydraulic machines now have 'two handed operation' for safety which means that both of the operator's hands are needed to actuate the splitter thus keeping them out of the way of the moving blade.  The behavior of each log cannot be predicted, so a safety zone should be established around the splitter to prevent injury from flying splinters of wood. Helpers can pick up the individual pieces of firewood, but should not stand near the log splitter while it is in operation.

External links.

Log Splitter

A log splitter is a piece of machinery or equipment used for splitting firewood from softwood or hardwood logs that have been pre-cut into sections (rounds), usually by chainsaw or on a saw bench. Many log splitters consist of a hydraulic or electrical rod and piston assembly and these are often rated by the tons of force they can generate. The higher the force rating, the greater the thickness or length of the rounds that can be split. The log splitter consists of all four major hydraulic components.

Štípačka na dřevo je mechanické strojní zařízení sloužící ke štípání palivového dříví pomocí ocelového klínu, který se pohybuje po lineární dráze. Pohon klínu je většinou hydraulický, přičemž hydraulické čerpadlo může být poháněno elektricky (příkony elektromotorů 2 - 4 kW) nebo spalovacím motorem.


Format and rules.

The first U.S. season of "Survivor" followed the same general format as the Swedish series. Sixteen or more players, split between two or more "tribes", are taken to a remote isolated location (usually in a tropical climate) and are forced to live off the land with meager supplies for 39 days (42 in ""). Frequent physical and mental challenges are used to pit the teams against each other for rewards, such as food or luxuries, or for "immunity", forcing the other tribe to attend "Tribal Council", where they must vote off one of their tribemates.  Signaling the halfway point in the game, survivors from both tribes come together to live as one, making it to the "merge". At this point, survivors will compete against each other to win Individual Immunity; winning immunity prevents that player from being voted out at Tribal Council. Most players that are voted out after the merge form the game's "jury". Once the group gets down to two or three people, a final Tribal Council is held where the remaining players plead their case to the jury members. The jury then votes for which player should be considered the "Sole Survivor" and win the show's grand prize. In all seasons for the United States version (excluding ""), this has included a $1-million prize in addition to the Sole Survivor title; some seasons (particularly earlier seasons) have included additional prizes offered during the game, such as a car, as well as fan-favorite prizes awarded at the finale. All contestants are paid on a sliding-scale based on the order they were voted out: the first player voted out has been given and the amount increases from there. Some of the seasons that have featured returning players have increased these amounts: "" featured payouts starting at, while "Winners at War" had a minimum payout. All players are offered for participating in the finale show.  The U.S. version has introduced numerous modifications, or "twists", on the core rules in order to keep the players on their toes and to prevent players from relying on strategies that succeeded in prior seasons. These changes have included tribal switches, seasons starting with more than two tribes, the ability to exile a player from a tribe for a short time, unannounced returning players, hidden immunity idols that players can use to save themselves or others at Tribal Council, special voting powers which can be used to influence the result at Tribal Council, chance to return to regular gameplay after elimination through the "Redemption Island," "Edge of Extinction" or "The Outcast Tribe" twists, and a final four fire-making challenge as of season 35.  Since the second season onward, the show's run has ended with a live reveal of the winner with votes read in front of a live studio audience, following by host Jeff Probst interviewing players about the events in the game. The exceptions to this were for "", which was filmed in front of a live studio audience but taped four hours in advance due to the controversy surrounding contestant Dan Spilo's behavior, and "", where a video conferencing event was used during the broadcast of the final episode due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The final episode of the latter also lacked the live reunion and promo for the upcoming 41st season as well. As part of this, up through "", the production of the last part of the recorded final Tribal Council showed Probst taking the urn or container containing the votes and traveling with it by some means, transitioning this to the live show and suggesting a type of continuity between events; for example "" appeared to have Probst jet-ski from the Amazon rainforest directly to New York City where the live show was held. According to Probst, they had also filmed a similar sequence for the 29th season "": he had paddled out on a canoe from the location in Nicaragua, and then paddling into Venice, California from a nearby island. Once on the beach, he would have asked a teenager to borrow his skateboard in the same manner as the "Hey Kid, Catch!" Coke commercial with Mean Joe Greene, with Probst doing some tricks on the skateboard before tossing it back. However, Probst had no idea how to ride a skateboard and even after some basic training, he could not complete the trick for filming. Production opted to eliminate that transition for "San Juan del Sur", and they eliminated any similar transitions for future seasons.

Series overview.

The United States version is produced by Mark Burnett and hosted by Jeff Probst. Each competition is called a season, has a unique name, and lasts from 13 to 16 episodes. The first season, "", was broadcast as a summer replacement show in 2000. Starting with "", there have been two seasons aired during each U.S. television season.  In the first season, there was a 75-person crew. By season 22, the crew had grown to 325 people.  A total of 590 contestants have competed on "Survivor"s 40 seasons.

Production.

Concept.

The original idea of "Survivor" was developed by Charlie Parsons in 1994 under the name "Castaway". Parsons formed Planet24 with Bob Geldof to produce the show and tried to have the BBC broadcast it, but the network turned it down. Parsons went to Swedish television and was able to find a broadcaster, ultimately producing "Expedition Robinson" in 1997. The show was a success, and plans for international versions were made.  Mark Burnett intended to be the person to bring the show to the United States, though he recognized that the Swedish version was a bit crude and mean-spirited. Burnett retooled the concept to use better production values, based on his prior "Eco-Challenge" show, and wanted to focus more on the human drama experienced while under pressure. Burnett spent about a year trying to find a broadcaster that would take the show, retooling the concept based on feedback. On November 24, 1999, Burnett made his pitch to Les Moonves of CBS, and Moonves agreed to pick up the show. The first season, "", was filmed during March and April 2000, and was first broadcast on May 31, 2000. The first season became a ratings success, leading to its current ongoing run.

Locations.

The American version of "Survivor" has been shot in many locations around the world since the first season, usually favoring warm and tropical climates. Starting with, two seasons have filmed back-to-back in the same location, to be aired in the same broadcast year. Since, the show was filmed in the Mamanuca Islands of Fiji.  Since "The Australian Outback", the announcement of each season's winner and subsequent reunion have been broadcast live in front of a studio audience, with the exception of "Island of the Idols", which went "live-to-tape" four hours before the finale's premiere as a result of controversies regarding players in the game. Locations usually alternate between the Ed Sullivan Theater in New York City (home to the CBS' "Late Show" franchise) and CBS Television City or the CBS Studio Center in Los Angeles.

Reception.

U.S. television ratings.

"Survivor" has consistently been one of the top 20 most watched shows through its first 23 seasons. Probst acknowledged that Kelly Kahl, the current president of CBS, had been a significant proponent of the show. When "Survivor" had launched, Kahl, then vice-president of scheduling, took a risk and moved the show's second season to Thursdays in competition with NBC's "Friends". "Survivor" won viewership numbers over "Friends", giving Kahl significant sway within CBS to continue supporting "Survivor".  Seasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of the United States version of "Survivor" on CBS.  "Note": Each U.S. network television season starts in late September and ends in late May, which coincides with the completion of May sweeps.

Post-show auctions.

At the end of each U.S. "Survivor" season from "" onward, various "Survivor" props and memorabilia are auctioned online for charity. The most common recipient has been the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation. Most recently, proceeds have gone toward The Serpentine Project, a charity founded by Jeff Probst, dedicated to helping those transitioning out of foster care upon emancipation at 18 years of age. Items up for auction have included flags, mats, tree mails, contestant torches, contestant clothing, autographed items, immunity idols and the voting urn.

Merchandise.

The success of "Survivor" spawned a wide range of merchandise from the very first season. While early items available were limited to buffs, water bottles, hats, T-shirts, and other typical souvenir items, the marketability of the franchise has grown tremendously. Today, fans can find innumerable items, including computer and board games, interactive online games, mugs, tribal-themed jewelry, beach towels, dog tags, magnets, multi-function tools, DVD seasons, "Survivor" party kits, insider books, soundtracks, and more.  Seasons 1, 2, 7, 8, 9 and 10 were released in stores. The remaining seasons have been released exclusively on Amazon.com through their CreateSpace manufacture on demand program. Select seasons have also been released on Blu-ray. All seasons are available on CBS All Access, CBS's over-the-top subscription streaming service in both the United States and Australia (where the service is branded as 10 All-Access - due to the service's affiliation to the CBS owned Network 10).

Other media.

Video games.

In the 2001 PC video game "", developed by Magic Lantern and published by Infogrames, it allows players to play and create characters for the game based on the Borneo or Australian Outback cast members. The game also includes a character creation system for making custom characters.  Gameplay consists of choosing survivors' skills (fishing, cooking, etc.), forming alliances, developing relationships with other tribe members, and voting off competitors at tribal council.  The game was very poorly received by critics. GameSpot gave the game a 'Terrible' score of 2.0 out of 10, saying "If you're harboring even a tiny urge to buy this game, please listen very carefully to this advice: Don't do it." Likewise, IGN gave the game a 'Painful' 2.4 out of 10, stating "It is horribly boring and repetitive. The graphics are weak and even the greatest Survivor fan would break the CD in two after playing it for 20 minutes." The game was the recipient of Game Revolution's lowest score of all time, an F-. An 'interactive review' was created specially for the game, and features interactive comments like "The Survival periods are about as much fun as" followed by a drop-down menu, "watching paint dry/throbbing hemorrhoids/staring at air/being buried alive."  On November 4, 2009, it was announced that a second video game adaptation would be released for the Wii and Nintendo DS. The game would require players to participate in various challenges like those in the reality shows in order to win.

Soundtracks.

Various soundtracks have been released featuring music composed by Russ Landau, including soundtracks for seasons 9 through 27 (with the exception of season 14).

Thrill ride.

The Tiki Twirl thrill ride at California's Great America in Santa Clara, California was originally called "Survivor: The Ride". The ride includes a rotating platform that moves along an undulating track. Riders can be sprayed by water guns hidden in oversized tribal masks. Theme elements included drums and other familiar Survivor musical accents playing in the background, Survivor memorabilia throughout the queue and other merchandise for sale in nearby gift shops.

Survivor is the American version of the international "Survivor" reality competition television franchise, itself derived from the Swedish television series "Expedition Robinson" created by Charlie Parsons which premiered in 1997. The American series premiered on May 31, 2000, on CBS. It is hosted by television personality Jeff Probst, who is also an executive producer along with Mark Burnett and the original creator, Parsons. The television show places a group of strangers in an isolated location, where they must provide food, fire, and shelter for themselves. The contestants compete in challenges for rewards and immunity from elimination. The contestants are progressively eliminated from the game as they are voted out by their fellow contestants, until only one remains and is given the title of "Sole Survivor" and is awarded the grand prize of US$1,000,000 (US$2,000,000 in "").

Kdo přežije (anglicky Survivor) je americká reality show stanice CBS, která na podzim 2018 vysílá již 37. řadu. Vítěz získá finanční odměnu 1 000 000 dolarů. Soutěž je založena na formátu "Survivor".


History.

A-Eon Technology is a privately funded company co-founded by Trevor Dickinson. The focus of A-Eon was on the high-end and a partnership with Hyperion Entertainment was formed to allow discussion with key AmigaOS 4 developers about what such a next generation AmigaOS 4 computer would need. With the end of the AmigaONE line from Eyetech and lack of success porting the OS to third party machines, A-Eon decided to continue the AmigaONE line themselves with more up to date technology. One important decision made during this early phase was that the AmigaOne X1000 should be a complete system built around a bespoke motherboard with a customised case and peripherals. This contrasts with the adapted reference design strategy used by Eyetech for the original AmigaOne series.  Even before the 'wish list' was completed, hardware design company Varisys had been chosen as a partner based on their track record both with the PowerPC architecture and with parallel computing. The decision to form a partnership with Varisys had the consequence of bringing XMOS chips to the AmigaOne X1000, as it is the connection between XMOS and the Varisys team, dating back to earlier work on the Inmos Transputer, that led to the suggestion of including an XMOS XCore chip on the X1000 motherboard. This XCore chip is referred to by A-Eon as the 'Xena' Coprocessor.  The first prototype machines were manufactured during mid-2009 and Hyperion Entertainment began the process of porting the AmigaOS to the X1000 in late 2009. By mid-June 2010, the X1000 was booting AmigaOS from hard disk and the machine made its debut at the Vintage Computer festival at Bletchley Park on the weekend on the 19 and 20 June 2010.

Release.

The original intention was that the machine would be available before Summer 2010, but A-Eon Technology announced at the Vintage Computer festival that the release had been delayed. By August 2011, hardware designer and manufacturer Varisys had begun the first production run of revision 2.1 boards destined for the AmigaOne X1000 beta test team. In January 2012 A-Eon announced that Amiga Kit would start shipping the AmigaOne X1000 to customers with AmigaOS4.1 Update 5. It would also be supplied with a license for AmigaOS4.2 which could be downloaded when it is released by Hyperion Entertainment some years after it was announced.

Specifications.

The specifications from A-EON Technology's website:

Xena coprocessor.

The 'Xena' coprocessor is an XMOS XCore MCU integrated on the X1000 motherboard and connected a non-standard expansion slot, called the 'Xorro' slot, named after the Zorro bus used in the Commodore Amiga. However, it uses a PCI-express like connector, using a custom I/O layout. The XMOS processor is connected to the local CPU bus in addition to the Xorro slot, allowing timing critical custom hardware to be controlled by the I/O optimized XCore without loading the main processor.

Xorro.

Xorro is a new slot using an industry standard PCIe ×8 form factor to give access to the 'Xena' I/O. This will be the route to Xena's 64 I/O lines, which are dynamically configurable as input, output, or bidirectional. 'Xorro' will allow bridging Xena to external hardware for control purposes, to internal systems, or to other XCore processors. This last point is worth more exploration; XCore is a parallel processing architecture; more XCores can be chained together if more computing power is required.(XK-XMP-64 Development Board). Reference boards have been made with up to 256 cores, offering a theoretical 102400 MIPS.

Reception.

A-Eon were able to successfully produce a system that did not have hardware issues (unlike previous AmigaONE boards), and in shipping it in volumes that its detractors claimed would be unlikely. It also took significantly longer to arrive than announced.  "The Inquirer" criticized its very high price, comparing the X1000 to a golden chocolate teapot with Amiga fanatics as the target market. "Amiga Future" magazine also mentioned high price along with lack of drivers as main weak points of the fastest hardware available for AmigaOS 4.  Also there was criticism that the Xena chip was simply a 'gimmick' that delivered little to the system, despite many optimistic forecasts of what it could be used for. First use of the new chip is for debugging output of the same computer (no need for second computer).  Finally, the choice of the PA-6T processor has proven controversial. A dual core processor, the second core is not used by AmigaOS.  With the PA6T being an end-of-line CPU, A-EON have announced three new boards, the X3500, X5000/20 and X5000/40 to continue the AmigaOne line using Freescale PowerPC SoC chips. The contract price for developing new motherboard is £1.2 Million

AmigaOne X1000 is a PowerPC-based personal computer intended as a high-end platform for AmigaOS 4. It was announced by A-Eon Technology CVBA in partnership with Hyperion Entertainment. Its name pays homage to the Amiga 1000 released by Commodore in 1985. It is, however, not hardware compatible with the original Commodore Amiga system.

AmigaOne X1000 je PowerPC počítač navržený jako špičková platforma pro AmigaOS 4. Vývoj počítače byl oznámen společností A-EON Technology, která jej vyvíjí ve spolupráci s Hyperion Entertainment a uvedení na trh se očekává koncem roku 2011. Jméno počítače vychází ze jména počítače Amiga 1000, který vyrobila firma Commodore v roce 1985.


John Newton's conversion.

According to the "Dictionary of American Hymnology", "Amazing Grace" is John Newton's spiritual autobiography in verse.  In 1725, Newton was born in Wapping, a district in London near the Thames. His father was a shipping merchant who was brought up as a Catholic but had Protestant sympathies, and his mother was a devout Independent, unaffiliated with the Anglican Church. She had intended Newton to become a clergyman, but she died of tuberculosis when he was six years old. For the next few years, while his father was at sea Newton was raised by his emotionally distant stepmother. He was also sent to boarding school, where he was mistreated. At the age of eleven, he joined his father on a ship as an apprentice; his seagoing career would be marked by headstrong disobedience.  As a youth, Newton began a pattern of coming very close to death, examining his relationship with God, then relapsing into bad habits. As a sailor, he denounced his faith after being influenced by a shipmate who discussed with him "Characteristicks of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times", a book by the Third Earl of Shaftesbury. In a series of letters Newton later wrote, "Like an unwary sailor who quits his port just before a rising storm, I renounced the hopes and comforts of the Gospel at the very time when every other comfort was about to fail me." His disobedience caused him to be pressed into the Royal Navy, and he took advantage of opportunities to overstay his leave.  He deserted the navy to visit Mary "Polly" Catlett, a family friend with whom he had fallen in love. After enduring humiliation for deserting, he was traded as crew to a slave ship.  He began a career in slave trading.  Newton often openly mocked the captain by creating obscene poems and songs about him, which became so popular that the crew began to join in. His disagreements with several colleagues resulted in his being starved almost to death, imprisoned while at sea, and chained like the slaves they carried. He was himself enslaved and forced to work on a plantation in the British colony Sierra Leone near the Sherbro River. After several months he came

Olney curate.

Working as a customs agent in Liverpool starting in 1756, Newton began to teach himself Latin, Greek, and theology. He and Polly immersed themselves in the church community, and Newton's passion was so impressive that his friends suggested he become a priest in the Church of England. He was turned down by John Gilbert, Archbishop of York, in 1758, ostensibly for having no university degree, although the more likely reasons were his leanings toward evangelism and tendency to socialise with Methodists. Newton continued his devotions, and after being encouraged by a friend, he wrote about his experiences in the slave trade and his conversion. William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth, impressed with his story, sponsored Newton for ordination by John Green, Bishop of Lincoln, and offered him the curacy of Olney, Buckinghamshire, in 1764.

"Olney Hymns".

Olney was a village of about 2,500 residents whose main industry was making lace by hand. The people were mostly illiterate and many of them were poor. Newton's preaching was unique in that he shared many of his own experiences from the pulpit; many clergy preached from a distance, not admitting any intimacy with temptation or sin. He was involved in his parishioners' lives and was much loved, although his writing and delivery were sometimes unpolished. But his devotion and conviction were apparent and forceful, and he often said his mission was to "break a hard heart and to heal a broken heart". He struck a friendship with William Cowper, a gifted writer who had failed at a career in law and suffered bouts of insanity, attempting suicide several times. Cowper enjoyed Olney and Newton's company; he was also new to Olney and had gone through a spiritual conversion similar to Newton's. Together, their effect on the local congregation was impressive. In 1768, they found it necessary to

Critical analysis.

The general impact of "Olney Hymns" was immediate and it became a widely popular tool for evangelicals in Britain for many years. Scholars appreciated Cowper's poetry somewhat more than Newton's plaintive and plain language, expressing his forceful personality. The most prevalent themes in the verses written by Newton in "Olney Hymns" are faith in salvation, wonder at God's grace, his love for Jesus, and his cheerful exclamations of the joy he found in his faith. As a reflection of Newton's connection to his parishioners, he wrote many of the hymns in first person, admitting his own experience with sin. Bruce Hindmarsh in "Sing Them Over Again To Me: Hymns and Hymnbooks in America" considers "Amazing Grace" an excellent example of Newton's testimonial style afforded by the use of this perspective. Several of Newton's hymns

Dissemination.

Although it had its roots in England, "Amazing Grace" became an integral part of the Christian tapestry in the United States. More than 60 of Newton and Cowper's hymns were republished in other British hymnals and magazines, but "Amazing Grace" was not, appearing only once in a 1780 hymnal sponsored by the Countess of Huntingdon. Scholar John Julian commented in his 1892 "A Dictionary of Hymnology" that outside of the United States, the song was unknown and it was "far from being a good example of Newton's finest work". Between 1789 and 1799, four variations of Newton's hymn were published in the US in Baptist, Dutch Reformed, and Congregationalist hymnodies; by 1830 Presbyterians and Methodists also included Newton's verses in their hymnals.  The greatest influences in the 19th century that propelled "Amazing Grace" to spread across the US and become a staple of religious services in many denominations and regions were the Second Great Awakening and the development of shape note singing communities. A tremendous religious movement swept the US in the early 19th century, marked by the growth and popularity of churches and religious revivals that got their start on the frontier in Kentucky and Tennessee. Unprecedented gatherings of thousands of people attended camp meetings where they came to experience salvation; preaching was fiery and focused on saving the sinner from temptation and backsliding. Religion was stripped of ornament and ceremony, and made as plain and simple as possible; sermons and songs often used repetition to get across to a rural population of poor and mostly uneducated people the necessity of turning away from sin. Witnessing and testifying became an integral component to these meetings, where a congregation member or stranger would rise and recount his turn from a sinful life to one of piety and peace. "Amazing Grace" was one of many hymns that punctuated fervent sermons, although the contemporary style used a refrain, borrowed from other hymns, that employed simplicity and repetition such as:  Simultaneously, an unrelated movement of communal singing was established throughout the South and Western states. A format of teaching music to illiterate people appeared in 1800. It used four sounds to symbolise the basic scale: fa-sol-la-fa-sol-la-mi-fa. Each sound was accompanied by a specifically shaped note and thus became known as shape note singing. The method was simple to learn and teach, so schools were established throughout the South and West. Communities would come together for an entire day of singing in a large building where they sat in four distinct areas surrounding an open space, one member directing the group as a whole. Other groups would sing outside, on benches set up in a square. Preachers used shape note hymns to teach people on the frontier and to raise the emotion of camp meetings. Most of the music was Christian, but the purpose of communal singing was not primarily spiritual. Communities either could not afford music accompaniment or rejected it out of a Calvinistic sense of simplicity, so the songs were sung a cappella.

Recorded versions.

With the advent of recorded music and radio, "Amazing Grace" began to cross over from primarily a gospel standard to secular audiences. The ability to record combined with the marketing of records to specific audiences allowed "Amazing Grace" to take on thousands of different forms in the 20th century. Where Edwin Othello Excell sought to make the singing of "Amazing Grace" uniform throughout thousands of churches, records allowed artists to improvise with the words and music specific to each audience. AllMusic lists over 1,000 recordings – including re-releases and compilations – as of 2019. Its first recording is an a cappella version from 1922 by the Sacred Harp Choir. It was included from 1926 to 1930 in Okeh Records' catalogue, which typically concentrated strongly on blues and jazz. Demand was high for black gospel recordings of the song by H. R. Tomlin and J. M. Gates. A poignant sense of nostalgia accompanied the recordings of several gospel and blues singers in the 1940s and 1950s who used the song to remember their grandparents, traditions, and family roots. It was recorded with musical accompaniment for the first time in 1930 by Fiddlin' John Carson, although to another folk hymn named "At the Cross", not to "New Britain". "Amazing Grace" is emblematic of several kinds of folk music styles, often used as the standard example to illustrate such musical techniques as lining out and call and response, that have been practised in both black and white folk music.  Mahalia Jackson's 1947 version received significant radio airplay, and as her popularity grew throughout the 1950s and 1960s, she often sang it at public events such as concerts at Carnegie Hall. Author James Basker states that the song has been employed by African Americans as the "paradigmatic Negro spiritual" because it expresses the joy felt at being delivered from slavery and worldly miseries. Anthony Heilbut, author of "The Gospel Sound", states that the "dangers, toils, and snares" of Newton's words are a "universal testimony" of the African American experience. During the civil rights movement and opposition to the Vietnam War, the song took on a political tone. Mahalia Jackson employed "Amazing Grace" for Civil Rights marchers, writing that she used it "to give magical protection a charm to ward off danger, an incantation to the angels of heaven to descend... I was not sure the magic worked outside the church walls... in the open air of Mississippi. But I wasn't taking any chances." Folk singer Judy Collins, who knew the song before she could remember learning it, witnessed Fannie Lou Hamer leading marchers in Mississippi in 1964, singing "Amazing Grace". Collins also considered it a talisman of sorts, and saw its equal emotional impact on the marchers, witnesses, and law enforcement who opposed the civil rights demonstrators. According to fellow folk singer Joan Baez, it was one of

In American popular culture.

Following the appropriation of the hymn in secular music, "Amazing Grace" became such an icon in American culture that it has been used for a variety of secular purposes and marketing campaigns, placing it in danger of becoming a cliché. It has been mass-produced on souvenirs, lent its name to a Superman villain, appeared on "The Simpsons" to demonstrate the redemption of a murderous character named Sideshow Bob, incorporated into Hare Krishna chants and adapted for Wicca ceremonies. It can also be sung to the theme from "The Mickey Mouse Club", as Garrison Keillor has observed. The hymn has been employed in several films, including "Alice's Restaurant", "Invasion of the Body Snatchers",

Modern interpretations.

In recent years, the words of the hymn have been changed in some religious publications to downplay a sense of imposed self-loathing by its singers. The second line, "That saved a wretch like me!" has been rewritten as "That saved and strengthened me", "save a soul like me", or "that saved and set me free". Kathleen Norris in her book "Amazing Grace: A Vocabulary of Faith" characterises this transformation of the original words as "wretched English" making the line that replaces the original "laughably bland". Part of the reason for this change has been the altered interpretations of what wretchedness and grace means. Newton's Calvinistic view of redemption and divine grace formed his perspective that he considered himself a sinner so vile that he was unable to change his life or be redeemed without God's help. Yet his lyrical subtlety, in Steve Turner's opinion, leaves the hymn's meaning open to a variety of Christian and non-Christian interpretations. "Wretch" also represents a period in Newton's life when he saw himself outcast and miserable, as he was when he was enslaved in Sierra Leone; his own arrogance was matched by how far he had fallen in his life.  Due to its immense popularity and iconic nature, the meaning behind the words of "Amazing Grace" has become as individual as the singer or listener. Bruce Hindmarsh suggests that the secular popularity of "Amazing Grace" is due to the absence of any mention of God in the lyrics until the fourth verse (by Excell's version, the fourth verse begins "When we've been there ten thousand years"), and that the song represents the ability of humanity to transform itself instead of a transformation taking place at the hands of God. "Grace", however, had a clearer meaning to John Newton, as he used the word to represent God or the power of God.  The transformative power of the song was investigated by journalist Bill Moyers in a documentary released in 1990. Moyers was inspired to focus on the song's power after watching a performance at Lincoln Center, where the audience consisted of Christians and non-Christians, and he noticed that it had an equal impact on everybody in attendance, unifying them. James Basker also acknowledged this force when he explained why he chose "Amazing Grace" to represent a collection of anti-slavery poetry: "there is a transformative power that is applicable... : the transformation of sin and sorrow into grace, of suffering into beauty, of alienation into empathy and connection, of the unspeakable into imaginative literature."  Moyers interviewed Collins, Cash, opera singer Jessye Norman, Appalachian folk musician Jean Ritchie and her family, white Sacred Harp singers in Georgia, black Sacred Harp singers in Alabama, and a prison choir at the Texas State Penitentiary at Huntsville. Collins, Cash, and Norman were unable to discern if the power of the song came from the music or the lyrics. Norman, who once notably sang it at the end of a large outdoor rock concert for Nelson Mandela's 70th birthday, stated, "I don't know whether it's the text I don't know whether we're talking about the lyrics when we say that it touches so many people or whether it's that tune that everybody knows." A prisoner interviewed by Moyers explained his literal interpretation of the second verse: "'Twas grace that taught my heart to fear, and grace my fears relieved" by saying that the fear became immediately real to him when he realised he may never get his life in order, compounded by the loneliness and restriction in prison. Gospel singer Marion Williams summed up its effect: "That's a song that gets to everybody".  The "Dictionary of American Hymnology" claims it is included in more than a thousand published hymnals, and recommends its use for "occasions of worship when we need to confess with joy that we are saved by God's grace alone; as a hymn of response to forgiveness of sin or as an assurance of pardon; as a confession of faith or after the sermon".

"Amazing Grace" is a Christian hymn published in 1779, with words written in 1772 by the English poet and Anglican clergyman John Newton (1725–1807).

Amazing Grace (česky též „Úžasná milost“) je křesťanská píseň, jejíž slova napsal anglikánský kněz a bývalý kapitán otrokářské lodi John Newton a publikoval ji v roce 1779. Původní název písně byl „"Faith's Review and Expectation"“.


History.

A Roman road through central Scotland ran along Motherwell's side of the River Clyde, crossing the South Calder Water near Bothwellhaugh. At this crossing a fort and bath house were erected, but the Roman presence in Scotland did not last much later than this. Motherwell's location in the Scottish Lowlands means that it would have been inhabited by the Britons. Motherwell's name reportedly comes from a well, the Lady Well, formerly dedicated to the Virgin Mary. The site of this well is now marked by a plaque on Ladywell Road. The name "Moderwelt" appears on a map of Lanarkshire made by Timothy Pont some time between 1583 and 1611 and printed in the Netherlands in around 1652.  By the start of the 19th century Motherwell was a small hamlet, a farming community of some 600 people living adjacently to the 16th century laird's manor, Jerviston house. The hamlet remained reasonably small, reaching 1,700 people by 1841, and centred on the crossroads between the main road following the Clyde, and the road connecting Edinburgh with Hamilton and the west.  Motherwell's fortunes changed dramatically in the second half of the 19th century. With the coming of the railway in 1848, came industry and money. By 1881 David Colville had opened both an iron and steel works; Motherwell had a new piped water supply; had been granted burgh status and had its population swelled to 13,800 people.  By the end of the 19th century Motherwell Town Hall and Dalziel High School had been built, the local football club had been founded, and its stadium, Fir Park, had been constructed.  At the start of the 20th century Motherwell stood a large and growing industrial centre, a town of 37,000 people and a wide variety of heavy industries such as munitions, trams and bridge components. By the 1930s most of Scotland's steel production was in Motherwell, and owned by the Colville family. In 1959 the Colville family were persuaded by the government to begin work of a vast new steel works, which would become Ravenscraig. Within a few years, Ravenscraig was producing more than a million tonnes of steel per year. Following nationalisation of the steel industry, production at the plant was raised, with the Motherwell blast furnaces producing 3 million tonnes each year.  By the middle of the 1970s, Motherwell's steel industry employed more than 13,000 people.  The 1980s brought a catastrophic collapse in the industry of Motherwell. The steel strike of 1980 lost British Steel Corporation important contracts and markets, followed by the closure of important local customers such as the Linwood car factory and Bathgate truck factory, Ravenscraig employed only 3,200 people by the end of the 1980s. Ravenscraig closed on 24 June 1992, and was demolished in July 1996, bringing 400 years of Scottish iron production to an end. Today the Dalzell Plate Mill is all that remains of Motherwell's industrial heritage, rolling steel from Middlesbrough into steel plates of various sizes.  By the start of the 21st century Motherwell had begun to transform itself with the service industry thriving, the large scale unemployment of the previous twenty years had been largely remedied. Through the expansion of both towns, Motherwell and Wishaw are now effectively one continuous urban area, although the towns remain distinct.

Culture.

Motherwell hosted the National Mòd in 1983.  Strathclyde Park previously hosted the major Scottish music festival, T in the Park, until 1996, when it was moved to a disused airfield in Balado, Kinross-shire. It has also hosted other music festivals such as Retrofest. Modern authors Des McAnulty and Mark Wilson have written novels of critical acclaim which are based in the town (LIFE IS LOCAL, McAnulty) and neighbouring town Bellshill (BOBBY'S BOY, Wilson).

Economy.

Motherwell is the headquarters for both North Lanarkshire Council, which is one of Scotland's most populous local authority areas, and of Police Scotland "Q" division. These organisations cover an overall population of 327,000 people (59,000 in Motherwell and Wishaw) throughout the of North Lanarkshire. Motherwell was noted as the steel production capital of Scotland, nicknamed "Steelopolis", home of David Colville & Sons during the 19th and 20th centuries, with its skyline later dominated by the water tower and three cooling towers of their Ravenscraig steelworks which closed in 1992. The Ravenscraig plant had one of the longest continuous casting, hot rolling, steel production facilities in the world before it was decommissioned. The closure of Ravenscraig signalled the end of large scale steel making in Scotland, although the town's Dalzell steel plate works continues to be operated by Tata Steel Europe.  In the past decade, Motherwell has to an extent recovered from the high unemployment and economic decline brought about by this collapse of heavy industry. A number of call centres and business parks such as Strathclyde Business Park have since set up in the region. Large employers include William Grant & Sons whisky distillers and the heavy equipment manufacturer Terex Trucks.  Motherwell has been a Fairtrade Town since January 2007.

Transport.

Railway.

The town has three stations, a main railway station (known simply as Motherwell), and. The main station runs on the West Coast Main Line from Glasgow to London and on the East Coast Main Line via Edinburgh and Newcastle, and is located next to Motherwell Shopping Centre. National train operators; Avanti West Coast, CrossCountry and TransPennine Express, pass through the main station, but not all stop there. The station is also served by Abellio ScotRail who provide direct services to Carstairs, Coatbridge Central, Cumbernauld, Dalmuir, Edinburgh, Lanark, Milngavie and North Berwick. London North Eastern Railway also provide a direct daily service between London King's Cross and Glasgow Central that stops at Motherwell. The smaller station in the Airbles suburb of Motherwell only runs on the line to via low level and ; however, it is closer to the Civic Centre and Fir Park stadium than the main-line station. That station is served by Abellio ScotRail.  Formerly, Motherwell, Wishaw and Hamilton were served by the Lanarkshire Tramways (closed 1931), which were connected to the very large Glasgow electric tramway system (closed 1962) at both Cambuslang and Uddingston. At its maximum extent, the 200 mile system extended to Balloch, Milngavie, Airdrie, Larkhall, Clarkston, Barrhead, Kilbarchan and Renfrew, besides providing a dense network of lines offering pollution-free electric transport in the city centre.  The (now defunct) firm of Hurst Nelson was a major railway rolling stock manufacturer based in the town. The company built trains for the London Underground, and tramcars, as well as vehicles for main line railways.

Roads.

Motherwell is very accessible, as it is right next to the M74 motorway beside the River Clyde. This road leads to Cumbria on the Anglo-Scottish border, where it becomes the M6. It is also about drive from the M8 motorway, between the two largest cities of Scotland, Glasgow and Edinburgh. In the future, there are plans to build a dual carriageway, that will travel through the town linking the two motorways.

Bus.

There are a number of different bus companies that travel through the town to various different locations. Some examples include First (Routes 201, 240, 242, 254 and 355), JMB Travel (Routes 41, 56, 211 and 802), Whitelaws Coaches and United Coaches (Route 1).  Some of the places that can be accessible by bus from Motherwell: The three acute hospitals in Lanarkshire can also be reached by bus from Motherwell:

Nearest airports.

Since the M74 Extension has been completed, access to Glasgow Airport has become easier. The airport is approximately away from Motherwell. Edinburgh Airport is further away, at, and can be reached by the M8.

Places of interest.

As well as the town's Country Park, The North Lanarkshire Heritage Centre, formerly the Motherwell Heritage Centre on High Road, situated next to the town's railway station, is a building that displays the history of Motherwell from the Roman era. The building also has a viewing tower on the fifth floor, giving visitors a good view of the town and other parts of Lanarkshire, as well as of mountains as far back as Ben Lomond.  Motherwell Civic Centre is the headquarters of North Lanarkshire Council (since 1996, previously the offices of Motherwell District Council within the Strathclyde region since 1975). A number of pantomimes and musicals have taken place in the concert hall and theatre within the complex. As well as this, top-level snooker (the Scottish Masters event) was also held there.  The Dalzell House is a building that is situated to the south of the town, right on the banks of the River Clyde. This house is protected as a Category-A listed building.  One of the main attractions in Motherwell is the M & D's Amusement Park, which is situated next to Strathclyde Loch in Strathclyde Park.

Motherwell Cathedral.

The Cathedral Church of Our Lady of Good Aid, popularly known as Motherwell Cathedral, is a Roman Catholic cathedral which is the Mother Church of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Motherwell. It is the seat of the Bishop of Motherwell and its current bishop is Joseph Toal. The cathedral is open to the public most days. It is used as a venue for performances of the Motherwell Diocesan Choir.

Education.

Primary schools.

The following primary schools are located in Motherwell:

Secondary schools.

Dalziel High School is located in Crawford Street and has a school roll of around 1,025 pupils. Notable alumni of Dalziel include Motherwell, Wigan and current Rangers player Lee McCulloch and international television journalist, Alan Fisher.  Braidhurst High School, in the Forgewood area of Motherwell, serves areas including Forgewood, North Motherwell, The Globe and Jerviston. With a roll of around 500, Braidhurst is one of the smaller secondary schools in Lanarkshire. The main school building was recently modernised, with the outdated pink and yellow panels replaced by a modern-looking glass exterior. Notable alumni of Braidhurst include Elaine C Smith (actress), former Scotland national football captain Gary McAllister and Tam Cowan (comedian and writer).  Our Lady's High School is a Roman Catholic secondary located in Dalzell Drive, near Fir Park Stadium. At one point it was the largest school in Western Europe, but the current school roll is around 700. Notable alumni of Our Lady's include Manchester City footballer and Manchester United manager Sir Matt Busby, Celtic F.C. footballer Billy McNeill, footballer Stephen Pearson Derby County footballer Kieran Tierney Celtic F.C. and footballer Chris Cadden Motherwell F.C.  Other secondary schools in the Motherwell area (though outside the boundaries of the town itself) include Brannock High School in Newarthill, Taylor R.C. High School in New Stevenston and Clyde Valley High School in Overtown. The nearest private school is Hamilton College in Hamilton, South Lanarkshire.

Further education.

There is a Further Education college in Motherwell, known as New College Lanarkshire. This was located next to Our Lady's High School in Dalzell Drive, though in 2009 relocated to Ravenscraig, about 1 km away from its former site. The current roll of students at the new building is approximately 20,000 students.  The former site at Barons Grange is now being regenerated into a modern housing area.

Sport.

Football.

Motherwell Football Club was established in 1886. Known as the "Steelmen" because of the history of steel making in the area, they play in the Scottish Premiership from their home ground at Fir Park Stadium. Like many smaller clubs in the area, Motherwell struggle to attract a large fanbase due to the attraction of Glasgow's "Old Firm": Rangers and Celtic. The team attracts a regular home support of between five and six thousand fans. Motherwell is one of the most established clubs in the top division of the Scottish football league system, having been in the top flight continuously since the mid-80s. Again, due to the Old Firm's dominance of Scottish football, Motherwell's list of honours is somewhat modest. The club's last major trophy was the 1990–91 Scottish Cup, when they beat Dundee United 4–3 in the final. Motherwell have qualified for European football several times in recent seasons, usually competing in the qualifying rounds of the UEFA Europa League.

Speedway.

Motherwell hosted motorcycle speedway racing at two venues. In 1930 and 1932 racing took place at Airbles Road which would soon be called the Clyde Valley Greyhound Track and the 1930 speedway venture was known as "Paragon Speedway". The venture was run by a group of riders who were regulars at White City in Glasgow and known collectively as "The Blantyre Crowd".  Speedway returned to the town in 1950 at the then newly constructed Parkneuk Sports Stadium in Milton Street. The Lanarkshire Eagles staged open meetings from July to September 1950. In 1951 the Eagles started out in the National League Second Division with veteran ex-Glasgow Tigers Will Lowther and Joe Crowther in the line up. They operated until the end of the 1954 season.  The top man was Derrick Close, signed from the Newcastle Diamonds in 1951, and he was supported by Gordon McGregor who was a founder Eagle. Eagles also featured Aussies Keith Gurtner and Ron Phillips who moved over when Ashfield left the League. Popular Australian Noel Watson was killed in his home country in 1953. However, due to his "never say die" approach, the fans' favourite was Bluey (Eric) Scott, who joined the Eagles in 1951. The pioneer Eagles featured Bill Baird from Forth who became the only rider to ride for all four Scottish teams.  Tommy Miller, one of the top Scottish speedway stars of the day, joined the Eagles in 1954 but moved on to the Coventry Bees mid-season. A short season in 1958 under former Glasgow Tigers promoter Ian Hoskins saw the end of the events at The Stadium but a short lived Long Track venture and a small speedway track staged four events —three on the long track and one on the short track —in 1972.  Derrick Close represented Lanarkshire Eagles and England in the 1952 Speedway World Championship Final. He was the third Scottish based rider to achieve this feat after Ken Le Breton (Ashfield Giants and Australia) in 1949 and Jack Young (Edinburgh Monarchs and Australia) in 1950 and 1951.

Greyhound racing.

Motherwell had two greyhound tracks in the town. The first opened in 1932 and was called the Clyde Valley Greyhound Track, it was located on Airbles Road and closed in 1959. The second was the Parkneuk Sports Stadium near Milton Street and was opened in 1949 but closed in 1972.

Rugby Union.

Dalziel Rugby Club play at Dalziel Park (formerly Cleland Estate) between the villages of Carfin and Cleland (both near Motherwell).

Cycling.

There are cycle routes based in Motherwell and in neighboring Strathclyde Country Park. The Greenlink Cycle Path is a cycle path that acts as a direct route from Strathclyde Park to Motherwell Town Centre. The path was formed in 2005 and may expand into Ravenscraig in the future.

Golf.

Motherwell has a golf course based within the town, the Colville Park Golf Club, based at Jerviston Estate, on the former site of Jerviston House (the ruins are still visible in the grounds). A second golf course is located at the Dalziel Park Hotel and Golf Club.  Torrance Park Golf Club is a third located in Newarthill.

Hockey.

The Motherwell Hockey Club and Dalziel High School Former Pupils (D.H.S.F.P) Ladies Hockey Club are field hockey clubs based at the astroturf hockey pitches in Dalziel Park.

Athletics.

Athletics is a common sport in Motherwell, as the town has a number of athletics clubs in different locations. The main club, Motherwell Athletics Club, is based down at the Boathouse Gym at Strathclyde Country Park. In recent years there have been top class sports facilities built just outside the town, first Dalziel Park and most recently Ravenscraig Sports Centre, with the latter containing a top-class indoor athletics track. The sports facility in the new town of Ravenscraig will be one of the main venues for the 2011 International Children's Games in Lanarkshire, and is currently hosting the athletics events.

Strathclyde Park.

Recreation.

Strathclyde Country Park contains many sport and leisure facilities and also has sites for bird-watchers and anglers. As well as the M&D's theme park, there is also woodland and grass areas that are ideal for picnicking and leisurely strolls. Excavations in the park have revealed a site of archaeological interest including a Roman mosaic, Roman bath house and bridge (currently closed for health and safety reasons). Strathclyde Park is also on the site of the former mining village, Bothwellhaugh, with much of the town submerged after abandonment.

Major events.

The park was a venue for the 2014 Commonwealth Games and the 2011 International Children's Games. It hosted the Triathlon event in both. It was previously a venue for the rowing events at the 1986 Commonwealth Games.

Mohamed Naguib (, ; 19 February 1901 – 28 August 1984) was the first President of Egypt, serving from the declaration of the Republic on 18 June 1953 to 14 November 1954. Along with Gamal Abdel Nasser, he was the primary leader of the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, which ended the rule of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty in Egypt and Sudan.

Muhammad Nadžíb, arabsky جمحمد نجيب (20. února 1901, Chartúm – 29. srpna 1984, Káhira), byl prvním egyptským prezidentem, kterým se stal po vyhlášení republiky 18. června 1953 a ve funkci setrval do 14. listopadu 1954. Společně s Gamálem Násirem byl hlavním vůdcem egyptské revoluce v roce 1952, která měla za následek ukončení vlády dynastie Muhammada Alího v Egyptě a Súdánu.


Anatomy.

The index finger has three phalanges. The index finger does not contain any muscles, but is controlled by muscles in the hand by attachments of tendons to the bones.

Uses.

A lone index finger held vertically is often used to represent the number 1 (but finger counting differs across cultures), or when held up or moved side to side (finger-wagging), it can be an admonitory gesture. With the hand held palm out and the thumb and middle fingers touching, it represents the letter "d" in the American Sign Language alphabet.

Pointing.

Pointing with index finger may be used to indicate an item or person.  Around the age of one year, babies begin pointing to communicate relatively complex thoughts, including interest, desire, information, and more. Pointing in human babies can demonstrate the theory of mind, or ability to understand what other people are thinking. This gesture may form one basis for the development of human language. Non-human primates, lacking the ability to formulate ideas about what others are thinking, use pointing in much less complex ways. However, dogs and elephants do understand finger pointing.  In some countries, particularly the Ethnic Malays in Malaysia, pointing using index finger is rude, hence thumb is used instead.

Greeting.

In the Netherlands sticking up your index finger with your palm faced towards someone is a greeting.

Index finger in Islam.

In Islam raising the index finger signifies the Tawhīd (تَوْحِيد), which denotes the indivisible oneness of God. It is used to express the unity of God ("there is no god but Allah").  In Arabic, the index or fore finger is called musabbiḥa (مُسَبِّحة), mostly used with the definite article: al-musabbiḥa (الْمُسَبِّحة). Sometimes also as-sabbāḥa (السَّبّاحة) is used. The Arabic verb سَبَّحَ - which shares the same root as the Arabic word for index finger - means to praise or glorify God by saying: "Subḥāna Allāh" (سُبْحانَ الله).

Ancient Roman use.

The Romans used the forefinger while fighting because the index finger asserted that the enemy was in front of them.

Gestures in art.

As an artistic convention, the index finger pointing at the viewer is in the form of a command or summons. Two famous examples of this are recruiting posters used during World War I by the United Kingdom and the United States.  The index finger pointing up is a sign of teaching authority. This is shown in the depiction of Plato in the School of Athens by Raphael.

The index finger (also referred to as forefinger, first finger, pointer finger, trigger finger, digitus secundus, digitus II, and many other terms) is the second finger of a human hand. It is located between the first and third digits, between the thumb and the middle finger. It is usually the most dextrous and sensitive finger of the hand, though not the longest – it is shorter than the middle finger, and may be shorter or longer than the ring finger – see digit ratio.

Ukazovák neboli ukazováček ( nebo ) je jeden z prstů lidské ruky. Sousedí na jedné straně s palcem, na druhé s prostředníkem. Je kratší než prostředník a někdy bývá i kratší než prsteník.


Distributed components.

The telegrapher's equations, like all other equations describing electrical phenomena, result from Maxwell's equations. In a more practical approach, one assumes that the conductors are composed of an infinite series of two-port elementary components, each representing an infinitesimally short segment of the transmission line:  The model consists of an "infinite series" of the infinitesimal elements shown in the figure, and that the values of the components are specified "per unit length" so the picture of the component can be misleading. An alternative notation is to use formula_9, formula_10, formula_11, and formula_12 to emphasize that the values are derivatives with respect to length. These quantities can also be known as the primary line constants to distinguish from the secondary line constants derived from them, these being the characteristic impedance, the propagation constant, attenuation constant and phase constant. All these constants are constant with respect to time, voltage and current. They may be non-constant functions of frequency.

Role of different components.

The role of the different components can be visualized based on the animation at right.

Values of primary parameters for telephone cable.

Representative parameter data for 24 gauge telephone polyethylene insulated cable (PIC) at 70 °F (294 K)  More extensive tables and tables for other gauges, temperatures and types are available in Reeve. Chen gives the same data in a parameterized form that he states is usable up to 50 MHz.  The variation of formula_1 and formula_3 is mainly due to skin effect and proximity effect.  The constancy of the capacitance is a consequence of intentional, careful design.  The variation of G can be inferred from Terman: “The power factor... tends to be independent of frequency, since the fraction of energy lost during each cycle... is substantially independent of the number of cycles per second over wide frequency ranges.” A function of the form formula_15 with formula_16 close to 1.0 would fit Terman’s statement. Chen gives an equation of similar form.  G in this table can be modeled well with  Usually the resistive losses grow proportionately to formula_20 and dielectric losses grow proportionately to formula_21 with formula_22 so at a high enough frequency, dielectric losses will exceed resistive losses. In practice, before that point is reached, a transmission line with a better dielectric is used. In long distance rigid coaxial cable, to get very low dielectric losses, the solid dielectric may be replaced by air with plastic spacers at intervals to keep the center conductor on axis.

The equations.

The telegrapher's equations are:  They can be combined to get two partial differential equations, each with only one dependent variable, either formula_24 or formula_25:  Except for the dependent variable (formula_27 or formula_25) the formulas are identical.

Lossless transmission.

When "L » R" and "C » G", resistance can be neglected, and the transmission line is considered as an ideal lossless structure. In this case, the model depends only on the "L" and "C" elements. The Telegrapher's Equations then describe the relationship between the voltage "V" and the current "I" along the transmission line, each of which is a function of position "x" and time "t":

The equations for lossless transmission lines.

The equations themselves consist of a pair of coupled, first-order, partial differential equations. The first equation shows that the induced voltage is related to the time rate-of-change of the current through the cable inductance, while the second shows, similarly, that the current drawn by the cable capacitance is related to the time rate-of-change of the voltage.  The Telegrapher's Equations are developed in similar forms in the following references: Kraus, Hayt, Marshall, Sadiku, Harrington, Karakash, and Metzger.  These equations may be combined to form two exact wave equations, one for voltage "V", the other for current "I":

The telegrapher's equations (or just telegraph equations) are a pair of coupled, linear partial differential equations that describe the voltage and current on an electrical transmission line with distance and time. The equations come from Oliver Heaviside who developed the "transmission line model" starting with an August 1876 paper, "On the Extra Current". The model demonstrates that the electromagnetic waves can be reflected on the wire, and that wave patterns can form along the line.

Telegrafní rovnice je speciální tvar vlnové rovnice, obsahující člen s parciální derivací prvního řádu podle času. Rovnice je často využívaná v teorii elektromagnetického pole pro popis elektromagnetických vln - odtud plyne i její název. Mimo oblast zdrojů pole má totiž rovnice pro intenzitu elektrického pole formula_1 v lineárním, homogenním, stacionárním a izotropním prostředí právě tvar telegrafní rovnice: kde formula_3 je Laplaceův operátor, formula_4 jsou permitivita, permeabilita a konduktivita prostředí.


Development.

The Cessna 190 and 195 were Cessna's only postwar radial-engined aircraft. The first prototype flew in 1945, after the end of World War II and both the 190 and 195 entered production in 1947.  The 195 was the first Cessna airplane to be completely constructed of aluminum and features a cantilever wing, similar to the pre-war Cessna 165 from which it is derived. The wing differs from later Cessna light aircraft in that it has a straight taper from root chord to tip chord and no dihedral. The airfoil employed is a NACA 2412, the same as used on the later Cessna 150, 172 and 182.  The 190/195 fuselage is large in comparison to other Cessna models because the 42" diameter radial engine had to be accommodated in the nose. There are two rows of seats: two individual seats in the first row, with a comfortable space between them and up to three passengers can be accommodated on a bench seat in the second row.  The 190/195 has flat sprung-steel landing gear legs derived from Cessna's purchase of the rights to Steve Wittman's Big X. Many have been equipped with swiveling crosswind landing gear which allows landing with up to 15 degrees of crab. While the crosswind gear simplifies the actual landing, it makes the aircraft difficult to handle on the ground. The 195 is equipped with a retractable step that extends when the cabin door is opened, although some have been modified to make the step a fixed unit.  The aircraft was expensive to purchase and operate for private use and Cessna therefore marketed them mainly as a business aircraft under the name "Businessliner".  The engines fitted to the 190 and 195 became well known for their oil consumption. The aircraft has a oil tank, with the minimum for flight. Typical oil consumption with steel cylinder barrels is per hour.  A factory-produced floatplane version was equipped with a triple tail for improved yaw stability. The tail resembles that of the Lockheed Constellation.  The Cessna 195 produces a cruise true airspeed of (170 MPH) on a fuel consumption of per hour. It can accommodate five people.  Including the LC-126s, a total of 1180 190s and 195s were built.  The 190 was originally introduced at a price of USD$12,750 in 1947 (). When production ended in 1954 the price had risen to USD$24,700 () for the 195B. This compared to USD$3,495 for the Cessna 140 two seater of the same period.

LC-126/U-20.

The LC-126 was the military version of the Cessna 195 and could be fitted with skis or floats. 83 LC-126s were delivered, including:  Once made surplus the majority of LC-126s were sold as civil aircraft, once modified by a Cessna civil kit.

Operational history.

The Cessna 190 and 195 are considered "one of the finest classics ever built" by pilots and collectors and are much sought after on the used aircraft market.  On July 24, 2017 the number of 190s and 195s still registered in the USA were:  In February 2014 there were three Cessna 190s, eleven Cessna 195s, two Cessna 195As and two Cessna 195Bs registered in Canada. Other Cessna 190 and 195 aircraft have been purchased by private pilot owners resident in Brazil and the United Kingdom.

Variants.

The main difference between the 190 and the 195 models was the engine installed.

Operators.

Civil.

The Cessna 190 and 195 have been popular with private individuals and companies, and have also been operated by some air charter companies and small feeder airlines.

The Cessna 190 and 195 Businessliner are a family of light single radial engine powered, conventional landing gear equipped, general aviation aircraft which were manufactured by Cessna between 1947 and 1954.

Cessna 195 je americký lehký jednomotorový vrtulový dopravní letoun, vybavený hvězdicovým motorem a konvenčním podvozkem, který se vyráběl v letech 1947 až 1954.