Terminology.

In the United States there are four major kinds of foam mock weapons in use in medieval combat sports, battle gaming, and LARPs. They can be defined as:  "boffer weapons" – The term "boffer" refers to a particular construction of weapon that involves a single piece of PVC pipe, with one layer of pipe foam around it, and covered with duct tape. This type of mock weapon, although it has padding, is not suitable for unarmored high impact fighting. It is commonly used by live action role-playing games where participants must perform touch combat by pulling back on their strikes at the last moment.  "heavy boffer weapons" – These mock weapons are similar to standard boffer weapons, but they are reinforced on the core pipe with strapping tape. They are used in full power combat with the participants wearing a significant amount of safety equipment (armor). This type of mock weapon is primarily used by the Society for Creative Anachronism (SCA) in their youth combat program.  "latex weapons" - Throughout Europe, almost all modern sword-fighting games use molded foam swords of latex rubber. These weapons are often airbrush painted with a slick latex covering. The weapons are only lightly padded and require players to use only touch contact and pull back on their blows before striking. The weapons have little support at the tip and do not lend themselves to thrusting. These mock weapons are starting to be used in United States LARP games.  "padded weapons" – The padded weapon sometimes just called the "foam weapon" is the creation of the American battle gaming movement. Padded weapons typically have at least twice the padding found in traditional boffer weapons. They also tend to be lighter than traditional PVC boffers as they are almost always built on fiberglass or carbon fiber cores. All striking surfaces are covered with cloth to prevent the weapon from scratching uncovered skin. The combination of more padding, lighter weight, and cloth covering make these weapons ideal for the unrestrained fighting that is found in most American battle gaming groups (Amtgard, Belegarth Medieval Combat Society, Dagorhir, Darkon Wargaming Club, and High Fantasy Society).  In Europe and the UK, the terms "latex weapon" and "LARP-safe weapon" are more common, and combat is usually referred to as "LARP combat". Non-latex foam weapons are primarily used in Jugger and in the Finnish LARP community.

Boffer weapon construction.

The primary concern in designing a foam weapon is safety; a pulled blow with a foam weapon should not hurt the target, and in systems that allow it, even a full-strength blow should not cause injury. Combatants who consistently fail to pull their blows are liable to be ejected from an event, or at least pulled out of the fighting for safety reasons. The weapon should be durable, to withstand the stresses of combat.  A secondary issue is aesthetics; often, a foam weapon is designed to look something like a real weapon such as a sword or an axe, sometimes with detailed adornment. The weighting and balance of a foam weapon can also affect how easy it is to use in combat.  Normally there are several main features of a foam weapon: A core, padding, thrusting tips, various forms of functional and artistic flourishes, and an outer coating or shell.

Core.

The most important piece of a foam weapon is its core, which acts as the shaft of the weapon and gives it its initial shape. Cores made out of PVC, graphite, fiberglass, carbon fiber, bamboo or aluminium are used, with standards varying between groups and countries. Graphite golf club shafts and PVC tubes are presently the cores most commonly used in the United States, whereas solid fiberglass or carbon fibre rods are the cores most commonly used in Europe.  Some core materials can be bent into a number of shapes to give variety and uniqueness to a weapon. A common way to bend a PVC core is with a blow torch or kitchen stove; however, heat guns or boiling water are preferred by some as these methods deliver even heat, to prevent burning or weakening of the core. Rattan is generally soaked in water and then moulded to fit a shape.  Some groups wrap tape around the core as reinforcement and to limit damage should the core break.

Padding.

Once a core is decided upon, a layer of foam padding is glued around it. Sometimes a core is inserted into a pool noodle, either full length or cut into smaller pieces, which makes a firm, yet safe coating for the weapon. Sometimes pipe insulation is used. The general convention of most modern groups is that there must be at least one layer of stiff closed-cell foam for safety reasons. Some groups differ on the thickness required and this mainly stems from issues of safety and control. Some full-contact groups require more padding on striking surfaces.

Thrusting tip.

Some foam weapons also feature a tip made of open cell foam or other foam types that allow a progressive give, which is often much softer and more compressible than the foam on the core. This allows for a wielder to execute a thrust on their opponent without fear of skewering them on the core or leaving bruises.  Most groups in Europe and the UK do not allow thrusting even if the weapon has a thrusting tip, due to concerns on the safety of such weapons. However, thrusting tips are much more popular in the United States where practitioners ensure that any weapons that risk the core piercing through the thrusting tip and into a combatant are failed in safety checks held before every game.  Depending on which set of rules are being used, the pommel of the foam weapon may also have a thrusting tip for striking with the bottom of the weapon. The thrusting tip at the bottom of the pommel is commonly referred to as a waylay tip, as its purpose is to be used to strike between the shoulder blades, simulating an assailant waylaying a victim. Even without this tactic, having a padded pommel is a common safety precaution as it provides added protection against accidents.

Flourishes.

Once padding and thrusting tips are secured on the core, it is not unusual for the weapon to have added flourishes for aesthetic and practical purposes. If the foam weapon is to be an axe, a head carved out of open-cell foam may be affixed. Additional layers of closed-cell foam can be used to define a blade of a sword, the hilt of a dagger, or the soft foam "spikes" of a club. Foam weatherstripping is commonly used to better define a "cutting blade" as opposed to electrical tape. Flourishes allow for a great deal of artistic expression.

Coating or shell.

The weapon is then covered with either tape (such as kite tape, gaffer tape, etc.), cloth or several layers of rubberised coating (such as latex) to protect the foam from abrasion and tearing.  One method within United States conventions involves a simple coating of duct tape to hold the outer foam together. The tape itself is used in many places to shape the foam and pull it into place, allowing for the artist to "carve" the weapon out as they work. Duct tape weapons also allow for easy repair of punctures by simply smoothing the shell out and applying a small patch of duct tape to the hole. Additionally, some United States groups use a cloth covering or opaque tights instead of duct tape. This practice is gaining almost universal acceptance with most groups moving to these systems.  Within European and Australian conventions, latex or rubberized coatings are generally considered the standard. Latex coating allows for levels of detailing and artistry through such techniques as appliqué moulds, and isoflex finishes with detail airbrushing. Some specimens are so stunning that, at first glance, they are difficult to tell apart from actual metal weapons. Latex weapons, however, are much more expensive (to both purchase and repair), and generally have a stiffer give on impact.  When solid coatings are applied over thrusting tips, many holes must be poked through them to allow the foam to deflate and re-inflate upon impact. This is generally not needed when coatings such as cloth are used, as air can pass freely through such media.

Padded weapon construction.

Core.

Padded weapons are typically built on similar cores as listed for the boffer weapon, but some groups such as Markland use rattan cores.

Padding.

Unlike boffer weapons, padded weapons are used in full force striking and therefore need more padding. For most American battle gaming organizations the rules specify approximately one inch of padding on the striking surface of any weapon under 24 ounces in weight. For weapons over 24 ounces in weight the padding requirement typically is increased to about one and one half inch of closed cell foam.  Most padded weapons are either formed using round (omni) blades such as pool noodles, or flat rectangular blades from layers of sheet foam. Adhesives such as contact cement, spray glue, or carpet tape are typically used to hold foam layers together.

Thrusting tip.

Padded weapons used in American-style battle gaming are often used with full force blows. The thrusting tips must be elastic and compressible. The foam should be open cell of a density greater than or equal to 2.3 lbs per square inch. In addition, between the core and the thrusting tip there should be placed a ridged punch protector consisting of either a pipe end cap or small plastic or leather disk. The end of the core should also be covered or surrounded by a rip-resistant material such as a tightly taped small foam box, a layer of strong mesh tape, or some yoga matt that will prevent the core (which will whip back and forth) from sliding around the punch protector.

Flourishes.

For safety all parts of the hilt (including pommels and guard) of the weapon should not easily fit through a two-inch hole. This allows the weapon to be used in unhelmeted combat without significant risk of causing eye injury.

Covering.

To prevent skin abrasion from full contact strikes, all padded weapons must have cloth covers over all striking surfaces.

Variations.

Rules for constructing foam weapons vary a great deal from group to group as foam weapon fighting groups are usually small and tend to operate independently of each other. Foam weapon fighting groups also differ on the allowed weight, size, flexibility, thickness of foam, length of thrusting tip, and type of materials that may be used as a core. As a result, those who are into the sport, whether as a form of freestyle martial arts or within the context of LARPing, are generally encouraged to check with the rules of group with whom they plan to participate, so not to bear the pain of disassembling and re-assembling a new weapon to make it in compliance with local standards.

Usage.

LARP props.

Boffer weapons are commonly used as props in live action role-playing games. While designed with safety in mind, these weapons tend to undergo more relaxed safety inspections as the fighters are usually not expected to use full-force blows.

Medieval combat sports.

Foam weapons may also be used in fights more akin to martial arts tournaments, which resemble historical reenactment combat but require less protective gear. The scale of such tournaments may vary from individual duels to battles with hundreds of participants. Foam weapons are also used in some sport-like battle games such as Jugger.

Home use.

Boffers are often also made by individuals for use at home for fighting amongst friends and family. Typically these will be made without reference to the design standards of any LARP group.

A foam weapon, also known as a boffer, padded weapon, or latex weapon, is a padded mock weapon used for simulated handheld combat. Such weapons are used in simulated battles called battle gaming and in some live action role-playing games (LARPs).

Měkčená zbraň je zbraň užívaná při larpovém boji. Na mnoha typech larpů se používají předměty, jejichž účelem při larpovém boji není použít je jako projektily, nýbrž držet je při útoku na druhého v ruce. Různé larpy, jejichž program zahrnuje i boj, mají různá pravidla o tom, z čeho smí být tyto zbraně vyrobené, jakou mají mít délku a jaké vlastnosti mají mít různé typy. Většinou se zbraně dělí na obouruční (obvykle sto a více centimetrů), jednoruční (běžně pod sto centimetrů) a dýky (většinou méně než čtyřicet centimetrů), ale pro řetězové zbraně, jako je řemdih, se většinou míry poněkud liší. Na různých larpech, kde se hráči dělí na povolání, mohou různá povolání používat různé typy zbraní, které mají výhody buď jenom v délce, a nebo i třeba ve vyšším (simulovaném) zranění při zásahu. Zároveň jsou zbraně často médiem pro množství schopností povolání.


First edition.

The first part of " ("Great encyclopaedia for the educated classes") appeared in October 1839. In contrast to its contemporaries, it contained maps and illustrations with the text.  There is no indication of the planned number of volumes or a time limit for this project, but little headway had been made by the otherwise dynamic. After six years, 14 volumes had appeared, covering only one fifth of the alphabet. Another six years passed before the last (46th) volume was published. Six supplementary volumes finally finished the work in 1855. Ultimately numbering 52 volumes, "" was the most comprehensive completed German encyclopedia of the 19th century, also called """" (The marvellous Meyer). The complete set was reprinted 1858–59.

Later editions.

The son of, (1826–1909), published the next edition (which is officially the first), entitled ", 1857–60, that would only count 15 volumes. To avoid a long-time project, subscribers were promised it would be completed within three years, and all volumes appearing later would be given free. Of course, it was finished right on time. The 2nd edition, ', appeared 1861–67; the 3rd edition, now from Leipzig, was issued as'1874–78; both had 15 volumes.  The 4th edition, consisting of 16 volumes, appeared in 1885–90, with 2 supplements of update pages, volume 17 (1891) and volume 18 (1892). The 5th edition had 17 volumes, ", 1893 to 1897. This edition sold no less than 233,000 sets.  The 6th edition, entitled ', was published 1902–08. It had 20 volumes, and the largest sale of all'editions, with 240,000 sets. The First World War prevented an even bigger success. There was also the small 1908 edition, ".

World Wars and destruction.

The 7th and 8th editions were both briefly named '. The 7th edition counted only 12 volumes, due to the economic depression of the twenties. It appeared in 1924–30. It came with a condensed single-volume version known as the '.  The 8th edition (1936–42) remained incomplete due to wartime circumstances: out of 12 planned volumes only volumes number 1 through 9 plus the atlas volume number 12 could be issued. Due to its brown binding in addition to the fact that it was filtered through the Nazi censorship it has come to be known as " ("The Brown Meyer"), as brown became the colour associated with the Nazis.  The buildings of the company were completely destroyed by the bombing raids on Leipzig in 1943–44 and the company itself expropriated in 1946 without compensation. In 1953 the place of business was moved to Mannheim in West Germany (); a "" remained in Leipzig.

9th edition and ".

The 9th edition, now from Mannheim, entitled " (in 25 volumes), appeared in 1971–79. Just like the very first, this final edition was the most comprehensive German encyclopaedia of the century.  From Leipzig (then in East Germany) came "" (1961–64, 8 volumes; 2nd edition 1971–78, 18 volumes), embedded in the Marxist ideology.

Merger with.

In 1984, the'amalgamated with its biggest competitor in field of reference books'of Wiesbaden, in a so-called """" (wedding of elephants). Being aware that the new firm's program did not provide room for two similar works of this magnitude, it was decided that the big serial reference works coming from Mannheim would henceforth be marketed under the name of.

Joseph Meyer (1796–1856), who had founded the publishing house in 1826, intended to issue a universal encyclopaedia meant for a broad public: people having a general knowledge as well as businessmen, technicians and scholars, considering contemporary works like those of and to be superficial or obsolete.

Meyers Konversations-Lexikon je významná encyklopedická práce obecné povahy v německém jazyce, která byla publikována v několika vydáních v 19. a 20. století bibliografickým ústavem (Bibliographisches Institut) a je pojmenována po svém zakladateli Josephu Meyerovi. Další rozvoj byl přerušen v roce 1986 ve prospěch Encyklopedie Brockhaus poté, co byly sloučeny nakladatelství Brockhaus a Bibliographisches Institut v roce 1984 v jednu organizaci s názvem Bibliographisches Institut & F. A. Brockhaus.


Early Life.

Born in Amherst, Nova Scotia, on August 19, 1924, Boyle was the son of a medical doctor and moved to Quebec with his father and mother Bernice when he was less than two. He was home schooled by his mother until age fourteen, when he attended Montreal's Lower Canada College to complete his secondary education.

Education.

Boyle attended McGill University, but his education was interrupted in 1943, when he joined the Royal Canadian Navy during World War II. He was loaned to the Royal Navy, where he was learning how to land Spitfires on aircraft carriers as the war ended. He gained a BSc in 1947, an MSc in 1948, and a PhD degree in 1950, all from McGill University.

Career.

After receiving his doctorate, Boyle spent one year at Canada's Radiation Lab and two years teaching physics at the Royal Military College of Canada.

Bell Labs.

In 1953 Boyle joined Bell Labs where he invented the first continuously operating ruby laser with Don Nelson in 1962, and was named on the first patent for a semiconductor injection laser. He was made director of Space Science and Exploratory Studies at the Bell Labs subsidiary Bellcomm in 1962, providing support for the Apollo space program and helping to select lunar landing sites. He returned to Bell Labs in 1964, working on the development of integrated circuits.

Invention of charge-coupled device.

In 1969, Boyle and George E. Smith invented the charge-coupled device (CCD), for which they have jointly received the Franklin Institute's Stuart Ballantine Medal in 1973, the 1974 IEEE Morris N. Liebmann Memorial Award, the 2006 Charles Stark Draper Prize, and the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics. The CCD allowed NASA to send clear pictures to Earth back from space. It is also the technology that powers many digital cameras today. Smith said of their invention: "After making the first couple of imaging devices, we knew for certain that chemistry photography was dead." Eugene Gordon and Mike Tompsett, two now-retired colleagues from Bell labs, claim that its application to photography was not invented by Boyle. Boyle was Executive Director of Research for Bell Labs from 1975 until his retirement in 1979.

Personal life.

In retirement he split his time between Halifax and Wallace, Nova Scotia. In Wallace, he helped launch an art gallery with his wife, Betty, a landscape artist. He was married to Betty since 1946 and had four children, 10 grandchildren and 6 great-grandchildren.  In his later years, Boyle suffered from kidney disease, and due to complications from this disease, died in a hospital in Nova Scotia on May 7, 2011.

Willard Sterling Boyle, (August 19, 1924May 7, 2011) was a Canadian physicist. He was a pioneer in the field of laser technology and co-inventor of the charge-coupled device. As director of Space Science and Exploratory Studies at Bellcomm he helped select lunar landing sites and provided support for the Apollo space program.

Willard Sterling Boyle (19. srpna 1924 – 7. května 2011) byl americký fyzik, vědec a spoluvynálezce CCD čipu (charge-coupled device) narozený v Kanadě. Byl oceněn čtvrtinovým podílem Nobelovy ceny za fyziku za „vynález zobrazovacího polovodičového obvodu - senzoru CCD“ v roce 2009.


Early life.

Born in Edinburgh on 28 January 1784, he was the eldest son of George Gordon, Lord Haddo, son of George Gordon, 3rd Earl of Aberdeen. His mother was Charlotte, youngest daughter of William Baird of Newbyth. He lost his father on 18 October 1791 and his mother in 1795, and he was brought up by Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville and William Pitt the Younger. He was educated at Harrow, and St John's College, Cambridge, where he graduated with a Master of Arts in 1804. Before this, however, he had become Earl of Aberdeen on his grandfather's death in 1801, and had travelled all over Europe. On his return to Britain, he founded the Athenian Society. In 1805, he married Lady Catherine Elizabeth, daughter of John Hamilton, 1st Marquess of Abercorn.

Political and diplomatic career, 1805–1828.

In December 1805 Lord Aberdeen took his seat as a Tory Scottish representative peer in the House of Lords. In 1808, he was created a Knight of the Thistle. Following the death of his wife from tuberculosis in 1812 he joined the Foreign Service. He was appointed Ambassador Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Austria, and signed the Treaty of Töplitz between Britain and Austria in Vienna in October 1813. In the company of the Austrian Emperor, Francis II, he was an observer at the decisive Coalition victory of the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813; he had met Napoleon in his earlier travels. He became one of the central diplomatic figures in European diplomacy at this time, and he was one of the British representatives at the Congress of Châtillon in February 1814, and at the negotiations which led to the Treaty of Paris in May of that year.  Aberdeen was greatly affected by the aftermath of war which he witnessed at first hand. He wrote home:  The near approach of war and its effects are horrible beyond what you can conceive. The whole road from Prague to [Teplitz] was covered with waggons full of wounded, dead, and dying. The shock and disgust and pity produced by such scenes are beyond what I could have supposed possible...the scenes of distress and misery have sunk deeper in my mind. I have been quite haunted by them. Returning home he was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Viscount Gordon, of Aberdeen in the County of Aberdeen (1814), and made a member of the Privy Council. In July 1815 he married his former sister-in-law Harriet, daughter of John Douglas, and widow of James Hamilton, Viscount Hamilton; the marriage was much less happy than his first. During the ensuing thirteen years Aberdeen took a less prominent part in public affairs.

Political career, 1828–1852.

Lord Aberdeen served as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster between January and June 1828 and subsequently as Foreign Secretary until 1830 under the Duke of Wellington. He resigned with Wellington over the Reform Bill of 1832.  He was Secretary of State for War and the Colonies between 1834 and 1835, and again Foreign Secretary between 1841 and 1846 under Sir Robert Peel. It was during his second stint as Foreign Secretary that he had the harbor settlement of 'Little Hong Kong', on the south side of Hong Kong Island, named after him. It was probably the most productive period of his career; he settled two disagreements with the US: the northeast boundary dispute by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842), and the Oregon dispute by the Oregon Treaty of 1846. He enjoyed the trust of Queen Victoria, which was still important for a Foreign Secretary. He worked closely with Henry Bulwer, his ambassador to Madrid, to help arrange marriages for Queen Isabella and her younger sister the Infanta Luisa Fernanda. They helped stabilize Spain's internal and external relations. He sought better relations with France, relying on his friendship with Guizot. However Britain was annoyed with France on a series of issues, especially French colonial policies, the right to search slave ships, the French desire to control Belgium, disputes in the Pacific, and French intervention in Morocco.

In opposition.

Aberdeen again followed his leader and resigned with Peel over the issue of the Corn Laws. After Peel's death in 1850 he became the recognised leader of the Peelites. In July 1852, a general election of Parliament was held which resulted in the election of 325 Tory/Conservative party members to Parliament. This represented 42.7% of the seats in Parliament. The main opposition to the Tory/Conservative Party was the Whig Party, which elected 292 members of the party to the Parliament in July 1852. Although occupying fewer seats than the Tory/Conservatives, the Whigs had a chance to draw support from the minor parties and independents who were also elected in July 1852. Lord Aberdeen was one of 38 Peelites elected to members of Parliament independently of the Tory/Conservative Party.  While the Peelites agreed with the Whigs on issues dealing with international trade, there were other issues on which the Peelites disagreed with the Whigs. Indeed, Lord Aberdeen's own dislike of the Ecclesiastical Titles Assumption Bill, the rejection of which he failed to secure in 1851, prevented him from joining the Whig government of Lord John Russell in 1851. Additionally, 113 of the members of Parliament elected in July 1852 were Free Traders. These members agreed with the Peelites on the repeal of the "Corn Laws," but they felt that the tariffs on "all" consumer products should be removed.  Furthermore, 63 members of Parliament elected in 1852 were members of the "Irish Brigade," who voted with the Peelites and the Whigs for the repeal of the Corn Laws because they sought an end the Great Irish Famine by means of cheaper wheat and bread prices for the poor and middle classes in Ireland. Currently, however, the Free Traders and the Irish Brigade had disagreements with the Whigs that prevented them from joining with the Whigs to form a government. Accordingly, the Tory/Conservative Party leader the Earl of Derby was asked to form a "minority government". Derby appointed Benjamin Disraeli as the Chancellor of the Exchequer for the minority government.  When in December 1852 Disraeli submitted his budget to Parliament on behalf of the minority government, the Peelites, the Free Traders, and the Irish Brigade were all alienated by the proposed budget. Accordingly, those groups suddenly forgot their differences with the Whig Party and voted with the Whigs against the proposed budget. The vote was 286 in favour of the budget and 305 votes against the budget. Because the leadership of the minority government had made the vote on the budget vote a "vote of confidence", the defeat of the Disraeli budget was a "vote of no confidence" in the minority government and meant its downfall. Accordingly, Lord Aberdeen was asked to form a new government.

Prime Minister, 1852–1855.

Following the downfall of the Tory/Conservative minority government under Lord Derby in December 1852, Lord Aberdeen formed a new government from the coalition of Free Traders, Peelites, and Whigs that had voted no confidence in the minority government. Lord Aberdeen was able to put together a coalition that held 53.8% of the seats of Parliament. Thus Lord Aberdeen, a Peelite, became Prime Minister and headed a coalition ministry of Whigs and Peelites.  Although united on international trade issues and on questions of domestic reform, his cabinet also contained Lord Palmerston and Lord John Russell, who were certain to differ on questions of foreign policy. Charles Greville wrote in his "Memoirs", "In the present cabinet are five or six first-rate men of equal, or nearly equal, pretensions, none of them likely to acknowledge the superiority or defer to the opinions of any other, and every one of these five or six considering himself abler and more important than their premier"; and Sir James Graham wrote, "It is a powerful team, but it will require good driving", which Aberdeen was unable to provide. During the administration, much trouble was caused by the rivalry between Palmerston and Russell, and over the course of it Palmerston managed to out-manoeuvre Russell to emerge as the Whig heir apparent. The cabinet also included a single Radical, Sir William Molesworth, but much later, when justifying to the Queen his own new appointments, Gladstone told her: "For instance, even in Ld Aberdeen's Govt, in 52, Sir William Molesworth had been selected, at that time, a very advanced Radical, but who was perfectly harmless, & took little, or no part... He said these people generally became very moderate, when they were in office", which she admitted had been the case.  One of the foreign policy issues on which Palmerston and Russell disagreed was the type of relationship that Britain should have with France and especially France's ruler, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte. Bonaparte was the nephew of the famous Napoleon Bonaparte, who had become dictator and then Emperor of France from 1804 until 1814. The younger Bonaparte had been elected to a three-year term as President of the Second Republic of France on 20 December 1848. The Constitution of the Second Republic limited the President to a single term in office. Thus, Louis Bonaparte would be unable to succeed himself and after 20 December 1851 would no longer be President. Consequently, on 2 December 1851, shortly before the end of his single three-year term in office was to expire, Bonaparte staged a coup against the Second Republic in France, disbanded the elected Constituent Assembly, arrested some of the Republican leaders, and declared himself Emperor Napoleon III of France. This coup upset many democrats in England as well as in France. Some British government officials felt that Louis Bonaparte was seeking foreign adventure in the spirit of his uncle, Napoleon I. Consequently, these officials felt that any close association with Bonaparte would eventually lead Britain into another series of wars, like the wars with France and Napoleon dating from 1793 until 1815. British relations with France had scarcely improved since 1815. As prime minister, the Earl of Aberdeen was one of these officials who feared France and Bonaparte.  However, other British government officials were beginning to worry more about the rising political dominance of the Russian Empire in eastern Europe and the corresponding decline of the Ottoman Empire. Lord Palmerston at the time of Louis Bonaparte's 2 December 1851 coup was serving as the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in the Whig government of Prime Minister Lord John Russell. Without informing the rest of the cabinet or Queen Victoria, Palmerston had sent a private note to the French ambassador endorsing Louis Bonaparte's coup and congratulating Louis Bonaparte himself on the coup. Queen Victoria and members of the Russell government demanded that Palmerston be dismissed as Foreign Minister. Russell requested Palmerston's resignation and Palmerston reluctantly provided it.  In February 1852, Palmerston took revenge on Russell by voting with the Conservatives in a "no confidence" vote against the Russell government. This brought an end to the Russell Whig government and set the stage for a general election in July 1852 which eventually brought the Conservatives to power in a minority government under the Earl of Derby. Later in the year, another problem facing the Earl of Aberdeen in the formation of his own new government in December 1852 was Lord John Russell himself. Russell was the leader of the Whig Party, the largest group in the coalition government. Consequently, Lord Aberdeen, was required to appoint Russell as the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, which he had done on 29 December 1852. However, Russell sometimes liked to use this position to speak for the whole government, as if he were the prime minister. In 1832, Russell had been nicknamed "Finality John" because of his statement that the 1832 Reform Act had just been approved by both the House of Commons and the House of Lords would be the "final" expansion of the vote in Britain. There would be no further extension of the ballot to the common people of Britain. However, as political pressure in favour of further reform had risen over the twenty years since 1832, Russell had changed his mind. Russell had said, in January 1852, that he intended to introduce a new reform bill into the House of Commons which would equalise the populations of the districts from which members of Parliament were elected. Probably as a result of their continuing feud, Palmerston declared himself against this Reform Bill of 1852. As a result, support for the bill dwindled and Russell was forced to change his mind again and not introduce any Reform Bill in 1852.  In order to form the coalition government, the Earl of Aberdeen had been required to appoint both Palmerston and Russell to his cabinet. Because of the controversy surrounding Palmerston's removal as Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Palmerston could not now be appointed Foreign Minister again so soon after his removal from that position. Accordingly, on 28 December 1852, Aberdeen appointed Palmerston as Home Secretary and appointed Russell as Foreign Minister.

The "Eastern Question".

Given the differences of opinion within the Lord Aberdeen cabinet over the direction of foreign policy with regard to relations between Britain and France under Napoleon III, it is not surprising that debate raged within the government as Louis Bonaparte, now assuming the title of Emperor Napoleon III. As Prime Minister of the Peelite/Whig coalition government, Aberdeen eventually led Britain into war on the side of the French and Ottomans against the Russian Empire. This war would eventually be called the Crimean War, but throughout the foreign policy negotiations surrounding the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire, which would continue throughout the middle and end of nineteenth century, the problem would be referred to as the "Eastern Question".  The cabinet was bitterly divided. Palmerston stirred up anti-reform feeling in Parliament and pro-war public opinion to out-maneuver Russell. The result was that the weak Aberdeen government went to war with Russia as the result of internal British political rivalries. Aberdeen accepted Russian arguiments at face value because he sympathised with Russian interests against French pressure and.was not in favour of the Crimean War. However, he was unable to resist the pressure that was being exerted on him by Palmerston's faction. In the end, the Crimean War proved to be the downfall of his government.  The Eastern Question flared up on 2 December 1852, with the Napoleon's coup against the Second Republic. As Napoleon III was forming his new imperial government, he sent an ambassador to the Ottoman Empire with instructions to assert France's right to protect Christian sites in Jerusalem and the Holy Land. The Ottoman Empire agreed to this condition to avoid conflict or even war with France. Aberdeen, as Foreign Secretary in 1845, had himself tacitly authorised the construction of the first Anglican church in Jerusalem, following his predecessor's commission in 1838 of the first European Consul in Jerusalem on Britain's behalf, which lead to series of successive appointments by other nations. Both resulted from Lord Shaftesbury's canvassing with substantial public support.  Nevertheless, Britain became increasingly worried about the situation in Turkey, and Prime Minister Aberdeen sent Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, a diplomat with vast experience in Turkey, as a special envoy to the Ottoman Empire to guard British interests. Russia protested the Turkish agreement with the French as a violation of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1778, which ended the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774). Under the treaty, the Russians had been granted the exclusive right to protect the Christian sites in the Holy Land. Accordingly, on 7 May 1853, the Russians sent Prince Alexander Sergeyevich Menshikov, one their premier statesmen, to negotiate a settlement of the issue. Prince Menshikov called the attention of the Turks to the fact that during the Russo-Turkish War, the Russians had occupied the Turkish-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia on the north bank of the Danube River, and he reminded them that pursuant to the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, the Russians had returned these "Danubian provinces" to Ottoman control in exchange for the right to protect the Christian sites in the Holy Land. Accordingly, the Turks reversed themselves and agreed with the Russians.  The French sent one of their premier ships-of-the-line, the "Charlemagne", to the Black Sea as a show of force. In light of the French show of force, the Turks, again, reversed themselves and recognised the French right to protect the Christian sites. Lord Stratford de Redcliffe was advising the Ottomans during this time, and later it was alleged that he had been instrumental in persuading the Turks to reject the Russian arguments.  As war became inevitable, Aberdeen wrote to Russell: The abstract justice of the cause, although indisputable, is but a poor consolation for the inevitable calamities of all war, or for a decision which I am not without fear may prove to have been impolitic and unwise. My conscience upbraids me the more, because seeing, as I did from the first, all that was to be apprehended, it is possible that by a little more energy and vigour, not on the Danube, but in Downing Street, it might have been prevented.

Crimean War 1853–1856.

In response this latest change of mind by the Ottomans, the Russians on 2 July 1853 occupied the Turkish satellite states of Wallachia and Moldavia, as they had during the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. Almost immediately, the Russian troops deployed along the northern banks of the Danube River, implying that they might cross the river. Aberdeen ordered the British Fleet to Constantinople and later into the Black Sea. On 23 October 1853, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia. A Russian naval raid on Sinope, on 30 November 1853, resulted in the destruction of the Turkish fleet in the battle of Sinope. When Russia ignored an Anglo-French ultimatum to abandon the Danubian provinces, Britain and France declared war on Russia on 28 March 1854. In September 1854, British and French troops landed on the Crimean peninsula at Eupatoria, north of Sevastopol. The Allied troops then moved across the Alma River on 20 September 1854 at the battle of Alma and set siege to the fort of Sevastopol.  A Russian attack on the allied supply base at Balaclava on 25 October 1854 was rebuffed. The Battle of Balaclava is noted for its famous (or rather infamous) Charge of the Light Brigade. On 5 November 1854, Russian forces tried to relieve the siege at Sevastopol and defeat the Allied armies in the field in the Battle of Inkerman. However, this attempt failed. Dissatisfaction as to the course of the war grew in England. As reports returned detailing the mismanagement of the conflict, Parliament began to investigate. On 29 January 1855, John Arthur Roebuck introduced a motion for the appointment of a select committee to enquire into the conduct of the war. This motion was carried by the large majority of 305 in favour and 148 against.  Treating this as a vote of no confidence in his government, Aberdeen resigned, and retired from active politics, speaking for the last time in the House of Lords in 1858. In visiting Windsor Castle to resign, he told the Queen: "Nothing could have been better, he said than the feeling of the members towards each other. Had it not been for the incessant attempts of Ld John Russell to keep up party differences, it must be acknowledged that the experiment of a coalition had succeeded admirably. We discussed future possibilities & agreed that nothing remained to be done, but to offer the Govt to Ld Derby...". The Queen continued to criticise Lord John Russell for his behaviour for the rest of his life; on his death in 1878 her journal records that he was "A man of much talent, who leaves a name behind him, kind, & good, with a great knowledge of the constitution, who behaved very well, on many trying occasions; but he was impulsive, very selfish (as shown on many occasions, especially during Ld Aberdeen's administration) vain, & often reckless & imprudent".

Relations with the United States.

British-American relations have been troublesome under Palmerston, but Aberdeen proved much more conciliatory, and worked well with Daniel Webster, the American Secretary of State who was himself an Anglophile. In 1842, Aberdeen sent Lord Ashburton to Washington to settle all disputes, especially the border between Canada and Maine, the boundary along the Great Lakes, the Oregon boundary, the African slave trade, and the Caroline affair about boundaries in 1837 and the Creole case of 1841 involving a slave revolt on the high seas. The Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842 solved the most of the problems amicably. Thus Maine got most of the disputed land, but Canada obtained a vitally strategically strip of land connecting it to a warm water port. Aberdeen helped solve the Oregon dispute amicably in 1846. However, as prime minister, Aberdeen had trouble with the United States. In 1854 an American naval vessel bombarded the mosquito port of Greytown, Nicaragua in retaliation for an insult; Britain protested. Later in 1846, the United States announced its intention of annexing Hawaii, and Britain not only complained but sent a naval force to make the point. Negotiations for reciprocal trade agreement between the United States and Canada dragged on for eight years until a reciprocity treaty was reached in 1854.

Legacy.

Aberdeen was generally successful as a hard-working diplomat, but his reputation has suffered greatly because of the lack of military success in the Crimean War and from the ridicule of enemies such as Disraeli who regarded him as weak, inefficient, and cold. Before the Crimean debacle that ended his career he scored numerous diplomatic triumphs, starting in 1813-14 when as ambassador to the Austrian Empire he negotiated the alliances and financing that led to the defeat of Napoleon. In Paris, he normalized relations with the newly-restored Bourbon government and convinced London it could be trusted. He worked well with top European diplomats such as his friends Klemens von Metternich in Vienna and François Guizot in Paris. He brought Britain into the center of Continental diplomacy on critical issues, such as the local wars in Greece, Portugal, and Belgium. Simmering troubles on numerous issues with the United States were ended by friendly compromises. He played a central role in winning the Opium Wars against China, gaining control of Hong Kong in the process.

Family.

Lord Aberdeen married Lady Catherine Elizabeth Hamilton (10 January 1784 – 29 February 1812; daughter of Lord Abercorn) on 28 July 1805. They had four children.  He remarried Harriet Douglas (paternal granddaughter of James Douglas, 14th Earl of Morton and maternal granddaughter of Edward Lascelles, 1st Earl of Harewood) on 8 July 1815. They had five children:  The Countess of Aberdeen died in August 1833. Lord Aberdeen died at Argyll House, St. James's, London, on 14 December 1860, and was buried in the family vault at Stanmore church. In 1994 the novelist, columnist, and politician Ferdinand Mount used George Gordon's life as the basis for a historical novel, "Umbrella".  Apart from his political career, Aberdeen was also a scholar of the classical civilisations, who published "An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Architecture" (London, 1822) and was referred to by his cousin Lord Byron in his "English Bards and Scotch Reviewers" (1809) as "the travell'd thane, Athenian Aberdeen." He was appointed Chancellor of the University of Aberdeen in 1827 and was President of the Society of Antiquaries of London.

Religious interests.

Aberdeen's biographer Muriel Chamberlain summarises, "Religion never came easy to him". In his Scots landowning capacity "North of the border, he considered himself "ex officio" a Presbyterian". In England "he privately considered himself an Anglican"; as early as 1840 he told Gladstone he preferred what Aberdeen called "the sister church [of England]" and when in London worshipped at St James's Piccadilly. He was ultimately buried in the Anglican parish church at Stanmore, Middlesex.  He was a member of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland from 1818 to 1828 and exercised his existing rights to present ministers to parishes on his Scottish estates through a time when the right of churches to veto the appointment or 'call' of a minister became so contentious as to lead in 1843 to the schism known as "the Disruption" when a third of ministers broke away to form the Free Church of Scotland. In the House of Lords, in 1840 and 1843, he raised two Compromise Bills to allow presbyteries but not congregations the right of veto. The first failed to pass (and was voted against by the General Assembly) but the latter, raised post-schism, became law for Scotland and remained in force until patronage of Scots livings was abolished in 1874.  It was under his prime ministership that the revival of the Convocations of Canterbury and York began, though they did not obtain their potential power till 1859.  He is said in the last few months of his life, after the Crimean War, to have declined to contribute to building a church on his Scotland estates because of a sense of guilt in having "shed much blood", citing biblically King David's being forbidden to build the Temple in Jerusalem.

George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen, (28 January 178414 December 1860), styled Lord Haddo from 1791 to 1801, was a British statesman, diplomat and Scottish landowner, successively a Tory, Conservative and Peelite politician and specialist in foreign affairs. He served as Prime Minister from 1852 until 1855 in a coalition between the Whigs and Peelites, with Radical and Irish support. The Aberdeen ministry was filled with powerful and talented politicians, whom Aberdeen was largely unable to control and direct. Despite his trying to avoid this happening, it took Britain into the Crimean War, and fell when its conduct became unpopular, after which Aberdeen retired from politics.

George Hamilton-Gordon, 4. hrabě z Aberdeenu, (28. leden 1784 – 14. prosinec 1860) byl britský státník pocházející ze Skotska, člen strany Toryů, který v letech 1852 až 1855 vykonával funkci premiéra.


Detection.

It is vital for organisms to be able to maintain their fluid levels in very narrow ranges. The goal is to keep the interstitial fluid, the fluid outside the cell, at the same concentration as the intracellular fluid, fluid inside the cell. This condition is called isotonic and occurs when the same level of solutes are present on either side of the cell membrane so that the net water movement is zero. If the interstitial fluid has a higher concentration of solutes than the intracellular fluid it will pull water out of the cell. This condition is called hypertonic and if enough water leaves the cell it will not be able to perform essential chemical functions. If the interstitial fluid becomes less concentrated the cell will fill with water as it tries to equalize the concentrations. This condition is called hypotonic and can be dangerous because it can cause the cell to swell and rupture. One set of receptors responsible for thirst detects the concentration of interstitial fluid. The other set of receptors detects blood volume.

Decreased volume.

This is one of two types of thirst and is defined as thirst caused by loss of blood volume (hypovolemia) without depleting the intracellular fluid. This can be caused by blood loss, vomiting, and diarrhea. This loss of volume is problematic because if the total blood volume falls too low the heart cannot circulate blood effectively and the eventual result is hypovolemic shock. The vascular system responds by constricting blood vessels thereby creating a smaller volume for the blood to fill. This mechanical solution however has definite limits and usually must be supplemented with increased volume. The loss of blood volume is detected by cells in the kidneys and triggers thirst for both water and salt via the renin-angiotensin system.

Renin-angiotensin system.

Hypovolemia leads to activation of the renin angiotensin system (RAS) and is detected by cells in the kidney. When these cells detect decreased blood flow due to the low volume they secrete an enzyme called renin. Renin then enters the blood where it catalyzes a protein called angiotensinogen to angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is then almost immediately converted by an enzyme already present in the blood to the active form of the protein, angiotensin II. Angiotensin II then travels in the blood until it reaches the posterior pituitary gland and the adrenal cortex, where it causes a cascade effect of hormones that cause the kidneys to retain water and sodium, increasing blood pressure. It is also responsible for the initiation of drinking behavior and salt appetite via the subfornical organ.

Cellular dehydration and osmoreceptor stimulation.

Osmometric thirst occurs when the solute concentration of the interstitial fluid increases. This increase draws water out of the cells, and they shrink in volume. The solute concentration of the interstitial fluid increases by high intake of sodium in diet or by the drop in volume of extracellular fluids (such as blood plasma and cerebrospinal fluid) due to loss of water through perspiration, respiration, urination and defecation. The increase in interstitial fluid solute concentration causes water to migrate from the cells of the body, through their membranes, to the extracellular compartment, by osmosis, thus causing cellular dehydration.  Clusters of cells (osmoreceptors) in the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis (OVLT) and subfornical organ (SFO), which lie outside of the blood brain barrier can detect the concentration of blood plasma and the presence of angiotensin II in the blood. They can then activate the median preoptic nucleus which initiates water seeking and ingestive behavior. Destruction of this part of the hypothalamus in humans and other animals results in partial or total loss of desire to drink even with extremely high salt concentration in the extracellular fluids.

Salt craving.

Because sodium is also lost from the plasma in hypovolemia, the body's need for salt proportionately increases in addition to thirst in such cases. This is also a result of the renin-angiotensin system activation.

Elderly.

In adults over the age of 50 years, the body's thirst sensation reduces and continues diminishing with age, putting this population at increased risk of dehydration. Several studies have demonstrated that elderly persons have lower total water intakes than younger adults, and that women are particularly at risk of too low an intake. In 2009, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) included water as a macronutrient in its dietary reference values for the first time. Recommended intake volumes in the elderly are the same as for younger adults (2.0 L/day for females and 2.5 L/day for males) as despite lower energy consumption, the water requirement of this group is increased due to a reduction in renal concentrating capacity.

Thirst quenching.

According to preliminary research, quenching of thirst – the homeostatic mechanism to stop drinking – occurs via two neural phases: a "preabsorptive" phase which signals quenched thirst many minutes before fluid is absorbed from the stomach and distributed to the body via the circulation, and a "postabsorptive" phase which is regulated by brain structures sensing to terminate fluid ingestion. The preabsorptive phase relies on sensory inputs in the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and upper gastrointestinal tract to anticipate the amount of fluid needed, providing rapid signals to the brain to terminate drinking when the assessed amount has been consumed. The postabsorptive phase occurs via blood monitoring for osmolality, fluid volume, and sodium balance, which are collectively sensed in brain circumventricular organs linked via neural networks to terminate thirst when fluid balance is established.  Thirst quenching varies among animal species, with dogs, camels, sheep, goats, and deer replacing fluid deficits quickly when water is available, whereas humans and horses may need hours to restore fluid balance.

Neurophysiology.

The areas of the brain that contribute to the sense of thirst are mainly located in the midbrain and the hindbrain. Specifically, the hypothalamus appears to play a key role in the regulation of thirst.  The area postrema and nucleus tractus solitarii signal to the subfornical organ and to the lateral parabrachial nucleus. The latter signaling relies on the neurotransmitter serotonin. The signal from the lateral parabrachial nucleus is relayed to the median preoptic nucleus.  The median preoptic nucleus and the subfornical organ receive signals of decreased volume and increased osmolite concentration. Finally, the signals are received in cortex areas of the forebrain where thirst arises. The subfornical organ and the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis contribute to regulating the overall bodily fluid balance by signalling to the hypothalamus to form vasopressin, which is later released by the pituitary gland.

Thirst is the craving for potable fluids, resulting in the basic instinct of animals to drink. It is an essential mechanism involved in fluid balance. It arises from a lack of fluids or an increase in the concentration of certain osmolites, such as sodium. If the water volume of the body falls below a certain threshold or the osmolite concentration becomes too high, structures in the brain detect changes in blood constituents and signal thirst.

Žízeň je pocit, vyvolaný nedostatkem tekutin, který vyvolává potřebu pít. Žízeň vzniká, stoupne-li koncentrace krystaloidů v krevní plazmě nad určitou hranici. Potřeba přijímat tekutiny je ovšem vyvolána také pocity sucha na patře, jazyku a v hltanu a působením některých hormonů, svou roli hraje také psychické rozpoložení.


Synopsis.

The main characters in the book are Susan Bellis, George, Eric Bellis, Annie Bellis, Dr. Reeper, and Cosmos, the world's most powerful computer. Cosmos can draw windows allowing people to look into outer space, as well as doors which act as portals allowing travel into outer space. Written like a story, it aims to describe various aspects of the universe in a manner that is accessible to children and others new to the topic. It starts by describing atoms, stars, planets and their moons. It then goes on to describe black holes, which remains the topic of focus in the last part of the book. At frequent intervals throughout the book, there are pictures and "fact files" of the different references to universal objects, including a picture of Mars with its moons.

Production.

It was reported in June 2006 that Stephen and Lucy Hawking would be writing a children's book with Christophe Galfard, with the aim of "explaining theoretical physics in an accessible way to youngsters." The book, whose title was announced in June 2007, was released on October 23, 2007.

Reception.

"The Independent" gave the book a positive review, calling it an "excellent book" that "will do wonders to raise enthusiasm for physics among young readers". It did, however, add that the storytelling has some rough edges, and noted the book had a couple of scientific inaccuracies. "About.com" gave the book 31⁄2 out of 5, stating "Recommended for kids, but not for adults. The story in this book is a bit contrived, but as a book intended to teach children the basics of astronomy, astrophysics, cosmology, and other principles that govern our universe, it does a fair job." The reviewer from "Kirkus Reviews" was more critical, accusing the authors of setting aside the laws of physics whenever convenient to the story. The reviewer concluded that they expected the book to sell well, but that it "doesn’t show much respect for its target audience". "Common Sense Media" gave the book 2 stars out of 5, stating "The nonfiction parts are fine: good information, clearly told, with some spectacular photos. But surprisingly, much of the fictional story isn't scientifically accurate. This might be forgivable in straight sci-fi or fantasy... but in a book that purports to teach the basics of astronomy and physics, it's just confusing -- how are young readers to know what's true, what's theoretical, and what's just plain nonsense?"

George's Secret Key to the Universe is a 2007 children's book written by Lucy and Stephen Hawking with Christophe Galfard. The book was followed by four sequels, "George's Cosmic Treasure Hunt" in 2009, "George and the Big Bang" in 2011, "George and the Unbreakable Code" in 2014 and "George and the Blue Moon" in 2016 and "" in 2018. It is intended for readers aged 10 and up.

Jirkův tajný klíč k vesmíru je kniha poprvé vydaná (v angličtině) roku 2007, autorem je Lucy Hawkingová ve spolupráci se svým otcem, britským vědcem Stephenem Hawkingem. Kromě příběhu určeného dětem školního věku obsahuje také informační stránky s vysvětlením základů astronomie, fyziky a dalších vědeckých oborů.


Gameplay.

After completing a prologue sequence, the player starts the game with an airship, named after their clan (with a default name of Galbana, or in the Japanese version). The airship is used as a base where the player can check on their current mission and view other tasks, customize equipment in the synthesis shop, or travel between the four islands of Lemurés. The airship's interior can also be customized by the player.

Battle system.

"Revenant Wings" is a real-time strategy game, but with elements reminiscent of the turn-based "Final Fantasy Tactics" and "Tactics Advance". It can be played entirely with the Nintendo DS stylus. Battles are initiated when the player begins a mission or chooses to fight a melee battle in a particular area. The characters attack automatically once the enemy is within range. The player is given the option to give commands to the characters by tapping on them with the stylus. Possible commands include changing the character's target, setting their gambit, or using various abilities.  Each character is distinguished according to three types: melee, ranged and flying. Melee characters attack at a close range, and ranged from afar, while flying are able to travel unbound to terrain. The types oppose each other in the manner where melee wins over ranged, ranged wins over flying and flying wins over melee.

Summoning.

Summoning magic returns from "Final Fantasy XII" in "Revenant Wings" and has a larger role; director Motomu Toriyama stated that "Revenant Wings" has more summons, or Espers, than any previous "Final Fantasy" game. Summon abilities are learned via the new Ring of Pacts system, which is used to allow the summoning of Espers. Each slot in the Ring of Pacts is placed with an Auracite to create a pact with the Esper. The number of summons available to the player is fifty-one, and they are classified in different categories, with each character able to summon a large number depending on the party's combined capacity.  Summoning Espers to aid in battle is accomplished by using a Summon Gate located in the play field area. The ability to summon the different creatures depend on the Affinity of the player characters. Additionally, two Espers per character are automatically summoned at the beginning of each battle where Espers are allowed. Espers can be linked to battle groups using a system reminiscent of the earlier Square game "Bahamut Lagoon". Summons are ranked from 1 to 3, with Rank 1 and 2 able to manifest in large numbers, as opposed to Rank 3 which summons only one entity. Before the battle begins, players can select up to five Espers to possibly summon through Esper Gates in the upcoming battle (Esper Troupes); one Rank 3 Esper, two Rank 2 Espers, and two Rank 1 Espers. Summons are also differentiated by varying elements, which are fire, water, earth, and lightning. Recovery and non-elemental are two other types.  Unlike previous installments, the elements in this game works in circular way: Water defeats Fire (although some Water espers are weak against Fire too); Fire defeats Earth; Earth defeats Thunder; and Thunder defeats Water (although some Thunder espers are weak against Water too).  The Espers from Final Fantasy XII are mostly back (with the exception of Adrammelech and Zeromus), and they are obtainable through the events of the main story although most of them are obtainable via Side Missions. Some of the Espers elements are also being changed, like Shemhazai represents Thunder with her main attack Thundaja; Zalera who is Non-Elemental Esper with Holyja; Chaos who is Fire Elemental with Flare; and Cúchulaiin whose element was Poison, become Water Esper and he is the only Final Fantasy XII Esper who is not rank III Esper but rank 2 instead. Mateus, Belias, and Hashmal's attack are being changed into Blizzaja, Firaja, and Stoneja respectively.  Some of the most recurring Espers of Final Fantasy series also return as Rank III Espers with the main 4 elements as following: Ifrit, a Fire type Melee Esper with Hellfire (creates 4 columns of fire around his vicinity which inflicts Slow on enemies); Shiva, a Water type Ranged Esper with Diamond Dust (summons a dome of snowy blizzard on targeted enemies which inflicts Stop); Ramuh, a Thunder type Flying Esper with Judgment Bolt (casts a single large thunderbolt with smaller bolts on targeted enemies which inflicts Silence); and Titan, an Earth type Melee Esper with Gaia's Wrath (smashes the ground with super strength that damages the enemies around his vicinity with giant rocks which inflicts Immobilize).  Other famous Espers including Bahamut, who is Non-Elemental with Megaflare; bombards the targeted enemies with huge explosion which inflicts Disable; Leviathan, Water type Esper with Tidal Wave; creates huge tidal wave in front of him without any debuff; Tiamat, Thunder type Esper without special attack; along with Odin and Gilgamesh who are Non-Elemental Summon.

Synthesizing.

An element of alchemy and synthesizing is used in the game, where the player obtains recipes and materials necessary for the synthesis process. Only leader characters can obtain the materials, of which can be synthesized into weapons and armor and the stats of being dependent on the materials' grade.

Plot.

Setting.

A few locations in the Ivalice of "Final Fantasy XII" and "Final Fantasy Tactics Advance" return in "Revenant Wings", along with a new setting: Lemurés, described in the official website as a legendary purvama (floating continent) raised into the skies by the god Feolthanos long before the events of the game. Because of the effect of Cloudstones or "Auraliths", magical stones used to erect barriers, this purvama is shielded from the rest of the world. In time, the "Legend of the Floating Land" became an ambition for sky pirates who seek the island and what riches are on it. The ruins of Lemurés are where the Aegyl reside; the Aegyl are a human-like race with wings sprouting from their backs and a life-span of forty years. Due to being shielded within Lemurés, the Aegyl have no knowledge of the outside world but what they learn from intruding sky pirates.  The magicite in Lemurés are known as Auracite. Fragments of Auralith, Auracites are used in the Ring of Pacts to summon beasts known as the Yarhi, referred by others of Ivalice as Espers. However, extended use of Auracite can purge the user of his or her anima, which becomes a new Yarhi and continues the cycle until the user becomes a soulless shell.

Characters.

"Revenant Wings" added four additional main playable characters to the six in "Final Fantasy XII": Kytes and Filo, two orphans from Rabanastre; Llyud, a resident of Lemures; and Ba'Gamnan, a sinister bounty hunter who has a grudge against Vaan and company for having involved themselves in his affairs during the first game. Kytes and Filo appeared as a NPCs in "XII", while Ba'Gamnan had been a recurring antagonist. All three characters gain larger roles in this game. Some NPC from "Final Fantasy XII" appear again in this game, for example: Tomaj, who builds the Sky Saloon to be a bazaar area to craft weapons, and trade items while also get his role back as a Side Mission Quest provider; Nono, a male moogle who is Balthier's companion as Strahl's mechanic; and Larsa, the young emperor who is a guest character in previous game, but returned as NPC and appeared about half end of the game to support Vaan's group by providing Leviathan, along with providing information.  Summon designs have also been changed. The lizard design of Salamander, for example, was changed to be boar-like to ensure the designs would come out well and distinguishable within the DS' graphical capabilities. Each summon has three Ranks, and the designs of each Rank are so that there are relations between one Rank and another.

Story.

"Revenant Wings" begins a year after the events of "Final Fantasy XII", with Vaan flying his own airship with Penelo after Balthier and Fran "stole" the "Strahl". The foursome is revisited in Bervenia and decide to accompany each other inside to obtain the Cache of Glabados.  While obtaining a treasure, two strange crystals, the building begins to collapse on itself. In the ensuing chaos, Vaan loses his airship and are forced to flee the site on Balthier's airship. Balthier soon drops Vaan and Penelo back in Rabanastre where they, along with Kytes and Filo, witness a strange object flying overhead: a derelict airship. After sneaking aboard the airship and defeating the Bangaa headhunter Ba'Gamnan, Vaan and company christen the airship whatever the player decides (default "Galbana") and find themselves on the purvama Lemurés by accident. While looking around the unknown ruins, they meet Llyud of the Aegyl race and learn his people are locked in battle with sky pirates who are raiding the island for treasure. Lemurés is said to possess summoning crystals called Auracite. Deciding to aid the Aegyl in defending Lemurés, Vaan's group learns the pirates were recruited by the mysterious Judge of Wings, who seeks out the three Auraliths, grand masses of Auracite that protect Lemurés from the outside world.  When the group confronts the Judge of Wings at the site of the first auralith, the Judge of Wings destroys the auralith, leading Vaan and his friends to have visions of Balthier confronting the Judge of Wings and losing, after which they hear sky pirates are gathering at the Skysea, and they go there to find Rikken, a friend of Vaan's. He says he may know something about the Judge of Wings, but to get answers, Vaan must compete in Rikken's tournament.  After saving Rikken, it is revealed Rikken knows nothing about the Judge, but Tomaj discovers there is an auracite shrine beneath the Skysea. When venturing there, the group encounters Ba'Gamnan who kidnaps Filo, taking her deeper within the shrine. When the group catches up with him, Rikken agrees to help rescue Filo, and once she is rescued, the party moves on to confront the esper Belias, the Gigas, that was summoned by the Judge of Wings. Once defeated, the Judge summons the massive esper Bahamut, who destroys the Skysea, and the party becomes island-trapped.  While stranded, the group meets Velis, a man who was at Nalbina and got lost while searching for his lover, Mydia. After a lot of character development, it is discovered Velis is, in fact, dead, and actually an esper who you later must battle when the Judge of Wings comes and controls him. After Velis is defeated (as the esper Odin), it is discovered the Judge of Wings is Mydia, but she then flees the island. Tomaj runs to the group, tells them the airship is fixed, and that he has spotted the "Strahl", Balthier's ship.  When the group finds the ship, they find Fran, who says Balthier is within a mountain on the island they are now on. Once inside, the group discovers an auralith, and the group plus Fran must defeat Mydia and the esper Mateus while protecting Balthier. Once defeated, Mydia flees without destroying the auralith, but Balthier then turns on the group and destroys the auralith, which sends the party into an illusion.  While within the illusion, the team discovers the Aegyl are so emotionless because they are deprived of anima, which is harvested by their god, Feolthanos, and stored in the auraliths. It is discovered this illusion is the world of the espers, and they find Velis, who makes everything clear: Mydia is a body, stripped of its anima, controlled by Feolthanos to reap anima for him, and if the auraliths are destroyed, the Aegyl's anima will return and as such, they must destroy the auraliths.  Once awoken from the illusion, Vaan confronts Balthier, who already knew these newly discovered facts, and Balthier and Fran join the team. The group then finds the Leviathan, the ship of Queen Ashe and Judge Magister Basch, who join the team as they venture through Ivalice, Emperor Larsa also joining. Mydia, as it turns out, is a Feol Viera, more commonly known as an Exiled, of which have white skin and shorter ears and hair as compared to the normal Viera who are darker-skinned and longer-haired. While in Roda Volcano, the team battles Mydia and the esper Chaos, and, as Mydia takes her dying breath, requests the team go to Feolthanos' palace above Lemurés and kill him. Her anima guides them up as they prepare to open the final chapter of their story.  Above Lemurés, the team battles reincarnations of dead Aegyl, and then battle the reincarnated form of Mydia's anima, while discovering Feolthanos, the god, is, himself, the last auralith. When the team ventures all the way to the seat of Feolthanos' power, they battle him and the anima-stripped Aegyl he commands. When he is almost defeated, he summons Bahamut to do battle with the team. After his giant shrine is destroyed, there is a one-on-one battle between Vaan and Feolthanos in which Feolthanos is apparently stronger, but as Vaan begins to lose, his friends come to back him up: first Ashe and Basch, Balthier and Fran, then Filo and Kytes, Llyud, and finally Penelo---the only battle in the game where every group leader is involved. In the end, Llyud deals the final blow to Feolthanos, releasing all the remaining stored anima.  After the end of the battle with Feolthanos, the game ends, and the characters are shown going their separate ways as the credits roll. If 100% game completion is reached then you are treated to an extended ending which shows Vaan and Penelo leaving together as a couple on a new adventure only to be interrupted by Filo, Kytes and Tomaj with some Yarhi and Cuit Sith in tow.

Development.

The game was directed and its story written by Motomu Toriyama, who also directed "Final Fantasy X-2" and "Final Fantasy XIII". According to Toriyama, the game is aimed at Nintendo DS owners who are not experienced with "Final Fantasy" games, and will remove "overly complicated elements from the battle system...that will allow [the player] to defeat the enemies with minimal controls."  The game features a sprite-based graphics engine with 3D backgrounds and character designs by Ryoma Itō ("Final Fantasy Tactics Advance"). Producer Eisuke Yokoyama cited "Warcraft" and "Age of Empires" as sources of inspiration and expressed a desire to "extract the pure 'fun' of those games" and bring it to "Final Fantasy". Itō based some of his designs on those of "Final Fantasy XII" character designer Akihiko Yoshida. Itō "traded secrets" with him, with the confidence he gained from "Final Fantasy XII" creator Yasumi Matsuno's praise on his tampering with "Final Fantasy Tactics Advance"s Moogle designs.  For the North American localization, "Revenant Wings" was rebalanced to make it more difficult because the North American market is judged as "more familiar" with the real-time strategy genre. They also added a dungeon and a boss from "Final Fantasy XII".

Audio.

"Revenant Wings" was scored by "Final Fantasy XII" composer Hitoshi Sakimoto, joined by Kenichiro Fukui, who had arranged the English version of "Kiss Me Good-Bye". Most of the music for the game is arrangements from the previous title. While the Nintendo DS has more technical limitations than the PlayStation 2, Sakimoto considers it not particularly noticeable in practice.  Unlike in "Final Fantasy XII", the music is entirely dynamic and context-dependent. Each track possesses different parts, ranging from musical themes of peaceful moments to frantic battle cries, which are activated when the actions of the players require it and are looped until the context is changed again.

Reception.

As of August 8, 2008, "Revenant Wings" has sold 1.04 million units worldwide, with 540,000 units sold in Japan, 220,000 units in North America, and 280,000 in Europe. It was the best-selling Japanese console game in the week of its release, then the second best-selling in the following week.  The Japanese version of the game scored 32/40 in the Japanese gaming magazine "Famitsu". The game also received praise from reviewers of "Dengeki DS & Wii Style". Praise was given to the mission-based storyline and battles for being "simple and more involved". The large number of characters who can enter the fray at one given time gives a sense of involvement for the player as if they were "close to the action", and the game's difficulty may appeal even to those who "do not normally play role-playing games". The only criticism found was with the usage of the stylus, as its usage in selecting areas on the battlefield can be difficult.  The North American version of the game scored mainly positive reviews. "Nintendo Power" gave it a 7.5/10, "IGN" gave it an 8.3/10, "1UP.com" gave it a B+, "GameSpot" and "GameZone" both gave it an 8.5/10.  "Electronic Gaming Monthly" also gave it generally favorable reviews, with staff giving it scores of 8, 7.5, and 6 (all out of 10). The reviewers praised the game's combination of role-playing and strategy, but criticized the screen size relative to the amount of action. "IGN" named it Nintendo DS Game of the Month for November 2007.

One year after the events of "Final Fantasy XII", the protagonist Vaan is a sky pirate, possessing his own airship. He is joined in a quest by his friend and navigator Penelo, other returning characters from the original title, along with new characters such as Llyud, a member of the Aegyl race who have wings protruding from their backs. Their treasure-hunting adventures take them to the purvama (floating continent) of Lemurés and the ground below, where the story begins.

Final Fantasy XII: Revenant Wings (ファイナルファンタジーXII レヴァナント・ウイング) je realtimová RPG strategie patřící do herní série Final Fantasy. Hra byla vydána pro handheld Nintendo DS v roce 2007 (v Japonsku) jako pokračování titulu Final Fantasy XII (vydáno pro PlayStation 2).


Location.

The station platforms were established under Rue Auber for line 3; for line 7, under Avenue de l'Opéra; and for line 8, under Boulevard des Capucines; and partially under the Place de l'Opéra.  The three lines cross thanks to a common underground structure located under the square. The station is connected by underground passages with the Gare d'Auber (RER A) and, indirectly with the Havre – Caumartin station, then the Haussmann–Saint-Lazare station (RER E) and the stations Saint-Lazare and Saint-Augustin.

History.

The Line 3 platforms opened on 19 October 1904 as part of the first section of the line opened between Père Lachaise and Villiers. A twenty metre high masonry well was built to avoid the need for heavy underpinning work when Line 7 and Line 8 were planned to be built. This work was affected by groundwater, which required the support of three concrete pillars, made by sinking caissons with workers digging out the mud with compressed air. The work lasted eleven months, from March 1903 to February 1904. It owes its name to the Garnier opera house, built by the architect Charles Garnier.  The Line 7 platforms opened on 5 November 1910 as part of the first section of the line opened between Opéra and Porte de la Villette. The Line 8 platforms opened on 13 July 1913 as part of the first section of the line opened between Opéra and Beaugrenelle (now Charles Michels station on Line 10) and then on 30 June 1928 when it was extended to Richelieu - Drouot.  From the 1950s to the 1980s, the walls in line 3 were covered with metal bodywork before their renovation in "Andreu-Motte" style. The platforms of lines 7 and 8 were modernized from the early 1970s to 2007 in a unique style with three shades of blue (a dark tone for the "Motte" style seats and the vault, and two others lighter shades for small square tiles). The station's name consisted of large raised white capital letters. This decoration, derived from the "Mouton-Duvernet" style, from which it notably adopted the characteristic lighting canopies, was sometimes nicknamed the "swimming pool". The blue ceiling was then repainted in white to increase the brightness. The entire layout was removed in 2007 when the station was renovated as part of the RATP "Renouveau du métro" program. Only the Saint-Lazare station on lines 12 and 13 had comparable decoration until the mid-2000s.  On April 1, 2016, the RATP replaced one of every two nameplates on the platforms of the three lines to make an April Fool for a day, like twelve other stations. Opera is humorously renamed "Apéro" by anagram.  In 2019, 10,501,357 travelers entered this station which places it at the 15th position of metro stations for its usage.

Passenger services.

Access.

The station has three accesses, two of which are on Place de l'Opéra and one on Place Charles-Garnier. In addition, at No. 43 Avenue de l'Opéra there is a simple exit.

Platforms.

The platforms of the three lines are of standard configuration. Two in number per stopping point, they are separated by the metro tracks located in the center.  The platform for line 3 is established flush with the walls. The ceiling consists of a metal roof, whose beams, burgundy in color, are supported by vertical pillars. The decoration is in the "Andreu-Motte" style with two burgundy light canopies, benches, tympans and walls fitted with large white flat tiles in a stretched sandstone and purple "Motte" seats. On the other hand, the outlets of the corridors are fitted with standard white bevelled tiles. Advertisements are devoid of frames and the name of the station is written in Parisine font on enameled plates. With Palais Royal - Musée du Louvre on line 1 and Concorde on line 8, this is one of three stations in the "Andreu-Motte" style to be treated in shades of purple, this shade being part of the lexicon exceptional colors for this decoration.  The platforms of lines 7 and 8 have an elliptical vault and are similarly arranged, with a slight extra curve for line 7, while the platforms of line 8 have a higher of the vault. The style is that used for most metro stations. The lighting canopies are white and rounded in the "Gaudin" "du renouveau du métro des années 2000" renovation, and the bevelled white ceramic tiles cover the walls and the tympans. The vault is painted white. The advertising frames are in white ceramic and the name of the station is written in Parisine font on enameled plates. The seats are "Akiko" style, green for line 7 and orange for line 8. As part of the treatment for major permeation, the lighting canopies for line 7 is temporarily removed.

Bus connections.

The station is served by lines 20, 21, 22, 27, 32, 29, 45, 52, 66, 68, 95, the Roissybus and the tourist line OpenTour of the RATP Bus Network and, at night, by lines N15 and N16 of the Noctilien network.

Opéra () is a station of the Paris Métro, named after the nearby Opéra Garnier, built by architect Charles Garnier. Located at the end of the Avenue de l'Opéra, one of the accesses being opposite the Opéra, it serves the district of Boulevard Haussmann. Three Métro lines (3, 7 and 8) cross each other at one point, known as a "well".

Opéra je přestupní stanice pařížského metra mezi linkami 3, 7 a 8. Podzemním podchodem je spojena též se stanicí Auber, kde je možný přestup na linku RER A, a přes niž je přestupními koridory nepřímo propojená s dalšími stanicemi metra a RER. Nachází se na hranicích 2. a 9. obvodu v Paříži pod náměstím "Place de l'Opéra" na severním konci "Avenue de l'Opéra".


High school.

Walker attended University High School in Spokane, Washington and competed in football, basketball, and track and field. In track, Walker was coached by Reg Hulbert and won All-Greater Spokane League honors following his senior season. Walker graduated from University High School in 1999 with a 3.89 GPA.

Collegiate and professional career.

Walker attended the University of Washington, where he was a member of Phi Gamma Delta fraternity. While there, he became NCAA indoor pole vault champion twice and four-time NCAA All-American under Coach Pat Licari. In 2005 he became both indoor and outdoor National Champion.  Perhaps not among the favorites in the 2005 World Championships, Walker nonetheless won the silver medal with 5.75. Two weeks later in Rieti he set a new personal best of 5.96. In 2006 he won the World Indoor Championships in Moscow with a jump of 5.80meters. In July 2006, at Jockgrim, Germany, Brad Walker, cleared 6 meters, the best performance of the year, in a pole vault competition. He won the gold in the world championships on 1 September 2007. On 8 June 2008 Walker jumped in Eugene to a new personal and American record with 6.04. Walker qualified for the 2008 Olympics, but failed to clear a height in the preliminary rounds.  Walker retained his US championship title in 2009, even though his status as reigning World Champion gave him a bye into the 2009 World Championships in Athletics.  At the 2012 Summer Olympics, Walker reached the final but finished 12th with a 5.50m vault.

Brad Walker (born June 21, 1981 in Aberdeen, South Dakota) is an American pole vaulter. He was the American recordholder and was the 2007 World Champion in the event.

Brad Walker (* 21. června 1981, Aberdeen, Jižní Dakota) je americký atlet, jehož specializací je skok o tyči. V roce 2006 se stal v Moskvě halovým mistrem světa a je mistrem světa z roku 2007. Mezi jeho největší úspěchy patří rovněž stříbrná medaile z mistrovství světa 2005 a stříbro z halového šampionátu 2008.


Early life.

Apprenticed for seven years to a house painter and decorator named Gavin Beugo, his fellow apprentice being David Ramsay Hay, who became a lifelong friend. During this time he studied art in the evenings. After his apprenticeship was complete, Roberts's first paid job came in the summer of 1815, when he moved to Perth to serve as foreman for the redecoration of Scone Palace. Roberts returned in the spring of 1816 and lived with his parents while looking for work.  His next job was to paint scenery for James Bannister's circus on North College Street. This was the beginning of his career as a painter and designer of stage scenery. Bannister liked Roberts's set designs and on 10 April 1816 engaged him at a salary of 25 shillings per week to travel with the circus on a tour of England. Roberts departed Edinburgh with the circus later the same month and travelled to Carlisle, Newcastle, Hull and York, returning to Edinburgh in January 1817. During his time with the circus, Roberts was called on to take several minor stage roles as a foil for the clowns' skits.  For the first few months of 1817, Roberts worked as the stage designer's assistant at the Pantheon Theatre, Edinburgh, a new joint venture between Bannister and an Italian musician named Corri. However the Pantheon was a financial failure and closed in May 1817, putting Roberts out of work. He reluctantly returned to house painting, working on the mansion house of Abercairny, near Perth, designed by Gillespie Graham. Although he was working from 5 a.m. to 7 p.m. he took the opportunity to sketch in the woods around the mansion in the evening. He followed this up with a stint painting imitation wood and marble at a mansion at Condie, near Bridge of Earn, in Perthshire. At the urging of his parents, Roberts returned to Edinburgh in January 1818, where he took employment with John Jackson, a decorative painter. Working for Jackson during 1818, Roberts decorated Lord Lauderdale's Dunbar House (known later as Lauderdale House) and then the library of Craigcrook Castle for Lord Jeffrey, who had recently leased the property.  In 1818, the Pantheon Theatre reopened in Edinburgh. Initially, a company from London with their own scene painters was in residence, but after they left, Roberts was able to get work from Corri as a scene painter. While Corri offered Roberts the position on 25 July 1818, he was already committed to house-painting work for Jackson and was unable to start at the Pantheon until the winter season. As there was no separate painting room, Roberts had to paint sets directly on the stage, which was occupied by rehearsals during the day and performances in the evening. Therefore, Roberts generally began work after the evening production had finished, working through the night. Roberts's work was noticed by the stage-manager, Mr. Monro. After the Pantheon closed, Monro moved on to the Theatre Royal, Glasgow, where he arranged for Roberts to be hired as a principal scene-painter.  In 1819, Roberts became the scene painter at the Theatre Royal in Edinburgh (having at this time James Ballantine as his apprentice). There Roberts met the Scottish actress Margaret McLachlan, said to be the illegitimate daughter of a Highland gypsy girl and a clan chief. They married in 1820, "for pure love". Although the marriage did not last long, it produced Roberts' only daughter, Christine, who was born in 1821.  Although he was making a living from scene painting, it was around this time that Roberts began to produce oil paintings seriously. In 1821 he became friends with the artist William Clarkson Stanfield, who joined him to paint scenery at the Theatre Royal, and Roberts developed his love of landscape painting. In 1821 the Fine Arts Institution of Edinburgh accepted three of Roberts's paintings – views of Melrose and Dryburgh abbeys – two of which sold. At Stanfield's suggestion, Roberts also sent three pictures to the 1822 Exhibition of Works by Living Artists, held in Edinburgh.

Move to London.

In 1822 the Coburg Theatre, now the Old Vic in London, offered Roberts a job as a scenic designer and stage painter. He sailed from Leith with his wife and their six-month-old Christine and settled in London. After working for a while at the Coburg Theatre, Roberts moved to the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane to create dioramas and panoramas with Stanfield.  A miniature by Roberts from this time shows Margaret as a delicate woman with blonde ringlets, holding the smiling three-year-old Christine. But Roberts' family life was not as idyllic as this picture suggests: Margaret had become an alcoholic, and eventually, in 1831, Roberts sent her back to Scotland to be cared for by friends. Roberts may have burned some letters from this period in shame at his wife's drinking problem, but he was unusually frank in a letter to a friend, David Ramsay Hay. Roberts and Hay had been an apprentices together, and Hay had been seeing a mistress since his own wife had started drinking. "If you do not know our cases are almost parallel. Yours is not as bad as mine, having some consolation. The state of my nerves is such I can scarcely write. But thank God she leaves tomorrow—I hope for ever."  In 1824, he exhibited another view of Dryburgh Abbey at the British Institution and sent two works to the first exhibition of the newly formed Society of British Artists. In the autumn of 1824 he visited Normandy. His paintings based on this trip began to lay the foundation of his reputation; one of them, a view of Rouen Cathedral, sold for 80 guineas.  While he built his reputation as a fine artist, Roberts's stage work had also been commercially successful. Commissions from Covent Garden included the sets for the London premiere of Mozart's "Die Entführung aus dem Serail" (The Abduction from the Seraglio) in 1827, scenery for a pantomime depicting the naval victory of Navarino, and two panoramas that he executed jointly with Stanfield.  During the second part of the 1820s, and in addition to English and Scottish scenes, Roberts painted views of prominent buildings in France and the Low Countries including Amiens, Caen, Dieppe, Rouen, Antwerp, Brussels and Ghent, sometimes making several paintings of the same scene with only minor variations.  By 1829 he was working full-time as a fine artist. That year, he exhibited the "Departure of the Israelites from Egypt", in which his style first became apparent. In 1831, the Society of British Artists elected him as their president.

Travel to Spain.

In 1832 he travelled in Spain and Tangiers. He returned at the end of 1833 with a supply of sketches that he elaborated into attractive and popular paintings. The British Institution exhibited his "Interior of Seville Cathedral" in 1834, and he sold it for £300. He executed a fine series of Spanish illustrations for the "Landscape Annual" of 1836. Then in 1837 a selection of his "Picturesque Sketches in Spain" was reproduced by lithography.  In London he made the acquaintance of artists such as Edward Thomas Daniell and John Linnell, who frequented Daniel's house.

Travel to Egypt and Holy Land (Palestine).

J. M. W. Turner persuaded Roberts to abandon scene painting and devote himself to becoming a full-time artist. Roberts set sail for Egypt on 31 August 1838, a few years after Owen Jones. His intent was to produce drawings that he could later use as the basis for the paintings and lithographs to sell to the public. Egypt was much in vogue at this time, and travellers, collectors and lovers of antiquities were keen to buy works inspired by the East or depicting the great monuments of ancient Egypt.  Roberts made a long tour in Egypt, Nubia, the Sinai, the Holy Land, Jordan and Lebanon. Throughout, he produced a vast collection of drawings and watercolour sketches.  Muhammad Ali Pasha received Roberts in Alexandria on 16 May 1839, shortly before his return to the UK. He later reproduced this scene, apparently from memory, in Volume 3 of "Egypt & Nubia".

Return to Britain.

Upon Roberts's return to Edinburgh in 1840, his fellow-artist, Robert Scott Lauder, painted his portrait. (In 1980, the National Gallery of Scotland purchased the portrait.) Scottish society fêted him. For instance, he was the guest of honour at a dinner on 19 October 1842, at which Lord Cockburn presided.  On his return to Britain, Roberts worked with lithographer Louis Haghe from 1842 to 1849 to produce the lavishly illustrated plates of "The Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia", originally published as "Sketches in the Holy Land and Syria, 1842–1849" and "Egypt & Nubia" series. He funded the work through advance subscriptions which he solicited directly. The scenery and monuments of Egypt and Holy Land were fashionable but had hitherto been hardly touched by British artists, and so Roberts quickly accumulated 400 subscription commitments, with Queen Victoria being subscriber No. 1. Her complete set is still in the Royal Collection. The timing of publication just before photographs of the sites became available proved fortuitous.

Later life.

In 1851, and again in 1853, Roberts visited Italy, painting the "Ducal Palace, Venice", bought by Lord Londesborough, the "Interior of the Basilica of St Peters, Rome, Christmas Day, 1853", and "Rome from the Convent of St Onofrio", presented to the Royal Scottish Academy.  His last volume of illustrations, "Italy, Classical, Historical and Picturesque", was published in 1859. He also executed, by command of Queen Victoria, a picture of the opening of the Great Exhibition of 1851. In. 1839 he was elected an associate and in 1841 a full member of the Royal Academy; and in 1858 he was presented with the freedom of the city of Edinburgh. The last years of his life were occupied with a series of views of London from the Thames. He had executed six of these, and was at work upon a picture of St Paul's Cathedral as seen from Ludgate Hill, when he died suddenly. He collapsed on Berners Street on the afternoon of 25 November 1864 and died at home that evening. The symptoms, described as apoplexy in most histories, were those of a stroke.  He was buried at West Norwood Cemetery.

David Roberts (24 October 179625 November 1864) was a Scottish painter. He is especially known for "The Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia", a prolific series of detailed lithograph prints of Egypt and the Near East that he produced from sketches he made during long tours of the region (1838–40). These and his large oil paintings of similar subjects made him a prominent Orientalist painter. He was elected as a Royal Academician in 1841.

David Roberts (24. října 1796 Edinburgh – 25. listopadu 1864 Londýn) byl skotský malíř, známý řadou podrobných kreseb z Egypta a Blízkého východu, které nakreslil podle svých skic během dlouhé cesty po regionu (1838–1840). Tato práce, a jeho velké olejomalby podobných památek, z něj udělaly předního malíře Orientu.