Early life.

Connolly was born at 69 Dover Street, "on the linoleum, three floors up" "at six o'clock in the evening", in Anderston, Glasgow. This section of Dover Street, between Breadalbane and Claremont streets, was demolished in the 1970s. Connolly refers to this in his 1983 song, "I Wish I Was in Glasgow" with the lines, "I would take you there and show you but they've pulled the building down" and, "They bulldozed it all to make a road." The flat had only two rooms: a kitchen-living room, with a recess where the children slept, and another room for their parents. The family bathed in the kitchen sink, and there was no hot water.  Connolly was born to Catholic parents, William Connolly and Mary McLean. Both of his parents were of partly Irish descent. In 1946, when he was four years old, Connolly's mother abandoned her children while their father was serving as an engineer in the Royal Air Force in Burma. "I've never felt abandoned by her", Connolly explained in 2009. "My mother was a teenager. My father was in Burma, fighting a bloody war. The Germans were dropping all kinds of crap on the town. We lived at the docks, so that's where all the bombs were happening. She was a teenager with two kids in a slum. A guy comes along and says, 'I love you. Come with me.' Given the choice, I think "I'd" have gone with him. It looks as though it might all end next Wednesday, from where you're standing. I don't have an ounce of feelings that she abandoned me. She tried to survive."  Connolly and his older sister, Florence (named after their maternal grandmother, and eighteen months his senior), were cared for by two aunts, Margaret and Mona Connolly, his father's sisters, in their cramped tenement in Stewartville Street, Partick. "My aunts constantly told me I was stupid, which still affects me today pretty badly. It's just a belief that I'm not quite as good as anyone else. It gets worse as you get older. I'm a happy man now but I still have the scars of that." Regarding his sister, Connolly has called her his "great defender". "To this day, he explained in 2009, "Guys say, 'God, your sister... We didn't dare beat you up – your sister was a nightmare'. She used to get after them."  In the mid-1960s, Flo was on holiday in Dunoon with her husband and two children. "My mother said, 'I saw Florence walking along, and I followed her.'" "I said, 'Did you speak to her?' 'Oh, no, I didn't,' she said. I thought, 'Oh, my god. It's like being a ghost while you're still alive.' Walking behind your own child. Having a look. I couldn't bear that."  The aunts resented the children for the fact that they had to sacrifice their young lives to look after them. It was Mona who was troubled the most by having to care for her niece and nephew. "It was very big of her to take on the responsibility, but having said that, I wish people wouldn't do that. I wish people wouldn't be very big for five minutes and rotten for twenty years. Just keep your 'big' and keep your 'rotten' and get out of my life, because, quite frankly, I would rather have gone to a children's home and be with a lot of other kids being treated the same. To this day, I'm still working on the things she did to me."  Connolly credits one of John Bradshaw's publications with helping him deal with his past demons. "He reckons that if this trauma happened to you when you were five or six then, emotionally, that part of you remains five or six. And what you have to do is carry that five- or six-year-old around with you and try and emotionally help that other part of you. It sounds a bit airy-fairy, but I think he's something of a genius, Mr. Bradshaw."  Connolly, Sr. returned from the war, a stranger to his children, shortly after the move to Partick. He never spoke to them about their mother's departure. Connolly's biography, "Billy", written by

Career.

Origin of "The Big Yin".

Connolly's nickname "The Big Yin" was first used during his adolescent years to differentiate between himself and his father. "My father was a very strong man. Broad and strong. He had an 181⁄2-inch neck collar. Huge, like a bull. He was "Big Billy" and

1960s.

In the early 1960s, Connolly attended the Edinburgh Festival Fringe for the first time. After spending time on the city's Rose Street, patronising the various drinking establishments, he became enamoured by some long-haired musicians and decided to model himself on them.  In 1965, after he had completed a five-year apprenticeship as a boilermaker, Connolly accepted a ten-week job building an oil platform in Biafra, Nigeria. Upon his return to the United Kingdom, via Jersey, he worked briefly at John Brown & Company but decided to walk out on a Fair Friday to focus on being a folk

1970s.

In 1972, Connolly made his theatrical debut, at the Cottage Theatre in Cumbernauld, with a revue called Connolly's Glasgow Flourish. He played the Edinburgh Festival Fringe with poet Tom Buchan, with whom he had written The Great Northern Welly Boot Show, and in costumes designed by the artist and writer John Byrne, who also designed the covers of the Humblebums' records.  Also in 1972, Nat Joseph produced Connolly's first solo album, "Billy Connolly Live!", a mixture of comedic songs and short monologues that hinted at what was to follow. In late 1973, Joseph produced the breakthrough album that propelled Connolly to British stardom. Recorded at a small venue, The Tudor Hotel in Airdrie, the record was a double album titled "Solo Concert". Releasing a live double-album by a comedian who was virtually unknown (except to a cult audience in Glasgow) was an unusual gambit by Joseph but his faith in Connolly's talent turned out to be warranted. Joseph and his marketing team, which included publicist Martin Lewis, promoted the album

1980s.

In 1981, John Cleese and Martin Lewis invited Connolly to appear in that year's Amnesty show, "The Secret Policeman's Other Ball". The commercial success of the special US version of "The Secret Policeman's Other Ball" film (Miramax Films, 1982) introduced Connolly to a wider American audience, who were attracted to the film because of the presence of Monty Python members. His on-screen presence alongside these performers – who were already familiar to Anglophile comedy buffs – helped lay down a marker for Connolly's eventual return to

Alcohol use.

On 30 December 1985, Connolly became tee-total, having been an alcoholic. "I don't miss drinking. It has taken me by surprise," Connolly stated 24 years later. "I miss the craic. I miss the joy of it all. The headbanging stupidity, the loveliness, the craziness of it. I miss it terribly." He recalls blackouts that he would fill in upon returning to sobriety. "Well, [the memories] stopped coming back. But when I drank, I would go, 'Oh, I remember now.'" Psychologists call it state-dependent learning. "That was frightening. I remember thinking, 'Beware, Billy boy. Beware. All is not well. Do something.'" Regarding the decision he made to stay sober: "If [Pamela] goes away, I'm on my own.

1990s.

Although Connolly had performed in North America as early as the 1970s and had appeared in several movies that played in American theatres, he nonetheless remained relatively unknown until 1990 when he was featured in the HBO special "Whoopi Goldberg and Billy Connolly in Performance", produced by New York's Brooklyn Academy of Music. Soon after, Connolly succeeded Howard Hesseman as the star of the sitcom, "Head of the Class" for its final season. He would also take part on its spin-off series "Billy". Connolly

2000s.

In 2000, Connolly starred in "Beautiful Joe" alongside Sharon Stone. The following year, he completed the third in his "World Tour" BBC series, this time of "England, Ireland and Wales", which began in Dublin and ended in Plymouth. It was broadcast the following year. Also in 2001, Stephenson's first biography of her husband, "Billy", was published. Much of the book is about Connolly the celebrity but the account of his early years provides a context for his humour and point of view. A follow-up, "Bravemouth", was published in 2003.  A fourth BBC series, "World Tour of New Zealand", was filmed in 2004 and aired that winter. Also in his 63rd year, Connolly performed two sold-out benefit concerts at the Oxford New Theatre in memory of Malcolm Kingsnorth. He has continued to be a much in-demand

2010s.

In 2011, Connolly and his wife were living full-time in New York City, whilst retaining their Candacraig residence. The Connollys decided to sell Candacraig House in September 2013, with a price of £2.75 million.  In 2012, Connolly provided the voice of King Fergus in Pixar's Scotland-set animated film "Brave", alongside fellow Scottish actors Kelly Macdonald, Craig Ferguson, Robbie Coltrane, Emma Thompson, and Kevin McKidd. Connolly appeared as Wilf in "Quartet", a 2012 British comedy-drama film based on the play "Quartet" by

Personal life.

Connolly married Iris Pressagh in 1969. They separated in 1981 and divorced in 1985. In 1989 he married his second wife, comedian and psychologist Pamela Stephenson. He is father to five children: two from his first marriage and three from his second. Connolly became a grandfather in 2001, when his daughter Cara gave birth to Walter.  In the book "Billy" (and in a December 2008 online interview), Connolly states he was sexually abused by his father between the ages of ten and fifteen. He believes this was a result of the Catholic Church not allowing his father to divorce after his mother left the family. Because of this, Connolly has a "deep distrust and dislike of the Catholic church and any other organization that brainwashes people". He has called himself an atheist.  In September 2013, Connolly underwent minor surgery for early-stage prostate cancer. The announcement also stated that he was being treated for the initial symptoms of Parkinson's disease. Connolly had acknowledged earlier in 2013 that he had started to forget his lines during performances. In January 2019, he disclosed that its advance may force his retirement from performing.  Connolly gave up drinking alcohol in 1985. Connolly appeared on the BBC's genealogy programme "Who Do You Think You Are?" on 2 October 2014, in which he discovered his Indian ancestry.

Ancestry.

Connolly's paternal grandfather, whom – like his paternal grandmother – Connolly never met, was an Irish immigrant who left Ireland when he was ten years old. His great-great-great grandfather (Charles Mills, a coast guard, 1796–1870) and great-great grandfather (Bartholomew Valentine Connolly) were from Connemara.  Connolly's father was William Connolly; his mother, Mary "Mamie" McLean, was from the Clan Maclean of Duart Castle on the Isle of Mull on the

Political views.

Connolly had previously been a vocal opponent of Scottish independence. In 1974, he made a political party television broadcast on behalf of the Labour Party which criticised the Scottish National Party. In 1999, he blamed the SNP for a perceived increase in Anglophobia in Scotland; described the new Scottish Parliament as a joke; and declined to attend the opening ceremony.  He questioned the expense of independence, and whether average Scots would benefit from another level of government; though he added, "But Scots are very capable of making up their mind without my tuppence worth."  In April 2014, in an interview with the "Radio Times" leading up to the independence referendum, he stated "I think it's time for people to get together, not split apart. The more people stay together, the happier they'll be." He also referred to the Darien scheme, an effort to establish a Scottish colony in the Isthmus of Panama in 1698; the colony's failure destroyed the Kingdom of Scotland's

Support for charity.

Connolly is a patron of the National Association for Bikers

Folk music.

In 1965, together with Tam Harvey, Connolly started a group called The Humblebums. At their first gig, Connolly reportedly introduced them both to the audience by saying, "My name's Billy Connolly, and I'm humble. This is Tam Harvey, he's a bum." The band would later include Gerry Rafferty, who saw Connolly at a charity show in Paisley. "Gerry was very good for me. He taught me that I would never be a musician as long as my arse looked south. He was just so outstandingly good and getting better, and although I was getting better too, the space between us remained huge. He was a real musician, he knew and felt music, a bass player, with a lovely sense of harmony, as well as a great guitarist. I knew tunes and how to play them but that was where my musicianship ended. Unfortunately, I’m still the same to this day. I work very hard, I play every day but I’m still ordinary. I can be flashy, but it’s all tricks really. He’s a musician and I’m just not in the same league. So, I gave up these ambitions and concentrated on what I was really born to do."  After Harvey left the group, Connolly and Rafferty continued as a duo and the latter two of their three albums featured just that duo. Connolly sang, played five-string banjo, guitar, and autoharp, and at live shows entertained the audience with his humorous introductions to the songs.  Frank Bruno and Connolly provided lead vocals on, "The War Song of the Urpneys" from "The Dreamstone"; although the version heard in the series was largely sung by composer Mike Batt.  In his "World Tour of Scotland", Connolly revealed that, at a trailer show during the Edinburgh Festival, the Humblebums took to the stage just before Yehudi Menuhin.  The Humblebums

Stand-up comedy.

Connolly's observational comedy is idiosyncratic and often off-the-cuff. He has offended certain sectors of audiences, critics and the media with his free use of the word "fuck" and he has made jokes relating to masturbation, blasphemy, defecation, flatulence, haemorrhoids, sex, his father's illness, his aunts' cruelty and, in the latter stages of his

Comics writing.

Between 1973 and 1977 Connolly wrote a

Art.

Since 2012, Connolly has released five collections with the UK's leading art publisher, Castle Fine Art. Inspired by a rainy day in Montreal, the humorous black-and-white drawings – collectively titled. "Born on a Rainy Day —" have been likened to the cave paintings from

Discography.

"Below is a partial list of Connolly's solo

Playwright.

Connolly has

Awards and nominations.

On 11 July 2001, Connolly was awarded an honorary Doctor of Letters degree by the University of Glasgow.  In 2003, the BAFTA presented him with a Lifetime Achievement award.  In the 2003 Birthday Honours, Connolly was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE), for "services to Entertainment".  On 4 July 2006, Connolly was awarded an honorary doctorate by Glasgow's Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama (RSAMD), for his service to performing arts.  On 18 March 2007 and again on 11 April 2010, Connolly was named Number One in Channel 4's "100 Greatest Stand-Ups".  On 22 July 2010, Connolly was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Letters (D.Litt.) by Nottingham Trent University.  On 20 August 2010, Connolly was made a Freeman of Glasgow, with the award of the Freedom of the City of Glasgow.  On 10 December 2012, Connolly picked up his BAFTA Scotland Award for Outstanding Achievement in Television and Film at his BAFTA, "A Life in Pictures", interview in the Old Fruitmarket, Glasgow.  In January 2016, he was presented with the Special Recognition award at the "National Television Awards" to honour his career.  In the 2017 Birthday Honours, Connolly was knighted for "services to Entertainment and charity".  As of 2017, Glasgow has at least 3 large-scale gable murals commissioned by BBC Scotland and one metalwork mural commissioned by Sanctuary Scotland Housing Association depicting him.  On 22 June 2017, Connolly received an honorary doctorate from University of Strathclyde in Glasgow.  In November 2019, The Evening Times named Connolly as The Greatest Glaswegian as determined by a public poll.

Sir William Connolly, (born 24 November 1942) is a retired Scottish stand-up comedian, musician, presenter, actor and artist. He is sometimes known, especially in his homeland, by the Scots nickname "The Big Yin" ("The Big One").

William „Billy“ Connolly (* 24. listopadu 1942 Glasgow) je britský komik, hudebník a herec. Na začátku 60. let pracoval jako svářeč v glasgowských loděnicích, což bylo jeho první zaměstnání. Na konci 60. let se stal známým folkovým zpěvákem. V polovině 70. let opět změnil svoji práci a stal se komikem, kterým je dodnes. Connolly rovněž hrál v několika filmech (např. v "Posledním samuraji" nebo "Řadě nešťastných příhod").


Comparison of top chess players throughout history

Statistical methods.

Elo system.

Perhaps the best-known statistical model is that devised by Arpad Elo in 1960 and further elaborated on in his 1978 book "The Rating of Chessplayers, Past and Present". He gave ratings to players corresponding to their performance over the best five-year span of their career. According to this system the highest ratings achieved were:  In 1970, FIDE adopted Elo's system for rating current players, so one way to compare players of different eras is to compare their Elo ratings. The best-ever Elo ratings are tabulated below.  As of December 2015, there were 101 chess players in history who broke 2700 and thirteen of them exceeded 2800. Particularly notable are the peak ratings of Fischer, Karpov and Kasparov, who achieved their peak ratings in earlier years (1972, 1994, and 1999 respectively).

Average rating over time.

The average Elo rating of top players has risen over time. For instance, the average of the top 10 active players rose from 2751 in July 2000 to 2794 in July 2014, a 43-point increase in 14 years. The average rating of the top 100 players, meanwhile, increased from 2644 to 2703, a 59-point increase. Many people believe that this rise is mostly due to a system artifact known as ratings inflation, making it impractical to compare players of different eras.  Arpad Elo was of the opinion that it was futile to attempt to use ratings to compare players from different eras; in his view, they could only possibly measure the strength of a player as compared to his or her contemporaries. He also stated that the process of rating players was in any case rather approximate; he compared it to "the measurement of the position of a cork bobbing up and down on the surface of agitated water with a yard stick tied to a rope and which is swaying in the wind".

Chessmetrics.

Many statisticians besides Elo have devised similar methods to retrospectively rate players. Jeff Sonas' rating system is called "Chessmetrics". This system takes account of many games played after the publication of Elo's book, and claims to take account of the rating inflation that the Elo system has allegedly suffered.  One caveat is that a Chessmetrics rating takes into account the frequency of play. According to Sonas, "As soon as you go a month without playing, your Chessmetrics rating will start to drop."  Sonas, like Elo, claims that it is impossible to compare the strength of players from different eras, saying:  Nevertheless, Sonas' website does compare players from different eras. Including data until December 2004, the ratings were: In 2005, Sonas used Chessmetrics to evaluate historical annual performance ratings and came to the conclusion that Kasparov was dominant for the most years, followed by Karpov and Lasker. He also published the following list of the highest ratings ever attained according to calculations done at the start of each month:

"Warriors of the Mind".

In contrast to Elo and Sonas's systems, Raymond Keene and Nathan Divinsky's book "Warriors of the Mind" attempts to establish a rating system claiming to compare directly the strength of players active in different eras, and so determine the strongest player of all time (through December 2004). Considering games played between sixty-four of the strongest players in history, they came up with the following top ten:  These "Divinsky numbers" are not on the same scale as Elo ratings (the last person on the list, Johannes Zukertort, has a Divinsky number of 873, which would be a beginner-level Elo rating). Keene and Divinsky's system has met with limited acceptance, and "Warriors of the Mind" has been accused of arbitrarily selecting players and bias towards modern players.

Moves played compared with computer choices.

Matej Guid and Ivan Bratko.

A computer-based method of analyzing chess abilities across history came from Matej Guid and Ivan Bratko from the Department of Computer and Information Science of University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, in 2006. The basis for their evaluation was the difference between the position values resulting from the moves played by the human chess player and the moves chosen as best by the chess program Crafty. They compared the average number of errors in the player's game. Opening moves were excluded, in an attempt to negate the progress in chess opening theory.  The method received a number of criticisms, including: the study used a modified version of Crafty rather than the standard version; even the standard version of Crafty was not strong enough to evaluate the world champions' play; one of the modifications restricted the search depth to 12 half-moves, which is often insufficient. As of 2006 Crafty's Elo rating was 2657, below many historical top human players and several other computer programs.  A study by online chess data provider Chess-DB, based on an analysis of over 50,000 chess games, claims that the "strength" of a player, as determined by the method of Matej Guid and Ivan Bratko, correlates with the Elo rating strength of modern players.

Rybka.

A similar project was conducted for World Champions in 2007–08 using Rybka 2.3.2a (then-strongest chess program) and a modified version of Crafty 20.14. It arrived at the following results:  A 2008 analysis, using Rybka 3, showed that Capablanca had the smallest average error factor (i.e. the most accurate play); but after adjusting for factors such as the complexity of positions, the best player came out as Fischer, followed by Capablanca, Karpov and Kramnik. The best players had an average error of about 0.07 pawns per move (after the opening). Capablanca was the most positional player, and Anand by far the most tactical. The most complex game tested was Fischer v Spassky (1972 game 6, Fischer won) while the most accurately played game was Tal v Benko (1958, Tal won).

CAPS.

CAPS (Computer Aggregated Precision Score) is a system created by Chess.com that compares players from different eras by finding the percentage of moves that matches that of a chess engine. A score is then assigned based on percentage of matches and move value (for example, if the move was not the best, but still good, points are awarded). CAPS ignores both style and psychology. According to the system, Carlsen was the best player ever, with a CAPS score of 98.36 and a top engine match of 85.26%. He was followed closely by Kramnik, and then Kasparov.

Markovian Model.

In an article published by the ICGA Journal, Jean-Marc Alliot of the Toulouse Computer Science Research Institute (IRIT) presents a new method, based on a Markovian interpretation of a chess game. Starting with those of Wilhelm Steinitz, all 26,000 games played since then by chess world champions have been processed by a supercomputer using Stockfish (rated between 3310 Elo at the CCRL and 3337 at the SSDF as of 10/2015, but around 3150 under the test condition according to the authors) in 62000 CPU hours, in order to create a probabilistic model for each player. For each position, the model estimates the probability of making a mistake and the magnitude of the mistake by comparing the two best moves calculated at an average of 2 minutes by move (26 plies on the average) with the move actually played, starting from move number 10. These models can then be used to compute the win/draw/lose probability for any given match between two players. These predictions have proven not only to be extremely close to the actual results when players have played concrete games against one another, but to also fare better than those based on Elo scores. The results demonstrate that the level of chess players has been steadily increasing. Magnus Carlsen (in 2013) tops the list, while Vladimir Kramnik (in 1999) is second, Bobby Fischer (in 1971) is third, and Garry Kasparov (in 2001) is fourth.  The complete results are as follows, with each player taken in his best year. The numbers represent the winning percentage of one player against his opponent. The tables are not symmetric, since whether one starts with white pieces or black pieces impacts the outcome of the game.  The complete database of the chess games and their evaluations can be downloaded from the page presenting this work on the author's website.

Subjective lists.

Many prominent players and chess writers have offered their own rankings of players.

Bobby Fischer (1964 and 1970).

In 1964, Bobby Fischer listed his top 10 in "Chessworld" magazine: Morphy, Staunton, Steinitz, Tarrasch, Chigorin, Alekhine, Capablanca, Spassky, Tal, Reshevsky. He considered Morphy to be "perhaps the most accurate", writing: "In a set match he would beat anyone alive today."  In 1970, Fischer named Morphy, Steinitz, Capablanca, Botvinnik, Petrosian, Tal, Spassky, Reshevsky, Svetozar Gligorić and Bent Larsen the greatest chess players in history.

Irving Chernev (1974).

In 1974, popular chess author Irving Chernev published an article titled "Who were the greatest?" in the English magazine CHESS. He followed this up with his 1976 book "The Golden Dozen", in which he ranked his all-time top twelve: 1. Capablanca, 2. Alekhine, 3. Lasker, 4. Fischer, 5. Botvinnik, 6. Petrosian, 7. Tal, 8. Smyslov, 9. Spassky, 10. Bronstein, 11. Rubinstein, and 12. Nimzowitsch.

Miguel Quinteros (1992).

In a 1992 interview GM Miguel Quinteros gave the opinion: "I think Fischer was and still is the greatest chess player of all time. [...] During his absence other good chess players have appeared. But no one equals Fischer's talent and perfection."

Viswanathan Anand (2000, 2008 and 2012).

In 2000, when Karpov, Korchnoi and Kasparov were still active, Anand listed his top 10 as: Fischer, Morphy, Lasker, Capablanca, Steinitz, Tal, Korchnoi, Keres, Karpov and Kasparov.  When interviewed in 2008 shortly after Fischer's death, he ranked Fischer and Kasparov as the greatest, with Kasparov a little ahead by virtue of being on top for so many years.  In 2012, Anand stated that he considered Fischer the best player and also the greatest, because of the hurdles he faced.

"Chess Informant" readers (2001).

Svetozar Gligorić reported in his book "Shall We Play Fischerandom Chess?" (Batsford, 2002):At the beginning of 2001 a large poll for the "Ten Greatest Chess Players of the 20th Century, selected by "Chess Informant" readers" resulted in Fischer having the highest percentage of votes and finishing as No. 1, ahead of Kasparov, Alekhine, Capablanca, Botvinnik, Karpov, Tal, Lasker, Anand and Korchnoi.

David Edmonds and John Eidinow (2004).

BBC award-winning journalists, from their book "Bobby Fischer Goes to War: How the Soviets Lost the Most Extraordinary Chess Match of All Time" (HarperCollins, 2004): Fischer, some will maintain, was "the" outstanding player in chess history, though there are powerful advocates too for Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, and Kasparov. Many chess players will dismiss such comparisons as meaningless, akin to the futile attempt to grade the supreme musicians of all time. But the manner in which Fischer stormed his way to Reykjavik, his breathtaking dominance at the Palma de Majorca Interzonal, the trouncings of Taimanov, Larsen, and Petrosian—all this was unprecedented. There never has been an era in modern chess during which one player has so overshadowed all others.

Vladimir Kramnik (2005 and 2011).

In a 2005 interview, Vladimir Kramnik (World Champion from 2000 to 2007) did not name a greatest player, but stated, "The other world champions had something'missing'. I can't say the same about Kasparov: he can do everything."  In an interview in 2011, Vladimir Kramnik said about Anand: "I always considered him to be a colossal talent, one of the greatest in the whole history of chess", "I think that in terms of play Anand is in no way weaker than Kasparov", and "In the last 5–6 years he's made a qualitative leap that's made it possible to consider him one of the great chess players".

Leonard Barden (2008).

In his 2008 obituary of Bobby Fischer, Leonard Barden wrote that most experts ranked Kasparov as the best ever player, with probably Fischer second and Karpov third.

Levon Aronian (2012 and 2015).

In a 2012 interview, Levon Aronian stated that he considers Alexander Alekhine the best player of all time.  In a 2015 interview after the 8th round of the Sinquefield Cup, Levon Aronian stated that he considers Garry Kasparov the strongest player of all time.

Magnus Carlsen (2012, 2015 and 2020).

In 2012, Magnus Carlsen said that Kasparov is the greatest player of all time, adding that while Fischer may have been better at his best, Kasparov remained at the top for much longer.  In December 2015, he repeated his great respect for both Fischer and Kasparov when he mentioned them several times in an interview, saying he would like to play against them at their peak performance.  In January 2020, Carlsen said, ""Kasparov had 20 years uninterrupted as the world No 1. And I would say for very few of those years was there any doubt that he was the best player. He must be considered as the best in history.""

World Champions by world title reigns.

The table below organises the world champions in order of championship wins. (For the purpose of this table, a successful defence counts as a win, even if the match was drawn.) The table is made more complicated by the split between the "Classical" and FIDE world titles between 1993 and 2006.

This article presents a number of methodologies that have been suggested for the task of comparing the greatest chess players in history. Statistical methods offer objectivity but, while there is agreement on systems to rate the strengths of current players, there is disagreement on whether such techniques can be applied to players from different generations who never competed against each other.

Tento článek zkoumá několik metodologií, které byly navrženy za účelem srovnání nejsilnějších hráčů šachové historie, zvláště pak porovnání nejlepších hráčů v odlišných obdobích. Statistické metody jsou objektivní, v samotném technickém systému srovnávání panuje shoda, nesoulad a spory ale panují v otázce, zda tato statistická technika může být aplikována na hráče z různých dob minulosti, kteří spolu nikdy nesehráli žádnou partii a nemohli se u šachovnice setkat (např. Capablanca a Kramnik).


Early and personal life.

Sorín was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, and is Jewish. He has written a book called "Grandes Chicos" ("Big Kids" or "Big Little People") to raise funds for the building of a school and a children's hospital in Argentina. He currently lives in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, and worked as a pundit for ESPN Brasil from 2012 to 2017.

Club career.

Nicknamed "Juampi", as he is often known in Argentina, Sorín began his career playing in the lower-reaches of the Argentine league for Argentinos Juniors, a Buenos Aires football club. He broke into the first team in 1994 and during the 1995–96 season, after he captained the Argentina Under-20 side who won the 1995 FIFA World Youth Championship played in Qatar, his contract was bought by Italian club Juventus. However, he struggled to find space in an already established first team under manager Marcello Lippi, totalling only four appearances for the club; as such, he soon returned to Argentina.  Sorín played for River Plate in the second half of 1996, and revived his career, winning three Apertura championships (1996, 1997 and 1999), one Clausura championship (1997), one Copa Libertadores de América in 1996 and a Supercopa Sudamericana in 1997.

Cruzeiro and Europe.

He was transferred to Cruzeiro of Brazil in 2000. He played for two and a half seasons, winning the 2000 Copa do Brasil and becoming one of the most cherished players by the fans up to this day.  After the 2002 Copa do Brasil, in July 2002 he signed for S.S. Lazio.  After an injury-filled a half season at Lazio in Italy, Sorin was acquired by FC Barcelona, occupied the non-EU quota along with Juan Román Riquelme and Roberto Bonano. He made his Spanish League debut on 9 February 2003. The match was between Barcelona and Athletic de Bilbao and ended 2–2. After a successful half a season he left the Nou Camp in the summer of 2003 and moved to France to play for Paris Saint-Germain, where he won the Coupe de France. Sorín returned to Cruzeiro in 2004, played at 2004 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A.

Villarreal.

In November 2004, Sorin transferred to Villarreal of Spain on free transfer. Sorín enjoyed a good deal of success with Villarreal, helping them reach the semi-finals of the Champions League where they were beaten by Arsenal of England.

Hamburg.

Sorín was reportedly the subject of interest from English Premiership sides Portsmouth, Bolton Wanderers and Newcastle United during the summer of 2006, but ended up signing for Hamburger SV. After two years with the German club and only 24 appearances because of injury, Sorín left when his contract expired on 15 July 2008.

Return to Cruzeiro.

Sorín returned again to Cruzeiro on 29 August 2008. He signed a contract until the end of season, with the option to renew for two more years. He played his only match since his return in a Série A game on 14 June 2009, and after another injury-riddled year with Cruzeiro, he announced his retirement on 28 July 2009.

International career.

Sorín was part of the Argentine squad in the 2002 FIFA World Cup in Japan and South Korea. The team played three matches against Nigeria, England and Sweden. However the team failed badly, failing to reach the second round of the tournament.  The Argentine squad was then rebuilt by José Pekerman and Sorín was made captain of his country for the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany. Sorín played an important role in the World Cup for Argentina as an effective attacking full-back. Argentina qualified for the second round after taking care of Ivory Coast (2–1) and crushing Serbia and Montenegro 6–0. After defeating Mexico in extra time, Argentina went on to the quarter-finals where they lost to hosts Germany on a penalty-shoot out.

Style of play.

Sorín was a strong, versatile, and hardworking left-back, who could also play as a centre-back, or anywhere on the left wing, due to his passing and crossing ability with his left foot. He had an eccentric style of play, and despite being played predominantly in defensive roles, he often made attacking runs into more offensive positions, where he used his technical skills and aggressive heading ability to great effect.

Career statistics.

International.

International goals.

"Scores and results list Argentina's goal tally first. Score column indicates score after each Sorín goal."

Juan Pablo Sorín (born 5 May 1976) is an Argentine former footballer and current sports broadcaster, who played as a left back or left midfielder. He had a successful club career in his native Argentina with River Plate, in Brazil with Cruzeiro, and with various teams in Europe, including Barcelona, Lazio, Paris Saint-Germain and Villarreal. At international level, he represented the Argentina national team at two FIFA World Cups, and was the captain of Argentine side at the 2006 FIFA World Cup; he also represented his nation in two editions of Copa América, and the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup.

Juan Pablo Sorín (* 5. květen 1976, Buenos Aires) je bývalý argentinský fotbalista. Sorín byl velmi přelétavý hráč. Hrál za kluby v Argentině, Brazílii, Španělsku, Itálii a Francii. Byl kapitánem Argentinského národního týmu na Mistrovství světa ve fotbale v roce 2006.


Etymology.

The native term "guanchinet" literally translated means "person of Tenerife" (from "Guan" = person and "Chinet" = Tenerife). It was modified, according to Juan Núñez de la Peña, by the Castilians into "Guanchos". Though etymologically being an ancient, Tenerife-specific, term, the word "Guanche" is now mostly used to refer to the pre-Hispanic aboriginal inhabitants of the entire archipelago.

Historical background.

Roman author and military officer Pliny the Elder, drawing upon the accounts of Juba II, king of Mauretania, stated that a Mauretanian expedition to the islands around 50 BC found the ruins of great buildings, but otherwise no population to speak of. If this account is accurate, it may suggest that the Guanches were not the only inhabitants, or the first ones; or that the expedition simply did not explore the islands thoroughly. Tenerife, specifically the archaeological site of the Cave of the Guanches in Icod de los Vinos, has provided habitation dates dating back to the 6th century BC, according to analysis carried out on ceramics that were found inside the cave.  Strictly speaking, the Guanches were the indigenous peoples of Tenerife. The population seems to have lived in relative isolation up to the time of the Castilian conquest, around the 14th century (though Genoese, Portuguese, and Castilians may have visited there from the second half of the 8th century onwards). The name came to be applied to the indigenous populations of all the seven Canary Islands, those of Tenerife being the most important or powerful.  What remains of their language, Guanche – a few expressions, vocabulary words and the proper names of ancient chieftains still borne by certain families – exhibits positive similarities with the Berber languages. The first reliable account of the Guanche language was provided by the Genoese explorer Nicoloso da Recco in 1341, with a translation of numbers used by the islanders.  According to European chroniclers, the Guanches did not possess a system of writing at the time of conquest; the writing system may have fallen into disuse or aspects of it were simply overlooked by the colonizers. Inscriptions, glyphs and rock paintings and carvings are quite abundant throughout the islands. Petroglyphs attributed to various Mediterranean civilizations have been found on some of the islands. In 1752, Domingo Vandewalle, a military governor of Las Palmas, attempted to investigate them, and Aquilino Padron, a priest at Las Palmas, catalogued inscriptions at El Julan, La Candía and La Caleta on El Hierro. In 1878 Dr. René Verneau discovered rock carvings in the ravines of Las Balos that resemble Libyan or Numidian writing dating from the time of Roman occupation or earlier. In other locations, Libyco-Berber script has been identified.

Pre-conquest exploration.

The geographic accounts of Pliny the Elder and of Strabo mention the Fortunate Isles but do not report anything about their populations. An account of the Guanche population may have been made around AD 1150 by the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi in the "Nuzhatul Mushtaq", a book he wrote for King Roger II of Sicily, in which al-Idrisi reports a journey in the Atlantic Ocean made by the Mugharrarin ("the adventurers"), a family of Andalusian seafarers from Lisbon. The only surviving version of this book, kept at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, and first translated by Pierre Amédée Jaubert, reports that, after having reached an area of "sticky and stinking waters", the Mugharrarin moved back and first reached an uninhabited Island (Madeira or Hierro), where they found "a huge quantity of sheep, which its meat was bitter and inedible" and, then, "continued southward" and reached another island where they were soon surrounded by barks and brought to "a village whose inhabitants were often fair haired with long and flaxen hair and the women of a rare beauty". Among the villagers, one did speak Arabic and asked them where they came from. Then the king of the village ordered them to bring them back to the continent where they were surprised to be welcomed by Berbers. Apart from the marvelous and fanciful content of this history, this account would suggest that Guanches had sporadic contacts with populations from the mainland. Al-Idrisi also described the Guanche men as tall and of a reddish-brown complexion.  During the 14th century, the Guanches are presumed to have had other contacts with Balearic seafarers from Spain, suggested by the presence of Balearic artifacts found on several of the Canary Islands.

Castilian conquest.

The Castilian conquest of the Canary Islands began in 1402, with the expedition of Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle to the island of Lanzarote. Gadifer invaded Lanzarote and Fuerteventura with ease since many of the aboriginals, faced with issues of starvation and poor agriculture, surrendered to Spanish rule.  The other five islands fought back. El Hierro and the "Bimbache" population were the next to fall, then La Gomera, Gran Canaria, La Palma and in 1496, Tenerife.  In the First Battle of Acentejo (31 May 1494), called "La Matanza" (the slaughter), Guanches ambushed the Castilians in a valley and killed many. Only one in five of the Castilians survived, including the leader of the expedition, Alonso Fernandez de Lugo.  Lugo later returned to the island with the alliance of the kings of the southern part of the island, and defeated the Guanches in the Battle of Aguere. The northern Menceyatos or provinces fell after the Second Battle of Acentejo with the defeat of the successor of Bencomo, Bentor, Mencey of Taoro—what is now the Orotava Valley—in 1496.

Origins.

Genetic evidence shows that northern African peoples made a significant contribution to the aboriginal population of the Canaries following desertification of the Sahara at some point after 6000 BC.Linguistic evidence suggests ties between the Guanche language and the Berber languages of North Africa, particularly when comparing numeral systems. Research into the genetics of the Guanche population have led to the conclusion that they share an ancestry with Berber peoples.  The islands were visited by a number of peoples within recorded history. The Numidians, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians knew of the islands and made frequent visits, including expeditions dispatched from Mogador by Juba. The Romans occupied northern Africa and visited the Canaries between the 1st and 4th centuries AD, judging from Roman artifacts found on and near the island of Lanzarote. These show that Romans did trade with the Canaries, though there is no evidence of them ever settling there. Archaeology of the Canaries seems to reflect diverse levels of technology, some differing from the Neolithic culture that was encountered at the time of conquest.  It is thought that the arrival of the aborigines to the archipelago led to the extinction of some big reptiles and insular mammals, for example "Canariomys bravoi", the giant rat of Tenerife.

Population genetics.

A 2003 genetics research article by Nicole Maca-Meyer et al. published in the "European Journal of Human Genetics" compared aboriginal Guanche mtDNA (collected from Canarian archaeological sites) to that of today's Canarians and concluded that, "despite the continuous changes suffered by the population (Spanish colonisation, slave trade), aboriginal mtDNA (direct maternal) lineages constitute a considerable proportion (42 – 73%) of the Canarian gene pool. According to this article, both percentages are obtained using two different estimation methods; nevertheless according to the same study the percentage that could be more reliable is the one of 73%. Although the Berbers are the closest identifiable relatives of the Guanches, it is deduced that important human movements (e.g., the Islamic-Arabic conquest of the Berbers) have reshaped Northwest Africa after the migratory wave to the Canary Islands" and the "results support, from a maternal perspective, the supposition that since the end of the 16th century, at least, two-thirds of the Canarian population had an indigenous substrate, as was previously inferred from historical and anthropological data." The mtDNA haplogroup U subclade U6b1 is Canarian-specific and is the most common mtDNA haplogroup found in aboriginal Guanche archaeological burial sites.  Both the study done by Maca-Meyer "et al." (2003) on Tenerife aborigines and the study done by Fregel "et al." (2009) on La Palma aborigines found the majority of mt-DNA haplogroups belonging to the Eurasian clades such as H/HV/U*/R. The study done by Maca-Meyer "et al." (2003) on Tenerife Aborigines used a total sample of 71 aborigines and found that the frequency of the Cambridge Reference Sequence (CRS) which belongs to the European haplogroup H2a2 was 21.12% of the total sample. Meanwhile, the same study Maca-Meyer "et al." (2003) found out that frequencies of haplogroups H/HV/U*/R(-CRS) at 30.98% of the total; also, mtDNA haplogroup V was observed at frequencies of 4.23% of the total sample.  Y-DNA, or Y-chromosomal, that is direct paternal lineages were not analyzed in this study; however, an earlier study giving the aboriginal y-DNA contribution at 6% was cited by Maca-Meyer et al., but the results were criticized as possibly flawed due to the widespread phylogeography of y-DNA haplogroup E1b1b1b, which may skew determination of the aboriginality versus coloniality of contemporary y-DNA lineages in the Canaries. Regardless, Maca-Meyer et al. states that historical evidence does support the explanation of "strong sexual asymmetry [...] as a result of a strong bias favoring matings between European males and aboriginal females, and to the important aboriginal male mortality during the Conquest." The genetics thus suggests the native men were sharply reduced in numbers due to the war, large numbers of Spaniard men stayed in the islands and married the local women, the Canarians adopted Spanish names, language, and religion, and in this way, the Canarians were Hispanicized.  According to a recent study by Fregel et al. 2009, in spite of the geographic nearness between the Canary Islands and Morocco, the genetic heritage of the Canary islands male lineages, is mainly from European origin. Indeed, nearly 67% of the haplogroups resulting from are Euro–Eurasian (R1a (2.76%), R1b (50.62%), I (9.66%) and G (3.99%)). Unsurprisingly the Spanish conquest brought the genetic base of the current male population of the Canary Islands. Nevertheless, the second most important haplogroup family is from Northern Africa, Near and Middle East. E1b1b (14%, including 8.30% of the typical Berber haplogroup E-M81), E1b1a and E1a (1.50%), J (14%) and T (3%) Haplogroups are present at a rate of 33%.  Even if a part of these "eastern" haplogroups were introduced by the Spanish too, we can suppose that a good portion of this rate was already there at the time of the conquest. According to this same study the presence of autochthonous North African E-M81 lineages, and also other relatively abundant markers (E-M78 and J-M267) from the same region in the indigenous Guanche population, "strongly points to that area [North Africa] as the most probable origin of the Guanche ancestors". In this study, Fregel et al. estimated that, based on Y-chromosome and mtDNA haplogroup frequencies, the relative female and male indigenous Guanche contributions to the present-day Canary Islands populations was respectively of 41.8% and 16.1%.  An autosomal study in 2011 found an average Northwest African influence of about 17% in Canary Islanders with a wide interindividual variation ranging from 0% to 96%. According to the authors, the substantial Northwest African ancestry found for Canary Islanders supports that, despite the aggressive conquest by the Spanish in the 15th century and the subsequent immigration, genetic footprints of the first settlers of the Canary Islands persist in the current inhabitants. Paralleling mtDNA findings, the largest average Northwest African contribution was found for the samples from La Gomera.

Guanche DNA in Puerto Rico.

A group of researchers from Puerto Rican universities conducted a study of mitochondrial DNA that revealed that the modern population of Puerto Rico has a high genetic component of Taíno and Guanche (especially of the island of Tenerife). This type of Guanche genes have also been detected in the Dominican Republic.

Links with Anatolia.

According to an international investigation whose results were given in 2017, a small part of the Guanches aborigines had as relatives the first European farmers from Anatolia (present-day Turkey). This data has been discovered thanks to the analysis of the genome which also confirms that the vast majority of Canarian aborigines come from North Africa but were also related to the first European farmers, whose genetics were introduced into Europe from Anatolia through the migrations of farmers during the Neolithic expansion, around 7,000 years ago. Another study in 2018 confirmed that, like the Guanches, both ancient and modern North Africans are also partly related to Anatolia/Europe.

Autosomal DNA.

Another recent study sequenced the entire genomes of a sample of 400 adult men and women from all the islands except La Graciosa. The study indicated that Canarian DNA shows distinctive genetic markers, the result of a combination of factors such as the geographic isolation of the islands, the adaption to the environment of its inhabitants and the historic admixture of the Pre-Hispanic population of the archipelago (coming from North Africa), with European and from Sub-Saharan area individuals. Drawing on these data, it was estimated that the Canarian population is, at an autosomal level, 75% European, 22% North African and 3% Sub-saharan.

Language.

The native Guanche language is now only known through a few sentences and individual words, supplemented by several placenames. Many modern linguists propose that it belongs to the Berber branch of the Afroasiatic languages.  However, while there are recognizable Berber words (particularly with regards to agriculture) within the Guanche language, no Berber grammatical inflections have been identified; there is a large stock of vocabulary that does not bear any resemblance to Berber whatsoever.

System of beliefs.

Religion and mythology.

Little is known of the religion of the Guanches. There was a general belief in a supreme being, called Achamán in Tenerife, Acoran in Gran Canaria, Eraoranhan in Hierro, and Abora in La Palma. The women of Hierro worshipped a goddess called Moneiba. According to tradition, the male and female gods lived in mountains, from which they descended to hear the prayers of the people. On other islands, the natives venerated the sun, moon, earth and stars. A belief in an evil spirit was general. The demon of Tenerife was called Guayota and lived at the peak of Teide volcano, which was the hell called Echeyde; in Tenerife and Gran Canaria, the minor demons took the form of wild black woolly dogs called Jucanchas in the first and Tibicenas in the latter, which lived in deep caves of the mountains, emerging at night to attack livestock and human beings.  In Tenerife, Magec (god of the Sun) and Chaxiraxi (the goddess mother) were also worshipped. In times of drought, the Guanches drove their flocks to consecrated grounds, where the lambs were separated from their mothers in the belief that their plaintive bleating would melt the heart of the Great Spirit. During the religious feasts, hostilities were held in abeyance, from war to personal quarrels.  Idols have been found in the islands, including the Idol of Tara (Museo Canario, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria) and the Guatimac (Museum Archaeological of Puerto de la Cruz in Tenerife). But many more figures have been found in the rest of the archipelago.  Most researchers agree that the Guanches performed their worship in the open, under sacred trees such as pine or drago, or near sacred mountains such as Mount Teide, which was believed to be the abode of the devil Guayota. Mount Teide was sacred to the aboriginal Guanches and since 2007 is a World Heritage Site. But sometimes the Guanches also performed worship in caves, as in "Cave of Achbinico" in Tenerife. Until the 20th century, there were in the Canary Islands (especially in northern Tenerife) individuals called "Animeros". They were similar to healers and mystics with a syncretic beliefs combining elements of the Guanche religion and Christianity. As in other countries close to the islands (e.g. marabouts from the Maghreb), the Animeros were considered "persons blessed by God".

Aboriginal priests.

The Guanches had priests or shamans who were connected with the gods and ordained hierarchically:

Festivities.

Beñesmen or Beñesmer was a festival of the agricultural calendar of the Guanches (the Guanche new year) to be held after the gathering of crops devoted to Chaxiraxi (on August 15). In this event the Guanches shared milk, gofio, sheep or goat meat. At the present time, this coincides with the pilgrimage to the Basilica of the Virgin of Candelaria (Patron of Canary Islands).  Among the cultural events are significant traces of aboriginal traditions at the holidays and in the current Romería Relief in Güímar (Tenerife) and the lowering of the Rama, in Agaete (Gran Canaria).

Funerals and mummies.

Mummification was practiced throughout the islands and was highly developed on Tenerife in particular. In Gran Canaria there is currently a debate on the true nature of the mummies of the ancient inhabitants of the island, as researchers point out that there was no real intention to mummify the deceased and that the good conservation of some of them is due rather to environmental factors. In La Palma they were preserved by these environmental factors and in La Gomera, and El Hierro the existence of mummification is not verified. In Lanzarote and Fuerteventura this practice is ruled out.  In La Palma, the elderly were left to die alone at their own wish. After bidding their family farewell, they were carried to the sepulchral cave, with nothing but a bowl of milk being left to them. The Guanches embalmed their dead; many mummies have been found in an extreme state of desiccation, each weighing not more than 6 or 7 pounds. Two almost inaccessible caves in a vertical rock by the shore 3 miles from Santa Cruz on Tenerife are said still to contain remains. The process of embalming seems to have varied. In Tenerife and Gran Canaria, the corpse was simply wrapped up in goat and sheep skins, while in other islands a resinous substance was used to preserve the body, which was then placed in a cave difficult to access, or buried under a tumulus. The work of embalming was reserved for a special class, with women tending to female corpses, and men for the male ones. Embalming seems not to have been universal, and bodies were often simply hidden in caves or buried.  In the Museo de la Naturaleza y el Hombre (Santa Cruz de Tenerife) mummies of original inhabitants of the Canary Islands are displayed.  In 1933, the largest Guanche necropolis of the Canary Islands was found, at Uchova in the municipality of San Miguel de Abona in the south of the island of Tenerife. This cemetery was almost completely looted; it is estimated to have contained between 60 and 74 mummies.

Sacrifices.

Although little is known about this practice among them, it has been shown that they performed both animal sacrifices and human sacrifices.  In Tenerife during the summer solstice, the Guanches were accustomed to kill livestock and throw them into a fire as an offering to the gods. Bethencourt Alfonso has claimed that goat kids were tied by the legs, alive, to a stake so that they could be heard bleating by the gods. It is likely that animals were also sacrificed on the other islands.  As for human sacrifices, in Tenerife it was the custom to throw the "Punta de Rasca" a living child at sunrise at the summer solstice. Sometimes these children came from all parts of the island, even from remote areas of "Punta de Rasca". It follows that it was a common custom of the island. On this island sacrificing other human victims associated with the death of the king, where adult men rushed to the sea are also known. Embalmers who produced the Guanche mummies also had a habit of throwing into the sea one year after the king's death.  Bones of children mixed with lambs and kids were found in Gran Canaria, and in Tenerife amphorae have been found with remains of children inside. This suggests a different kind of ritual infanticide to those who were thrown overboard.  Child sacrifice has been seen in other cultures, especially in the Mediterranean—Carthage (now Tunisia), Ugarit in the current Syria, Cyprus and Crete.

Political system.

The political and social institutions of the Guanches varied. In some islands like Gran Canaria, hereditary autocracy by matrilineality prevailed, in others the government was elective. In Tenerife all the land belonged to the kings who leased it to their subjects. In Gran Canaria, suicide was regarded as honourable, and whenever a new king was installed, one of his subjects willingly honoured the occasion by throwing himself over a precipice. In some islands, polyandry was practised; in others they were monogamous. Insult of a woman by an armed man was allegedly a capital offense. Anyone who had been accused of a crime, had to attend a public trial in Tagoror, a public court where those being prosecuted were sentenced after a trial.  The island of Tenerife was divided into nine small kingdoms ("menceyatos"), each ruled by a king or "Mencey". The Mencey was the ultimate ruler of the kingdom, and at times, meetings were held between the various kings. When the Castilians invaded the Canary Islands, the southern kingdoms joined the Castilian invaders on the promise of the richer lands of the north; the Castilians betrayed them after ultimately securing victory at the Battles of Aguere and Acentejo.

Kings ("Menceys") of Tenerife.

In Tenerife the grand Mencey Tinerfe and his father Sunta governed the unified island, which afterwards was divided into nine kingdoms by the children of Tinerfe.

Clothes and weapons.

Guanches wore garments made from goat skins or woven from plant fibers called Tamarcos, which have been found in the tombs of Tenerife. They had a taste for ornaments and necklaces of wood, bone and shells, worked in different designs. Beads of baked earth, cylindrical and of all shapes, with smooth or polished surfaces, mostly colored black and red, were fairly common. Dr. René Verneau suggested that the objects the Castilians referred to as "pintaderas," baked clay seal-shaped objects, were used as vessels for painting the body in various colours. They manufactured rough pottery, mostly without decorations, or ornamented by making fingernail indentations.  Guanche weapons adapted to the insular environment (using wood, bone, obsidian and stone as primary materials), with later influences from medieval European weaponry. Basic armaments in several of the islands included javelins of 1 to 2 m in length (known as "Banot" on Tenerife); round, polished stones; spears; maces (common in Gran Canaria and Tenerife, and known as "Magado" and "Sunta", respectively); and shields (small in Tenerife and human-sized in Gran Canaria, where they were known as "Tarja", made of Drago wood and painted with geometric shapes). After the arrival of the Europeans, Guanche nobility from Gran Canaria were known to wield large wooden swords (larger than the European two-handed type) called "Magido", which were said to be very effective against both infantrymen and cavalry. Weaponry made of wood was hardened with fire. These armaments were commonly complemented with an obsidian knife known as "Tabona". Dwellings were situated in natural or artificial caves in the mountains. In areas where cave dwellings were not feasible, they built small round houses and, according to the Castilians, practiced crude fortification.

Museums.

Many of the islands' museums possess collections of archaeological material and human remains from the prehistory and history of the archipelago of the Canaries. Some of the most important are:

New religious movement.

In 2001, the Church of the Guanche People ("Iglesia del Pueblo Guanche"), a Neopagan movement with several hundred followers, was founded in San Cristóbal de La Laguna (Tenerife).

The Guanches were the aboriginal inhabitants of the Canary Islands. In 2017, the first genome-wide data from the Guanches confirmed a North African origin and that they were genetically most similar to ancient North African Berber peoples of the nearby North African mainland. It is believed that they arrived on the archipelago some time in the first millennium BCE.

Guančové je označení pro původní berberské obyvatele Kanárských ostrovů. Jako národ Guančové dnes již neexistují, nýbrž se smísili se španělskými osadníky, a vytvořili tak základ dnešního obyvatelstva Kanárských ostrovů.


Difference between CGS and SI systems.

In the CGS system, the unit of the H-field is the oersted and the unit of the B‐field is the gauss. In the SI system, the unit ampere per meter (A/m), which is equivalent to newton/weber, is used for the H‐field and the unit of tesla is used for the B‐field.

History.

The unit was established by the IEC in 1930 in honour of the Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted. Ørsted discovered the connection between magnetism and electric current when a magnetic field produced by a current-carrying copper bar deflected a magnetised needle during a lecture demonstration.

Definition.

The oersted is defined as a dyne per unit pole. The oersted is 1000/4π (≈79.5774715) amperes per meter, in terms of SI units.  The H-field strength inside a long solenoid wound with 79.58 turns per meter of a wire carrying 1 A is approximately 1 oersted. The preceding statement is exactly correct if the solenoid considered is infinite in length with the current evenly distributed over its surface.  The oersted is closely related to the gauss, the CGS unit of magnetic flux density. In a vacuum, if the magnetizing field strength is 1 Oe, then the magnetic field density is 1 G, whereas, in a medium having permeability "μ" (relative to permeability of vacuum), their relation is:  Because oersteds are used to measure magnetizing field strength, they are also related to the magnetomotive force (mmf) of current in a single-winding wire-loop:

Stored energy.

The stored energy in a magnet, called "magnet performance" or "maximum energy product" (often abbreviated BH), is typically measured in units of megagauss-oersteds (MG⋅Oe). 1 MG⋅Oe is approximately equal to.

The oersted (symbol Oe) is the unit of the auxiliary magnetic field H in the centimetre–gram–second system of units (CGS). It is equivalent to 1 dyne per maxwell.

Oersted (značka Oe) je jednotka intenzity magnetického pole v soustavě CGS. Je pojmenována po dánském vědci H. Ch. Oerstedovi. V jednotkách soustavy SI je oersted definován jako 1000/4π (≈79.5774715) ampérů na metr. V soustavě CGS je definován jako intenzita magnetického pole, u něhož prochází průřezem 1 cm jedna siločára.


Overview.

The X150's design was completed in 2002 and was previewed by Advanced Lightweight Coupé (ALC) which was first seen at the 2005 North American International Auto Show. The designer, Ian Callum, was also responsible for the Aston Martin DB7 and Vanquish grand tourers. The X150's grille is inspired by that of the 1961 E-Type. Introduced in the market in 2006, the X150 has a bonded and riveted aluminium monocoque chassis shared with the XJ and uses an all-aluminium construction. The X150 was the second Jaguar automobile assembled at the newly acquired Castle Bromwich plant alongside the XJ saloon. The X150, as compared to the X100 is wider and is longer. It is also lighter than the X100 due to its aluminium construction resulting in performance and fuel consumption improvements. The 4.2-litre V8 engine was carried over from its predecessor and is mated to a 6-speed automatic transmission manufactured by ZF Friedrichshafen. Unlike the X100, the X150 has no wood trim on the interior offered as standard equipment. A notable feature on the interior was steering column mounted shift paddles for easier gear changes. A more powerful XKR version having a supercharged variant of the engine was introduced in 2007. Aesthetic differences as compared to the XK include a redesigned front bumper and hood louvres for improved engine airflow.  The X150 convertible shares the same engine options as the coupé and features a conventional cloth top that requires 18 seconds for operation.  The XK received a facelift in 2009, with minor alterations to front and rear lights and bumper designs, together with the introduction of a new 5.0-litre V8 for both the naturally aspirated XK and the supercharged XKR. The interior also received some changes, in particular the introduction of the XF style rotary gear selector mated to the new ZF automatic transmission. In 2010, Jaguar added the Speed Pack option, with aerodynamic bodykit and speed limiter increased to, and the Black Pack, with black wheels and trim. The XK received a second and more minor facelift in 2011 with new front bumper and light design, which was presented at the New York Auto Show.  The range was extended in 2011, with the introduction of the new and powerful XKR-S at the Geneva Motor Show, featuring an upgraded XKR engine generating a maximum power output of, and of torque. The XKR-S badge was first used on the 2008 special edition XK. having a top speed of and accelerating from 0- in 4.2 seconds (0- in 4.4 seconds).

Specifications.

Engines.

Note: All AJ-V8 Gen III V8 engines, and the Jaguar XKR-S engine, are SAE rated.

Transmission.

All 4.2-litre models were fitted with a six-speed ZF 6HP26 automatic transmission with Jaguar Sequential Shift and J-gate gear selector. All 5.0-litre models were fitted with a six-speed ZF 6HP28 and the JaguarDrive rotary gear selector.

2011 facelift.

In March 2011, on the launch of the XKR-S at the Geneva Motor Show, Jaguar revealed the details of a facelift for the XK. The new specification included front and rear styling changes and internal trim changes with navigation system and a backup camera included as standard equipment.  In addition to standard XK and XKR, the revised body shape formed the basis for the following models.

XK and XKR Special Edition.

The XK and XKR Special editions were unveiled exclusively for the European and the UK markets. They include the use of tactile'scraffito' finished leather on the front seats, instrument binnacle, door and rear quarter casings; Poltrona Frau leather headlinings with Shadow Walnut and Dark Figured Aluminium veneer, 525W Bowers & Wilkins sound system, 16 by 16 way adjustable heated Performance seats, a heated steering wheel and keyless entry/start, choice of Celestial Black, with Crystal Blue, Lunar Grey, Polaris White, Rhodium Silver and Ultimate Black body colour; two new 20-inch alloy wheel options (Venom, Orona).

XKR-S.

Unveiled at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show, the XKR-S is a high performance version of the XKR. Notable changes over the standard XKR include a supercharged AJ-V8 Gen III R direct-injection V8 engine having a maximum power output of at 6,000 to 6,500 rpm and of torque at 2,500 to 5,500 rpm, an increased top speed of, active sports exhaust, a bespoke suspension system, 16-way adjustable memory sports seats with carbon fibre effect leather, reprogrammed Adaptive Dynamics, 20-inch Vulcan wheels and Pirelli P-Zero tyres along with Jaguar's High Performance Braking System.

XK Dynamic R, XK Signature (2014).

The XK Dynamic R was a 'run out' version of the XKR with the Black Dynamic Pack and included stiffer suspension, a 10 mm ride height drop and bodykit extensions from the Speed Pack. It also had an increased top speed of.  The XK Signature is a special version of the XK with the V8 engine tuned to along with 20-inch Kalimnos alloy wheels (optional 20-inch Takoba), diamond-quilted leather upholstery, Canvas Suede cloth headlining, Figured Ebony veneers, leather seat in Ivory or Charcoal, reversing camera, metal sports pedals.

Limited editions.

XKR-S GT (2013).

The XKR-S GT is a limited (30 units in United States and Canada, 10 units in the UK; worldwide production was 45 units) version of XKR-S coupé. Technical highlights included a six-speed transmission, active electronic differential, bespoke aerodynamic components and suspension developments to increase downforce and optimised high-speed cornering ability (a wider front track, increased camber, revised bushings, a new steering system and faster steering ratio, height-adjustable and bespoke adaptive dampers with twin spring system and increased rates of 68% at the front and 25% at the rear), a carbon ceramic brake system (398 mm and 380 mm front/rear discs, 6/4-piston front/rear monoblock calipers)  The car was unveiled by Jaguar in 2013 at the New York International Auto Show, followed by the 2013 Goodwood Festival of Speed.  Delivery to UK customers commenced in October 2013.

Final Fifty (2014).

Jaguar announced a special limited edition to mark the end of XK production. Only 50 were sold, all in the US. The Final Fifty is based on the XKR with Dynamic Pack. The exterior is identifiable by an extra-louvered hood inspired by the XKR-S GT, “Vortex” 20-inch wheels, a rear wing, side sill extensions, and a rear diffuser. The Final Fifty cars are split evenly in 25 coupe and 25 convertible body styles and all cars were fitted with a commemorative plaque signed by the then Jaguar's chief designer Ian Callum.

Transmission.

All 5.0 models are fitted with a six-speed ZF 6HP28 automatic transmission and the JaguarDrive rotary gear selector.

Special models.

XKR Portfolio (2008).

The 2008 XKR Portfolio is a version of the XKR developed by Jaguar's Special Vehicles team and Alcon, it is often incorrectly referred to as a 2007 model due to being built and first sold in 2007. It includes 400 mm diameter front and 350 mm rear brake discs, six-piston front calipers and four-piston rear calipers, 20-inch five-spoke Cremona wheels, power vents, a Celestial Black body colour (optional Liquid Silver for UK and Switzerland models), Engine-Spun aluminium veneer or optional Satin American Walnut veneer, an alloy and leather gearshift selector, soft-grab door handles, contrast stitching throughout the cabin, leather-edged mats with Jaguar logos, Portfolio treadplates on the doorsills and a 525 W Premium Audio system with Dolby Pro Logic II surround sound system by Bowers & Wilkins.

XKR-S (2009).

The XKR-S is a limited production (200 units) version of the XKR coupé for the European market, 50 units were built in RHD for the UK, 150 units were built in LHD, it was not sold outside of the UK or EU. It was a 2009 model year vehicle but built in 2008. The model was developed by Jaguar's Special Vehicles team in collaboration with British competition brake specialist Alcon and has an electronically limited top speed of. The additional performance was achieved through improved aerodynamics (reduced drag and lift) and a revised suspension set-up. Other changes include an S Alcon R Performance braking system with 400 mm diameter front and 350 mm rear brake discs, six-piston front calipers and four-piston rear calipers, recalibrated suspension, Ultimate Black body colour, XKR-S badging on the rear of the car, a 10 mm lower ride height, 20-inch Vortex forged alloy wheels with bespoke tyres, an active exhaust system, leather upholstery with Charcoal with Ivory twin-needle contrast stitching, Piano Black veneer and a Charcoal Alston luxury headliner.  The car was unveiled at the 2008 Geneva Motor Show and later shown at the 2008 Paris Motor Show. The production version went on sale in the Summer of 2008.  This special edition (with a 4.2-litre V8 engine) should not be confused with the later introduced 2012 XKR-S featuring a 5.0-litre V8 engine, which was launched in 2011.

XK60 (2008).

The XK60 is a special version of the XK for the UK market built to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the XK120. Notable changes include 20-inch Senta alloy wheels, a sporty alloy gear knob and selector-gate surround, plus distinctive body enhancements: a new front spoiler and rear valance panel, chrome-finished side vents along with bright upper and lower front grille meshes, special tailpipe finishes and appliqués on both sides of the car.

XKR 'Goodwood Special' (2009).

Based on the standard XKR, the XKR 'Goodwood Special' is a prototype designed to explore the sportier side of the XKR's character and allow Jaguar's engineering team to extend performance boundaries. Unveiled at the 2009 Goodwood Festival of Speed, the engine was uprated to generate a maximum power output of and of torque. The car featured a louder exhaust, 21-inch alloy wheels and a lowered ride-height as well as a Lime Green body colour and satin graphite detailing on the front grilles, headlights, door mirrors, side window surrounds, rear signature blade and bonnet louvres.

XKR 75 Goodwood LE (2010).

Unveiled at the 2010 Goodwood Festival of Speed, the XKR 75 Goodwood LE is a limited production (75 units, 20 RHD and 55 LHD) version of the XKR commemorating the company's 75th anniversary. The car featured an upgraded engine with an uprated power output of and torque, as well as increased top speed of [though at least some cars have further increased top speed of ]. It also features an upgraded torque converter, upgraded suspension, an aerodynamic body pack with body coloured finish for the front splitter, side sills extensions and rear diffuser, body coloured larger rear spoiler and rear trunk lid finish; sports exhaust with improved performance and acoustics, Stratus Grey exterior paint with optional graphics pack; red brake callipers, 20-inch Vortex forged lightweight alloy wheels, XKR performance interior in Charcoal and Ivory stitch leather with Jet suede cloth headlining with XKR 75 tread plate and active front lighting. The car was tuned and calibrated in partnership with the RSR engineering team.  UK models went on sale in July 2010 with delivery in October of the same year.

XKR 175 (2010).

Unveiled at the Monterey Jet Center during the Pebble Beach Automotive Weekend, the XKR 175 is a limited production version of the XKR for the North American market, built to commemorate the company's 75th anniversary. Notable changes include an increased top speed of, a revised aerodynamic package incorporating a new front air dam, new side sills, a new rear diffuser and a larger rear spoiler providing increased balance and a reduction in lift; 20-inch Kasuga ten-spoke alloy wheels, red brake calipers along with Ultimate Black body colour; Warm Charcoal with Cranberry stitching leather seats and Piano Black wood veneer on the interior.  A total of 175 cars were exported to the US, as well as another 15 to Canada.

XK E-Type 50th Anniversary Edition (2011).

Commissioned by Jaguar Italy, the Italian dealer of Jaguar Cars, the XK E-Type Anniversary Edition was a limited production variant of the XK built to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the E-Type. Unveiled in 2011, the car features special Black Cherry Colour along with a black bonnet and 19-inch Tamana heritage alloy wheels with red Jaguar badging. Other exterior features include chrome bits on the front grille, wing mirrors, air intakes and window surrounds. The interior featured unique upholstery in Ivory and Charcoal leather along with a special "Jaguar Heritage" logo on the headrest, and aluminium inserts in "Engine Spin" finish. All of the 50 customers purchasing the cars were given an opportunity to drive the E-Type for one week.  Also in other countries this XK E-Type Anniversary Edition (E50) was sold to customers in limited volume. In Switzerland 50 units of XK E50 edition cars were sold, 25 coupés and 25 convertibles.  The XK E50 cars have an additional "E50" badge on the left side of the boot lid, just below the standard "XK" badge.

XK and XKR Poltrona Frau (2011).

The Poltrona Frau was a special trim level exclusive to the UK and European markets on the XK and the XKR with Poltrona Frau leather upholstery in "scraffito" finish — including the door panels, headliner, seats and dashboard.  The edition was offered in navy blue or truffle brown with aluminium or walnut wood trim along with heated sports seats, a 525-watt Bowers and Wilkins sound system, unique sill plates, stainless-steel pedals, choice of two 20-inch wheels, six special interior colours and four soft top colours (for the convertible).

Production and worldwide Sales.

Production of the XK began in early 2006 and ended in July 2014 without a replacement model.  Total sales are from 2009. The sales figures for 2015 and 2016 consist of dealer stocks.

Awards.

The XK won the "Top Gear" magazine "GT of the Year" and "Car of the Year" awards in 2006. It was also awarded the Engineering and Technology Award at the Prince Michael International Road Safety Awards in London. The convertible version made the Top Gear cool wall under sub zero.

The Jaguar XK is the second and final generation of the Jaguar XK 2+2 grand tourer manufactured and marketed by British automobile manufacturer Jaguar Cars under the "X150" internal designation. The three-door hatchback coupé debuted at the 2005 Frankfurt Motor Show with the 4.2-litre V8 engine of its predecessor, and the two-door convertible debuted in 2006 at the North American International Auto Show.

Jaguar XKR byl sportovním automobilem britské automobilky Jaguar. Vyráběl se v letech 1998 až 2006. Stal se nástupcem modelu XJS. Vyráběl se také ve verzi kabriolet.


Description.

The hoof surrounds the distal end of the second phalanx, the distal phalanx, and the navicular bone. The hoof consists of the hoof wall, the bars of the hoof, the sole and frog and soft tissue shock absorption structures. The weight of the animal is normally borne by both the sole and the edge of the hoof wall. Hooves perform many functions, including supporting the weight of the animal, dissipating the energy impact as the hooves strike the ground or surface, protecting the tissues and bone within the hoof capsule, and providing traction for the animal. Numerous factors can affect hoof structure and health, including genetics, hoof conformation, environmental influences, and athletic performance of the animal. The ideal hoof has a parallel hoof-pastern axis, a thick hoof wall, adequate sole depth, a solid heel base and growth rings of equal size under the coronary band.  There are four layers within the exterior wall of the hoof. From the outside, a hoof is made up of the stratum externum, the stratum medium, the stratum internum and the dermis parietis. The stratum externum and the stratum medium are difficult to distinguish, the stratum externum is thin and the stratum medium is what makes up the bulk of the hoof wall. Inside the hoof wall is a laminar junction, a soft tissue structure that allows the hoof to withstand the demands of force transmission it undergoes. This tissue structure binds the inner surface of the hoof wall, the dermis parietis and the outer surface of the third phalanx.  Most even-toed ungulates (such as sheep, goats, deer, cattle, bison and pigs) have two main hooves on each foot, together called a cloven hoof. Most of these cloven-hooved animals also have two smaller hooves called "dewclaws" a little further up the leg – these are not normally used for walking, but in some species with larger dewclaws (such as deer and pigs) they may touch the ground when running or jumping, or if the ground is soft. In the mountain goat, the dewclaw serves to provide extra traction when descending rocky slopes as well as additional drag on loose or slippery surfaces made of ice, dirt, or snow. Other cloven-hooved animals (such as giraffes and pronghorns) have no dewclaws.  In some so-called "cloven-hooved" animals, such as camels, the "hoof" is not properly a hoof – it is not a hard or rubbery sole with a hard wall formed by a thick nail – instead it is a soft toe with little more than a nail merely having an appearance of a hoof.  Some odd-toed ungulates (equids) have one hoof on each foot; others have (or had) three distinct hooved or heavily nailed toes, or one hoof and two dewclaws. The tapir is a special case, having three toes on each hind foot and four toes on each front foot.

Management.

Hooves grow continuously. In nature, wild animals are capable of wearing down the hoof as it continuously grows, but captive domesticated species often must undergo specific hoof care for a healthy, functional hoof. Proper care improves biomechanical efficiency and prevents lameness. If not worn down enough by use, such as in the dairy industry, hooves may need to be trimmed by a farrier. However, too much wear can result in damage of the hooves, and for this reason, horseshoes and oxshoes are used by animals that routinely walk on hard surfaces and carry heavy weight. Within the equine world, the expression, "no foot, no horse" emphasizes the importance of hoof health. Lameness, behind infertility and mastitis, are the biggest causes of economic loss to a dairy farmer.  Hoof care is most well-known with the equine industry. Problems that can arise with poor horse hoof care include hoof cracks, thrush, abscesses and laminitis.

In culture.

Hooves have historical significance in ceremonies and games. They have been used in burial ceremonies.

A hoof ( or ), plural hooves ( or ) or hoofs, is the tip of a toe of an ungulate mammal, strengthened by a thick and horny keratin covering.

Kopyto ("ungula") je tvrdé rohovité symetrické pouzdro na posledním článku prstů. Mají ho kopytníci, savci z řádu lichokopytníků. Kopytníci z řádu sudokopytníků mají na posledním článku prstů taktéž rohovinové pouzdro, ale nesymetrické. Kopyto sudokopytníků se v moderní terminologii nazývá pazneht. Kopytníci patří mezi prstochodce, při chůzi nenašlapují na chodidlo ale jen na prsty.