Biography.

Early years.

He was born at the Château de Rosny near Mantes-la-Jolie into a branch of the House of Béthune a noble family originating in Artois, and was brought up in the Reformed faith, a Huguenot. In 1571, at the age of eleven, Maximilien was presented to Henry of Navarre and remained permanently attached to the future king of France. The young Baron of Rosny was taken to Paris by his patron and was studying at the "Collège de Bourgogne" at the time of the St Bartholomew's Day Massacre, from which he escaped by discreetly carrying a Catholic book of hours under his arm. He studied mathematics and history at the court of Henry of Navarre.

A warrior with Henry.

On the renewed outbreak of civil war in 1575, he enlisted in the Protestant army. In 1576 he accompanied the Duke of Anjou, younger brother of king Henri III, on an expedition into the Netherlands in order to regain the former Rosny estates, but being unsuccessful he attached himself for a time to the Prince of Orange. Later, rejoining Henry of Navarre in Guyenne, he displayed bravery in the field and particular ability as a military engineer. In 1583 he acted as Henry's special agent in Paris, and during a respite in the Wars of Religion he married an heiress who died five years later.  On the renewal of civil war, Rosny again joined Henry of Navarre, and at the battle of Ivry (1590) he was seriously wounded. He counselled Henry IV's conversion to Roman Catholicism (made official on 25 July 1593) but steadfastly refused to become a Catholic himself. Once Henry IV of France's succession to the throne was secured (), the faithful and trusted Rosny received his reward in the shape of numerous estates and dignities.

Sully in power.

From 1596, when he was added to Henry's finance commission, Rosny introduced some order into France's economic affairs. Acting as sole Superintendent of Finances at the end of 1601, he authorized the free exportation of grain and wine, reduced legal interest, established a special court to try cases of peculation, forbade provincial governors to raise money on their own authority, and otherwise removed many abuses of tax-collecting. Rosny abolished several offices, and by his honest, rigorous conduct of the country's finances, he was able to save between 1600 and 1610 an average of a million "livres" a year.  His achievements were by no means solely financial. In 1599, he was appointed grand commissioner of highways and public works, superintendent of fortifications and grand master of artillery; in 1602, governor of Nantes and of Jargeau, captain-general of the Queen's "gens d'armes" and governor of the Bastille; in 1604, he was governor of Poitou; and in 1606, made first duke of Sully and a pair de France, ranking next to princes of the blood. He declined the office of constable of France because he would not become a Roman Catholic.  Sully encouraged agriculture, urged the free circulation of produce, promoted stock-raising, forbade the destruction of the forests, drained swamps, built roads and bridges, planned a vast system of canals and actually began the Canal de Briare. He strengthened the French military establishment; under his direction, the construction of a great line of defences on the frontiers began. Abroad, Sully opposed the king's colonial policy as inconsistent with French interests, in opposition to men like Champlain who urged greater colonial efforts in Canada and elsewhere. Neither did Sully show much favor toward industrial pursuits but, on the urgent solicitation of the king, he established a few silk factories. He fought together with Henry IV in Savoy (1600–1601) and negotiated the treaty of peace in 1602; in 1603, he represented Henry at the court of James I of England; and throughout the reign, he helped the king to put down insurrections of the nobles, whether Roman Catholic or Protestant. It was Sully, too, who arranged the marriage between Henry IV and Marie de' Medici.

Fall from power and last years.

The political role of Sully effectively ended with the assassination of Henry IV on 14 May 1610. The king was on his way to visit Sully, who lay ill in the Arsenal; his purpose was to make final preparations for imminent military intervention in the disputed succession to Jülich-Cleves-Berg after the death of Duke John William. The intervention on behalf of a Calvinist candidate would have brought the king in conflict with the Catholic Habsburg dynasty.  Although a member of the Queen's council of regency, his colleagues were not inclined to put up with his domineering leadership, and after a stormy debate he resigned as superintendent of finances on 26 January 1611, retiring into private life.  The queen mother gave him 300,000 "livres" for his long services and confirmed him in possession of his estates. He attended the meeting of the Estates-General in 1614, and on the whole was in sympathy with the policy and government of Richelieu. He disavowed the Blockade of La Rochelle, in 1621, but in the following year was briefly arrested.  The baton of marshal of France was conferred on him on 18 September 1634. The last years of his life were spent chiefly at Villebon, Rosny and his château of Sully. He died at Villebon at the age of 81.

Family.

By his first wife, Anne de Courtenay (died 1589), daughter of François, Lord of Bontin, he had one son, Maximilien, Marquess of Rosny (1587–1634), who led a life of dissipation and debauchery. By his second wife, Rachel de Cochefilet (1566–1659), the widow of François Hurault, Lord of Chateaupers, whom he married in 1592 and who turned Protestant to please him, he had nine children, of whom six died young. Their son François (1598–1678) was created first Duke of Orval. The elder daughter Marguerite (1595–1660) in 1605, married Henri, Duke of Rohan, while the younger Louise in 1620 married Alexandre de Lévis, Marquess of Mirepoix.

Accomplishments.

Sully was very unpopular because he was a favorite and was seen as selfish, obstinate, and rude. He was hated by most Catholics because he was a Protestant, and by most Protestants because he was faithful to the king. He amassed a large personal fortune, and his jealousy of all other ministers and favorites was extravagant. Nevertheless, he was an excellent man of business, inexorable in punishing malversation and dishonesty on the part of others, and opposed to ruinous court expenditures that was the bane of almost all European monarchies in his day. He was gifted with executive ability, with confidence and resolution, with fondness for work, and above all with deep devotion to his master. He was implicitly trusted by Henry IV and proved himself the most able assistant of the king in dispelling the chaos into which the religious and civil wars had plunged France. After Henry IV, Sully was a major driving force behind the happy transformation in France between 1598 and 1610, in which agriculture and commerce benefitted, and peace and internal order were reestablished.  After the death of Henry IV Sully published, in the deceased king's name, his ‘Grand Design’, a plan to stop the religious wars. His starting point was that the three churches (Catholic, Lutheran and Calvinist) were there to stay. He planned an international organization, consisting of a Europe of 15 more or less equally strong powers, incidentally dissolving the Habsburg empire and thus making France Europe’s strongest state. A balance of power mechanism and a permanent assembly of ambassadors should prevent wars in Europe. Military power would only be needed towards Russia and the Ottoman Empire.

Titles.

During his life, Sully inherited or acquired the following titles:

Works.

Sully left a collection of memoirs ("Mémoires", otherwise known as the "Économies royales", 1638) written in the second person very valuable for the history of the time and as an autobiography, in spite of the fact that they contain many fictions, such as a mission undertaken by Sully to Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1601. Perhaps among his most famous works was the idea of a Europe composed of 15 roughly equal states, under the direction of a "Very Christian Council of Europe", charged with resolving differences and disposing of a common army. This famous "Grand Design", a utopian plan for a Christian republic, is often cited as one of the first grand plans and ancestors for the European Union. Two folio volumes of the memoirs were splendidly printed, nominally at Amsterdam, but really under Sully's own eye, at his château of Sully in 1638; two other volumes appeared posthumously in Paris in 1662.

Sources.

His ancestry is traced at length and his career more briefly, reproducing original documents, in the monumental "Histoire généalogique de la Maison de Béthune" by the historian André Duchesne (Paris, 1639)

Maximilien de Béthune, 1st Duke of Sully, Marquis of Rosny and Nogent, Count of Muret and Villebon, Viscount of Meaux (13 December 156022 December 1641) was a nobleman, soldier, statesman, and counselor of King Henry IV of France. Historians emphasize Sully's role in building a strong centralized administrative system in France using coercion and highly effective new administrative techniques. While not all of his policies were original, he used them well to revitalize France after the European Religious Wars. Most, however, were repealed by later monarchs who preferred absolute power. Historians have also studied his neo-Stoicism and his ideas about virtue, prudence, and discipline.

Maximilien de Béthune, vévoda ze Sully, baron a později markýz z Rosny (; 13. prosince 1560 Rosny u Mantes-la-Jolie – 22. prosince 1641 Villebon u Chartres) byl francouzský politik a vojevůdce, důvěrník krále Jindřicha IV. Pocházel z kalvinistické šlechtické rodiny, po Jindřichově boku bojoval v četných bitvách (dosáhl hodnosti maršála) a později zastával vysoké civilní úřady. V letech 1589–1611 byl prvním ministrem Francie, v letech 1600–1611 navíc superintendentem (tj. ministrem) financí. Zaváděl moderní administrativní metody a významně přispěl k centralizaci francouzského státu. Prvním vévodou ze Sully se stal roku 1606, jméno získal po zámku Sully-sur-Loire, který předtím zakoupil.


Superstition (Siouxsie and the Banshees album)

Background and promotion.

The album was produced by Stephen Hague, known for working with New Order and Pere Ubu. Hague used techniques that Siouxsie Sioux did not approve of later, such as computer-based production. She stated: "There are still songs I like on it, like 'Kiss Them for Me' and 'Drifter', but we were trying a different kind of working style, a different kind of discipline, during which I really built a strong case against computers."  In 1991, the band spent two months on the road, from July until August, in the United States as second headliners of the inaugural Lollapalooza tour. The last date took place in Seattle on 31 August. Two weeks later, the album reached its highest position at No. 65 in the "Billboard" 200 for the week of 14 September; it spent 21 weeks total on that chart. It remained their best selling album in the US, with 358,000 sold copies as of 2004, according to Nielsen SoundScan.

Release.

This album was reissued in a remastered CD version with bonus tracks in October 2014. A 180 gram Double-Vinyl reissue of the original edition, remastered from the original 1⁄4” tapes and cut half-speed at Abbey Road Studios by Miles Showell, was released on 14 September 2018 in the US and in Europe.

Critical reception.

"Superstition" was well received by critics. "Q" gave it a 4-star rating, saying: "They pop it up with sweet string textures on the single 'Kiss Them for Me', bear down on the maritime metaphor of 'Drifter' with doomy foghorn and bells effects, give it the all but "Twin Peaks" dreamscape for 'Softly'." "Melody Maker" highly praised the first single: "'Kiss Them for Me' is gorgeous, wicked and glamorous". In the same paper, reviewer Jon Wilde described "Superstition" as "a giant record about obsession, phobia, perspective and emotional tyranny". Wilde said that the song "The Ghost in You" was "a furiously pretty six note refrain that haunts long after the needle has returned to safety". In a 4 out of 5 review, "Select" praised the album, saying that "Kiss Them for Me" was a "passionately laidback" single, "exotic" and "funky", with "an underlying hush of electro pulsebeat" making it dancefloor friendly. The rest of the album was also reviewed favourably. "Drifter" was compared to the soundtrack of a Sergio Leone film with a touch of "ethereal sensuality", and "Silver Waterfalls" was qualified as "gorgeous". The reviewer noted that the album ends with the "delicate" "Softly", with lyrics bare and tender enough to be almost like Scott Walker. Glyn Brown concluded: [It is] "ambitious".

Legacy.

Dave Sitek of TV on the Radio was inspired by the song "Kiss Them for Me". Sitek stated: "I've always tried to make a song that begins like "Kiss Them for Me". I think songs like "I Was a Lover" or "Wash the Day Away" came from that element of surprise mode where all of a sudden this giant drum comes in and you're like, what the fuck?! That record was the first one where I was like, okay, even my friends're going to fall for this. I feel like that transition into that record was a relief for me. Really beautiful music was always considered too weird by the normal kids and that was the first example where I thought, we've got them, they're hooked! I watched people dance to that song, people who had never heard of any of the music that I listened to, they heard that music in a club and went crazy."

Track listing.

All music composed by Siouxsie and the Banshees.

Charts.

Album Singles

Superstition is the 10th studio album by English rock band Siouxsie and the Banshees, released in 1991. The first single, "Kiss Them for Me", gave the band its first top 40 "Billboard" Hot 100 hit in the United States, peaking at No. 23, with the album peaking at No. 65 on the "Billboard" 200 chart. The band widened their musical influences with the arrival of Indian musician Talvin Singh, who played tablas on the songs "Kiss Them for Me" and "Silver Waterfalls".

Superstition je desáté a předposlední studiové album anglické skupiny Siouxsie and the Banshees. Vydáno bylo v červnu roku 1991 společností Polydor Records (v USA jej vydalo vydavatelství Geffen Records). Producentem desky byl Stephen Hague. Kromě členů kapely na desce hrál perkusionista Talvin Singh. Roku 2014 byla deska vydána v remasterované reedici se třemi bonusovými písněmi.


History.

Yanji and its environs were largely unpopulated until the 1800s when Qing dynasty rulers of China began to encourage migration there from China proper as part of its "Chuang Guandong" policy to populate Manchuria in an effort to stem encroaching Russian expansion.  The city was the seat of Jiandao Province in the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo from 1934 to 1943. In 1943, the city itself was renamed Jiandao (Chientao) and made a part of the Dongman Consolidated Province.  Following World War II, the city (again called Yanji) was nominally part of a new Songjiang Province but with the communist seizure of power in 1949, Sonjiang's borders were changed and Yanji became part of Jilin Province.  Yanji is now part of the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, which is situated in eastern Jilin. Yanji City is centrally located, surrounded by five other county-level cities and two rural counties (see map); it is the administrative seat of the prefecture.

International incidents.

The North Korean military detonated its second nuclear test in May 2009 close to the Chinese border, and the blast set off an earthquake of magnitude 4.5 with an epicenter only from Yanji. The mutual goodwill of the Chinese and Korean populations in the region was put under severe strain, and many in Yanji expressed newfound feelings of dismay and insecurity regarding their North Korean neighbors.  A South Korean pastor, the Reverend Kim Dong-shik, was kidnapped in Yanji in January 2000, one of numerous well-publicized North Korean abductions of South Koreans: a suspect of mixed Korean-Chinese descent, said to have been trained in Pyongyang, was arrested and charged with the crime in December 2004.  Yanji was the starting point of an international dispute in 2009 when two American journalists Euna Lee and Laura Ling were detained by North Korean border guards when, after leaving Yanji, they overstepped the nearby demarcation line. The two were freed only after intervention at the highest level, by former US President Clinton.  Crystal meth seeping across the border from North Korea has led to a drug problem. According to a Brookings report, "Jilin Province is not only the most important transshipment point for drugs from North Korea into China, but has itself become one of the largest markets in China for amphetamine-type stimulants." Yanji had registered nearly 2100 drug addicts in 2010 compared to just 44 in 1990; local officials admitted that the actual number was possibly five or six times higher.

Geography and climate.

Yanji is situated among foothills, with the main metropolitan area contained in a small, very flat area. It is ringed by mountains dotted with small, remote farming communities. It has a four-season, monsoon-influenced, humid continental climate (classified in the Köppen system as "Dwb"), with long, very cold winters, and short, but very warm, humid summers. Spring and autumn constitute very short transitions with some, but usually not heavy, rainfall. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from in January to in August, while the annual mean is and a total precipitation of, most of it falling during the summer. Sunshine is generous but falling far short of the central and western parts of Jilin; with monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 39% in July to 62% in February, there are 2,280 hours of bright sunshine annually.

Administrative divisions.

Yanji has six subdistricts and three towns.  Subdistricts:  Towns:

Demographics.

The Korean diaspora in China has significant populations in at least eleven major Chinese cities, but none larger than Yanji: official Chinese census reports from 1990 placed the city's ethnic Korean population at over 170,000. Official census reports from 2000 have not yet been released publicly, but current estimates place it between about one third of the city's total population to more than one half. Both Chinese and Korean are considered "official languages" of the city: all official signs are in bilingual text, with Korean at the top.

Economy.

With its current population estimated at four hundred thousand, Yanji is small by Chinese standards (by comparison, the population of Shanghai is almost twenty million). Yanji is also relatively young: the city was developed only in the nineteenth century and became the regional capital after the Second World War. Recent growth in tourism and overseas investment has helped to make Yanji a notably prosperous city. It abounds with modern architecture of steel and glass, and its broad avenues are conspicuously clean and well-maintained. In modern times, Yanji has become a city of transport and trade. China is the largest trading partner of North Korea, accounting for almost 40% of that country's international commerce, and Yanji is the center of much of the cross-border enterprise.  Beyond North Korea, other countries have begun to partner with Yanji business groups: currently there are over five hundred joint ventures with international partners ongoing in Yanji. Much of the recent investment has been made by South Korea and Taiwan, which has helped substantially in building the city's tourism industry.  Yanji also burnishes its reputation as a center of tourism by hosting the annual North China Travel Fair. Held every year since 1996, the fair is one of the largest of its kind in the country, showcasing over a thousand exhibitions representing cultural and economic partners from across China and overseas. Yanji also hosts the Tumen River Area International Investment & Business Forum, a three-day exposition held annually since 2000.

Transport and infrastructure.

Daily train service to most major urban centers of the province is available from Yanji, including a 24-hour trip to Beijing. A much shorter trip to the Chinese capital can be arranged at Yanji Chaoyangchuan Airport which serves the area with scheduled passenger flights domestically and to Korea. International air service is provided by the Changchun Longjia Airport, and surface travel to Changchun itself has been made more accessible since the large Changchun-Yanji Expressway was opened to the public in 2009.  A new water and sewage pipeline was completed in 2006, linking Yanji and the neighboring cities of Jilin and Songyuan to modern sewage treatment plants along the Songhua River. As of 2012 Yanji offers the most convenient road access to the Rason Special Economic Zone in North Korea.

Education.

Yanbian University is a comprehensive university in Yanji, founded in 1949; it offers eleven programs of study, including four doctoral programs. The university maintains a full-time teaching staff of over 1,400, serving an active student body of over sixteen thousand. One of Yanbian University's graduates, a Korean language major, is Zhang Dejiang, formerly a deputy secretary of the Municipal Committee of Yanji (1983–1985), and now a Vice-Premier of the Chinese Communist Party in Beijing.  Yanji is also home to the Yanbian University of Science and Technology, a technical research college founded in 1990, and the Yanbian Medical College.  Yanbian International Academy, the area school for foreigners, is located in Yanji. There is also a school for Koreans, Korean International School in Yanbian.

Sport.

Yanji hosts sporting events at the 50,000-seat People's Stadium. The city was the eighteenth stop for the Olympic torch relay at the opening of the 2008 Summer Games.  Officials from the Guinness Book of World Records visited the athletics stadium at Yanbian University in July 2010 to witness a new world record being set: over one thousand students simultaneously juggled soccer balls with their feet for more than ten seconds.

Culture.

Two all-Korean television channels are produced locally, and others can be freely received from both North and South Korea. Korean cuisine is highly popular and available everywhere. An annual Korean folk festival takes place each September in Yanji, featuring traditional Korean music, dance, painting, and sports.  Karaoke is popular in Yanji, and the city even has a burgeoning underground beatboxing scene, which has been documented by filmmaker Liu Feng in "Yan Bian Box" (2007).

Yanji ("Yeon-gil" or "Yenji" in Korean, alternately romanized as Yenki) is a county-level city in the east of China's Jilin Province, and is the seat of the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture. Its population is approximately 400,000 of which a large portion is ethnic Korean. Yanji is a busy hub of transport and trade between China and North Korea.

Městský okres Jongil ( – "Jŏngil si", ) je městský okres ve středu korejské autonomní prefektury Jen-pien na východě provinci Ťi-lin na severovýchodě Čínské lidové republiky. Sídlí v něm správa celé prefektury a jsou zde také Jenpienská univerzita a Jenpienská univerzita vědy a techniky.


Examples.

The use of expressions ranges from the simple:  to the complex:

Syntax versus semantics.

Syntax.

An expression is a syntactic construct, it must be well-formed: the allowed operators must have the correct number of inputs in the correct places, the characters that make up these inputs must be valid, have a clear order of operations, etc. Strings of symbols that violate the rules of syntax are not well-formed and are not valid mathematical expressions.  For example, in the usual notation of arithmetic, the expression "1 + 2 × 3" is well-formed, but the following expression is not:

Semantics.

Semantics is the study of meaning. Formal semantics is about attaching meaning to expressions.  In algebra, an expression may be used to designate a value, which might depend on values assigned to variables occurring in the expression. The determination of this value depends on the semantics attached to the symbols of the expression. The choice of semantics depends on the context of the expression. The same syntactic expression "1 + 2 × 3" can have different values (mathematically 7, but also 9), depending on the order of operations implied by the context (See Order of operations:Calculators).  The semantic rules may declare that certain expressions do not designate any value (for instance when they involve division by 0); such expressions are said to have an undefined value, but they are well-formed expressions nonetheless. In general the meaning of expressions is not limited to designating values; for instance, an expression might designate a condition, or an equation that is to be solved, or it can be viewed as an object in its own right that can be manipulated according to certain rules. Certain expressions that designate a value simultaneously express a condition that is assumed to hold, for instance those involving the operator formula_10 to designate an internal direct sum.

Formal languages and lambda calculus.

Formal languages allow formalizing the concept of well-formed expressions.  In the 1930s, a new type of expressions, called lambda expressions, were introduced by Alonzo Church and Stephen Kleene for formalizing functions and their evaluation. They form the basis for lambda calculus, a formal system used in mathematical logic and the theory of programming languages.  The equivalence of two lambda expressions is undecidable. This is also the case for the expressions representing real numbers, which are built from the integers by using the arithmetical operations, the logarithm and the exponential (Richardson's theorem).

Variables.

Many mathematical expressions include variables. Any variable can be classified as being either a free variable or a bound variable.  For a given combination of values for the free variables, an expression may be evaluated, although for some combinations of values of the free variables, the value of the expression may be undefined. Thus an expression represents a function whose inputs are the values assigned to the free variables and whose output is the resulting value of the expression.  For example, the expression  evaluated for "x" = 10, "y" = 5, will give 2; but it is undefined for "y" = 0.  The evaluation of an expression is dependent on the definition of the mathematical operators and on the system of values that is its context.  Two expressions are said to be equivalent if, for each combination of values for the free variables, they have the same output, i.e., they represent the same function. Example:  The expression has free variable "x", bound variable "n", constants 1, 2, and 3, two occurrences of an implicit multiplication operator, and a summation operator. The expression is equivalent to the simpler expression 12"x". The value for "x" = 3 is 36.

In mathematics, an expression or mathematical expression is a finite combination of symbols that is well-formed according to rules that depend on the context. Mathematical symbols can designate numbers (constants), variables, operations, functions, brackets, punctuation, and grouping to help determine order of operations, and other aspects of logical syntax.

Matematický výraz je konečná kombinace symbolů, která tvoří dobře utvořenou formuli podle pravidel závislých na kontextu. Matematickými symboly mohou být čísla (konstanty), proměnné, operace, funkce, oddělovače a závorky, které určují prioritu početních operací a jiné aspekty logické syntaxe.


Geography.

Narsarmijit is the southernmost settlement in the country, located approximately north of Cape Farewell, the southern cape of Greenland.

History.

The city is located in the area of the easternmost of the Norse settlements during their colonization of Greenland. The former village of Ikigait is roughly away and was the site of Herjólfr Bárðarson's farm Herjolfsnes ("Herjolf's Point").  The Moravian missionary Conrad Kleinschmidt (1768–1832) founded the station of Friedrichsthal (, "Frederick's Valley") in 1824. The name honored Frederick VI of Denmark. The station was the Moravian's fourth, after Neu-Herrnhut (1733), Lichtenfels (1748), and Lichtenau (1774) and before Umanak (1861) and Idlorpait (1864). All the Greenland missions were surrendered to the Lutheran church in 1900. In the 19th century, the area served as a prime territory for sealing. Members of the settlement rescued the survivors of the ill-fated German polar expedition's "Hansa" in 1870. In 1906, pastor Jens Chemnitz founded Greenland's first sheep farm in Narsarmijit; the industry has since moved north to the larger pastures around Narsaq.  Until December 31, 2008, the settlement belonged to the Nanortalik municipality. Since the administrative reform enacted on January 1, 2009, the settlement has been part of Kujalleq.

Transport.

The village is served by the Narsarmijit Heliport. Air Greenland district helicopters link the settlement with Nanortalik, and further to Qaqortoq and Narsarsuaq.

Population.

Most towns and settlements in southern Greenland exhibit negative growth patterns over the last two decades, with many settlements rapidly depopulating. The population of Narsarmijit has decreased nearly a half relative to the 1990 levels, by nearly a quarter relative to the 2000 levels.

Narsarmijit, also known as Narsaq Kujalleq, formerly Frederiksdal, is a settlement in southern Greenland. It is located in the Kujalleq municipality near Cape Thorvaldsen. Its population was 66 in 2020. There has been a slow but steady pattern of emigration since the late 1950s.

Narsarmijit (někdy také Narsaq Kujalleq, zastarale Narsamiit, Narssak Kujatdlek, Narsak), dříve Frederiksdal, je osada v jižním Grónsku v kraji Kujalleq, blízko mysu Thorvaldsen. V roce 2017 tu žilo 79 obyvatel. Jedná se o nejjižnější město v Grónsku, takže tu kvůli teplejšímu klimatu občas migrují inuité ze severních částí Grónska.


Overview.

Networked devices with public or globally accessible IP addresses can create connections between one another easily. Clients with private addresses may also easily connect to public servers, as long as the client behind a router or firewall initiates the connection. However, hole punching (or some other form of NAT traversal) is required to establish a direct connection between two clients that both reside behind different firewalls or routers that use network address translation (NAT).  Both clients initiate a connection to an unrestricted server, which notes endpoint and session information including public IP and port along with private IP and port. The firewalls also note the endpoints in order to allow responses from the server to pass back through. The server then sends each client's endpoint and session information to the other client, or peer. Each client tries to connect to its peer through the specified IP address and port that the peer's firewall has open for the server. The new connection attempt punches a hole in the client's firewall as the endpoint now becomes open to receive a response from its peer. Depending on network conditions, one or both clients might receive a connection request. Successful exchange of an authentication nonce between both clients indicates the completion of a hole punching procedure.

Examples.

VoIP products, online gaming applications, and P2P networking software all use hole punching.

Requirements.

Reliable hole punching requires consistent endpoint translation, and for multiple levels of NATs, hairpin translation.  When an outbound connection from a private endpoint passes through a firewall, it receives a public endpoint (public IP address and port number), and the firewall translates traffic between them. Until the connection is closed, the client and server communicate through the public endpoint, and the firewall directs traffic appropriately. Consistent endpoint translation reuses the same public endpoint for a given private endpoint, instead of allocating a new public endpoint for every new connection.  Hairpin translation creates a loopback connection between two of its own private endpoints when it recognizes that the destination endpoint is itself. This functionality is necessary for hole punching only when used within a multiple-layered NAT.

Hole punching (or sometimes punch-through) is a technique in computer networking for establishing a direct connection between two parties in which one or both are behind firewalls or behind routers that use network address translation (NAT). To punch a hole, each client connects to an unrestricted third-party server that temporarily stores external and internal address and port information for each client. The server then relays each client's information to the other, and using that information each client tries to establish direct connection; as a result of the connections using valid port numbers, restrictive firewalls or routers accept and forward the incoming packets on each side.

Děrování () je v informatice technika v počítačové síti, která slouží k vytvoření přímého spojení mezi dvěma stranami, které by ho jinak navázat nemohly. Obchází tak omezení, které přináší používání NAT (překlad síťových adres) u firewallu nebo routeru, který obvykle zařízení odděluje od veřejného Internetu. Děrování nevyžaduje k fungování žádné znalosti topologie sítě. Existují specifické metody pro děrování pro protokoly ICMP, UDP a TCP: ICMP děrování, UDP děrování a TCP děrování, specifické podpůrné protokoly NAT Port Mapping Protocol (NAT-PMP) a Port Control Protocol (PCP) a technika NAT traversal.


Legality of same-sex sexual acts.

Bahrain was given its first criminal ban on homosexuality, defined as by the United Kingdom, which imposed a similar law throughout each of its colonies.  A new Penal Code was enacted in March 1976, repealing the Penal Code of the Persian Gulf that was imposed by the United Kingdom. The new penal code does not prohibit private, non-commercial acts of homosexuality between consenting adults in private. Although "adults" for the purposes of this law are at least 21 years old. There are several other parts of the penal code that can be used against LGBT people.  In September 2013, it was announced that all Gulf Cooperative Countries had agreed to discuss a proposal to establish some form of, yet unknown, testing in order to ban gay foreigners from entering any of the countries. However, it has been suggested that concern for hosting 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar, and fears for controversy in a case that football fans would have been screened, made officials backtrack the plans and insist that it was a mere proposal.

Related penal code concerns.

Article 324 of the penal code prohibits enticing another person to commit prostitution or any other act that may be considered immoral. This particular law has increasingly been used to crack down on men who wear women's clothing, as well as gay and bisexual men. There have been recent reports of a possible comprehensive crackdown against same-sex sexual acts and cross-dressing in Bahrain.  Article 328 of the penal code prohibits anyone operating or being employed at a business where prostitution or any sort of immorality is taking place or being promoted.  Article 329 of the penal code prohibits people from public solicitation involving prostitution or any sort of immoral activity. This applies even if sexual behavior is going to occur in a private place.  Article 330 of the penal code states that anyone who is charged with an act of prostitution or immorality is to be taken to a hospital and tested for sexually transmitted diseases. If they have such diseases, the law stipulates that they be relocated to a medical facility for treatment.  Article 334 of the penal code prohibits the practice of "honor killings", where the person being killed, for bringing dishonor to the family, was guilty of adultery.  Article 350 of the penal code prohibits any sort of public indecency, with an additional ban on any person from committing an indecent act with a woman, even if the act is in private and with her consent.  Article 354 of the penal code prohibits cursing or using words or signs on a street or other public place for the purposes of indulging in immoral behavior.  Article 355 of the penal code prohibits owning, importing, or exporting any form of artwork, publication, film or other media that violates public morality.  For Bahraini Muslims, marriage is defined and otherwise regulated by The National Personal Status Law (2017), which does not recognize same-sex marriages.

Government statements.

The Al-Menbar Islamic Society is one of the more successful political factions within the Parliament. As a lawful Islamist political group it has pushed for more conservative social policies, including a crackdown on LGBT people.  In response to questions from parliament about lesbianism in schools, the Assistant Under-Secretary for Educational Services Khalid Al Alawi has said that the Education Ministry is not responsible for addressing issues of sexuality, and instead it is the responsibility of parents to take care of their children's emotional development: "Any emotional problems should be dealt with by their parents – it is not up to the school to take actions on this problem. The public shouldn't make a big deal out of this problem because it does not exist." Speaking about the government's attitude, Mr Al Alawi said that "As for the question that has been raised in the Press about the so-called problem of lesbianism, as a ministry we cannot talk about a widespread phenomenon and we can't call them lesbians. The problems that the students are facing are put into the category of educational problems, not immoral acts. If a student's appearance is contrary to custom and the schools values, then the only thing we can say is that those violating the school's rules should be disciplined."  In 2008, a harsher crackdown on same-sex sexual acts was called for by members of the Al Menbar parliamentary bloc. The government is being asked to conduct an official study into the problem of same-sex sexual acts and how to best combat them. The initial response from the government was as follows;  The government crackdown against cross-dressing appears to have begun a year later. In 2009, two Asian foreigners were sentenced to six months in jail, with hard labor, and later deportation for offering to have sex with undercover police offices in exchange for money at a Male Barbershop [14 January 2009 – Bahraini Newspaper, *Alwaqht,*]  In February 2009, a thirty-nine-year-old man was sentenced to a month in jail for wearing women's clothing in public, namely an abaya and purse. [13 February 2009 – PinkNews]  In 2011, police raided a party that was described in the press as a same-sex wedding ceremony.  Other pending bills would expressly ban LGBT foreigners from entering the kingdom or receiving residency permits as well as plans to instruct children's teachers in apparent warning signs of homosexuality or cross-dressing, so that the children can be punished.  Some of the more lawful liberal and leftist political groups within Bahrain have expressed opposition to introducing Sharia law into the Bahraini penal code, but none of them have expressed support for LGBT rights.

False accusations.

Sometimes false accusations of homosexuality, or anti-gay innuendos, are levied against critics of the Bahraini government in an effort to discredit political or sectarian dissent. In a society where being gay is widely perceived as a vice or bad habit, accusing people of being gay, even in jest, can be an effective means of bullying reformers.  Human rights advocate Nabeel Rajab has been subjected to such accusations by people on social media. Similar insults have been launched at Sheikh Ali Salman, with some Twitter users referring to his Shia political party as "“Al Wefag.”  Similarly, false accusations were circulated about the 2011 pro-democracy protesters gathered in Pearl Square. Participants of the protests were accused of engaging in all sorts of sexual immorality in an effort to discredit the protester's demands.

Freedom of speech.

The press in Bahrain has, since the 1990s, generally been allowed to discuss the subject of homosexuality, without being punished by the government. Initially, the discussion was focused on people and events happening outside of Bahrain, especially in the field of entertainment or the AIDS-HIV pandemic. In the early part of the twenty-first century, the Bahraini press has begun to address sexual orientation, gender identity, and the AIDS-HIV pandemic as they apply to the island.  In 2001 the Arabic language newspaper, Al-Meethaq, created a national controversy when it became the first newspaper to discuss homosexuality in Bahrain.  On 21 December 2005, the Bahrain-based newspaper, Gulf Daily News' British columnist Les Horton wrote a commentary. This is probably the first time that a column expressing support for LGBT rights was published in a Bahrani newspaper, albeit an English language publication.  The Gulf Daily News has continued to write articles that touch upon homosexuality and gender identity. For example, it has published several articles on Bahraini female homosexuality in girls' high schools and Bahraini women who claim to have become lesbians based on abusive relationships with men.

Gender identity and expression.

In 2006 the "Gulf Daily News" published a story about a Bahraini person assigned female at birth who, having undergone a sex change operation, was going to court in a bid to have his status as a man recognised in law. The lawyer had won a landmark case in 2005 where a Bahraini person assigned female at birth, aged 30, had the operation and was legally recognized as a man. The legal case was going through the Bahraini legal system until 2008 when the court granted the motion to allow the transsexual to change his legal documents and be recognized in his gender.  As of 2014 Bahrain allows sex change surgeries. A Bahraini lawyer named Fowzia Mohammed Janahi works for transsexual clients, trying to be recognised legally.

LGBT community.

Bahrain's population is a culturally diverse mixture of citizens, and a foreign workers from many different countries. This impacts how the LGBT community tends to function within the island.  LGBT foreign workers tend to socialize with other foreign workers that share the same language, if not nationality. As non-citizens, they cannot really influence Bahrani policy and generally feel the need to be publicly discrete about their sexual or gender identity, to be able to continue working on the island.  Among Bahariani citizens, how open they can be about their sexual orientation or gender identity has a lot to do with how traditionalist or modern their family is.  Among the more traditionalist families, being LGBT is shameful and something that needs to be "cured" through medical therapy, an arranged marriage or physical violence. More modern families can be more tolerant, but also concerned about their son or daughter facing harassment or discrimination.

Public opinion.

According to the World Values Survey in 2011, 42% of Bahraini people believed that "homosexuality is never justified," which was lower than the world average of 48% who agreed with that statement. It was also more accepting than any other Arab countries surveyed. The same survey found that 18% of Bahraini people "would not like to have homosexuals as neighbors" which was among the lowest percentage in the world.

Human rights reports.

2017 United States Department of State report.

In 2017, the United States Department of State reported the following, concerning the status of LGBT rights in Bahrain:

Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people living in Bahrain may face discrimination not faced by non-LGBT persons. The country legalized homosexuality in 1976. Law enforcement agents and the courts have the authority to issue fines and/or jail time for any activities in violation of laws such as under-age same-sex acts, as only adults aged twenty-one and above are legally allowed to engage in homosexuality. As of 2014 Bahrain allows sex change surgeries.

Lesby, gayové, bisexuálové a translidé (LGBT) žijící v Bahrajnu se můžou setkávat s diskriminací, se kterou se většinová populace nesetká. Stejnopohlavní styk je od roku 1976 legální. Soudy a jiné orgány činné v trestním řízení jsou oprávněny stíhat každého, kdo poruší zákony o ochraně dětí a mládeže před pohlavním zneužíváním. Homosexuální praktiky jsou legální pouze u osob starších 21 let.


History.

Tumucumaque was declared a national park on August 23, 2002, by the Government of Brazil, after collaboration with the WWF. It is part of the Amapá Biodiversity Corridor, created in 2003. The conservation unit is supported by the Amazon Region Protected Areas Program.

Geography.

Tumucumaque Mountains National Park has an area of more than, making it the world's largest tropical forest national park and larger than Belgium. This area even reaches when including the bordering Guiana Amazonian Park, a national park in French Guiana. This combination of protected areas is still smaller than the three national parks system in the Brazil-Venezuelan border, where the Parima-Tapirapeco, Serranía de la Neblina and Pico da Neblina national parks have a combined area of over.  But the latter is certainly smaller if the Tumucumaque Mountains National Park (Brazil) and the adjacent Guiana Amazonian Park (France) is combined with large neighbouring protected areas in northern Pará, Brazil, such as Grão-Pará Ecological Station, Maicuru Biological Reserve, and many others. The importance is that this makes the Guiana Shield one of the best protected and largest ecological corridor of tropical rainforests in the world. It is an "uninhabited" region and is of high ecological value: most of its animal species, mainly fish and aquatic birds, are not found in any other place in the world. It is a habitat for jaguars, primates, aquatic turtles, and harpy eagles.  The highest point of the Brazilian state of Amapá is located there, reaching 701 meters.

Climate.

The climate is tropical monsoon (Köppen: "Am"), common in areas of northern Brazil in transition from biomes to the Amazon Forest. It has an average temperature of 25 °C (77 °F) and accumulated rainfall ranging from 2,000 (7.87 in) to 3,250 mm (127.95 in) per year.

Legacy.

Mozilla Firefox code-named the beta of Firefox 4 Tumucumaque.

The Tumucumaque Mountains National Park (; ) is situated in the Amazon Rainforest in the Brazilian states of Amapá and Pará. It is bordered to the north by French Guiana and Suriname.

Národní park Pohoří Tumucumaque, portugalsky "Parque Nacional Montanhas do Tumucumaque", je největší národní park na území Brazílie. Nachází se na severozápadě země, ve státě Amapá, na samých hranicích Brazílie s Francouzskou Guyanou a Surinamem. Park leží uprostřed Amazonského deštného pralesa. Byl brazilskou vládou vyhlášen 23. srpna 2002. Jeho rozloha je 38 800 kilometrů čtverečních, je tedy větší než kupříkladu Belgie. Jde o největší tropický národní park na světě. Z této pozice sesadil momentem svého vyhlášení konžský národní park Slonga. Území parku je zcela neobydleno lidmi. Je naopak domovem 350 druhů ptáků, osmi druhů primátů nebo 37 druhů ještěrek. Název "Tumucumaque" v jazyce původních apalačských a wayanských indiánů znamená „kámen na vrcholu hory“.


Background.

The Indonesian independence movement began in May 1908, which is commemorated as the "Day of National Awakening" (). Indonesian nationalism and movements supporting independence from Dutch colonialism, such as Budi Utomo, the Indonesian National Party (PNI), Sarekat Islam and the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), grew rapidly in the first half of the 20th century. Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam and others pursued strategies of co-operation by joining the Dutch initiated "Volksraad" ("People's Council") in the hope that Indonesia would be granted self-rule. Others chose a non-cooperative strategy demanding the freedom of self-government from the Dutch East Indies colony. The most notable of these leaders were Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, two students and nationalist leaders who had benefited from the

Independence declared.

Under pressure from radical and politicised "pemuda" ('youth') groups, Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesian independence, on 17 August 1945, two days after the Japanese Emperor's surrender in the Pacific. The following day, the Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) elected Sukarno as President, and Hatta as Vice-President.

Revolution and Bersiap.

It was mid-September before news of the declaration of independence spread to the outer islands, and many Indonesians far from the capital Jakarta did not believe it. As the news spread, most Indonesians came to regard themselves as pro-Republican, and a mood of revolution swept across the country. External power had shifted; it would be weeks before Allied Forces shipping entered Indonesia (owing in part to boycotts and strikes, in Australia, on coaling, loading and manning Dutch shipping from Australia where the Netherlands East Indies Government in exile was based). These strikes were only fully broken in July 1946. The Japanese, on the other hand, were required by the terms of the surrender to both lay down their arms and maintain order; a contradiction that some resolved by handing weapons to

Formation of the Republican government.

By the end of August 1946, a central Republican government had been established in Jakarta. It adopted a constitution drafted during the Japanese occupation by the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence. With general elections yet to be held, a Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) was appointed to assist the President. Similar committees were established at provincial and regency levels.  Questions of allegiance immediately arose amongst indigenous rulers. Central Javanese principalities, for example, immediately declared themselves Republican, while many "raja" ('rulers') of the outer islands, who had been enriched from their support of the Dutch, were less enthusiastic. Such reluctance among many outer islands was sharpened by the radical, non-aristocratic, and sometimes Islamic nature of the Java-centric Republican leadership. Support did, however, come from South Sulawesi (including the King of Bone, who still recalled battles against the Dutch from early in the century), and from Makassarese and Bugis "raja", who supported the Republican Governor

Allied counter revolution.

The Dutch accused Sukarno and Hatta of collaborating with the Japanese, and denounced the Republic as a creation of Japanese fascism. The Dutch East Indies administration had just received a ten million dollar loan from the United States to finance its return to Indonesia.

Allied occupation.

The Netherlands, however, was critically weakened from World War II in Europe and did not return as a significant military force until early 1946. The Japanese and members of the Allied forces reluctantly agreed to act as caretakers. As US forces were focusing on the Japanese home islands, the archipelago was put under the jurisdiction of British Admiral Earl Louis Mountbatten, the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia Command. Allied enclaves already existed in Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo), Morotai (Maluku) and parts of Irian Jaya; Dutch administrators had already returned to these areas. In the Japanese navy areas, the arrival of

Battle of Surabaya.

The Battle of Surabaya was the heaviest single battle of the revolution and became a national symbol of Indonesian resistance. "Pemuda" groups in Surabaya, the second largest city in Indonesia, seized arms and ammunition from the Japanese and set up two new organisations; the Indonesia National Committee (KNI) and the People's Security Council (BKR). By the time the Allied forces arrived at the end of October 1945, the "pemuda" foothold in Surabaya city was described as "a strong unified fortress".  In September and October 1945 Europeans and pro-Dutch Eurasians were attacked and killed by Indonesian mobs. Ferocious fighting erupted when 6,000 British Indian troops landed in the city. Sukarno and Hatta negotiated a ceasefire between the Republicans and the British forces led by Brigadier Mallaby. Mallaby

Installing the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration.

With British assistance, the Dutch landed their Netherlands Indies Civil Administration (NICA) forces in Jakarta and other key centres. Republican sources reported 8,000 deaths up to January 1946 in the defence of Jakarta, but they could not hold the city. The Republican leadership thus established themselves in the city of Yogyakarta with the crucial support of the new sultan, Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX. Yogyakarta went on to play a leading role in the revolution, which would result in the city being granted its own Special Territory status. In Bogor, near Jakarta, and in Balikpapan in Kalimantan, Republican officials were imprisoned. In

Diplomacy and military offensives.

Linggadjati Agreement.

The Linggadjati Agreement, brokered by the British and concluded in November 1946, saw the Netherlands recognise the Republic as the "de facto" authority over Java, Madura, and Sumatra. Both parties agreed to the formation of the United States of Indonesia by 1 January 1949, a semi-autonomous federal state with the monarch of the Netherlands at its head. The Republican-controlled Java and Sumatra would be

Operation Product.

At midnight on 20 July 1947, the Dutch launched a major military offensive called "Operatie Product", with the intent of conquering the Republic. Claiming violations of the Linggajati Agreement, the Dutch described the campaign as "politionele acties" ("police actions") to restore law and order. This used to be the task of the KNIL. However, at the time the majority of the Dutch troops in Indonesia belonged to the Royal Netherlands Army. Soon after the end of World War II, 25,000 volunteers (among them 5,000 marines) had been sent overseas. They were later followed by larger numbers of conscripts from the Netherlands. In the offensive, Dutch forces

Renville Agreement.

The United Nations Security Council brokered the Renville Agreement in an attempt to rectify the collapsed Linggarjati Agreement. The agreement was ratified in January 1948 and recognised a cease-fire along the so-called 'Van Mook line'; an artificial line which connected the most advanced Dutch positions. Many Republican positions, however, were still held behind the Dutch lines. The agreement also required referenda to be held on the political future of the Dutch held areas. The apparent reasonableness of Republicans garnered much important American goodwill.  Diplomatic efforts between the Netherlands and the Republic continued throughout 1948 and 1949. Political pressures, both domestic and international, hindered Dutch attempts to decide upon objectives. Similarly, Republican leaders faced great difficulty in persuading their people to accept diplomatic concessions. By July 1948 negotiations were in deadlock and the Netherlands pushed unilaterally towards Van Mook's federal Indonesia concept. The new federal states of South Sumatra and East Java were created, although neither

Operation Crow and General Offensive ("Serangan Oemoem").

Frustrated at negotiations with the Republic and believing it weakened by both the "Darul Islam" and Madiun insurgencies, the Dutch launched a military offensive on 19 December 1948 which it termed 'Operatie Kraai' (Operation Crow). By the following day it had conquered the city of Yogyakarta, the location of the temporary Republican capital. By the end of December, all major Republican held cities in Java and Sumatra were in Dutch hands. The Republican President, Vice-President, and all but six Republic of Indonesia ministers were captured by Dutch troops and exiled on Bangka Island off the east coast of Sumatra. In areas surrounding Yogyakarta and Surakarta, Republican forces refused to surrender and continued to wage a guerrilla war under the leadership of Republican military chief of staff General Sudirman who had escaped the Dutch offensives. An emergency Republican government, the Pemerintahan Darurat Republik Indonesia (PDRI), was established in West Sumatra. Although Dutch forces conquered the towns and cities in Republican heartlands on Java and Sumatra, they could not control villages and the countryside. Republican troops

Internal turmoil.

Social revolutions.

The so-called'social revolutions' following the independence proclamation were challenges to the Dutch-established Indonesian social order, and to some extent a result of the resentment against Japanese-imposed policies. Across the country, people rose up against traditional aristocrats and village heads and attempted to exert popular ownership of land and other resources. The majority of the social revolutions ended quickly; in most cases the challenges to the social order were quashed, although in East Sumatra, the sultanates were overthrown and there were mass killings of members of the aristocratic families.  A culture of violence rooted in the deep conflicts that split the countryside during the revolution would repeatedly erupt throughout the whole second half of the 20th century. The term'social revolution' has been applied to a range of mostly violent activities of the left that included both altruistic attempts to organise real revolution and simple expressions of revenge, resentment and assertions of power. Violence was one of the many lessons learned

Communist and Islamist insurgencies.

On 18 September 1948 an 'Indonesian Soviet Republic' was declared in Madiun, east of Yogyakarta, by members of the PKI and the Indonesian Socialist Party (PSI). Judging the time right for a proletarian uprising, they intended it to be a rallying point for revolt against "Sukarno-Hatta, the slaves of the Japanese and America". Madiun however was won back by Republican forces within a few weeks and the insurgency leader, Musso, killed. RM Suryo, the governor of East Java, as well as several police officers and religious leaders, were killed by the rebels. This ended a distraction for the revolution, and it turned vague

Transfer of sovereignty.

The resilience of Indonesian Republican resistance and active international diplomacy set world opinion against the Dutch efforts to re-establish their colony. The second 'police action' was a diplomatic disaster for the Dutch cause. The newly appointed United States Secretary of State Dean Acheson pushed the Netherlands government into negotiations earlier recommended by the United Nations but until then defied by the Netherlands. The Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference was held in The Hague from 23 August 1949 to 2 November 1949 between the Republic, the Netherlands, and the Dutch-created federal states. The Netherlands agreed to recognise Indonesian sovereignty over a new federal state known as the 'United States of Indonesia' (RUSI). It would include all the territory of the former Dutch East Indies with the exception of Netherlands New Guinea; sovereignty over which it was agreed would be retained by the Netherlands until further negotiations with Indonesia. The other issue on which Indonesia gave concessions was Netherlands East Indies debt. Indonesia agreed to responsibility for this

Impacts.

Although there is no accurate account of how many Indonesians died, they died in far greater numbers than the Europeans. Estimates of Indonesian deaths in fighting range from 45,000 to 100,000 and civilian dead exceeded 25,000 and may have been as high as 100,000. A total of 1,200 British soldiers were killed or went missing in Java and Sumatra in 1945 and 1946, most of them Indian soldiers. More than 5,000 Dutch soldiers lost their lives in Indonesia between 1945 and 1949. Many Japanese died; in Bandung alone, 1,057 died, only about half of whom died in actual combat, the rest killed in rampages by Indonesians. Seven million people were displaced on Java and Sumatra.  The revolution had direct effects on economic conditions; shortages were common, particularly food, clothing and fuel. There were in effect two economies – the Dutch and the Republican – both of which had to simultaneously rebuild after World War II and survive the disruptions of the revolution. The Republic had to set up all necessities of life, ranging from 'postage stamps, army badges, and train tickets' whilst subject to Dutch trade blockades. Confusion and ruinous inflationary surges resulted from competing currencies; Japanese, new Dutch money, and Republican currencies were all used, often concurrently.  Indonesian independence was secured through a blend of both diplomacy and force. Despite their ill-discipline raising the prospect of anarchy, without "pemuda" confronting foreign and Indonesian colonial forces, Republican diplomatic efforts would have been futile. The revolution is the turning point of modern Indonesian history, and it has provided the reference point and validation for the country's major political trends that continue to the present day. It gave impetus to communism in the country, to militant nationalism, to Sukarno's 'guided democracy', to political Islam, the origins of the Indonesian army and its role in Indonesian power, the country's constitutional arrangements, and the centralism of power in Indonesia.  The revolution destroyed a colonial administration ruled from the other side of the world, and dismantled with it the "raja", seen by many as obsolete and powerless. Also, it relaxed the rigid racial and social categorisations of colonial Indonesia. Tremendous energies and aspirations were created amongst Indonesians; a new creative surge was seen in writing and art, as was a great demand for education and modernisation. It did not, however, significantly improve the economic or political fortune of the population's poverty-stricken peasant majority; only a few Indonesians were able to gain a larger role in commerce, and hopes for democracy were dashed within a decade.

The Indonesian National Revolution, or Indonesian War of Independence, was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between the Republic of Indonesia and the Dutch Empire and an internal social revolution during postwar and postcolonial Indonesia. It took place between Indonesia's declaration of independence in 1945 and the Netherlands' recognition of Indonesia's independence at the end of 1949.

Indonéská revoluce či Indonéská válka o nezávislost (indonésky "Perang Kemerdekaan Indonesia"), byl boj indonéských nacionalistů o nezávislost na nizozemském kolonialismu, který probíhal v letech 1945–1949. Po kapitulaci Japonska v roce 1945, nacionalistický vůdce Sukarno vyhlásil nezávislou Indonésii ("Proklamasi Kemerdekaan Indonesia"). Nizozemci se však pokusili indonéské ostrovy, které patřily do nizozemské koloniální říše před druhou světovou válkou, znovu ovládnout. Národní strana Indonésie vedená Sukarnem se jim však postavila na odpor a zahájila ozbrojený boj. Koncem roku 1945 Britové zprostředkovali mír a byly vytvořeny Spojené státy indonéské, s omezeným nizozemským vlivem. Nizozemci se s ním však nespokojili a roku 1947 provedli tzv. „policejní razii“, kterou chtěli zemi znovu ovládnout. Pod tlakem OSN bylo v prosinci 1947 uzavřeno příměří. V roce 1948 v zemi vypuklo komunistické povstání. Sukarno se ho rozhodl potlačit, avšak Nizozemci situace přesto využili k nové intervenci. Dobyli Jakartu a uvěznili Sukarnovu vládu. To však vyvolalo silnou kritiku ze světa, která Nizozemce přinutila k jednání na haagské konferenci. Tam byla v roce 1949 dosažena dohoda a Indonésie získala nezávislost. V čele nového státu stanul Sukarno. Tím zanikla Nizozemská východní Indie. Nizozemci udrželi moc jen v části ostrovů, která byla zvána Nizozemská Nová Guinea, avšak jen do roku 1962. V roce 1963 byla i tato oblast připojena k Indonésii.


Life.

Ketevan was born to Prince Ashotan of Mukhrani (Bagrationi) and married Prince David of Kakheti, the future David I, king of Kakheti from 1601 to 1602. After David's death, Ketevan engaged in religious building and charity. However, when David's brother Constantine I killed his reigning father, Alexander II, and usurped the crown with the Safavid Iranian support in 1605, Ketevan rallied the Kakhetian nobles against the patricide and routed Constantine's loyal force. The usurper died in battle. According to the Safavid official and chronicler, Fażli <unk>uzāni, Ketevan showed characteristic mercy to Constantine's surviving supporters and his Qizilbash officers. She ordered that the wounded enemy soldiers be treated accordingly and accepted in service if they desired. The Muslim merchants, who suffered in the war, were compensated and set free. Ketevan had Constantine's body laid in rest and sent to Ardebil.  After the uprising she negotiated with Shah Abbas I of Iran who was the suzerain over Georgia, to confirm her underage son, Teimuraz I, as king of Kakheti, while she assumed the function of a regent.  In 1614, sent by Teimuraz as a negotiator to Shah Abbas, Ketevan effectively surrendered herself as an honorary hostage in a failed attempt to prevent Kakheti from being attacked by the Iranian armies. She was held in Shiraz for several years until Abbas I, in an act of revenge for the recalcitrance of Teimuraz, ordered the queen to renounce Christianity, and upon her refusal, had her tortured to death with red-hot pincers in 1624. Portions of her relics were clandestinely taken by the St. Augustine Portuguese Catholic missioners, eyewitnesses of her martyrdom, to Georgia where they were interred at the Alaverdi Monastery. The rest of her remains were said to have been buried at the Church of St. Augustine in Goa, India. After several expeditions to Goa in the 21st century to search for the remains, they were believed to be found in late 2013.  Queen Ketevan was canonized by Patriarch Zachary of Georgia (1613–1630), and September 13 (corresponding to September 26 in the modern Gregorian calendar) was instituted by the Georgian Orthodox Church as the day of her commemoration.  The account of Ketevan's martyrdom related by the Augustinians missioners were exploited by her son, Teimuraz, in his poem "The Book and Passion of Queen Ketevan" (წიგნი და წამება ქეთევან დედოფლისა, "ts'igni da ts'ameba ketevan dedoplisa"; 1625) as well as by the German author Andreas Gryphius in his classical tragedy "Catharina von Georgien" (1657). The Georgian monk Grigol Dodorkeli-Vakhvakhishvili of the David Gareja Monastery was another near-contemporaneous author whose writings, a hagiographic work as well as several hymns, focus on Ketevan's life and martyrdom. The Scottish poet William Forsyth composed the poem "The Martyrdom of Kelavane" (1861), based on Jean Chardin's account of Ketevan's death.

Relics and archaeological findings.

The importance of Queen Ketevan for the Georgian people has led to a relic "hunt" during the last decades, notably in Goa. Since 1989, various delegations coming from Georgia have worked together with the Archaeological Survey of India to try to locate Ketevan's grave within the ruins of the Augustinian convent of Our Lady of Grace, at Old Goa, Goa. These efforts were thwarted because the teams were unable to correctly interpret the Portuguese documents that provided clues as to Ketevan's burial place.  These historical sources stated that Ketevan's palm and arm bone fragments were kept inside a stone urn beneath a specific window within the Chapter Chapel of the Augustinian convent. In May 2004, the Chapter Chapel and window mentioned in the sources were found during a collaboration work between Portuguese and Overseas Citizen of India architect Sidh Losa Mendiratta and the Archaeological Survey of India, Goa-circle (at the time when Nizammudin Taher was superintendent archaeologist). Although the stone urn itself was missing, its coping stone and a number of bone fragments were found close to the window mentioned in the Portuguese sources.  Dr. Niraj Rai, Manvendra Singh and Dr. Gyaneshwer Chaubey of the CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India carried out ancient DNA analysis on these human bone remains excavated from the St. Augustine convent by sequencing and genotyping of the Mitochondrial DNA. The investigations of the remains revealed an unusual mtDNA haplogroup U1b, which is absent in India, but present in Georgia and surrounding regions. Since the genetic analysis corroborates archaeological and literary evidence, it is likely that the excavated bone belongs to Queen Ketevan of Georgia. However, it is important to keep in mind that Ketevan's palm and arm bone fragments were kept in the same urn as the complete remains of two European missionaries, friar Jerónimo da Cruz and friar Guilherme de Santo Agostinho. Therefore, it would be crucial to determine the sex and the kind of bone of the fragments tested in order to have conclusive results. According to a story in India's Mint on Sunday newspaper, "additional tests confirmed that the U1b bone came from a woman. So, in 2013, it was established that the bone found in two pieces in 2005 was consistent with being from a Georgian woman".

Ketevan the Martyr (, "ketevan tsamebuli") (c. 1560 – September 13, 1624) was a queen of Kakheti, a kingdom in eastern Georgia. She was killed at Shiraz, Iran, after prolonged tortures by the Safavid suzerains of Georgia for refusing to give up the Christian faith and convert to Islam.

Ketevan Mučednice (cca 1560 – 13. září 1624) byla královnou Kachetského království ve východní Gruzii. Byla zabita v Šírázu v Íránu po dlouhém mučení safíovskými suzerény z Gruzie za odmítnutí vzdát se křesťanství a konvertovat k islámu.


Nomenclature and history.

Prior to Kepler observation, Kepler-62 had the 2MASS catalogue number 2MASS J18525105+4520595. In the Kepler Input Catalog it has the designation of KIC 9002278, and when it was found to have transiting planet candidates it was given the Kepler object of interest number of KOI-701.  Planetary candidates were detected around the star by NASA's Kepler Mission, a mission tasked with discovering planets in transit around their stars. The transit method that Kepler uses involves detecting dips in brightness in stars. These dips in brightness can be interpreted as planets whose orbits pass in front of their stars from the perspective of Earth, although other phenomenon can also be responsible which is why the term planetary candidate is used.  Following the acceptance of the discovery paper, the Kepler team provided an additional moniker for the system of "Kepler-62". The discoverers referred to the star as Kepler-62, which is the normal procedure for naming the exoplanets discovered by the spacecraft. Hence, this is the name used by the public to refer to the star and its planets.  Candidate planets that are associated with stars studied by the Kepler Mission are assigned the designations ".01", ".02", ".03", ".04", ".05" etc. after the star's name, in the order of discovery. If planet candidates are detected simultaneously, then the ordering follows the order of orbital periods from shortest to longest. Following these rules, the first three candidate planets were detected simultaneously, with orbital periods of 18.16406, 5.714932, and 122.3874 days, respectively, in the 2011 data release, with another two candidate planets, with orbital periods of 267.29 and 12.4417 days, respectively, being detected in a 2012 data release by the "Kepler" spacecraft. The designations "b", "c", "d", "e", and "f" derive from the order of discovery. The designation of "b" is given to the first planet orbiting a given star, followed by the other lowercase letters of the alphabet. In the case of Kepler-62, all of the known planets in the system were announced at one time, so "b" is applied to the closest planet to the star and "f" to the farthest. The name Kepler-62 derives directly from the fact that the star is the catalogued 62nd star discovered by "Kepler" to have confirmed planets.

Stellar characteristics.

Kepler-62 is a K-type main sequence star that is approximately 69% the mass of and 64% the radius of the Sun. It has a temperature of 4925 K and is 7 billion years old. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a temperature of 5778 K.  The star is somewhat poor in metals, with a metallicity ([Fe/H]) of about –0.37, or about 42% of the amount of iron and other heavier metals found in the Sun. The star's luminosity is typical for a star like Kepler-62, with a luminosity of around 21% of that of the solar luminosity.  The star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 13.75. Therefore, it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye.

Planetary system.

All known planets transit the star; this means that all five planets' orbits appear to cross in front of their star as viewed from the Earth's perspective. Their inclinations relative to Earth's line of sight, or how far above or below the plane of sight they are, vary by less than one degree. This allows direct measurements of the planets' periods and relative diameters (compared to the host star) by monitoring each planet's transit of the star.  The radii of the planets fall between 0.54 and 1.95 Earth radii. Of particular interest are the planets "e" and "f", as they are the best candidates for solid planets falling into the habitable zone of their star. Their radii, 1.61 and 1.41 Earth radii respectively, put them in a radius range where they may be solid terrestrial planets. Their positions within the Kepler-62 system mean that they fall within Kepler-62's habitable zone: the distance range where, for a given chemical composition (significant amounts of carbon dioxide for Kepler-62f, and a protective cloud cover for Kepler-62e), these two planets could have liquid water on their surfaces, perhaps completely covering them. The masses of the planets could not be directly determined using either the radial velocity or the transit timing method; this failure leads to weak upper limits for the planets' masses. For "e" and "f", that upper limit amounts to 36 and 35 Earth masses, respectively; the real masses are expected to be significantly lower. Based on composition models, the real masses of the planets are probably likely to be 2.1, 0.1, 5.5, 4.8, and 2.8, respectively, taking into the uncertainty in composition and upper mass limits. The existence of an additional planet (at a distance of 0.22 AU, between Kepler-62e and Kepler-62f) of the Kepler-62 system was predicted but not detected yet.

Kepler-62 is a star somewhat cooler and smaller than the Sun in the constellation Lyra, 1200 light years from Earth. It is located within the field of vision of the "Kepler" spacecraft, the satellite that NASA's Kepler Mission used to detect planets that may be transiting their stars. On April 18, 2013 it was announced that the star has five planets, two of which, Kepler-62e and Kepler-62f are within the star's habitable zone. The outermost, Kepler-62f, is likely a rocky planet.

Kepler-62 je hvězda chladnější a menší než Slunce nacházející se v souhvězdí Lyry, asi 1 200 světelných let od Země. Nachází se uvnitř zorného pole sondy Kelper, satelitu, který NASA používá k detekování exoplanet podobných Zemi. Dne 18. dubna 2013 bylo ohlášeno, že okolo hvězdy obíhá pět planet, z nichž se dvě, Kepler-62e a Kepler-62f, nacházejí v obyvatelné zóně hvězdy. Nejvzdálenější planeta, Kepler-62f, je pravděpodobně terestrickou planetou.


History.

The origins of the castle date back to some years before 1093, the year in which Roger I of Sicily defined the boundaries of the diocese of Mazara that included "Calatubo with all its dependencies".  In ancient times, around the castle there was the village of Calatubo, which based its business on the extraction of stones for water and wind mills from the quarries around the creek Finocchio, as mentioned by the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi in "The Book of Roger", written in 1154.  The village of Calatubo was abandoned after the conquest by Frederick II and the castle lost its original function as a military fortress, turning into a farm. During this period, the castle joined warehouses, stables and other structures used for the administration of the agricultural fief of Calatubo.  Since the Middle Ages, because of its visibility, the Calatubo Castle had an important strategic role: it was part of a line of towers and forts along the coast from Palermo to Trapani; this defensive line was used to transmit light signals in case of Saracens' attack. In particular, the castle of Calatubo guaranteed the flow of information that took place between the outposts of Carini, Partinico and Castellammare del Golfo.  At the end of the nineteenth century in the second courtyard some warehouses were set up for the production of the wine "Calatubo".  The castle remained in good condition until the 1968 Belice earthquake. The use of the structure as a sheepfold and illegal excavations, which had as their targets the finds of the necropolis of the seventh century BC pertaining to the castle, have further ruined the castle.  In 2007 it was bought for 60 thousand euros by the municipality of Alcamo and over the past few years (2003-2014) has been reported several times as part of the cultural initiative ""I Luoghi del Cuore"" sponsored by the "Italian Environmental Fund" (FAI), which has as its objective the protection and enhancement of the artistic and cultural heritage of Italy.

Description.

The Calatubo Castle is actually an architectural complex, consisting of the structure of the original castle that has undergone several changes over the centuries. This complex is large 150×35 meters and stands on a limestone rock that lies at an altitude of about 152 m above sea level and that dominate with its height the surrounding area. From the position of castle you can clearly see Mount Bonifato and the Gulf of Castellammare.  The castle is inaccessible on three sides due to the steep walls of rock on which it is built. The only practicable access is located in the west, which leads to the first line of defense of the castle via a ramp with large steps. From the first line of defense, which includes among other things a well, a church hall and other premises, you can arrive at a court which communicates with the second circle of walls through a portal, up to the third circle of walls, which comprises an oblong tower. Finally the core of the castle, located in the southern part of the fortress, is rectangular with an area of 7×21.50 m.

Popular culture.

A popular belief tells about tunnels that linked the Calatubo Castle with the Castle of the Counts of Modica and the tower of Ventimiglia on the Mount Bonifato.

The Calatubo Castle (Latin: "catrum Calathatubi"; Arabic: قلعة اوبي - "Qal'at 'Awbi"; Italian: "Castello di Calatubo") is a fortress located near the town of Alcamo, Sicily, southern Italy.

Hrad Calatubo, italsky "Castello di Calatubo", je pevnost nedaleko města Alcamo, na Sicílii, v jižní Itálii. Jsou zde pozůstatky osídlení Elymů a pohřebiště.


Early and personal life.

She was born in Budapest, Hungary, and is Jewish. She was born deaf.

Career highlights.

Because she was deaf, when she started fencing at age 15 she learned by reading written instructions from her coaches.  She won the junior girls world foil championship in 1956–57, and was the Hungarian women's foil champion in 1958. She was the Hungarian Sportswoman of the Year in 1963 and 1964.  She represented Hungary in every Olympics from 1960 to 1976 and won seven Olympic medals, two gold (one each in foil individual and foil team), three silver (three foil team), and two bronze (one each in foil individual and foil team). At the 1960 Olympics in Rome at the age of 23, she won a team silver medal in women's foil. At the 1964 Olympics in Tokyo at the age of 27, she won both an individual and a team gold medal in women's foil. At the 1968 Olympics in Mexico City at the age of 31, she won an individual bronze medal and a team silver medal in women's foil. At the 1972 Olympics in Munich at the age of 35, she won a team silver medal in women's foil. At the 1976 Olympics in Montreal at the age of 39, she won a team bronze medal in women's foil.  She won the 1963 individual foil World Fencing Championships title, and the 1962, 1967, and 1973 team foil World Championships titles.  As a senior, she won the women's foil competition at the World Veterans Championships in 1999.  Újlaky-Rejtő was inducted as a member of the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame.

Ildikó Újlaky-Rejtő (, born Ildikó Rejtő; later Ildikó Sagine-Rejto; born 11 May 1937) is a retired Hungarian Olympic champion and world champion foil fencer.

Ildikó Ságiová-Rejtőová (Ságiné Rejtő Ildikó) za svobodna Ildikó Rejtőová (* 11. května 1937 Budapešť, Maďarsko) je bývalá maďarská sportovní šermířka, která se specializovala na šerm fleretem.


Etymology.

Ararat Province is named after the historic Ayrarat province of Ancient Armenia.  According to Movses Khorenatsi and the "Ashkharatsuyts" medieval Armenian geographical book of Anania Shirakatsi, Ayrarat was one of the 15 provinces of Armenia Major. It was considered the central province of the Armenian Highland.  Most probably, the term Ararat (Armenian: Արարատ) derives from the Hebrew name of the ancient kingdom of Urartu.

Geography.

Ararat has an area of 2,090 km2 (7% of total area of Armenia). It occupies the east of the central part of modern-day Armenia. From the north, it has borders with Armavir Province, Yerevan and Kotayk Province. From the east, its bordered by Gegharkunik and Vayots Dzor. Iğdır Province of Turkey and Azerbaijan's Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic respectively form the western and southern borders of the province.  Historically, the current territory of the province mainly occupies the "Vostan Hayots" canton of Ayrarat province of Ancient Armenia.  The province is located at the southeast of the Ararat plain, surrounded by the Yeranos mountains from the north, the mountains of Gegham, Dahnak and Mzhkatar from the east, Urts mountains from the south and the Araks river from the west. The mountains of Yerakh are located at the centre of the province. Approximately, 30% of the territory is plain, while the rest is dominated by mountains.  The highest point of Ararat province is the Spitakasar peak of Gegham mountains with a height of 3560 meters. The lowest point is 801 meters at the Araks valley. Araks, Hrazdan, Azat and Vedi, are the 4 major rivers the flow through the province. The climate within the territory of the province is highly diversified. It ranges between extremely arid climate at the lower plains and cold snowy climate at the heights.  The cliffy terrain of Khosrov Forest located at the northeast of the province, used to be the stronghold of the Endangered Caucasian leopards in Armenia. Between October 2000 to July 2002 tracks of no more than 10 individuals were found in an area of.

History.

The region of modern-day Ararat Province is among the earliest locations that was settled by the people of the Armenian Highland. It mainly includes the 3 cantons of "Vostan Hayots", "Urstadzor" and "Arats" of the historic Ayrarat province. "Vostan Hayots" was known since the establishment of the Artaxiad Kingdom of Armenia at the beginning of the 2nd century BC. The ancient Armenian capitals of Artaxata founded in 176 BC, and Dvin founded during the 4th century AD, were both located within the "Vostan Hayots" canton. The other cantons of "Urtsadzor" and "Arats" were first mentioned in the 5th century AD by Yeghishe the historian in his "History of Vardan and the Armenian War" historical work.  After the fall of the Armenian Kingdom in 428, the region became part of the Sasanian Empire of Persia until the Arab conquest of Armenia in the mid-7th century. According to the 8th-century historian "Ghevond", the Armenian princes of "Urtsadzor" canton participated in the failed revolution of 775 in Erciş against the Abbasid rulers of Arminiya.  At the end of the 9th century, the 3 cantons became part of the newly established Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia. However, between the 11th and 15th centuries, the region suffered from the Seljuk, Mongol, Ag Qoyunlu and Kara Koyunlu invasions, respectively. At the beginning of the 16th century, the territory of modern-day Ararat became part of the "Erivan Beglarbegi" within the Safavid Persia. During the first half of the 18th century, the territory became part of the Erivan Khanate under the rule of the Afsharid dynasty and later under the Qajar dynasty of Persia. It remained under the Persian rule until 1827–1828, when Eastern Armenia was ceded by the Russian Empire as a result of the Russo-Persian War of 1826–28 and the signing of the Treaty of Turkmenchay. With the fall of the Russian Empire and as a result of the decisive Armenian victories over the Turks in the battles of Sardarabad, Abaran, and Gharakilisa, the region became part of the independent Armenia in May 1918.  After 2 years of brief independence, Armenia became part of the Soviet Union in December 1920. From 1930 until 1995, modern-day Ararat was divided into 3 raions within the Armenian SSR: "Masis raion", "Artashat raion", and "Ararat raion" (known as "Vedi raion" until 1968). With the territorial administration reform of 1995, the 3 raions were merged to form the Ararat Province.

Demographics.

Population.

According to the 2011 official census, Ararat has a population of 260,367 (74,103 men and 133,146 women), forming around 8.6% of the entire population of Armenia. The urban population is 74,103 (28.46%) and the rural is 186,264 (71.54%). The province has 4 urban and 93 rural communities. The largest urban community is the provincial centre of Artashat, with a population of 22,269. The other urban centres are Ararat, Masis and Vedi.  With a population of 8,376, the village of Ayntap is the largest rural municipality of Ararat.

Ethnic groups and religion.

The majority of the Ararat Province population are ethnic Armenians who belong to the Armenian Apostolic Church. The regulating body of the church is the Araratian Pontifical Diocese, headed by Archbishop Navasard Kchoyan (seat in Yerevan).  However, the village of Verin Dvin is predominantly populated by Assyrians belonging to the Assyrian Church of the East, whose ancestors migrated to Armenia from Iran during the 1st half of the 19th century. Almost half of the population of the village of Dimitrov is also Assyrian. The provincial centre Artashat is also home to a small Assyrian community. The approximate number of the Assyrians in Ararat Province is around 2,500.

Administrative divisions.

Ararat is currently divided into 95 municipal communities ("hamaynkner"), of which 4 are urban and 91 are rural:  Rural communities and included settlements: During the recent years, many rural settlements in Ararat became abandoned, including the village of Kakavaberd.

Culture.

There are cultural palaces as well as public libraries in the towns of Ararat, Artashat, Masis and Vedi. The provincial centre Artashat is also home to the Amo Kharazyan drama theatre.  The province has many art academies, sport schools and musical schools, mainly in the urban settlements.  The House-museum of Vazgen Sargsyan is operating in the village of Ararat since 2001.

Transportation.

The M-2 Motorway that connects the capital Yerevan with southern Armenia and the Iranian border, passes through the Ararat Province.  The towns of Artashat and Ararat used to have a railway station that connected Yerevan with the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic during the Soviet years.

Economy.

Agriculture and viticulture.

Being located at the fertile Ararat plain, the province contributes with 15% in the annual total agricultural product of Armenia. Around 75% (1,567 km2) of the total area of the province are arable lands, out of which 17.23% (270 km2) are ploughed.  Orchards mainly produce grapes, apricot and peach. Other products include pear, apple, melon, watermelon, eggplant, grains and dry seed. Ararat is among the leading provinces of Armenia in wine production in terms of grape cultivation and wine export (along with the provinces of Ararat and Vayots Dzor).  The irrigation infrastructure of the province is quite developed. 90% of the farmlands are irrigated, mainly using canals opened from the rivers of Vedi and Azat.  The Geghanist village has a specialized plant in producing fertilizers and irrigation system design.  The province has 2 large poultry farms in the village of Kaghtsrashen and the town of Masis.  Recently, fish farming has significantly developed in the province. The largest fish farming ponds are located at the vicinity of Armash village.

Industry.

Ararat is among the most industrialized provinces of Armenia with many large industrial firms. It currently has a contribution of 10% in the annual total industrial product of Armenia.

Tourism.

The Khor Virap monastery is among the regular tourist destinations in Ararat Province. The ancient settlements of Artaxata and Dvin are among the attractive sites for archaeologists.  The province is home to many protected areas of nature including the Khosrov Forest State Reserve, the Goravan Sands Sanctuary and the Khor Virap Wildlife Sanctuary.

Education.

As of the 2015-16 educational year, Ararat Province has 112 schools, out of which 107 are operated by the province administration, while 5 are under the direct supervision of the Ministry of Education and Science. As of the end of 2015, the number of the students in the schools of the province is 31,457.  There are many public libraries and cultural houses in the towns of Artashat, Ararat, Masis and Vedi.  However, there are no higher education institutions in the province.

Sport.

Araks Ararat founded in 1960 had represented the province in domestic and international football competitions. However, the club was and dissolved in 2001 due to financial difficulties.  At the end of 2001, another football club with the name of FC Araks was founded in Ararat, but lasted only 4 years before being dissolved.  FC Dvin Artashat founded in 1982, was also a prominent football club in the province. The remained in professional football until 1999, before being dissolved like most Armenian football clubs outside the capital Yerevan.  Masis FC played in the domestic completions between 1992 and 1994 when they were also dissolved.  There ae 2 stadiums in the province: the Ayg Stadium of Ararat and the Artashat City Stadium. The latter is the regular home of the annual National Athletics Championship of Armenia.

Ararat (, ), is a province ("marz") of Armenia. Its capital and largest city is the town of Artashat. The province is named after the biblical Mount Ararat. It is bordered by Turkey from the west and Azerbaijan's Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic from the south. It surrounds the Karki exclave of Nakhichevan which has been controlled by Armenia since its capture in May 1992 during the Nagorno-Karabakh War. Domestically, Ararat is bordered by Armavir Province from the northwest, Kotayk Province from the north, Gegharkunik Province from the east, Vayots Dzor Province from the southeast and the city of Yerevan from the north.

Ararat () je provincie v Arménii. Nachází se na jihu země jižně od hlavního města Jerevanu. Na jihu a západě hraničí s Tureckem. Její hlavní město je Artašat, má rozlohu 2 090 km2 a v roce 2011 měla 260 367 obyvatel.


Description.

"Chenanisaurus" is quite a large abelisaurid, measuring, based on measurements of the holotype dentary, surpassed or rivalled in size only by such known abelisaurids as "Carnotaurus" and "Pycnonemosaurus".  Nicholas R. Longrich and colleagues, the describers of "Chenanisaurus", were able to establish some distinctive features. The lower jaw is high, while the dentary is bent in side view. The lateral groove and associated foramina are located high on the outer surface of the dentary. The anterodorsal margin of the dentary is curved downward. The symphysis of the lower jaws is heavily built while the leading edge is vertical in side view. The front jaw points are wide in plan view, encountering each other at an obtuse angle.  The most striking feature of the mandible is the extreme height, especially when compared with the relatively short teeth. This seems to indicate that the jaw is also very short, with a build even more extreme than seen in the related genus "Carnotaurus". The jaw flexes forwardly downwards to terminate in a deep blunt point. At the back there is a deep high furrow above it with a row of foramina that open towards the top in a series of vertical grooves. The high position is a basal characteristic. The outer lower side shows an ornamentation of pits and interweaved ridges. The front interdental plates are very high but they quickly lower towards the rear of the jaw. The tooth sockets are rectangular in upper view. The jaw carries at least ten teeth. These are relatively slender, but the front teeth have a D-shaped cross section with the convexity facing outward; the rear teeth are dagger-shaped and more flattened. The cutting edges are convex and show up to thirteen denticles per five millimetres at the crown base, and up to eight denticles near the apex. They have small blood grooves. The enamel has an irregular structure without clear ornamentation.

Discovery and naming.

The holotype is labelled as OCP DEK-GE 772. Individual teeth collected from the surrounding area, two premaxillary teeth labelled as OCP DEK-GE 457 and DEK-GE 458 and the maxillary tooth WDC-CCPM-005 already described in 2005, were referred to "Chenanisaurus" due to their similarity to the teeth of the holotype. "Chenanisaurus" is named after the Sidi Chennane mines where it was discovered and its specific name of "barbaricus" translates as "barbaric" and refers to Barbary.

Classification.

In 2017, "Chenanisaurus" was placed in Abelisauridae in a basal position outside the Abelisaurinae and Carnotaurinae. Though it resembles carnotaurine abelisaurids in aspects of its jaw morphology, "Chenanisaurus" may belong to an as-yet undescribed group of abelisaurids unique to Africa. Only further research will determine the true relations of this species.

Paleobiology.

"Chenanisaurus" was a predator, like other abelisaurids. Given its size, it could have hunted relatively large prey. The short head and jaws which this abelisaurid had in conjunction with high, solidly built front teeth, is explained as an adaptation as a special hunting tactic of the animal, with gaping jaws ramming the sides or flanks of its prey in order to tear off a chunk of meat. In the same layers in which "Chenanisaurus" is found, remnants of titanosaurs have also been found, which would have been suitable prey. The describers indicated that other continents previously part of Gondwana also show a comparable combination of titanosaurid and abelisaurid fauna. The finding of "Chenanisaurus" and these fragments of titanosaurids also indicate that in Africa, an abelisaurid/titanosaur fauna existed just prior to the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, suggesting that the faunal assemblage of Gondwana was relatively stable until that point in time. "Chenanisaurus"' remains were found in marine deposits that comprise most of the Sidi Chennane phosphate mines, indicating that post-mortem, the theropod had washed out to sea, where the holotype specimen became fossilized.

Chenanisaurus barbaricus is a species of predatory abelisaurid theropod dinosaur from the upper Maastrichtian phosphates of the Ouled Abdoun Basin in Morocco, North Africa. It is known from a holotype consisting of a partial dentary and four teeth and a few isolated teeth attributed to it.

Chenanisaurus ("ještěr z dolů Sidi Chennane") byl velkým masožravým dinosaurem (teropodem) z čeledi Abelisauridae, který žil asi před 66 miliony let (období nejpozdnější svrchní křídy) na území dnešního afrického Maroka. Fosilie tohoto dravého dinosaura byly poprvé v odborné literatuře zmíněny již v roce 2005, formální popis a pojmenování dinosaura však přišlo až o 12 let později.