Early life and family.

Arquette was born in Chicago, Illinois, in 1968 to Lewis Arquette, an actor, and Brenda Olivia "Mardi" (née Nowak), who was involved in the arts and worked as a therapist. Through her father, Patricia is distantly related to explorer Meriwether Lewis. Arquette's father had converted from Catholicism to Islam. Arquette's mother was Jewish, and her ancestors emigrated from Poland and Russia. Her father's family's surname was originally "Arcouet", and his paternal line was of French-Canadian descent. Her paternal grandfather was comedian Cliff Arquette. Patricia's siblings also became actors: Rosanna, Richmond, Alexis, and David. When she was a child, her parents offered to get her braces for her teeth; but she refused, telling them she wanted to have flaws because it would help her with character acting.  For a time her family lived on a commune in rural Bentonville, Virginia. She has said they became poorer the longer they lived there and she believes that experience enlarged her empathy. Their father was an alcoholic, and their mother violently abusive. When Arquette was seven, the family relocated to Chicago. They later settled in Los Angeles, California. Arquette attended Catholic school, and has said that when she was a teenager, she had wanted to be a nun. At the age of fourteen, Arquette ran away from home after learning her father was having an affair—she settled with her sister, Rosanna Arquette, in Los Angeles. She has described her father as a working actor for industrial films, commercials and voiceovers – he was best known for his role as J.D. Pickett in the TV series "The Waltons." Before pursuing a career in acting, Arquette had wanted to be a midwife. She put this career prospect aside briefly in an attempt to gain acting jobs and gained success in the industry.

Career.

Early career (1987–1996).

In 1987, Arquette's first starring roles included pregnant teenager Stacy in the television film "Daddy," boarding school student Zero in "Pretty Smart", and Kristen Parker in "", alongside Robert Englund as Freddy Krueger and Heather Langenkamp as Nancy Thompson. She reprised her role as Kristen in the music video to Dokken's "Dream Warriors" (1987). She was asked to reprise her role in the sequel, "" (1988), but she declined the offer in order to do other projects. She gave up the role of Tralala in "Last Exit to Brooklyn" due to her pregnancy with her son Enzo.  In 1988, Arquette played the daughter of Tess Harper in "Far North." Her roles in the early 1990s were in low budget and independent films, including "Prayer of the Rollerboys" (1990), "The Indian Runner" (1991), which was the directorial debut of Sean Penn; and the drama "Inside Monkey Zetterland." In 1992, she won a CableACE Award for Best Lead Actress in a Mini-Series for her portrayal of a deaf girl with epilepsy in "Wildflower," directed by Diane Keaton and also starring Reese Witherspoon.  In her early career, Arquette received the most recognition for her role as Alabama Whitman, a free-spirited, kind-hearted prostitute in Tony Scott's "True Romance" (1993). The film was a moderate box office success but became a cultural landmark because of Quentin Tarantino's screenplay, which preceded "Pulp Fiction", although some critics were deterred by the graphic violence. In one scene, Arquette puts up a fierce physical struggle in a fight with James Gandolfini (as a viciously sadistic killer) which her character ultimately wins. Arquette's performance received generally unanimous praise from critics. Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" premarked that Arquette played her role with "surprising sweetness", while Peter Travers remarked that "Arquette delivers sensationally". "TV Guide" noted that the film blends and recycles elements from the story of "Bonnie and Clyde" and Terrence Malick's "love on the run" film "Badlands" (1973). It gave "True Romance" overall a favourable review for having "enough energy and verve to create something entirely fresh and infectiously entertaining". Richard Corliss of "Time Magazine" made similar statements and also likened the film to the earlier, seminal "Bonnie and Clyde."  Arquette next appeared in the television film "Betrayed by Love" (1994), and the well-received biopic "Ed Wood," directed by Tim Burton and starring Johnny Depp, where she portrayed his girlfriend. Her next role was as Laura Bowman in John Boorman's "Beyond Rangoon" (1995), which drew mixed critical reviews, but was a success internationally. In France, it was the official selection at the 1995 Cannes Film Festival, where it became one of the most popular hits of the event. Although the film had lackluster reviews, Arquette's performance as an American tourist in Burma during the 8888 Uprising was regarded as one of the work's strong points. Michael Sragow, writing for "The New Yorker", stated "Arquette gives the kind of mighty physical performance usually delivered by men in existential action classics like "The Wages of Fear," but she suffuses it with something all her own - she's bulletproof yet vulnerable." Hal Hinson of "The Washington Post" remarked that the film was "odd, brilliant in places, but frustrating all the same," commenting that "Arquette shows real grit when the chips are down".  Arquette appeared in three films in 1996, the first the comedy film "Flirting with Disaster" (1996), about a young man's cross-country pursuit to find his parents. Critical reception was largely positive, with Todd McCarthy of "Variety" praising the film and the authenticity of Arquette's performance, highlighting that "Arquette [is] very believably distracted and infuriated". "Flirting with Disaster" grossed $14 million at the American box office and was screened in the "Un Certain Regard" section at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival. Her second film released that year was the period drama "The Secret Agent," an adaptation of Joseph Conrad's 1907 novel of the same name. The film received average reviews. "Infinity" was her third film that year, a biographical drama about the early life of American physicist Richard Feynman. The film received mixed to positive reviews. Although Emmanuel Levy of "Variety" said that Arquette was "miscast", he stated that she "registers more credibly in the first part of the film, when she plays an adolescent".

Independent film work and critical success (1997–2003).

In 1997, Arquette starred in David Lynch's neo-noir psychological thriller "Lost Highway," in dual roles as Renee Madison and Alice Wakefield. The film had an ambiguous narrative, which polarized audiences and drew varying critical opinion, but it established a strong cult following. Arquette played an elusive femme fatale in a critically revered performance that enabled her to draw on her sexuality more than any other previous role. Roger Ebert, of the "Chicago Sun-Times", disliked the film, saying there was "no sense to be made of it" and voiced his distaste over a scene in which Arquette's character is asked to disrobe at gunpoint. Other critics were more favourable: Andy Klein of the "Dallas Observer" called it a "two-hour plus fever dream", Michael Sragow of "The New Yorker" called the film a "compelling erotic nightmare", and Edward Guthman of the "San Francisco Gate" wrote a glowing review praising Arquette's performance, calling it the "strongest, most memorable performance [of the film]" and favourably comparing her double role to Kim Novak's in "Vertigo" (1958). That same year, Arquette appeared in "Nightwatch", a horror-thriller film directed by Ole Bornedal. The film is a remake the Danish film "Nattevagten" (1994), which was also directed by Bornedal. "Nightwatch" was not a box office success and received poor reviews by critics, many of whom considered it an unnecessary, inferior retelling of the original film.  1998 saw Arquette perform in two films: "Goodbye Lover", a comedic neo-noir directed by Roland Joffé and "The Hi-Lo Country", a period Western directed by Stephen Frears. The former received a poor critical reception while the latter received a more appreciative albeit modest response. "The Hi-Lo Country" was widely cited as a "classic Western" in the press. Stephen Holden of the New York Times said, "In its best moments the movie feels like an epic hybrid of Red River and The Last Picture Show." In 1999, Arquette returned to familiar territory with the genre that began her career, in "Stigmata", a horror film, in the lead role. Produced on a budget of $29 million, the film was a box office success, grossing $50,046,268. Internationally the film earned $39,400,000 for a total worldwide gross $89,446,268. Critics were not as receptive of the film as audiences, with Roger Ebert remarking "possibly the funniest movie ever made about Catholicism – from a theological point of view". Arquette then appeared in Martin Scorsese's "Bringing out the Dead", based on the novel by Joe Connelly. The film united her with then-husband Nicolas Cage and received highly favourable critical reviews, but was a box office flop. Janet Maslin of the "New York Times" wrote that "Arquette's quietly credible performance helps center Frank's experiences; one of the film's most honest scenes is one in which they share an ambulance ride without sharing a word".  Her next role was in the light-hearted comedy "Little Nicky" (2000), alongside Adam Sandler. Despite being a box office hit, the film received negative reviews, although Roger Ebert called it Sandler's best film to date. Following this, she starred in French-American comedy drama "Human Nature" (2001), written by Charlie Kaufman and directed by Michel Gondry. The film was met with mixed reviews and was screened out of competition at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival. Roger Ebert, in a three-star (out of a possible four) review, lauded the film's "screwball charm". The following year, she appeared in the small-scale mystery film "The Badge", playing the widowed victim of a murdered transsexual. In 2003, she portrayed the controversial pornographic film star Linda Lovelace in the little known "Deeper than Deep", which was followed with the more family orientated Disney produced "Holes", as Kissin' Kate Barlow. Based on the 1998 novel of the same title by Louis Sachar, "Holes" grossed $16,300,155 in its opening weekend, making #2 at the box office, behind "Anger Management"s second weekend. "Holes" would go on to gross a domestic total of $67,406,173 and an additional $4 million in international revenue, totaling $71,406,573 at the box office against a $20 million budget, making the film a moderate financial success. Arquette's next film, "Tiptoes", was released straight-to-DVD in the United States, despite a screening at the Sundance Film Festival.

"Medium", widespread recognition, and award success with "Boyhood" (2004–present).

After the humdrum reception of "Tiptoes", Arquette did not appear in another film until 2006's "Fast Food Nation", directed by Richard Linklater. During this three years, she was largely working on "Boyhood;" it was released eight years later in July 2014. "Fast Food Nation" marked her second collaboration with Linklater; it is based on the bestselling 2001 non-fiction book of the same name by Eric Schlosser. "Fast Food Nation" received mixed to positive critical reviews. Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" awarded the film three out of four stars and added, "It's less an exposé of junk-food culture than a human drama, sprinkled with sly, provoking wit, about how that culture defines how we live... The film is brimming with grand ambitions but trips on many of them as some characters aren't given enough screen time to register and others vanish just when you want to learn more about them." A. O. Scott of "The New York Times" wrote "It's a mirror and a portrait, and a movie as necessary and nourishing as your next meal."  In January 2005, Arquette made her first transition to television with NBC's "Medium." Her role as (a fictional version of) psychic medium Allison DuBois won her an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in 2005, as well as nominations for a Golden Globe in 2005, 2006 and 2007, a SAG Award in 2006, 2007 and 2010, and an Emmy Award in 2007. In 2009 NBC cancelled "Medium," then CBS picked the series up and it lasted another two seasons. In 2008, she provided voice work for "A Single Woman," which was panned. She did not appear in another film until 2012. "Girl in Progress", a drama directed by Patricia Riggen, marked her return; it was met with negative reviews. In 2013, she returned to television, appearing on "Boardwalk Empire" as Sally Wheet. Also in 2013, Arquette filmed the true crime drama "Electric Slide," which is still awaiting release.  In 2014, "Boyhood" was released, a project that Arquette and other actors had shot for 12 years beginning in 2002. The film was directed by Richard Linklater, marking his second collaboration with Arquette. In the film, she plays Olivia Evans, a single mother who raises her two children mostly alone with the sometimes assistance of their father (played by Ethan Hawke). The epic explores a 12-year scope. The film details the progression of her character's son, Mason, from ages 8 to 18. The film has received universal praise, with many critics calling it a "landmark film". Arquette received widespread acclaim for her performance. Critic Katie McDonahugh, writing for "Salon", states "the role gave [Arquette] space to be all of these messy things at once, and her performance was a raw, gutsy meditation on those profoundly human contradictions". Margaret Pomeranz, writing for "ABC Australia," called Arquette's performance "stunning" and praised the film, further remarking that "the elision from one time to another is subtle and seamless. It's just a fabulous movie experience". Arquette won the Academy, BAFTA, Critics' Choice, Golden Globe, Independent Spirit, and SAG Awards for Best Supporting Actress.  In early 2015, Arquette began starring in the CBS series "", a show about FBI agents who combat Internet-based crimes. On May 12, 2016, CBS canceled the series after two seasons, thus ending the "CSI" franchise.  Arquette portrayed Tilly Mitchell in the Showtime miniseries "Escape at Dannemora", which premiered on November 18, 2018. For the role, she gained weight, wore prosthetic teeth, and brown contact lenses. For her performance, she received critical acclaim and won the SAG Award, Critics' Choice Television Award, and Golden Globe Award. She also received a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie.  In 2018, it was announced that Arquette would be starring in the Hulu series "The Act". The series premiered in March 2019 to critical acclaim. For her performance, Arquette received the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie.

Personal life.

At age 20, Arquette had a relationship with Paul Rossi, a musician. They had a son together, Enzo Rossi, born on January 3, 1989. In April 1995, Arquette married Nicolas Cage (with whom she later co-starred in "Bringing Out the Dead" in 1999). They separated after nine months, but acted as a couple in public until Cage filed for divorce in February 2000.  Arquette and actor Thomas Jane became engaged in 2002. Their daughter Harlow Olivia Calliope Jane was born on February 23, 2003. Arquette and Jane married on June 25, 2006, at the Palazzo Contarini in Venice, Italy. In January 2009, Arquette filed for divorce from Jane on the grounds of irreconcilable differences, but the couple soon reconciled. Arquette withdrew the divorce petition on July 9, 2009. On August 13, 2010, Jane's representative announced that Arquette and Jane had decided to proceed with a divorce due to "irreconcilable differences". The divorce was finalized on July 1, 2011, and the two agreed to joint custody of their child.

Charity work.

After the Haiti earthquake in 2010, Arquette and childhood friend Rosetta Millington-Getty formed GiveLove, a non-profit organization supporting ecological sanitation and composting, community development projects and housing construction in Haiti. She has also worked with Eracism Foundation, Libby Ross Foundation, The Art of Elysium, and The Heart Truth.  In 1997, after her mother died of breast cancer, Arquette worked to raise awareness about the disease. She has run in the annual Race for the Cure. In 1999 she was the spokesperson for Lee National Denim Day, which raises millions of dollars for breast cancer research and education.  In April 2010, she teamed up with welding students of the Robert Morgan Educational Center in Miami, Florida, to build shelters in Haiti from 20 used shipping containers, to provide housing to people displaced by the earthquake.

Politics.

Arquette participated in the Women's March against President Donald Trump. The death of Jeffrey Epstein, an American financier billionaire and convicted sex offender, has become the subject of many conspiracy theories. In August 2019, Arquette tweeted: "Bill Barr's DOJ took him off suicide watch. The same Barr who works for Trump."

Patricia Arquette (born April 8, 1968) is an American actress. She made her feature film debut as Kristen Parker in "" (1987). Her other notable films include "True Romance" (1993), "Ed Wood" (1994), "Flirting with Disaster" (1996), "Lost Highway" (1997), "The Hi-Lo Country" (1998), "Bringing Out the Dead" (1999), "Stigmata" (1999), "Holes" (2003), "Fast Food Nation" (2006), "The Wannabe" (2015), and "Toy Story 4" (2019). For playing a divorced mother in the coming-of-age drama film "Boyhood" (2014), which was filmed from 2002 until 2014, Arquette received widespread critical praise and won several awards, including the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress.

Patricia T. Arquette, známá jako Patricia Arquette, přechýleně Arquetteová, (* 8. dubna 1968 Chicago v Illinois) je americká reklamní, filmová a rozhlasová herečka, hudební skladatelka a modelka. Mezi nejznámější role patří Frankie Paigeová z hororu "Stigmata", Alabama Whitmanová z krimithrilleru "Pravdivá romance", Kathy O’Hara z životopisné komedie "Ed Wood" a Alison DuBoisová z televizního seriálu "Médium".


History.

A church was already present at the location in the late 4th century, and eventually a cathedral was established in Rouen as in Poitiers. It was enlarged by St. Ouen in 650, and visited by Charlemagne in 769.  All the buildings perished during a Viking raid in the 9th century. The Viking leader, Rollo, founder of the Duchy of Normandy, was baptised here in 915 and buried in 932. His grandson, Richard I, further enlarged it in 950. St. Romain's tower was built in 1035. The buildings of Archbishop Robert II were consecrated in 1065. The cathedral was struck by lightning in 1110.  Construction on the current building began in the 12th century in Early Gothic style for Saint Romain's tower, front side porches and part of the nave. The cathedral was burnt in 1200. Others were built in High Gothic style for the mainworks: nave, transept, choir and first floor of the lantern tower in the 13th century; side chapels, lady chapel and side doorways in the 14th century. Some windows are still decorated with stained glass of the 13th century, famous because of a special cobalt blue colour, known as "the blue from Chartres". The north transept end commenced in 1280.  The cathedral was again struck by lightning in 1284. In 1302, the old Lady chapel was taken down and the new Lady chapel was built in 1360. The spire was blown down in 1353, choir windows were enlarged in 1430, the upper storey of the north-west tower was added in 1477, gable of the north transept built in 1478.  Some more parts were built in Late (Flamboyant) Gothic style, these include the last storey of Saint Romain's Tower (15th century), the Butter Tower, main porch of the front and the two storeys of the lantern tower (16th century). Construction of the south-west tower began in 1485 and was finished in 1507. The "Butter Tower" was erected in the early 16th century. Butter was banned during Lent and those who did not wish to forgo this indulgence would donate monies of "six deniers Tournois" from each diocesan for this permission.  The realization of the "Butter Tower" caused disturbances in the façade, which caused the reconstruction of the central portal and the west front, which began in 1509 and was finished in 1530. The original Gothic spire suffered a fire in 1514, nevertheless the project of a stone spire was denied and a wooden construction covered with gold-plated lead was begun in 1515, a parapet was added in 1580.  In the late 16th century the cathedral was badly damaged during the French Wars of Religion: the Calvinists damaged much of the furniture, tombs, stained-glass windows and statuary. The cathedral was again struck by lightning in 1625 and 1642, then damaged by a hurricane in 1683, the wood-work of the choir burnt in 1727 and the bell broke in 1786. In the late 18th century after the French Revolution, the state (government) nationalised the building and sold some of its furniture and statues to make money and the chapel fences were melted down to make guns to support the wars of the French Republic.  The Renaissance spire was destroyed by lightning in 1822. A new one was rebuilt in Neo-Gothic style, but of cast iron instead of wood. The cathedral was named the tallest building (the lantern tower with the cast iron spire of the 19th century) in the world (151 m) from 1876 to 1880. In the 20th century, during World War II, the cathedral was bombed in April 1944 by the British Royal Air Force. Seven bombs fell on the building, narrowly missing a key pillar of the lantern tower, but damaging much of the south aisle and destroying two rose windows. One of the bombs did not explode. A second bombing by the U.S. Army Air Force (before the Normandy Landings in June 1944) burned the oldest tower, called the North Tower or Saint-Romain Tower. During the fire the bells melted, leaving molten remains on the floor. In 1999, during Cyclone Lothar, a copper-clad wooden turret, which weighed 26 tons, broke and fell partly into the church and damaged the choir.

Musical tradition.

The cathedral has had a musical tradition since the Middle Ages. Its choir was known up to the French Revolution for singing from memory. The first major organist to work there was Jean Titelouze, the so-called father of the French organ school. He occupied the post of the titular organist in 1588–1633. Around 1600 in collaboration with Franco-Flemish organ builder Crespin Carlier, Titelouze transformed the organ of the cathedral to one of the best instruments in France. Some 80 years later organ builder Robert Clicquot restored and enhanced the instrument; organists who played the new organ included composers such as Jacques Boyvin (in 1674–1706) and François d'Agincourt (1706–1758). New organs were built by Merklin & Schütze (1858–60) and, after World War II, by Jacquot-Lavergne.

In art.

The most famous paintings of the cathedral were done by the Impressionist artist Claude Monet, who produced a series of paintings of the building showing the same scene at different times of the day and in different weather conditions. Two paintings are in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.; one is in the Getty Center in Los Angeles; one is in the National Museum of Serbia in Belgrade; one is at the Clark Art Institute in Williamstown, Massachusetts; one is in a museum of Cologne; one is in the Rouen fine art museum; and five are in the musée d'Orsay in Paris. The estimated value of one painting is over $40 million. Other painters inspired by the building included John Ruskin, who selected it as an example of good architecture in "The Seven Lamps of Architecture", and Roy Lichtenstein, who produced a series of pictures representing the cathedral's front. Mae Babitz, known for illustrations of the Watts Towers and Victorian era buildings in Los Angeles, illustrated the Cathedral in the 1960s. Those works are held in the UCLA library Special Collections.  In literature, Gustave Flaubert was inspired by the stained glass windows of St. Julian and the bas-relief of Salome, and based two of his "Three Tales" on them. Joris-Karl Huysmans wrote "La Cathédrale", a novel based on an intensive examination of the building. Willa Cather sets a key scene in the development of the protagonist Claude Wheeler of "One of Ours" in the cathedral.

Burials.

The Cathedral houses a tomb containing the heart of Richard the Lionheart. His bowels were probably buried within the church of the Château of Châlus-Chabrol in the Limousin. It was from the walls of the Château of Châlus-Chabrol that the crossbow bolt was fired, which led to his death once the wound became septic. His corporeal remains were buried next to his father at Fontevraud Abbey near Chinon and Saumur, France. Richard's effigy is on top of the tomb, and his name is inscribed in Latin on the side.  The Cathedral also contains the tomb of Rollo ("Hrólfr, Rou(f)" or "Robert"), one of Richard's ancestors, the founder and first ruler of the Viking principality in what soon became known as Normandy.  The cathedral contained the black marble tomb of John Plantagenet or John of Lancaster, Duke of Bedford, one of the English commanders who oversaw Joan of Arc's trial. His original tomb was destroyed by the Calvinists in the 16th century but there remains a commemorative plaque.  Other burials include:

Rouen Cathedral () is a Roman Catholic church in Rouen, Normandy, France. It is the see of the Archbishop of Rouen, Primate of Normandy. The cathedral is in the Gothic architectural tradition.

Katedrála "Notre-Dame-de-l'Assomption" (česky Nanebevzetí Panny Marie) ve francouzském městě Rouen je (katolická) raně gotická katedrála a sídlo rouenského arcibiskupa, který je zároveň primasem Normandie. Trojlodní stavba se dvěma věžemi v průčelí a vysokou věží nad křížením vznikla v letech 1180–1237 a byla také pohŕebištěm normandských vévodů.


Geography.

Location.

Neufchâtel is a Brayonne commune which traversed by the Béthune River and its tributary the Philbert.  Neufchâtel is situated about 10 miles (15 km) from Londinières and Saint-Saëns, about 12 miles (17 km) from Forges-les-Eaux, about 15 miles (21 km) from Buchy, about 19 miles (27 km) from Aumale, about 20 miles from Blangy-sur-Bresle and about 25 miles (36 km) from Dieppe.

Major highways.

The city is located near the intersection of Autoroute A28 which runs from Rouen to Abbeville and A29 (the Beuzeville-Le Havre-Amiens-Saint-Quentin route).

Toponymy.

Old forms: Drincurt (1040–1047), Druoncurt 1152, Drioncurt (1174–1188), Driencourt was the most common form often distorted as Lincourt, an old toponym that disappeared completely by the 15th century.  It signifies “Drugo's farm”, the name of a Germanic person, which is always declined in the oblique case for names ending in -court and found in the patronym Druon. “Driencourt” has a homonym with Driencourt (Somme). Names ending in -court predate the formation of the Duchy of Normandy and correspond with the Frankish expansion.  The old parish of Nogent, from the Celtic Novientum “new establishment” (perhaps the primitive Gallic name), has been linked to Neufchâtel.  It received its current name from a castle built there by Henry Beauclerc in the 12th century. At that time, it began to be called by its Norman name, Neufcastel, and was referred to by both names until the 15th century.  A French form usually replaces a dialectal form, as is noted, with large towns. North of the Joret line, the form of the name normally would be Neufcastel, like the very small village of Radicatel. On the other hand, Bourg-Achard or Pont-de-l'Arche underwent the same Francization: they are normally Bourg-Acard (similar to the surname Acard) and Pont-de-l'Arque (see also Arques-la-Bataille, a small parish).

History.

It is the former capital of the Pays de Bray and a former fortress town. The fortress was dismantled in 1596.  The city was sieged, burned and destroyed several times during the wars between the 12th and 16th centuries.  In 1463, Louis XI of France installed his chancery. Many letters and administrative acts refer to this place. He stayed here for a few months in 1463 and one month in 1464 with his wife Queen Charlotte of Savoy.  In July 1472, after the Siege of Beauvais, Charles le Téméraire totally destroyed the city.  It was the seat of the district from 1790 to 1795.  The town was occupied by the Prussian army during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870.  The Arrondissement of Neufchâtel was dissolved following the Poincaré Decree.  The downtown area was bombarded on 19 and 24 May 1940 and again on Wednesday 7 June 1940 during the Battle of France in World War II, causing a fire that burnt for several days, destroying most of it. During the reconstruction, a political administration had been created by Robert Auzelle, which rebuilt the mayor's office, court, tax office and theater in the same place and style as before.  On 9 April 1962, Neufchâtel changed its name to Neufchâtel-en-Bray.

Demographics.

In 2011, the commune had 4,836 inhabitants. The population change has been recorded in censuses that have been conducted since 1793. At the start of the 21st century, communes with less than 10,000 people have had a census every five years, while larger communes has population sampling done annually.

Economy.

In terms of employment, the city is marked by a preponderance of public sector jobs. As of 2010, the hospital had 210 employees, the high school (200 employees), the commune (130 employees) and the middle school (80 employees). The private sector is primarily represented by the Leclerc Center (120 employees) and the industrial zone enterprises; Celec (40 salaried employees), Mecanolav Ridel (40 salaried employees), Grosse Équipement and Peltier Nettoyage (more than 30 employees each), followed by Maison Régionale de l'Eau (MRE), Poxblanc Charpentes, Bastéa Constructeur, Guerard (20 jobs each), and many other artisanal, commercial, and small enterprises.

Municipal services.

A former arrondissement seat, Neufchâtel-en-Bray has a number of public amenities, including a local hospital and a public secondary school divided into three departments (general education, vocational and agricultural). Until 2010, there was a civil court and a commercial court, victims of the Dati reform.  The community also lost a station on the Paris-Saint-Lazarre – Dieppe line when the line from Serqueux and Dieppe was removed (a move ruled illegal by the administrative court).  Today, Neufchâtel-en-Bray is served by Transport Express Régional (TER) Upper Normandy buses connecting Dieppe to Gare de Gisors via Serqueux. The Neufchâtel-en-Bray station, rebuilt after World War II in a local style, is now a venue while the railroad bed is a hiking trail. The town also has sports facilities (swimming pool and gym) and recently renovated cinema and theater. A supermarket and two hard-discounters are located in the Grand Flandre zone and another hard-discounter is located downtown.

Sister city.

Whitchurch, Shropshire, United Kingdom, has been the sister city of Neufchâtel-en-Bray since 1975.

Fairs.

The fair is around the first Sunday in September.

References.

Translated from the following article:

Neufchâtel-en-Bray () is a commune situated in the Seine-Maritime department of the Normandy Region, northern France. The cheese of the same name is made in the area.

Neufchâtel-en-Bray je francouzská obec v departementu Seine-Maritime v regionu Normandie. V roce 2009 zde žilo 4 872 obyvatel. Je centrem kantonu Neufchâtel-en-Bray.


Personal life.

Wilmore was born in Murfreesboro, Tennessee, but was raised in Mount Juliet by his mother Faye and father Eugene. Wilmore has one sibling, a brother named Jack Wilmore, who resides in Franklin, Tennessee. He is married to the former Miss Deanna Newport of Helenwood, Tennessee. He also has two daughters, Daryn Wilmore and Logan Wilmore. Wilmore currently lives in Houston, Texas with his family.

Education.

Wilmore graduated from Mt. Juliet High School in Mt. Juliet, Tennessee. Wilmore has received a Bachelor of Science and a Master of Science degree from the Tennessee Technological University in electrical engineering, and a Master of Science in Aviation Systems from the University of Tennessee. Mr. Wilmore was a member, letterman and team captain of the Tennessee Technological University football team.

Military experience.

Wilmore has over 6,200 hours of flight time and 663 carrier landings, all in tactical jet aircraft, and is a graduate of the United States Naval Test Pilot School (USNTPS).  During Wilmore's tenure as a fleet Naval officer and pilot, Wilmore completed four operational deployments, flying the A-7E and F/A-18 aircraft from the decks of the aircraft carriers,, and. He has flown missions in support of Operations Desert Shield, Desert Storm and Southern Watch over the skies of Iraq, as well as missions over Bosnia in support of U.S. and NATO interests. Wilmore successfully completed 21 combat missions during Operation Desert Storm while operating from USS "John F. Kennedy". Wilmore's most recent operational deployment was aboard USS "Dwight D. Eisenhower" with the "Blue Blasters" of Strike Fighter Squadron 34 (VFA-34), a F/A-18 squadron based at Naval Air Station Oceana, Virginia.  As a Navy test pilot Wilmore participated in all aspects of the initial development of the T-45 jet trainer to include initial carrier landing certification and high angle of attack flight tests. His test tour also included a stint at USNTPS as a systems and fixed wing "Flight Test" instructor. Prior to his selection to NASA, Wilmore was on exchange to the Air Force as a "Flight Test" instructor at the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base, California.

NASA experience.

Wilmore was selected as a pilot by NASA in July 2000, and reported for training that August. Following the completion of two years of training and evaluation, Wilmore was assigned technical duties representing the Astronaut Office on all propulsion systems issues including the Space Shuttle Main Engines, solid rocket motor, external tank, and also served on the astronaut support team that traveled to the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, in support of launch and landing operations. He flew to the International Space Station in September 2014 on Soyuz TMA-14M as a member of Expedition 41/42.

STS-129.

Wilmore piloted the for the STS-129 mission to the International Space Station.

STS-135.

Wilmore served as CAPCOM during the ascent and landing of on STS-135, the historic final flight of NASA's 30-year Shuttle program.

Expedition 41/42.

Wilmore returned to space in September 2014 as a member of the Soyuz TMA-14M long duration International Space Station crew. During this mission, humans manufactured off world for the very first time. The International Space Station's 3-D printer, designed and built by Made In Space, Inc., was used for to print a tool with a design file transmitted from the ground to the printer. The tool was a ratchet wrench needed by Wilmore, who would have had to wait for the tool to be delivered on the next supply mission from Earth. The wrench was later returned to the ground for analysis and testing, along with the other parts printed in space.

Boeing Starliner.

Barry E. Wilmore will serve as backup for both the test flight Boe-CFT and first mission CTS-1 crews for Boeing's CST-100 Starliner.

Awards and honors.

Barry Wilmore has received numerous medals, awards and honors. These include the Navy Meritorious Service Medal, the Air Medal (5), 3 with the Combat "V" designation, the Navy Commendation Medal (6), 3 of which also hold the Combat "V" designation, the Navy Achievement Medal (2), and numerous Unit decorations. He has also received the Aviation Officer Candidate School (AOCS) "Distinguished Naval Graduate" award. He is also on the Initial Naval Flight Training "Commodore's List With Distinction". He has also won the U.S. Atlantic Fleet "Light Attack Wing One – Pilot Of The Year" (1991) and U.S. Atlantic Fleet "Strike Fighter Aviator of the Year" (1999). Wilmore is the recipient of the Strike Fighter Wing Atlantic "Scott Speicher Award" for Weapons Employment Excellence (1998). In 2003 Barry Wilmore was inducted to the Tennessee Technological University "Sports Hall of Fame".  In March 2015, the satirical website ClickHole published a humorous article featuring a fictitious quote from Barry Wilmore.

Barry Eugene "Butch" Wilmore (born December 29, 1962) is a NASA astronaut and United States Navy test pilot. He has had two spaceflights, the first of which was an 11-day Space Shuttle mission in November 2009, to the International Space Station. Wilmore was designated as pilot with five other crew members on Space Shuttle "Atlantis" for the mission STS-129. He most recently served as part of Expedition 41 to the International Space Station.

Barry Eugene Wilmore (* 29. prosince 1962 Murfreesboro, Tennessee, USA), původně pilot Námořnictva Spojených států amerických, je od července 2000 astronaut NASA. Do vesmíru se dostal na deset dní jako člen posádky raketoplánu Atlantis při letu STS-129 na Mezinárodní vesmírnou stanici (ISS) v listopadu 2009. V září 2014 vzlétl do vesmíru na půl roku jako člen Expedice 41/42 na ISS.


Plot.

After The Hillicker Brothers (Three Finger, Saw Tooth and One Eye), now along with the help of serial killer Maynard Odets start a murderous rampage near the city of Fairlake, Greenbrier County, West Virginia, where they first murder news reporter Kaleen Webber.  Meanwhile, five friends, Billy (Simon Ginty), his girlfriend Cruz (Amy Lennox), Lita (Roxanne McKee), her boyfriend, Gus (Paul Luebke), and Julian (Oliver Hoare), are on their way to Fairlake, West Virginia to celebrate the Mountain Man Music Festival for Halloween. Along the way to the town, they almost run over Maynard, who was standing in the middle of the road, and crash their car into a tree while trying to avoid hitting him. As they get out of the car to check if he is alive, he suddenly tries to cut one of them. Billy, Gus, and Julian attack Maynard out of self-defense. Sheriff Angela Carter (Camilla Arfwedson) and her partner, Deputy Biggs (Kyle Redman Jones), drive by, witness them kicking Maynard, and apprehend the entire group, including Lita and Cruz. While Angela leaves to take them to the police station, she asks Deputy Biggs to stay back with their crashed car until a tow comes. As soon as the Sheriff leaves, the cannibals appear and kill Deputy Biggs.  After being locked up in the police station, Billy confesses to Angela that he owns the drugs and convinces her to let the others go. He stays at the police station while they are released. Meanwhile, Angela discovers Maynard is a fugitive wanted for murder and makes arrangements to turn him over to the proper authorities the next morning. Maynard promises her she won't live that long.  Elsewhere, the cannibals use their truck to pull down a phone pole, taking out service to the town. They then proceed to the power plant, where they kill a guard and shut down the town's electricity. Most of the townspeople are attending the festival in a nearby town. The teens register at a motel. On her way to visit Billy in the holding cell at the police station, Cruz is chased by Three Finger, who kills her. Julian heads to the police station a short time later but doesn't notice Cruz being eviscerated down a side street; he arrives uneventfully, only to learn Cruz never made it.  At the motel, Gus is captured when he answers the door. Lita is attacked by One Eye but manages to escape. The cannibals proceed to break Gus's legs, then dump him in front of Angela's office. Angela attempts to save him, but the cannibals run over him with their pick-up truck, killing him. Angela frees Billy and gives him, Julian and prisoner Mose (Duncan Wisbey) shotguns after deputizing them.  Angela manages to communicate with someone via shortwave radio asking them to call for backup, but the man on the other end thinks the message is a joke. Lita manages to make it to Angela's office but is almost killed when Mose shoots through the door as she tries to open it. Angela warns Julian and Billy not to go looking for Cruz, but they ignore her warning and go in search of her anyway. They wander the streets and find Cruz's dead body; while trying to get the body to Angela's office, they encounter the cannibals, get captured, and are placed in a soccer field where Three Finger kills them with a snow blower. Angela sends Mose to search for the deputies, but he unknowingly runs over barbed wire in the road and crashes. He awakens to find himself captured by the cannibals, who burn him alive.  After hearing Mose's accident over the radio, Angela tries to help. After Angela leaves, Maynard convinces Lita that if she releases him, he will let her live. However, after releasing him, Maynard proceeds to stab Lita's eyes out. Lita stumbles out the opened door to the street followed by Maynard. Angela shoots Maynard (not fatally) and Angela brings Lita and Maynard back into the jailhouse. Then Angela goes for help but discovers her husband bound in a car and tries to help him. She discovers too late that it's a trap, and he dies; she is then knocked out and captured by Three Finger. Maynard frightens Lita away with threats. Angela awakens in the jail cell with her hands tied to the ceiling; Maynard gives her the option of her death: being burned alive or killed by a shotgun with its trigger tied to her feet, which will go off if she steps down. They then proceed to burn down the cell.  As her feet begin to burn, Angela eventually triggers the shotgun, killing herself. Lita, unable to see, is captured by Maynard and the cannibals while walking across the road. The killers then move away into the woods.

Release.

The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray on October 23, 2012. The Blu-ray edition is a two-disc set which includes a Blu-ray disc of the feature film, as well as a DVD/Digital Copy disc. Since its release, the film has received extremely negative reviews from critics and is often considered the worst installment in the series. The film has been criticized for its characters, storyline, poor CGI, and acting.

Wrong Turn 5: Bloodlines (also known as Wrong Turn 5) is a 2012 American slasher film written and directed by Declan O'Brien. The film stars Camilla Arfwedson, Roxanne McKee and Doug Bradley. It is the fifth installment in the "Wrong Turn" franchise and a sequel to "" (2011), leading the events of the 2003 film "Wrong Turn".

Pach krve 5: Krvavý masakr je americký hororový film z roku 2012 a v pořadí pátým dílem v této slasherové sérii, která započala filmem "Pach krve" a pokračovala filmy "", "Pach krve 3" a "". Film je sequelem předchozího dílu a, stejně jako samotný předchozí díl, zároveň prequelem prvního dílu v sérii "Pach krve".


Personal life.

Young was born in Queens, New York, the son of Josephine and Michael, a high school shop teacher. He is of Italian descent. Young is a widower and has one daughter, Anne Morea, and one grandson. He lives in Port Washington, New York.  He was trained by Lee Strasberg at the Actors Studio. Young participated in the 1984 New York City Marathon.

Career.

In the Marines and in boxing.

Young served a tour of duty in the United States Marine Corps from 1957 to 1959. While in the Marine Corps, he won 32 of 34 boxing bouts. There is a rumour he later turned pro and compiled a 17–0 record under three different aliases however there is no evidence to support these rumours. It has also been alleged his manager was Cus D'Amato.

In acting.

Young made his name playing rough-edged working class Italian-American characters, the best-known example being his signature role as Rocky Balboa's friend (and future brother-in-law) Paulie in "Rocky" (1976), for which he received an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor. He is one of four actors (the other three being Sylvester Stallone, Stu Nahan and Tony Burton) who have appeared in all of the first six "Rocky" films (although Talia Shire, who appears in the first five films, makes a flashback appearance in the sixth). Young did not reprise his role in the 2015 film "Creed", with the character described as having died in 2012.  He has played similar roles in "Chinatown", "Convoy", "Back to School", "The Pope of Greenwich Village", "Once Upon a Time in America", "Last Exit to Brooklyn", "", and even a brutal and darker role in "". Young has also appeared in many television programs, including "The Rockford Files", "Baretta", "Law & Order", "Walker, Texas Ranger", "M*A*S*H". He guest-starred in a "Miami Vice" episode, and made an appearance on "The Sopranos" ("Another Toothpick") as Bobby Baccalieri's father, who is dying of cancer and comes out of retirement to execute a hit on his godson.  In 2017, Burt Young returned to the stage as an aged mob boss in "The Last Vig," a play written by Dave Varriale. The show ran from January 14 to February 19, 2017, at The Zephyr Theatre in Los Angeles.

As a painter and a writer.

Young is also a painter; his art has been displayed in galleries throughout the world. As an artist, he has collaborated with the writer Gabriele Tinti, for whom he designed the cover for the poetry collection "All Over", as well as contributing the illustrations for the art book "A Man".  Young is also a published author whose works include two filmed screenplays and a 400-page historical novel called "Endings". He has written two stage plays: "SOS" and "A Letter to Alicia and the New York City Government from a Man With a Bullet in His Head".

Richard Morea (born April 30, 1940), better known by his stage name Burt Young, is an American actor, author and painter. He is best known for his role as Rocky Balboa's brother-in-law and best friend Paulie Pennino in the "Rocky" film series, being nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for the first film.

Burt Young je americký filmový herec. Narodil se 30. dubna 1940 v New Yorku italsko-americkému páru Michaelovi a Josephine. Než se Young dostal k herectví vydělával si čištěním a prodáváním koberců. K herectví se dostal netradičním způsobem, kamarád ho požádal o pomoc ke zkouškám na hereckou školu. Young s tím souhlasil, ale místo kamaráda byl přijat právě Young.


Career.

Baillie and his partner Etienne Stott won two bronze medals in the C2 team event at the ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships (2009, 2011). They also won a bronze medal in the C2 event at the 2009 European Championships at the Holme Pierrepont National Watersports Centre, Nottingham, England and came in fourth place at the 2009 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships in La Seu d'Urgell. They won another silver and a bronze in the C2 team event at the European Championships alongside the other UK boats of David Florence/Richard Hounslow and Daniel Goddard/Colin Radmore. In 2012 they were a part of the British team that won gold at the European Championships in Augsburg in the C2 team event. They are British Premier Division Champions and British Open Champions.  At the 2012 Summer Olympics, Baillie and partner Etienne Stott qualified through the heats for the C2 event on 30 July, and subsequently progressed to the semi-final. The semi-final consisted of one run each, with the six best competitors qualifying for the final. Baillie and Stott finished in sixth place, taking the final spot and consequently qualifying for the final. As a result of their sixth-place finish, the slowest qualifying time out of the six remaining competitors, Baillie and Stott ran first in the final, securing a time of 106.41. The time was not beaten, with Baillie and Stott winning the gold medal in front of a 12,000 strong home crowd at the Lee Valley White Water Centre on 2 August. Fellow British boat of David Florence and Richard Hounslow finished second with a time of 106.77. Baillie and Stott's success was described as "unexpected" and a "surprise", with the pair describing winning gold as "mad".

Personal life.

He attended Westhill Academy, before studying Mechanical Engineering at the University of Nottingham.  He was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2013 New Year Honours for services to canoeing.  He is married to Canadian slalom canoeist Sarah Boudens.

Timothy Mark Baillie MBE (born 11 May 1979 in Aberdeen) is a Scottish slalom canoeist who represented Britain. From Westhill in Aberdeenshire, he started competing at the international level in 1996, initially in the K1 category, but switching to C2 in 2003. He retired from the sport in 2013. He is the Olympic Champion in the C2 event from the 2012 Summer Olympics in London.

Timothy Mark Baillie (* 11. května 1979 Westhill, Skotsko) je britský vodní slalomář, kanoista závodící v kategorii C2. Jeho partnerem v lodi je Etienne Stott.


Transmission System 1.

The T-carrier is a hardware specification for carrying multiple time-division multiplexed (TDM) telecommunications channels over a single four-wire transmission circuit. It was developed by AT&T at Bell Laboratories ca. 1957 and first employed by 1962 for long-haul pulse-code modulation (PCM) digital voice transmission with the D1 channel bank.  The T-carriers are commonly used for trunking between switching centers in a telephone network, including to private branch exchange (PBX) interconnect points. It uses the same twisted pair copper wire that analog trunks used, employing one pair for transmitting, and another pair for receiving. Signal repeaters may be used for extended distance requirements.  Before the digital T-carrier system, carrier wave systems such as 12-channel carrier systems worked by frequency division multiplexing; each call was an analog signal. A T1 trunk could transmit 24 telephone calls at a time, because it used a digital carrier signal called Digital Signal 1 (DS-1). DS-1 is a communications protocol for multiplexing the bitstreams of up to 24 telephone calls, along with two special bits: a "framing bit" (for frame synchronization) and a "maintenance-signaling bit". T1's maximum data transmission rate is 1.544 megabits per second.  Europe and most of the rest of the world, except Japan, have standardized the E-carrier system, a similar transmission system with higher capacity that is not directly compatible with the T-carrier.

Legacy.

Existing frequency-division multiplexing carrier systems worked well for connections between distant cities, but required expensive modulators, demodulators and filters for every voice channel. For connections within metropolitan areas, Bell Labs in the late 1950s sought cheaper terminal equipment. Pulse-code modulation allowed sharing a coder and decoder among several voice trunks, so this method was chosen for the T1 system introduced into local use in 1961. In later decades, the cost of digital electronics declined to the point that an individual codec per voice channel became commonplace, but by then the other advantages of digital transmission had become entrenched.  The most common legacy of this system is the line rate speeds. ""T1"" now means any data circuit that runs at the original 1.544 Mbit/s line rate. Originally the T1 format carried 24 pulse-code modulated, time-division multiplexed speech signals each encoded in 64 kbit/s streams, leaving 8 kbit/s of framing information which facilitates the synchronization and demultiplexing at the receiver. The T2 and T3 circuit channels carry multiple T1 channels multiplexed, resulting in transmission rates of 6.312 and 44.736 Mbit/s, respectively. A T3 line comprises 28 T1 lines, each operating at total signaling rate of 1.544 Mbit/s. It is possible to get a fractional T3 line, meaning a T3 line with some of the 28 lines turned off, resulting in a slower transfer rate but typically at reduced cost.  Supposedly, the 1.544 Mbit/s rate was chosen because tests done by AT&T Long Lines in Chicago were conducted underground. The test site was typical of Bell System outside plant of the time in that, to accommodate loading coils, cable vault manholes were physically apart, which determined the repeater spacing. The optimum bit rate was chosen empirically—the capacity was increased until the failure rate was unacceptable, then reduced to leave a margin. Companding allowed acceptable audio performance with only seven bits per PCM sample in this original T1/D1 system. The later D3 and D4 channel banks had an extended frame format, allowing eight bits per sample, reduced to seven every sixth sample or frame when one bit was "robbed" for signaling the state of the channel. The standard does not allow an all zero sample which would produce a long string of binary zeros and cause the repeaters to lose bit sync. However, when carrying data (Switched 56) there could be long strings of zeros, so one bit per sample is set to "1" (jam bit 7) leaving 7 bits × 8,000 frames per second for data.  A more detailed understanding of how the rate of 1.544 Mbit/s was divided into channels is as follows. (This explanation glosses over T1 voice communications, and deals mainly with the numbers involved.) Given that the telephone system nominal voiceband (including guardband) is 4,000 Hz, the required digital sampling rate is 8,000 Hz (see Nyquist rate). Since each T1 frame contains 1 byte of voice data for each of the 24 channels, that system needs then 8,000 frames per second to maintain those 24 simultaneous voice channels. Because each frame of a T1 is 193 bits in length (24 channels × 8 bits per channel + 1 framing bit = 193 bits), 8,000 frames per second is multiplied by 193 bits to yield a transfer rate of 1.544 Mbit/s (8,000 × 193 = 1,544,000).  Initially, T1 used Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) to reduce frequency bandwidth and eliminate the DC component of the signal. Later B8ZS became common practice. For AMI, each mark pulse had the opposite polarity of the previous one and each space was at a level of zero, resulting in a three level signal which however only carried binary data. Similar British 23 channel systems at 1.536 megabaud in the 1970s were equipped with ternary signal repeaters, in anticipation of using a 3B2T or 4B3T code to increase the number of voice channels in future, but in the 1980s the systems were merely replaced with European standard ones. American T-carriers could only work in AMI or B8ZS mode.  The AMI or B8ZS signal allowed a simple error rate measurement. The D bank in the central office could detect a bit with the wrong polarity, or "bipolarity violation" and sound an alarm. Later systems could count the number of violations and reframes and otherwise measure signal quality and allow a more sophisticated alarm indication signal system.  The decision to use a 193-bit frame was made in 1958. To allow for the identification of information bits within a frame, two alternatives were considered. Assign (a) just one extra bit, or (b) additional eight bits per frame. The 8-bit choice is cleaner, resulting in a 200-bit frame, twenty-five 8-bit channels, of which 24 are traffic and one 8-bit channel available for operations, administration, and maintenance (OA&M). AT&T chose the single bit per frame not to reduce the required bit rate (1.544 vs 1.6 Mbit/s), but because AT&T Marketing worried that "if 8 bits were chosen for OA&M function, someone would then try to sell this as a voice channel and you wind up with nothing."  Soon after commercial success of T1 in 1962, the T1 engineering team realized the mistake of having only one bit to serve the increasing demand for housekeeping functions. They petitioned AT&T management to change to 8-bit framing. This was flatly turned down because it would make installed systems obsolete.  Having this hindsight, some ten years later, CEPT chose eight bits for framing the European E1, although, as feared, the extra channel is sometimes appropriated for voice or data.

Higher T.

In the 1970s, Bell Labs developed higher rate systems. T1C with a more sophisticated modulation scheme carried 3 Mbit/s, on those balanced pair cables that could support it. T-2 carried 6.312 Mbit/s, requiring a special low-capacitance cable with foam insulation. This was standard for Picturephone. T-4 and T-5 used coaxial cables, similar to the old L-carriers used by AT&T Long Lines. TD microwave radio relay systems were also fitted with high rate modems to allow them to carry a DS1 signal in a portion of their FM spectrum that had too poor quality for voice service. Later they carried DS3 and DS4 signals. During the 1980s companies such as RLH Industries, Inc. developed T1 over optical fiber. The industry soon developed and evolved with multiplexed T1 transmission schemes.

Digital signal cross-connect.

DS1 signals are interconnected typically at Central Office locations at a common metallic cross-connect point known as a DSX-1. When a DS1 is transported over metallic outside plant cable, the signal travels over conditioned cable pairs known as a T1 span. A T1 span can have up to +-130 Volts of DC power superimposed on the associated four wire cable pairs to line or "Span" power line repeaters, and T1 NIU's (T1 Smartjacks). T1 span repeaters are typically engineered up to apart, depending on cable gauge, and at no more than 36 dB of loss before requiring a repeated span. There can be no cable bridge taps or Load Coils across any pairs.  T1 copper spans are being replaced by optical transport systems, but if a copper (Metallic) span is used, the T1 is typically carried over an HDSL encoded copper line. Four wire HDSL does not require as many repeaters as conventional T1 spans. Newer two wire HDSL (HDSL-2) equipment transports a full 1.544 Mbit/s T1 over a single copper wire pair up to approximately twelve thousand (12,000) feet (3.5 km), if all 24 gauge cable is used. HDSL-2 does not employ multiple repeaters as does conventional four wire HDSL, or newer HDSL-4 systems.  One advantage of HDSL is its ability to operate with a limited number of bridge taps, with no tap being closer than from any HDSL transceiver. Both two or four wire HDSL equipment transmits and receives over the same cable wire pair, as compared to conventional T1 service that utilizes individual cable pairs for transmit or receive.  DS3 signals are rare except within buildings, where they are used for interconnections and as an intermediate step before being multiplexed onto a SONET circuit. This is because a T3 circuit can only go about between repeaters. A customer who orders a DS3 usually receives a SONET circuit run into the building and a multiplexer mounted in a utility box. The DS3 is delivered in its familiar form, two coax cables (1 for send and 1 for receive) with BNC connectors on the ends.

Bit robbing.

Twelve DS1 frames make up a single T1 Superframe (T1 SF). Each T1 Superframe is composed of two signaling frames. All T1 DS0 channels that employ in-band signaling will have its eighth bit over written, or "robbed" from the full 64 kbit/s DS0 payload, by either a logical ZERO or ONE bit to signify a circuit signaling state or condition. Hence robbed bit signaling will restrict a DS0 channel to a rate of only 56 kbit/s during two of the twelve DS1 frames that make up a T1 SF framed circuit. T1 SF framed circuits yield two independent signaling channels (A&B) T1 ESF framed circuits four signaling frames in a twenty four frame extended frame format that yield four independent signaling channels (A, B, C, and D).  56 kbit/s DS0 channels are associated with digital data service (DDS) services typically do not utilize the eighth bit of the DS0 as voice circuits that employ A&B out of band signaling. One exception is Switched 56kbit/s DDS. In DDS, bit eight is used to identify DTE request to send (RTS) condition. With Switched 56 DDS, bit eight is pulsed (alternately set to logical ZERO and ONE) to transmit two state dial pulse signaling information between a SW56 DDS CSU/DSU, and a digital end office switch.  The use of robbed-bit signaling in America has decreased significantly as a result of Signaling System No 7 (SS7) on inter-office dial trunks. With SS7, the full 64 kbit/s DS0 channel is available for use on a connection, and allows 64 kbit/s, and 128 kbit/s ISDN data calls to exist over a switched trunk network connection if the supporting T1 carrier entity is optioned B8ZS (Clear Channel Capable).

Carrier pricing.

Carriers price DS1 lines in many different ways. However, most boil down to two simple components: local loop (the cost the local incumbent charges to transport the signal from the end user's central office, otherwise known as a CO, to the point of presence, otherwise known as a POP, of the carrier) and the port (the cost to access the telephone network or the Internet through the carrier's network). Typically, the port price is based upon access speed and yearly commitment level while the loop is based on geography. The farther the CO and POP, the more the loop costs.  The loop price has several components built into it, including the mileage calculation (performed in V/H coordinates, not standard GPS coordinates) and the telco piece. Each local Bell operating company—namely Verizon, AT&T Inc., and Qwest—charge T-carriers different price per mile rates. Therefore, the price calculation has two distance steps: geomapping and the determination of local price arrangements.  While most carriers utilize a geographic pricing model as described above, some Competitive Local Exchange Carriers (CLECs), such as TelePacific, Integra Telecom, tw telecom, Windstream, Level 3 Communications, and XO Communications offer national pricing.  Under this DS1 pricing model, a provider charges the same price in every geography it services. National pricing is an outgrowth of increased competition in the T-carrier market space and the commoditization of T-carrier products. Providers that have adopted a national pricing strategy may experience widely varying margins as their suppliers, the Bell operating companies (e.g., Verizon, AT&T Inc., and Qwest), maintain geographic pricing models, albeit at wholesale prices.  For voice DS1 lines, the calculation is mostly the same, except that the port (required for Internet access) is replaced by LDU (otherwise known as Long Distance Usage). Once the price of the loop is determined, only voice-related charges are added to the total. In short, the total price = loop + LDU x minutes used.

The T-carrier is a member of the series of carrier systems developed by AT&T Bell Laboratories for digital transmission of multiplexed telephone calls.

Digitální linky T (T1, T2, T3, T4) je společné označení různých multiplexních digitálních telekomunikačních přenosových systémů vyvinutých Bellovými laboratořemi a používaných v Severní Americe, Japonsku a Jižní Koreji.


Early life and experiments (1874–1912).

Auguste Perret was born in Ixelles, Belgium, where his father, a stonemason, had taken refuge after the Paris Commune. He received his early education in architecture in the family firm. He was accepted in the architecture course of the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, along with his two brothers, Gustave (1876-1952) and Claude (1880-1960). where he studied under Julien Guadet, a Beaux Arts neoclassicist who had collaborated with Charles Garnier on the construction of the Paris Opera. Beyond the neoclassical rationalism he learned from Gaudet, Perret's particular interest was the structure of buildings and the use of new materials, such as concrete. Though he was considered a brilliant student, he left school without obtaining a diploma and went to work for the family firm. Perret immediately began experimenting with concrete. His first important project was an apartment building on rue Franklin in Paris (1903), where the concrete structure, instead of being concealed, was clearly visible and was a part of the exterior design. He made an even more radical experiment with the construction of a garage on rue de Ponthieu (1906) (now destroyed) with a simplified cubic structure expressing the interior, large bays of windows and a lack of decoration, which resembled the later International Style.

Early works (1913-1939).

His most famous building was the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées a project which he took over from the Art Nouveau architect Henry van de Velde. The facade was simple and decorated only with a sculptural bas-relief by Antoine Bourdelle. The corner of the building was smooth and rounded, anticipating the Streamline Moderne style three decades later. Thanks to the use of concrete pillars, the interior lobby and the theater itself was vast and open, unobstructed by columns. The interior decoration featured works by the modernist artists of the day; a dome by Maurice Denis, paintings by Édouard Vuillard and Jacqueline Marval, and a stage curtain by Ker-Xavier Roussel.  In his later works, Perret used concrete in imaginative ways to achieve the functions of his buildings, while preserving classical harmony, symmetry and proportions. His major works included the building of the French Economic, Social and Environmental Council, originally built for the Museum of Public Works of the 1937 Paris Exposition; and the Mobilier Nationale, the national government furniture atelier in Paris. He also created innovative industrial buildings, including a warehouse in Casablanca covered with a think veil of concrete (1915); the Perret Tower, the first concrete tower for the International Exhibition of Hydropower and Tourism of Grenoble (1925), to demonstrate his "Order of Concrete"; and the church of Notre Dame du Raincy (1922-23), where the interior columns were left undecorated and the concrete vaults of the ceiling became the most prominent decorative feature. He experimented with concrete forms to achieve the best acoustics for the concert hall of the École Normale de Musique de Paris in Paris. (1929)

Later works (1945-1954).

In 1952 he completed construction of the Saclay Nuclear Research Centre in the Paris suburb of Essonne. He described this campus as a "small Versailles for nuclear research". Most of France's early nuclear reactors were constructed within the site.  His other major postwar projects included the reconstruction of the center of the port of Le Havre, which had been almost totally destroyed during the war. His first plan was rejected as too ambitious, but his modified plans were followed. He also participated in the postwar reconstruction of the Marseille port and of Amiens.  His last major work, finished after his death, was the St. Joseph's Church, Le Havre, (1951–58) whose most prominent feature is its tower, like a lighthouse, 107 meters high, and visible at sea.

Later life, honors and legacy.

Among the many young architects who worked in the office of Perret from 1908 to 1910 was Charles-Édouard Jeanneret-Gris, who later became known as Le Corbusier; it was his first experience in an architectural firm.  From 1940 Perret taught at the École des Beaux-Arts. He won the Royal Gold Medal in 1948 and the AIA Gold Medal in 1952.  Perret also served as a juror with Florence Meyer Blumenthal in awarding the Prix Blumenthal, a grant given between 1919 and 1954 to young French painters, sculptors, decorators, engravers, writers, and musicians.  In 1998, the Perret Tower in Grenoble was declared a national heritage site by France.  In 2005, his reconstruction of Le Havre was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Auguste Perret (12 February 1874 – 25 February 1954) was a French architect and a pioneer of the architectural use of reinforced concrete. His major works include the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, the first Art Deco building in Paris; the Church of Notre-Dame du Raincy (1922–23); the Mobilier Nationale in Paris (1937); and the French Economic, Social and Environmental Council building in Paris (1937–39). After World War II he designed a group of buildings in the centre of the port city of Le Havre, including St. Joseph's Church, Le Havre. to replace buildings destroyed by bombing during World War II. His reconstruction of the city is now a World Heritage Site.

Auguste Perret (12. února 1874 Ixelles u Bruselu – 25. února 1954 Paříž) byl francouzský moderní architekt, stavitel a urbanista, světový průkopník betonové architektury.


Tourism.

There are three medium-difficulty tracks leading up to the peak, one from the Cirque de Salazie, one from the Cirque de Cilaos and one from La Plaine des Cafres. They meet at a staffed mountain hut about an hour's walk below the peak at la Caverne Dufour. Walkers often arrive there after a long day trek up the mountain, and start out very early the next day to watch the sunrise from the summit. The hike can be done in a long one-day 10- to 12-hour hike, but it is often preferable to make it a two-day hike - many hikers like to get up early on the second day and make the (easy) remaining ascent with torches, so as to see the sunrise from the mountaintop. The mountain hut offers heated indoor lodging, outdoor tent lodging, and meals. It is best to make reservations.  The hike starting from Cilaos is about 6.5 hours up and 4 hours down. To reach the start of the hike, drive through Cilaos toward la Mare à St Joseph. About 3 km (1.9 mi) past Cilaos, you will see a sign and some parking on both sides of the street. You may also leave your car downtown and follow the road to the trail head (sometimes there is no parking at the trail head). The hike is very steep (a climb of 1700m or 5,577 ft from trail head, almost 2000m or 6,562 ft from downtown), and one should be cautious if the trail is wet. The trail is well marked.  The hike starting from la Plaine des Cafres is about 8 hours up and 5 hours down with a change in elevation of 1700m (5,577 ft). To access the hike, follow RN3 past Le Tampon, all the way to La Plaine des Cafres and Bourg Murat. 2.5 km (1.6 mi) after Bourg Murat, take a left on the GR R2 road toward Savane Mare à Boue, follow for 2 km (1.2 mi) and park at the trail head. The trail is well marked.

The Piton des Neiges (Snow Peak) is a massive 3,069 m (10,069 ft) shield volcano on Réunion, one of the French volcanic islands in the Mascarene Archipelago in the southwestern Indian Ocean. It is located about east of Madagascar. Piton des Neiges is the highest point on Réunion and is considered to be the highest point in the Indian Ocean. The volcano was formed by the Réunion hotspot and emerged from the sea about two million years ago. Now deeply eroded, the volcano has been inactive for 20,000 years and is surrounded by three massive crater valleys, the Cirques. Piton des Neiges forms the northwestern two thirds of Réunion, with the very active Piton de la Fournaise comprising the rest. As it name suggests, snow is occasionally seen on its summit in winter.

Piton des Neiges (3069 m n. m.) je vyhaslá štítová sopka na ostrově Réunion (francouzský vulkanický ostrov v souostroví Maskarény) v jihozápadním Indickém oceánu. Leží 800 km východně od pobřeží Madagaskaru. Jedná se o nejvyšší horu Réunionu a celého Indického oceánu.


Overview.

"La Futura" was recorded at The Foambox Recordings in Houston, Texas. The album title and album art were unveiled on ZZ Top's homepage on 3 August 2012 at 11:45 a.m. The album contains 10 tracks. "We thought long and hard about what this album should be," Gibbons said in a press release. "We wanted to recall the directness of our early stuff but not turn our backs on contemporary technology. The result of this melding of the past and the present is, of course, "La Futura"." Four of the new tracks (the first four album tracks) --"I Gotsta Get Paid", "Chartreuse", "Consumption" and "Over You"—were first released on 5 June 2012 as an iTunes-only collection titled "Texicali", which met with strong sales and glowing reviews. "Music Radar" summed up the tunes as "fresh, vital roadhouse blues." Another track, "Flyin' High", appropriately made its world premiere in space, when the then-unfinished song was played on board a Soyuz spacecraft during its launch to the International Space Station in June 2011 at the request of the NASA astronaut Mike Fossum, a long-time ZZ Top fan and friend. Two bonus tracks, titled "Threshold of a Breakdown" and "Drive-By Lover", were released on CDs sold exclusively at Best Buy stores.

Reception.

Following its release, the album received mostly positive reviews. William Clark of "Guitar International" wrote, "La Futura is an impressive return to form for this infamous southern rock trio, and includes some of the best music ZZ Top has ever pushed out." Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic also praised the album, calling it their best album since "Eliminator" in 1983, while writing that "ZZ Top are celebrating everything that they've taken for granted for decades - they're embracing the sleazy boogie, the dirty jokes, the locomotive riffs, the saturated blues, the persistent lecherous leer, and by doing so they finally sound like themselves again."

Personnel.

ZZ Top  Additional musicians  Technical personnel

About the tracks.

"Chartreuse" is a song about the famous French liqueur Chartreuse the band discovered (and loved) in their dressing room in 2011 during the Musilac Music Festival in Aix-les-Bains, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, France.

La Futura is the fifteenth studio album by the American rock band ZZ Top, released in September 2012. It is their first one in nine years, following "Mescalero". It peaked at number 5 in the "Billboard" "Top Rock Albums" chart.

La Futura je patnácté studiové album americké rockové skupiny ZZ Top. Jedná se o jejich první studiové album od roku 2003, kdy skupina vydala desku "Mescalero". Producenty alba jsou Billy F. Gibbons a Rick Rubin, u jehož vydavatelství American Recordings rovněž album 10. září 2012 vyšlo.


Terminology.

The French expression "droit du seigneur" translates as "right of the lord", but native French prefer the terms "droit de jambage" (, from "jambe", 'leg') or "droit de cuissage" (, from "cuisse", 'thigh').  The term is often used synonymously with "jus primae noctis", Latin for "right of the first night".

Ancient era.

In the "Epic of Gilgamesh", Gilgamesh is described as having practiced a similar custom: "He is king, he does whatever he wants... takes the girl from her mother and uses her, the warrior's daughter, the young man's bride." His first meeting with his friend Enkidu is an attempt at one of these acts where Enkidu manages to stop him in a great contest of strength between the two champions.  Herodotus mentions a similar custom among the Adyrmachidae in ancient Libya: "They are also the only tribe with whom the custom obtains of bringing all women about to become brides before the king, that he may choose such as are agreeable to him."  When the plebeians of the Etruscan city of Volsinii rebelled against the aristocrats in 280 BC, "They took their wives for themselves and placed the daughters of the nobles under the "jus primae noctis", while all their former masters on whom they could lay hands were tortured to death."

Medieval Europe.

The medieval marriage fine or merchet has sometimes been interpreted as a payment for the "droit du seigneur" to be waived. Alternatively, it has been interpreted as compensation to the lord for the young women leaving his lands. "Encyclopedia Britannica" states that the evidence indicates it was a monetary tax related to vassal marriages, since a considerable number of seigneurial rights revolved around marriage.  A similar payment to church authorities has also been interpreted as relating to the "droit du seigneur". However, according to British scholar W. D. Howarth, the church at some times prohibited consummation of a marriage on the first night. The payment was for an indulgence from the church to waive this prohibition.  The life of Gerald of Aurillac written by Odo of Cluny (879-942) gives an account of the young nobleman demanding to rape one of his serfs, only to have the act averted by a miracle, sending Gerald on the road to sainthood. American historian Vern Bullough suggested that this illustrates that such behaviour was commonplace in the period, and that the "legend [of "droit du seigneur"] reflected the reality".  In the fourteenth-century French epic poem "Baudouin de Sebourc", a tyrannical lord claims the "jus primae noctis" unless he receives part of the bride's dowry.  The supposed right was abolished by Ferdinand II of Aragon in Article 9 of the "Sentencia Arbitral de Guadalupe" in 1486.

Later European references.

Scotland.

In 1527, Scottish historian Hector Boece wrote that the "right" had existed in Scotland until abolished by Malcolm III (r. 1058–93) under the influence of his wife, Margaret (later St Margaret of Scotland). The payment of merchet was instituted in its place. Boece attributed the law to a legendary king, Ewen or Evenus III. Modern French scholar Alain Boureau says that Boece probably invented King Ewen, but he views this as mythology, not as a polemic against medieval barbarism. In Shakespeare's play, "Henry VI, Part 2" ( 1591), the rebel Jack Cade proclaims: "there shall not a maid be married, but she shall pay to me her maidenhead ere they have it". According to French scholar Alain Boureau, Cade was demanding the payment of merchet, not the right of first night, but others disagree.  Other Scottish scholars of his era quoted Boece with approval, including John Lesley (1578), George Buchanan (1582), and Habbakuk Bisset (1626). The historical existence of the custom in Scotland was also accepted in Scottish legal works such as James Balfour's "Practicks" ( 1579), John Skene's "De Verborum" (1597), and Thomas Craig's "Jus Feudale" (1603). English scholar Henry Spelman stated in his "Glossary" (1664) that the custom had existed in Scotland, but not in England. English jurist William Blackstone cited Boece's statement in his "Commentaries on the Laws of England" (1765–1769), while similarly noting that the custom had never existed in England. In 1776, Scottish jurist David Dalrymple disputed the existence of the custom, arguing Boece's account was purely legendary, but his position was often seen as based on Scottish patriotism. However, according to Scottish legal scholar David Maxwell Walker, instances have been recorded of the "jus" being claimed up to the 18th century. Walker concluded that it is possible that the "jus" existed as a custom in Scotland, dependent on the attitude of the king, and survived longer in remote regions.  After their travels in Scotland in 1773, Samuel Johnson and James Boswell documented the custom of the payment of merchet, linking it with the "right of first night". They paralleled it with that custom of Borough English, suggesting that the English custom favored the youngest son because the paternity of the eldest son was doubtful. Sir Walter Scott mentioned the custom in his historical Scottish novel, "The Fair Maid of Perth" (1828).

Elsewhere.

The right was mentioned in 1556 in the "Recueil d'arrêts notables des cours souveraines de France" of French lawyer and author Jean Papon. French writer Antoine du Verdier also commented on it in 1577.  The Spanish novel "Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda" (1617) by Miguel de Cervantes contains an episode where a bride and groom escape a barbaric marriage custom in Ireland. According to British scholar WD Howarth, Cervantes was inspired by Peruvian marriage ceremonies and what is described is different from the classic version of the "droit du seigneur" as it involves multiple virgins. However, Cervantes' story was a source for the English play "The Custom of the Country", written by John Fletcher and Philip Massinger and published in 1647. The play has the classic version of the "right of first night" with money payment as an alternative. According to Howarth, this suggests that "droit du seigneur" was a familiar notion to people at that time, which he traces back to Boece.  The Jesuit hagiographical work "Acta Sanctorum" ("Acts of the Saints"), published from 1643 onwards, recorded the existence of "jus primae noctis" in its biographies of St Margaret and St Forannan.  English lexicographer Thomas Blount recorded the "right" as a medieval custom of some English manors in "Fragmenta Antiquitatis" in 1679.  French philosopher Montesquieu referred to the practice in "The Spirit of the Laws" (1748), saying that it had been enforced in France over three nights. Voltaire mentioned the practice in his "Dictionnaire philosophique", published in 1764. He wrote the five-act comedy "Le droit du seigneur" or "L'écueil du sage" in 1762, although it was not performed until 1779, after his death. This play was the first time the term "droit du seigneur" was used. In 18th-century France, a number of writers made other claims about the supposed power of the overlords during the Ancien Régime, such as the "droit de ravage" (right of ravage; providing to the lord the right to devastate fields of his own domain), and the "droit de prélassement" (right of lounging; it was said that a lord had the right to disembowel his serfs to warm his feet in).  In Mozart's "The Marriage of Figaro", which premiered in 1786 with a libretto by Lorenzo Da Ponte, the comic plot revolves around the successful efforts of the young bride and groom, Figaro and Susanna, to block the efforts of the unfaithful Count Almaviva to seduce Susanna. To achieve his aim, the frustrated Count threatens to reinstitute "droit du seigneur". It was based on a the play of the same title by Pierre Beaumarchais.  In his best-selling book, "The Curiosities of Literature" (1823), British writer Isaac D'Israeli stated the practice had been widespread across Europe.

Debate in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Scholars in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries gave the historical basis of the "right of first night" a good deal of attention. Over time, the "Encyclopædia Britannica" and the Larousse encyclopedias dramatically changed their opinion on the topic, moving from acceptance to rejection of the historical veracity of custom. French writer Louis Veuillot, a champion of Catholicism, wrote a book in 1854 disputing its existence. After an exhaustive historical study, German jurist Karl Schmidt concluded in 1881 that it was a scholarly misconception. After Schmidt, many of those who believed in the existence of the custom based their opinions on anthropological studies of tribal societies, though according to W. D. Howarth, this was a misguided argument because of the disparity between the tribal societies and medieval European society.  In "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State" in 1884, socialist Friedrich Engels argued it was real and had an anthropological origin.  In 1930, Scottish legal scholar Hector McKechnie concluded, based on historical evidence, that the practice had existed in Scotland in early times.  Italian scholar Paolo Mantegazza, in his 1935 book "The Sexual Relations of Mankind", said that while not a law, it was most likely a binding custom.

Non-European examples.

As late as the nineteenth century, some Kurdish chieftains in Anatolia raped Armenian brides on their wedding night (part of what was then known as the "khafir" or "hafir" system).  In the Hawaiian Islands, marriage in the Western sense did not exist until the arrival of Christian missionaries; there was no word for husband or wife in the Hawaiian language. The privilege for chiefs was often observed, according to ""Sexual Behavior in Pre Contact Hawai‘i"" by Milton Diamond. A young girl's parents viewed the coupling with favor. If she were lucky, she might conceive his offspring and be allowed to keep it.  The term has also been used to describe the sexual exploitation of slaves in the United States (see Children of the plantation).  In modern times, Zaire's president Mobutu Sese Seko appropriated the "droit de cuissage" when traveling around the country, where local chiefs offered him virgins; this act was considered a great honor for the virgin's family.

References.

Bibliography

Historians David A. Walker and Hector McKechnie wrote that the "right" might have existed in medieval Europe, but other historians have concluded that it is a myth, and that all references to it are from later periods.

Právo první noci (','nebo "") bylo domnělé právo středověkých feudálů na panenství dcer svých poddaných, které mohlo být realizováno o jejich svatební noci. Je nicméně sporné, do jaké míry takové právo skutečně existovalo.


Population and demography.

The canton of Montréal counted nine communes with a total area of 240 km2.  Like in other communes in rural France, the canton is facing a major decline in population. In 1962 the canton had 5,938 citizens. At the last count of the population in 1999, only 4,741 inhabitants could be counted, representing a decrease of 20%. This decrease is still continuing.  Young people leave the area, the old stay behind.  This phenomenon started, as in many other rural areas during the War of 1914-1918. Many young men did not return home, with the consequences we still see to day. Lack of manpower changed the once wealthy and healthy pastoral area in a region where the population and wealth both decreased. New immigrants from Spain and Italy compensated partly for the loss in population.  After the independence of Algeria, French farmers and winemakers returning to the motherland were encouraged to settle down in the Gers.  All these waves of immigrants now are completely integrated.  Due to the changes in the rural economics the last decade agricultural land and farms were put on the market and sold to newcomers from the north of Europe, looking for an active countryside way of life.  Gradually immigration changed, nowadays retired people from the north European urban areas come to the Gers in search of idyllic homes for their retirement.

Character, monuments and history of the canton.

Because of its landscapes and its vineyards the Gers is now and then called by some the "Tuscany of France". The summers are long and warm; the winters are warm and short.  In the neighbourhood are numerous old castles, little medieval walled villages, small cities built around castles and "sacred" places, because the Via Podiensis and the Way of St. James of Compostela are going through the Montréal and left their traces.

The canton of Montréal is a former administrative division in the Gers department, which is itself a component of the region Midi-Pyrénées, in the area formerly called Gascony, France. It was disbanded following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015. It consisted of 9 communes, which joined the canton of Armagnac-Ténarèze in 2015.

Kanton Montréal (fr. "Canton de Montréal") je francouzský kanton v departementu Gers v regionu Midi-Pyrénées. Skládá se z devíti obcí.


Background.

St Nazaire is on the north bank of the Loire, from the nearest British port. In 1942, it had a population of 50,000. The St Nazaire port has an outer harbour known as the Avant Port, formed by two piers jutting out into the Atlantic Ocean. This leads to two lock gates before the Bassin de St Nazaire. These gates control the water level in the basin so that it is not affected by the tide.  Beyond the basin is the larger inner dock called the Bassin de Penhoët, which can accommodate ships up to 10,000 tons. There is also an old entrance to the Bassin de St Nazaire located southwest of the Normandie dry dock. Built to house the ocean liner, this dock was the largest dry dock in the world when it was completed in 1932. The "Old Mole" jetty juts into the Loire halfway between the southern pier of the Avant Port and the old entrance into the basin.  On 24 May 1941, the Battle of the Denmark Strait was fought between the German ships and and the British ships and. "Hood" was sunk and the damaged "Prince of Wales" was forced to retire. "Bismarck", also damaged, ordered her consort to proceed independently while she headed for the French port of St Nazaire, which was the only port on the Atlantic coast with

Plan.

The purpose of the raid was to destroy the Normandie dock, the old gates into the Bassin de St Nazaire with the water pumping machinery and other installations and any U-boats or other shipping in the area. The initial Combined Operations plan required one specially lightened destroyer to carry out the raid. It would be packed with explosives and rammed into the dock gates. Commandos on board would then disembark and use demolition charges to destroy nearby dock installations, searchlights and gun emplacements.  The destroyer would then be blown up. At the same time the RAF would undertake diversionary air raids in the area. When the plan was presented to the Admiralty they refused to support it. The certain loss of one or both destroyers to eliminate the dry dock was out of the question. They suggested they could provide an old Free French destroyer,, and a flotilla of small Motor Launches to transport the commandos and evacuate them afterwards. Approval for the mission, codenamed Operation

Composition of the raiding force.

The revised Combined Operations plan required one destroyer to ram the dock gates and a number of smaller craft to transport the Commandos. The Royal Navy would therefore provide the largest contingent for the raid, under the overall command of the senior naval officer, Commander Robert Ryder. The ship selected to ram into the dock gates was, commanded by Lieutenant Commander Stephen Halden Beattie. "Campbeltown" was a First World War destroyer and had previously been in the United States Navy. She had come into RN service in 1940 as one of 50 destroyers transferred to the United Kingdom under the destroyers-for-bases deal.  Converting "Campbeltown" for the raid took ten days. She had to be lightened to raise her draught to get over the sand banks in the estuary. This was achieved by completely stripping all her internal compartments. The dockyard removed her three guns, torpedoes and depth charges from the deck and replaced the forward gun with a light quick–firing 12-pounder gun. Eight 20 mm Oerlikons were installed on mountings raised above deck level. The bridge and wheelhouse were given extra armour-plate protection, and two rows of armour were fixed along the sides of the ship to protect the Commandos on the open deck.  Two of her four funnels were removed, and the forward two were cut at an angle to resemble those of a German destroyer. The bow was packed with 4.5 tons of high explosives, which were set in concrete. It was decided that the explosive charge would be timed to detonate after the raiders had left the harbour. To prevent the Germans towing her away, the crew would open the ship's seacocks before abandoning the ship. Should she become disabled or sunk before getting to the dock, four motor launches had been detailed to take off the crew and put the commandos ashore. The charge would be reset to explode after the last boat had left. Other naval units involved were two s, and, which would accompany the force to and from the French coast and remain out at sea during the raid. A Motor Gun Boat ("MGB 314") was the headquarters ship for the raid, with Commander Ryder and the commanding officer of the Commandos on board. A Motor Torpedo Boat ("MTB 74"), commanded by Sub-Lieutenant Michael

German forces.

The Germans had around 5,000 troops in the immediate area of St Nazaire. The port was defended by the 280th Naval Artillery Battalion under the command of "Kapitän zur See" Edo Dieckmann. The battalion was composed of 28 guns of various calibres from 75 mm to 280 mm railway guns, all positioned to guard the coastal approaches. The heavy guns were supplemented by the guns and searchlights of the 22nd Naval Flak Brigade under the command of "Kapitän zur See" Karl-Konrad Mecke.  The brigade was equipped with 43 anti-aircraft guns ranging in calibre from 20 to 40 mm. These guns had a dual role as both anti-aircraft and coastal defence weapons. Many were in concrete emplacements on top of the submarine pens and other dockside installations of the St Nazaire submarine base.  The harbour defence companies were responsible for local defence and for the security of the ships and submarines moored

The raid.

Outward journey.

The three destroyers and 16 small boats left Falmouth, Cornwall, at 14:00 on 26 March 1942. They formed into a convoy of three lanes, with the destroyers in the middle. On arrival at St Nazaire the portside MLs were to head for the Old Mole to disembark their Commandos, while the starboard lane would make for the old entrance to the basin to disembark theirs. Not having the range to reach St Nazaire unaided, the MTB and MGB were taken under tow by "Campbeltown"

Ramming the dry dock.

At 00:30 hours on 28 March the convoy crossed over the shoals at the mouth of the Loire estuary, with "Campbeltown" scraping the bottom twice. Each time she pulled free, and the group proceeded toward the harbour in darkness. They had come within about eight minutes' passage from the dock gates when, at 01:22, the entire convoy was illuminated by searchlights on both banks of the estuary. A naval signal light demanded their identification.  "MGB 314" replied in a coded response obtained from a German trawler boarded during the Vågsøy raid. A few bursts were fired from a shore battery and both "Campbeltown" and "MGB 314" replied: "Ship being fired upon by friendly forces". The deception gave them a

Disembarkation from "Campbeltown" and the MLs.

The Commandos on "Campbeltown" now disembarked. These comprised two assault teams, five demolition teams with their protectors and a mortar group. Three demolition teams were tasked with destroying the dock pumping machinery and other installations associated with the dry dock. The kilt-wearing Captain Donald William Roy – 'The Laird' – and his 14-man assault troop were tasked with knocking out two pump-house roof-top gun emplacements high above the quayside and securing a bridge to provide a route for the raiding parties to exit the dock area. Roy and Sgt Don Randall used scaling ladders and grenades to accomplish the former, and a head-on rush to secure the bridge and form a bridgehead that enabled Captain Bob Montgomery and Lt Corran Purdon and their demolition teams to exit the area.  They lost 4 men in this action. The fifth team also succeeded in completing all their objectives, but almost half their men were killed. The other two Commando groups were not as successful. The MLs transporting Groups One and Two had almost all been destroyed

Small ships.

Most of the MLs had been destroyed on the run in and were burning. The first ML in the starboard column was the first boat to catch fire. Her captain managed to beach her at the end of the Old Mole. Some starboard boats managed to reach their objective and disembark their Commandos. "ML 443", the leading boat in the port column, got to within of the mole in the face of heavy direct fire and hand grenades before being set on fire. The crew were rescued by "ML 160", one of the torpedo MLs which had been looking for targets of opportunity such as the two large tankers reported to be in the harbour. The commanders of "ML 160" and "ML 443", Lieutenants T Boyd and T D L Platt, were awarded the Distinguished Service

Return journey.

At 06:30 the five German torpedo boats that the convoy had evaded the previous day were sighted by HMS "Atherstone" and "Tynedale". The destroyers turned toward them and opened fire at a range of. After ten minutes the German boats turned away, making smoke. The destroyers sighted the MGB and two accompanying MLs soon after and transferred their casualties to "Atherstone". Not expecting any more boats to arrive, they headed for home. Just after 09:00 the Hunt-class escort destroyers "Brocklesby" and "Cleveland" arrived, sent by Commander-in-Chief Plymouth. Shortly after this the ships were spotted by a Heinkel 115 floatplane of the "Luftwaffe".  The next German aircraft on the scene, a Junkers 88, was engaged by a

"Campbeltown" explodes.

The explosive charges in HMS "Campbeltown" detonated at noon on 28 March 1942, and the dry dock was destroyed. Reports vary on the fate of the two tankers that were in the dock; they were either swept away by the wall of water and sunk, or swept to the far end of the dock, but not sunk. A party of 40 senior German officers and civilians who were on a tour of "Campbeltown" were killed. In total, the explosion killed about 360 men. The wreck of "Campbeltown" could still be seen inside the dry dock months later when RAF photo reconnaissance planes were sent

Aftermath.

The explosion put the dry dock out of commission for the remainder of the war. The St Nazaire raid had been a success, but at a cost—of the 622 men of the Royal Navy and Commandos who took part in the raid, only 228 men returned to England. Five commandos escaped via neutral Spain and Gibraltar with the help of French citizens and took ship to England; 169 men were killed (105 RN and 64 Commandos) and another 215 became prisoners of war (106 RN and 109 Commandos). They were first taken to La Baule and then sent to Stalag 133 at Rennes. The fallen British raiders were buried at the La Baule-Escoublac cemetery, west of St Nazaire, with military honours.  To recognise their achievement, 89 decorations were awarded for the raid, including Victoria Crosses awarded to Lieutenant Commander Beattie, Lieutenant Colonel Newman and Commander Ryder

Legacy.

St Nazaire was one of the 38 battle honours presented to the Commandos after the war. The survivors formed their own association, the St Nazaire Society, which is a registered charity in the United Kingdom.  A memorial to the raid erected in Falmouth bears the following inscription: A new, a Type 22 frigate, was launched on 7 October 1987. She carried the ship's bell from the first "Campbeltown" which was rescued during the raid and had been presented to the town of Campbelltown, Pennsylvania at the end of the Second World War. In 1988 the people of Campbelltown voted to lend the bell to the new ship for as long as she remained in Royal Navy service. The bell was returned to the town on 21 June 2011 when HMS "Campbeltown" was decommissioned.  On 4 September 2002, a tree and seat at the National Memorial Arboretum were dedicated to the men of the raid. The seat bears the inscription:"In memory of the Royal Navy Sailors and Army Commandos killed in the raid on St Nazaire on 28 March 1942"

The St Nazaire Raid or Operation Chariot was a British amphibious attack on the heavily defended Normandie dry dock at St Nazaire in German-occupied France during the Second World War. The operation was undertaken by the Royal Navy and British Commandos under the auspices of Combined Operations Headquarters on 28 March 1942. St Nazaire was targeted because the loss of its dry dock would force any large German warship in need of repairs, such as, sister ship of, to return to home waters by running the gauntlet of the Home Fleet of the Royal Navy and other British forces, via the English Channel or the GIUK gap.

Operace Chariot nebo útok či nájezd na Saint-Nazaire byla britská speciální vojenská operace proti silám Třetí říše ovládající přístavní zařízení ve francouzském městě Saint-Nazaire během druhé světové války. Šlo o největší akci provedenou oddíly Commandos za druhé světové války.