Presentation.

The characteristic presentation of RM involves nasal congestion without rhinorrhea, postnasal drip, or sneezing following several days of decongestant use. This condition typically occurs after 5–7 days of use of topical decongestants. Patients often try increasing both the dose and the frequency of nasal sprays upon the onset of RM, worsening the condition. The swelling of the nasal passages caused by rebound congestion may eventually result in permanent turbinate hypertrophy, which may block nasal breathing until surgically removed.

Causes.

Common issues that lead to overuse of topical decongestants:

Pathophysiology.

The pathophysiology of RM is unclear, although several mechanisms involving norepinephrine signaling have been proposed. RM is associated with histological changes that include: an increase in the number of lymphocytes and fibroblasts, epithelial cell denudation, epithelial edema, goblet cell hyperplasia, increased expression of the epidermal growth factor receptor, increased mucus production, nasociliary loss, inflammatory cell infiltration, and squamous cell metaplasia.  Direct acting sympathomimetic amines, such as phenylephrine stimulate alpha adrenergic receptors, while mixed-acting agents, such as pseudoephedrine can stimulate both alpha and beta adrenergic receptors directly and indirectly by releasing norepinephrine from sympathetic nerve terminals. At first, the vasoconstrictive effect of alpha-receptors dominates, but with continued use of an alpha agonist, this effect fades first, allowing the vasodilation due to beta-receptor stimulation to emerge.  2-Imidazoline derivatives, such as oxymetazoline, may participate in negative feedback on endogenous norepinephrine production. Therefore, after cessation of prolonged use, there will be inadequate sympathetic vasoconstriction in the nasal mucosa, and domination of parasympathetic activity can result in increased secretions and nasal edema. Evidence suggests that if oxymetazoline is used only nightly for allergic rhinitis (instead of more frequent dosage as may be directed on product label), it may be used longer than one week without high risk of rhinitis medicamentosa especially with use of intranasal steroid like fluticasone furoate.

Treatment.

The treatment of RM involves withdrawal of the offending nasal spray or oral medication. Both a "cold turkey" and a "weaning" approach can be used. Cold turkey is the most effective treatment method, as it directly removes the cause of the condition, yet the time period between the discontinuation of the drug and the relief of symptoms may be too long and uncomfortable for some individuals (particularly when trying to go to sleep when they are unable to breathe through their nose).  A benefit of the gradual “weaning” approach is that it helps preserve normal nasal airflow during the withdrawal process. United States Patent Number 5,988,870 was issued for a method and apparatus used to facilitate the precise titration and gradual withdrawal of decongestant nasal sprays containing physical dependence causing compounds. The system is sold under the brand name Rhinostat.  The use of over-the-counter (OTC) saline nasal sprays may help open the nose without causing RM if the spray does not contain a decongestant. Symptoms of congestion and runny nose can often be treated with corticosteroid nasal sprays under the supervision of a physician. For very severe cases, oral steroids or nasal surgery may be necessary.  For RM caused by topical decongestants, there are anecdotal reports of persons having success by withdrawing treatment from one nostril at a time.  A study has shown that the anti-infective agent benzalkonium chloride, which is frequently added to topical nasal sprays as a preservative, aggravates the condition by further increasing the rebound swelling.

Rhinitis medicamentosa (or RM) is a condition of rebound nasal congestion suspected to be brought on by extended use of topical decongestants (e.g., oxymetazoline, phenylephrine, xylometazoline, and naphazoline nasal sprays) and certain oral medications (e.g., sympathomimetic amines and various 2-imidazolines) that constrict blood vessels in the lining of the nose although evidence has been contradictory.

Rhinitis medicamentosa (RM, česky medikamentózní rhinitida či medikamentózní rýma) je stav opětovného překrvení sliznice nosní způsobený dlouhým používáním povrchových dekongescencií (např. nosních sprejů obsahujících oxymetazolin, fenylefrin, xylometazolin nebo nafazolin), které stahují cévy ve sliznici.


Biography.

Early years.

Annette von Droste-Hülshoff was born at the castle of Burg Hülshoff (now a part of Havixbeck) in the Prince-Bishopric of Münster. Her family, the Barons Droste zu Hülshoff belongs to the oldest Catholic aristocracy of Westphalia. Her father Clemens August von Droste zu Hülshoff (1760–1826) was a learned man who was interested in ancient history and languages, ornithology, botany, music and the supernatural. Her mother Therese Luise (1772–1853) came from another aristocratic Westphalian family, the Barons von Haxthausen. Annette was the second of four children: she had an elder sister Maria Anna (nicknamed "Jenny", 1795-1859) and two younger brothers, Werner Konstantin (1798–1867) and Ferdinand (1800–1829). Annette was born one month prematurely and only saved by the intervention of a nurse. She suffered from problems with her health throughout her life, including headaches and eye troubles.  Droste was educated by private tutors in ancient languages, French, natural history, mathematics and music (she inherited considerable musical talent from her father). She began to write as a child; 50 poems written between 1804 and 1814 have been preserved. Droste's maternal grandfather Werner Adolf von Haxthausen had remarried after the death of his first wife (Annette's grandmother) in 1772 and built himself a new castle, Schloss Bökerhof, in the village of Bökendorf, Paderborn. Here his sons from his second marriage, Werner and August, had formed an intellectual circle. They were in contact with such celebrated cultural figures as the Brothers Grimm, Clemens Brentano, Friedrich Schlegel, Adele and Johanna Schopenhauer. Droste visited the castle frequently and made the acquaintance of Wilhelm Grimm. She and her sister contributed folk tales from Westphalia to the Grimms' famous collection of fairy stories. However, neither Grimm nor her step-uncles gave any encouragement to the young girl's literary ambitions. The only literary figure to recognise Droste's precocious talent was Anton Matthias Sprickmann (1749–1833), whom she first met in 1812. Sprickmann was the founder of the theatre in Münster and had known important 18th-century poets such as Matthias Claudius and Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. Droste trusted Sprickmann's judgement and showed him many of her early works, including the unfinished tragedy "Berta oder die Alpen" ("Berta, or The Alps", 1813). Other examples of her juvenilia are the tale in verse "Walter" (1818) and a novel "Ledwina" (begun in 1819 but never completed).  In 1819-1820, Annette spent a year with the Haxthausens at Schloss Bökerhof, interrupted only by a stay at the nearby spa town of Bad Driburg, where she hoped to find a cure for her health problems. Here she became romantically involved with Heinrich Straube (1794–1847), a Lutheran law student with literary interests, who was a friend of her step-uncle August von Haxthausen. What happened next is unclear, but it appears that the Haxthausen family, led by Annette's step-aunt Anna (who was in fact four years her junior), disapproved of the relationship because Straube was a commoner and devised a scheme to put an end to it. While Straube was away pursuing his legal studies at the University of Göttingen, they persuaded August von Arnswaldt, a Lutheran aristocrat with literary ambitions, to pretend to pay court to Annette. At first flattered by von Arnswaldt's attentions, Annette gave some indications she was in love with him, before telling him she really loved Heinrich Straube. By this time it was too late, as von Arnswaldt had all the evidence he needed. He traveled to Göttingen and gave Straube proof of Annette's behaviour. The two men wrote a joint letter (which has not been preserved), breaking off all contact with her. She never saw either man again. A few years later, August von Arnswaldt married a widowed Anna von Haxthausen, the ringleader of the intrigue. Straube became a lawyer in Kassel and married in 1824. When he died in 1847, a lock of Annette's hair was found among his possessions. The ensuing scandal was a catastrophe for Annette and severely damaged both her reputation and her marriage prospects. Shocked by the role that her Haxthausen relatives had played, Annette refused to visit Schloss Bökerhof for the next 18 years.  Droste's earliest poems are derivative and conventional but in 1820 her work began to show marked originality when she embarked on a cycle of religious poems, "Das geistliche Jahr" ("The Spiritual Year"). Droste intended to write one poem for each Sunday and Feast Day of the church year and the cycle was meant to please her devout grandmother, but when Droste had completed 25 poems, she realised they were too personal and showed too many traces of spiritual doubt, so she shelved the work until 1839 when a friend persuaded her to complete the series. Even then she did not publish the poems and they were only offered to the public posthumously in 1851.  When her father died in 1826 she moved with her mother and sister to a small country house near Hülshoff called Rüschhaus. Here she led a constricted, monotonous existence, broken only by a few trips to the Rhine and Bonn. She composed poetry, but not prolifically. In 1834 her sister Jenny married Joseph von Laßberg, a specialist in medieval German poetry. The following summer, Annette and her mother travelled to Laßberg's castle Eppishausen in the Swiss Alps. She was inspired by the scenery and on friendly terms with Laßberg, but neither he nor his friends appreciated modern literature and Droste's hopes that they might help her to publish her work came to nothing.  Droste now entrusted the publication of her first book to two friends, Christoph Bernhard Schlüter and Wilhelm Junkmann. They had little experience of the literary world and chose the local Münster publisher Aschendorff. Droste would have preferred a non-regional publisher rather than a Westphalian one as Westphalia had a reputation as a cultural backwater and few people bought books there. The collection appeared in 1838 in a print-run of 500 copies, of which only 74 were sold. It contained three long narrative poems ("Das Hospiz auf dem großem Saint-Bernard", "Das Vermächtnis des Arztes" and "Die Schlacht in Loener Bruch") and a handful of lyrics. Although they were issued under the name "Annette Elisabeth von D.H.", her family did not approve. Droste found the failure of her book "humiliating."

Literary success.

The year 1840 marked a turning point in her career, however. In 1838, Droste had begun to frequent a literary salon in Münster, presided over by Elise Rüdiger, the "Hecken-Schriftstellergesellschaft." One of its members was the young poet Levin Schücking. Schücking had published an admiring review of Droste's collection and sought her help in writing his own book, "Das malerische und romantische Westfalen" ("Picturesque and Romantic Westphalia", 1840). The two soon formed a close friendship and Droste wrote a number of ballads for inclusion in the book, among them "Das Fräulein von Rodenschild" and "Der Tod des Erzbischofs Engelbert von Köln". Schücking encouraged her renewed literary creativity. In the winter of 1840—1841 she wrote her famous novella "Die Judenbuche" ("The Jew's Beech", published 1842), based on an incident which had occurred near Bökerhof in the late 18th century. The following autumn and winter, Droste and Schücking stayed at her brother-in-law's castle at Meersburg on Lake Constance, where Schücking had been given the task of cataloguing Laßberg's book collection. Here Schücking told her that her talent lay in lyric poetry, which relied on rare moments of inspiration. Droste disagreed: she had no problem composing poetry in her head but had difficulty writing it down and the failure of her first book had not encouraged her to make the effort. Now she had a sympathetic reader in Schücking, she began to write in earnest, producing about fifty poems between October 1841 and April 1842. They include poems dedicated to Schücking, often on the theme of ageing (e.g. "Kein Wort", "O frage nicht"), and poems of self-analysis such as "Das Spiegelbild" ("The Image in the Mirror") and "Die Taxuswand" ("The Yew Hedge"), which looks back to her unhappy love affair with Straube. Other lyrics are the nature poems collected in the cycle "Heidebilder" ("Heath Pictures"), including such famous pieces as "Die Krähen" ("The Crows"), "Der Hünenstein", "Die Mergelgrube" ("The Marl Pit") and "Der Knabe im Moor" ("The Boy on the Moor"). These often have an element of supernatural terror.  In April 1842, Schücking left Meersburg to take up a job as a tutor in an aristocratic family. Droste returned to Rüschhaus the same summer. The pair would never be so close again. Droste's literary productivity declined, but she did compose a few more poems, including the supernatural story "Spiritus familiaris." In September 1844, the prestigious publisher Cotta issued a large collection of her poems from the 1840s. This time Droste enjoyed great success and the book received admiring reviews from many important intellectual figures. Clara Schumann asked her to write an opera libretto for her husband Robert (the project never came to fruition). In time, Droste was acknowledged as the greatest female German author of the 19th century.

Final years.

Meanwhile, her relationship with Schücking had cooled. In 1843, Schücking had married Louise von Gall. When the couple had visited Droste in Meersburg for four weeks in May 1844, the two women had not liked each other. Droste published a poem "Lebt wohl" ("Farewell") in the literary journal "Morgenblatt", effectively saying goodbye to Schücking. Schücking also used his own literary works to mark his distance from Droste. In 1846, he published two novels. The first, "Die Ritterbürtigen", contained a highly critical portrait of the Westphalian aristocracy. This caused Droste embarrassment as Schücking had made use of private information he could only have derived from conversations with her. The second novel, "Eine dunkle Tat", included characters resembling himself and Droste. The character of Katharina, based on Droste, is maternal and possessive and treats the hero as a substitute child. As a result of these publications and her dislike of Schücking's radical political views, Droste made a decisive break with him. Nevertheless, after Droste's death, Schücking helped publicise her works, publishing the collection of her final poems, "Letzte Gaben", in 1860 and an edition of her collected works in 1878-9. Important poems from her last years include "Mondesaufgang" ("Moonrise"), "Durchwachte Nacht" ("Sleepless Night") and "Im Grase" ("In the Grass").  The profits from her book had helped Droste to buy a small vine-covered villa known as Fürstenhäusle in Meersburg, while she lived in the old castle from 1846 until her death in May 1848, probably from tuberculosis.

Character of her poetry.

The critic Margaret Atkinson wrote:

Musical activity.

Droste received early instruction in piano and later in singing. In 1821 she was given a composition manual, "Einige Erklärungen über den General=Baß", written by her uncle Maximilian-Friedrich von Droste zu Hülshoff (a friend of Joseph Haydn) and announced her intention to learn it by heart. 74 "Lieder" by Droste survive as well as fragments and sketches of 4 unrealized operas. She did not fulfill Clara Schumann's request for a libretto for her husband, but Robert did set a poem, "Das Hirtenfeuer", as Op. 59 no. 5.

Legacy.

Asteroid 12240 Droste-Hülshoff, discovered by astronomer Freimut Börngen in 1988, was named in her memory.

Baroness Anna Elisabeth Franziska Adolphine Wilhelmine Louise Maria von Droste zu Hülshoff, known as Annette von Droste-Hülshoff (; 10 or 12 January 179724 May 1848), was a 19th-century German writer and composer. She was one of the most important German poets and author of the novella "Die Judenbuche".

Anna Elisabeth Franziska Adolphine Wilhelmine Louise Maria, Freiin von Droste zu Hülshoff, známá jako Annette von Droste-Hülshoffová (10. 12. nebo 14. ledna 1797, Havixbeck; existují nejasnosti okolo dne jejího narození: v literatuře se uvádí zpravidla 10. leden, rodina prý slavila narozeniny 12. ledna, zatímco zápis v církevní matrice udává 14. ledna – 24. května 1848) byla německá spisovatelka a hudební skladatelka.


Plot.

Fry learns that "" has been forbidden since the series became a worldwide religion in the 2200s; all of its fans were killed during the Star Trek Wars and the "sacred" tapes of its and six movies were burned, with the remaining copies sent to the forbidden planet Omega 3. Outraged, Fry takes Leonard Nimoy's head from the Head Museum and convinces Bender and Leela to join him in a mission to recover the "Star Trek" tapes from Omega 3.  On Omega 3, they find several original sets from "Star Trek", and most of the original cast with new bodies and eternal youth. An energy being named Melllvar explains that he became a Trekkie after watching the dumped tapes over and over again. Melllvar gives Nimoy a body, and orders the actors and the Planet Express crew to participate in a "Star Trek" convention until the end of time, and kills Welshie, a Redshirt, to ensure their obedience. While Melllvar forces the cast to perform his fan script, Bender, Leela and Fry escape in the "Planet Express Ship". Fry convinces the crew to attack Melllvar to save the actors, but Melllvar destroys the ship's engine as he drags it back to the planet.  After seeing the Planet Express crew's attempt to defeat him, Melllvar wonders if they are more worthy of his adoration than the "Star Trek" cast, and decides to force them to battle to the death. After several minutes of fighting, Melllvar's mother appears and makes him come home for dinner. While he is gone, the two groups combine the engine of the cast's ship with the hull of the "Planet Express Ship" to escape. To lose enough weight to lift off, the cast jettison their bodies. Melllvar follows the crew into space in a Klingon Bird of Prey. Zapp Brannigan boards the "Planet Express Ship" and holds a court-martial of the occupants for trespassing on Omega 3. Leela points out that while the court-martial is in progress Melllvar is still chasing them. Fry convinces Melllvar that he cannot spend his life watching "Star Trek", and Melllvar agrees to end the chase. The crew and cast return to Earth.

Production.

The writer for this episode, David A. Goodman, said that making this episode was a "dream come true" for many members of the crew including himself. At the time he was hired onto the staff, they were already talking about creating a "Star Trek"-centric episode. The initial idea was to have a giant Kirk and Spock fighting over New York-New York Hotel and Casino. Executive producer David X. Cohen assigned the writing task to Goodman, as they agreed he was the biggest "Trek" fan of the group. They agreed to drop the story idea with the giant characters and gave him two weeks to write the script. The deadline was complicated as Goodman had to spend the first week on jury duty, and then broke his ankle. Despite this, he described "Where No Fan Has Gone Before" as the most fun he has ever had writing a script.  Series creator Matt Groening stated that while he is a fan of the "Star Trek" franchise, he has never seen an episode of "The Original Series" in its entirety, but has seen "". Director Pat Shinagawa said that there was a certain amount of jealousy among the crew that she got to work on the episode. All of the living members of the original "Star Trek" cast agreed to appear in the episode with the exception of James Doohan, whose agent replied with "No way." Because of this, the episode's working title was jokingly named "We got everybody but Scotty" and so Scotty was replaced with "Welshie". DeForest Kelley was physically portrayed but had no lines due to his death in 1999. William Shatner and Leonard Nimoy recorded their lines together, which was unusual as actors usually record solo. Goodman later joined the writing staff of "Star Trek: Enterprise".  Several designs for the energy being were considered for this episode; however, the final version was decided upon due to a desire to keep the design simple. Shinagawa noted that even so, the final design for Melllvar is more sophisticated than some energy beings featured in the original series.

Cultural references.

This episode contains many story elements based on episodes of "Star Trek". In the DVD audio commentary, Goodman noted his pride in having included a large number of quotations from "The Original Series", particularly those items which he claims "the people on the internet" had not found on their own. He noted that in "Shatner's Log", based on "Star Trek"s "Captain's log", the line "The impossible has happened" quotes the opening log in "Where No Man Has Gone Before".

Broadcast and reception.

Although the episode was not the last episode produced for season four, it was used as the season finale for the fourth broadcast season, being broadcast on April 21, 2002, on Fox in the United States. The episode was subsequently nominated for a Nebula Award in 2004 for best script, but lost to the film "" (2002).  Prior to the broadcast, Dusty Saunders previewed the episode for "Rocky Mountain News", calling "Futurama" "under-appreciated" and that this episode had "Lots of fun and fantasy at the expense of the noted sci-fi series." Zack Handlen, while writing for "The A.V. Club", gave the episode an 'A' grade. He said that the storyline could have been seen as "pretty mean-spirited if there wasn't such a clear thread of "Trek" love running through the episode". He felt that having the framing device set during the event rather than afterwards as "delightful", and that the "Star Trek" references were both "relevant to the story and funny in their own right". Andy Wilson reviewed the episode for BigShinyRobot, calling it the "greatest animated homage to "Trek" ever" and "one of the best episodes of "Futurama"".  IGN ranked the episode in tenth place in their list of the top 25 episodes of the series in 2006, calling it "ultimate fan service episode", but "one that any sci-fi fan, Trekker or otherwise, can still enjoy". The popularity of this episode combined with the large volume of "Star Trek" references has made this episode a touchstone among Trekkies according to Chris Baker at Wired.com. This episode, along with "Teenage Mutant Leela's Hurdles", was the great moments of the fourth season by David Hofstede in his book "5000 Episodes and No Commercials: The Ultimate Guide to TV Shows on DVD". "Where No Fan Has Gone Before" was included in the Volume 4 release on DVD, including several deleted scenes, which was first released on August 24, 2004, in the United States.

References.

Notes Bibliography

"Where No Fan Has Gone Before" is the eleventh episode in the fourth season of the American animated television series "Futurama". It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 21, 2002. Set in a retro-futuristic 31st century, the series follows the adventures of the employees of Planet Express, an interplanetary delivery company. In this episode, the Planet Express team and most of the main cast of "" face a court-martial after visiting the forbidden planet Omega 3.

Kam se dosud žádný fanoušek nevydal, anglicky Where No Fan Has Gone Before je jedenáctá epizoda čtvrté série seriálu "Futurama". Poprvé byla vysílána 21. dubna 2002 stanicí Fox.


Deontological philosophies.

There are numerous formulations of deontological ethics.

Kantianism.

Immanuel Kant's theory of ethics is considered deontological for several different reasons. First, Kant argues that to act in the morally right way, people must act from duty ("Pflicht"). Second, Kant argued that it was not the consequences of actions that make them right or wrong but the motives of the person who carries out the action.  Kant's argument that to act in the morally right way one must act purely from duty begins with an argument that the highest good must be both good in itself and good without qualification. Something is "good in itself" when it is intrinsically good, and "good without qualification", when the addition of that thing never makes a situation ethically worse. Kant then argues that those things that are usually thought to be good, such as intelligence, perseverance and pleasure, fail to be either intrinsically good or good without qualification. Pleasure, for example, appears not to be good without qualification, because when people take pleasure in watching someone suffer, this seems to make the situation ethically worse. He concludes that there is only one thing that is truly good: Kant then argues that the consequences of an act of willing cannot be used to determine that the person has a good will; good consequences could arise by accident from an action that was motivated by a desire to cause harm to an innocent person, and bad consequences could arise from an action that was well-motivated. Instead, he claims, a person has a good will when he 'acts out of respect for the moral law'. People 'act out of respect for the moral law' when they act in some way "because" they have a duty to do so. So, the only thing that is truly good in itself is a good will, and a good will is only good when the willer chooses to do something because it is that person's duty, i.e. out of respect for the law. He defines'respect' as "the concept of a worth which thwarts my self-love".  Kant's three significant formulations of the categorical imperative are:  Kant argued that the only absolutely good thing is a good will, and so the single determining factor of whether an action is morally right is the will, or motive of the person doing it. If they are acting on a bad maxim, e.g. 'I will lie', then their action is wrong, even if some good consequences come of it. In his essay, "On a Supposed Right to Lie Because of Philanthropic Concerns", arguing against the position of Benjamin Constant, "Des réactions politiques", Kant states that "Hence a lie defined merely as an intentionally untruthful declaration to another man does not require the additional condition that it must do harm to another, as jurists require in their definition ("mendacium est falsiloquium in praeiudicium alterius"). For a lie always harms another; if not some human being, then it nevertheless does harm to humanity in general, inasmuch as it vitiates the very source of right ["Rechtsquelle"]... All practical principles of right must contain rigorous truth... This is because such exceptions would destroy the universality on account of which alone they bear the name of principles."

Divine command theory.

Although not all deontologists are religious, some believe in the 'divine command theory', which is actually a cluster of related theories which essentially state that an action is right if God has decreed that it is right. According to Ralph Cudworth, an English philosopher, William of Ockham, René Descartes, and eighteenth-century Calvinists all accepted various versions of this moral theory, as they all held that moral obligations arise from God's commands. The Divine Command Theory is a form of deontology because, according to it, the rightness of any action depends upon that action being performed because it is a duty, not because of any good consequences arising from that action. If God commands people not to work on Sabbath, then people act rightly if they do not work on Sabbath "because God has commanded that they do not do so". If they do not work on Sabbath because they are lazy, then their action is not truly speaking "right", even though the actual physical action performed is the same. If God commands not to covet a neighbour's goods, this theory holds that it would be immoral to do so, even if coveting provides the beneficial outcome of a drive to succeed or do well.  One thing that clearly distinguishes Kantian deontologism from divine command deontology is that Kantianism maintains that man, as a rational being, makes the moral law universal, whereas divine command maintains that God makes the moral law universal.

Contemporary deontology.

Contemporary deontologists (scholars born in the first half of the 20th century) include Józef Maria Bocheński, Thomas Nagel, Thomas Scanlon, and Roger Scruton.  Bocheński (1965) makes a distinction between deontic and epistemic authority. A typical example of epistemic authority in Bocheński's usage would be "the relation of a teacher to his students"; an example of deontic authority would be "the relation between an employer and his employee". A teacher has epistemic authority when making declarative sentences that the student presumes is reliable knowledge and appropriate but feels no obligation to accept or obey; in contrast, an employer has deontic authority in the act of issuing an order that the employee is obliged to accept and obey regardless of its reliability or appropriateness.  Scruton, in his book "On Human Nature", is critical of consequentialism and similar ethical theories, such as hedonism and utilitarianism, and instead proposes a deontological ethical approach. He implies that proportional duty and obligation are essential components of the ways in which we decide to act, and he defends natural law against opposing theories. He also expresses admiration for virtue ethics, and believes that the two ethical theories are not, as is frequently portrayed, mutually exclusive.

Deontology and consequentialism.

Frances Kamm's "Principle of Permissible Harm" (1996) is an effort to derive a deontological constraint which coheres with our considered case judgments while also relying heavily on Kant's categorical imperative. The Principle states that one may harm in order to save more if and only if the harm is an effect or an aspect of the greater good itself. This principle is meant to address what Kamm feels are most people's considered case judgments, many of which involve deontological intuitions. For instance, Kamm argues that we believe it would be impermissible to kill one person to harvest his organs in order to save the lives of five others. Yet, we think it is morally permissible to divert a runaway trolley that would otherwise kill five innocent and immobile people onto a side track where one innocent and immobile person will be killed. Kamm believes the Principle of Permissible Harm explains the moral difference between these and other cases, and more importantly expresses a constraint telling us exactly when we may not act to bring about good ends—such as in the organ harvesting case. In 2007, Kamm published a book that presents new theory that incorporates aspects of her "Principle of Permissible Harm", the "Doctrine of Productive Purity". Like the "Principle of Permissible Harm", the "Doctrine of Productive Purity" is an attempt to provide a deontological prescription for determining the circumstances in which people are permitted to act in a way that harms others.  Attempts have been made to reconcile deontology with virtue-based ethics and consequentialism. Iain King's 2008 book "How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time" uses quasi-realism and a modified form of utilitarianism to develop deontological principles which are compatible with ethics based on virtues and consequences. King develops a hierarchy of principles to link his meta-ethics, which are more inclined towards consequentialism, with the deontological conclusions he presents in his book.

In moral philosophy, deontological ethics or deontology (from the Greek words δέον, 'obligation, duty', and λόγος,'study') is the normative ethical theory that the morality of an action should be based on whether that action itself is right or wrong under a series of rules, rather than based on the consequences of the action. It is sometimes described as duty, obligation- or rule-based ethics. Deontological ethics is commonly contrasted to consequentialism, virtue ethics, and pragmatic ethics. In this terminology, action is more important than the consequences.

Deontologie nebo deontologická etika (z řec. "to deon", vyžadované, povinné, povinnost) je směr normativní filosofické etiky, který soudí, že člověk se má rozhodovat a jednat podle pevných zásad povinnosti, v protikladu k utilitarismu a konsekvencialismu, který správnost a nesprávnost jednání odvozuje z jeho důsledků.


History.

Yehiam was founded by a group of the socialist Zionist Hashomer Hatzair youth movement – Holocaust survivors from Hungary and members from Yishuv – who named themselves Kibbutz HaSela (lit. "The Rock"), whereas "kibbutz" is still understood here as a wandering "collective", not as a settlement. For a while the HaSela collective lived in tents in the area of Kiryat Haim, looking for an appropriate place to settle. Eventually, on 26 November 1946, Kibbutz Yehiam was established at the site of the medieval castle, with only the men taking residence, at first within the castle and then in tents at its foot, while the women, children and some men remained at Kiryat Haim, where they worked in order to support the group up at the castle. According to one guidebook, there were 50 founding members, who transformed the castle ruins into a military training camp. The UN Partition resolution came almost exactly one year later, on 29 November 1947, placing the kibbutz within the envisaged Arab state, rather than the Jewish one. The new name, Yehiam, was adopted in honour of Yehiam Weitz, son of Jewish Agency official Joseph Weitz, who had been killed not far away, near the Arab village of al-Kabri, in the "Night of the Bridges", a Palmach operation which took place on 16–17 June 1946. The decision to establish the new kibbutz was taken after consultations with Joseph Weitz.  The initial attempt to use the surviving rooms of the castle almost ended in disaster, as the ticks left behind by the herds of goats sheltered here by the local Bedouins during the winter months were carriers of disease, and after a month and a half 20 members had already fallen ill with fever. Injections of penicillin, the just recently introduced wonder drug, saved their lives. Signalling was the only means of communication with the comrades from Kiryat Haim and the rest of the world, but the lack of potable water was the main problem, as the pools they had built to collect rainwater did not provide drinkable water even after treatment.  The British mandatory authorities assisted in the kibbutz establishment, despite it being against official British policy.  On 20 January 1948, 200-300 troops of the Arab Liberation Army's Second Yarmuk Regiment based in Tarshiha attacked Yehi'am, armed with mortars, machine guns and rifles. The force surrounded the kibbutz from all sides and blocked all the access roads. A platoon of British soldiers exchanged fire with the Arab regiment, which withdrew and tried to attack again the following night but was repulsed by a reinforcement of Haganah fighters.  On 27 March 1948, a Haganah convoy was sent to bring supplies to the kibbutz which was besieged by Arab forces. The Yehiam convoy, consisting of five trucks and an armored car, was ambushed by 250 Arabs near al-Kabri. The incident was reported on 29 March in The Scotsman:  The founders of Kibbutz Yehi'am lived in tents among the ruins. A small kitchen provided meals with airlifted supplies. They were highly visible to the Arab troops stationed on the hills, who subjected the fortress to heavy fire. Communication with the outside world was through bonfires, flashlight signals and pigeon posts to Nahariya and Kiryat Haim. While defending themselves, Yehi'am members worked the land, growing vegetables, grapes and peaches. During Operation Dekel the Israeli army conquered and forcibly evacuated the Bedouin village of Khirbat Jiddin on 10–11 July 1948. Several operations later, the entire Galilee was eventually taken by Jewish forces during Operation Hiram between 29 and 31 October 1948.  After the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, new houses were built, including the first children's house. Hashomer Hatzair groups joined from different parts of Israel, as well as Aliya of that same movement from Cuba, France, Uruguay, Argentina, Mexico and Colombia.

Economy.

Kibbutz Yehiam was privatised in 2001, with a programme put in place in order to attract young families, some of them belonging to people who have grown up on the kibbutz and have moved out at some point.  A sweets factory was one of the first industries in Yehi'am. In addition, the kibbutz had a large variety of agriculture branches such as bananas, citrus, avocado, dairy farming, chicken coop, pigsty, fish farming, wheat, cotton and maize (corn), and a large tobacco crop. As for 2015, Yehi'am's agriculture is largely based on bananas, avocado, citrus, field crops and chickens.  Yehi'am Fortress National Park features an Arab fortress built in the 18th century by Zahir al-Umar on and around the remains of a smaller castle dating back to the Crusader era, and which was occupied later on by Bedouin tribes when it was called Khirbat Jiddin.  In 1969, Yehi'am established Deli-Yehiam, a kosher meat factory specializing in beef and chicken cold cuts. In 2006, the company developed a new series of products including pastrami with pistachio, red peppers and olives, which was also marketed at retail chains and kosher delis in France. Its exports to Europe totaled $10 million a year.  In the early 1990s, Yehi'am built Teva BeYehiam, a 60-room Crusader-style guest house at the foot of the castle.

Yehi'am () is a kibbutz in northern Israel. Located the western Upper Galilee, eight miles east of the coastal town of Nahariya and 14 miles south-east of the border with Lebanon it falls under the jurisdiction of Mateh Asher Regional Council. In it had a population of. It is located around 365 meters above sea level

Jechi'am ( יְחִיעָם, v oficiálním přepisu do angličtiny Yehi'am) je vesnice typu kibuc v Izraeli, v Severním distriktu, v Oblastní radě Mate Ašer.


Recording, production, artwork, and packaging.

"We're an American Band" was the group's first collaboration with producer/engineer Todd Rundgren. Rundgren and the band recorded the album at Criteria Studios in Miami, Florida on June 13–15, 1973. Rundgren would go on to produce the band's next album, "Shinin' On" (1974), before the band switched to Jimmy Ienner.  The album's original issue, as well as the "We're an American Band" single, was on translucent yellow vinyl, symbolic of a 'Gold record'. The album labels, above the side numbers, instructed listeners to play "at full volume". It included four stickers (two blue, and two red) with the Grand Funk "Pointing Finger" logo. Emphasizing the shortening of the group's name, the word "Railroad" does not appear anywhere on the album sleeve, liner, or vinyl record, except as the title of the first song on side two of the album.

Reception.

Upon the album's release, "We're an American Band" became the band's best received album by critics, so far. Robert Christgau gave the album a B-, his highest rating for a Grand Funk Railroad album at the time (although "Shinin' On" (1974) and "Grand Funk Hits" (1976) would receive a B and B+, respectively). A modern review of the album by William Ruhlmann for Allmusic stated that the album was a departure from the band's usual material, which was mostly due to Todd Rundgren's production and Don Brewer's increase in lead vocal work. Ruhlmann also said that the album sounded more professional than their previous ones.

Personnel.

"Per sleeve notes"

Production.

"Per sleeve notes"

We're an American Band is the seventh studio album by American hard rock band Grand Funk Railroad, credited as Grand Funk. The album was released by Capitol Records on July 15, 1973 (see 1973 in music) and was certified gold by the RIAA a little over a month after its release. Two singles were released from the album. The first single, "We're an American Band", was released on July 2, 1973 and the second, "Walk Like a Man", was released on October 29, 1973. Both singles were sung by drummer Don Brewer. There is an addition to the band on this release - Craig Frost - who plays the organ, clavinet and Moog. Craig was credited as an additional musician on "Phoenix" which was released the previous year.

We're an American Band je sedmé studiové album americké skupiny Grand Funk Railroad, vydané v červenci 1973 na značce Capitol Records. Album produkoval Todd Rundgren a bylo prvním, na kterém se objevil Craig Frost jako plnoprávný člen skupiny.


Biography.

Tom Hodgkinson was born in Newcastle, England. He is the brother of journalist and author Will Hodgkinson; their father is the science and medical writer Neville Hodgkinson and their mother is the prolific non-fiction writer and journalist Liz Hodgkinson.  Tom was educated at Westminster School and Jesus College, Cambridge, during which time he played the bass guitar in the Stupids-influenced thrash band Chopper. He lived in North Devon until 2013. He currently lives in London.  In the early 1990s, he worked at a Rough Trade Records shop in London, where he had the idea for "The Idler". In the late 1990s he became an importer of absinthe.  From 1995 to 1997 he was Joint Head of Creative Development at Guardian Newspapers, where he worked for Carolyn McCall and Alan Rusbridger.  From 1997 to 2002 he and Gavin Pretor-Pinney ran Idle Industries, a creative consultancy with clients such as Channel 4, "the Guardian", Sony PlayStation, ad agency Mother, Paramount TV and Oakley.  The pair launched the "Crap Towns" series of books.  Hodgkinson has contributed articles to "The Sunday Telegraph", "The Guardian" and "The Sunday Times" as well as being the author of the "Idler" spin-offs, "How To Be Idle", "How To Be Free" and "The Idle Parent".  "How to be Idle" has been translated into 25 languages and was a best-seller in the UK, US, Italy, Germany and the Czech Republic.  In 2006 he created National Unawareness Day, to be celebrated on 1 November.  In March 2011 he and his partner Victoria Hull launched The Idler Academy in London, a school running courses in philosophy, public speaking, grammar, ukulele, singing, drawing, calligraphy, astronomy, foraging, bread baking, bartitsu and small business.  In April 2013 he launched the Idler Academy Bad Grammar Award, and in September 2013 he launched the Ukulele Player of the Year competition. Bloomsbury UK and Bloomsbury US published his and Gavin's book, "The Ukulele Handbook".

Tom Hodgkinson (born 1968) is a British writer, and the editor of "The Idler", which he established in 1993 with his friend Gavin Pretor-Pinney. His philosophy, in his published books and articles, is of a relaxed approach to life, enjoying it as it comes rather than toiling for an imagined better future. "The Idler" was originally a series of essays written by Dr Johnson from 1758 to 1760.

Tom Hodgkinson (* 1968) je britský spisovatel, šéfredaktor časopisu The Idler (Lenoch) a autor knih "How to be Idle" ("Jak být líný" – v češtině vyšlo v nakladatelství Jota, 2010), "How to be Free" ("Jak být volný, v češtině vyšlo v nakladatelství Jota, 2011") a "The Idle Parent" ("Líný rodič" – v češtině vyšlo v nakladatelství Jota, 2009). Píše pro nejrůznější noviny a časopisy; přispívá zejména do rodičovského sloupku deníku Daily Telegraph. Žije se svou rodinou na farmě v hrabství Devon na jihozápadě Anglie. Ve svých článcích a knihách propaguje svou filozofii lenosti, zahálčení a nicnedělání. Podle Toma Hodgkinsona být líný znamená být zodpovědný vůči vlastnímu životu. Rozhovor s Tomem Hodgkinsonem spolu s dvacaterem jeho "evangelia" vyšel v časopisu Reflex v čísle z 25. února 2010. Tom Hodgkinson a výtvarník Gavin Pretor-Pinney založili v roce 1998 společnost "Green Bohemia" na dovoz absintu z České republiky.


History.

Dubioza kolektiv was formed in 2003 by Brano Jakubović, Vedran Mujagić, Almir Hasanbegović and Adis Zvekić with the merger of two musical groups, "Ornament" and "Gluho doba". The band originates from Sarajevo and Zenica. Dubioza kolektiv initially also featured a female vocal, but the singer, Adisa Zvekić, eventually left the group to pursue a solo career. The group's performances have been multilingual (Bosnian and English) ever since the band's inception.  Singer Adis Zvekić stated that he first set up a band that served as a forerunner for Dubioza in 1993, when he was 13 years old. Due to the Bosnian War, there was no electricity; the band used to meet in the evenings and have jam sessions in the dark. All band members declare themselves to have had a working-class background, being the children of workers and peasants.  Though the group considered contending to represent Bosnia in the Eurovision Song Contest, they eventually decided against the idea as they would have to sign a contract obligating them to refrain from making any political statements. Instead, they recorded and released a highly critical and political song; "Euro song".

Dubioza kolektiv, and Open Wide (2004-2006).

Dubioza kolektiv released their self-titled first album in April 2004. Two of the songs also featured accompanying music videos.  The "Open Wide" EP was released in December 2004, and featured four remixes of songs from the "Dubioza kolektiv" album, and two up until then unpublished tracks featuring English dub poet Benjamin Zephaniah, and Mush Khan of the Pakistani-British group, Fun-Da-Mental.

Dubnamite (2006-2008).

Dubnamite features 10 songs.

Firma ilegal (2008-2010).

"Firma ilegal" (English: "Illegal Enterprise") was the first album where all lyrics were written in the Bosnian language. The album addresses the social and political situation and Transition economy in Balkan societies, discussing corruption, privatization vs. social ownership, and the opportunistic political oligarchy.

5 do 12 (2010-2011).

Dubioza's fourth album, "5 do 12", was the first to be released online in full and for download free of charge. The album featured Plavi orkestar vocalist Saša Lošić, and Macedonian ska punk group, Superhiks. The CD release also featured remixes of the songs by other artists and recordings from MTV Live @ Skirlibaba Studio sessions. The work continued on the path set by Firma illegal, featuring socially critical lyrics written in the Bosnian language.

Wild Wild East (2011-2013).

"Wild Wild East" was the first album released for an international audience/market, marking the group's entry onto the international stage some 8 years after its founding.

Apsurdistan (2013-2015).

Apsurdistan features 13 songs.

Happy Machine (2015-2017).

Lyrics for the songs on the "Happy Machine" album were penned in response to events that unfolded over the 2 years prior to its publication, including the Gezi Park protests, The Pirate Bay trial, and the European refugee crisis, and featured numerous collaborating artists from around the globe and lyrics in English, Spanish, Punjabi, and Italian. The album title is an allusion to the makeshift distillation apparatus used to distill rakija, a regionally popular variety of moonshine. The drink is also mentioned in the song "No Escape (From Balkan)", and a blueprint for the distillation contraption is also featured on the album cover (in protest of new EU regulations requiring a permit even for small scale spirit production intended for domestic use).  The group also saw waxing international success, appearing at Glastonbury Festival 2015, and at South by Southwest in 2016, marking their US debut.

Pjesmice za djecu i odrasle (2017-).

Dubioza's 2017 album, "Pjesmice za djecu i odrasle" (English: "Songs for Youths and Adults") features songs written exclusively in Bosnian language. The album's singles include "Himna generacije", "Treba mi zraka", and "Rijaliti".

Musical style.

Dubioza kolektiv has been described as a "band without a genre". The group's distinct eclectic musical style has been shaped by the members' dissimilar and varied musical influences and backgrounds. The group never attempted to define a genre, preferring instead to focus on the ideas they wish to communicate to the audience and tailoring their music accordingly.  The group's music often combines serious lyrical themes and content with satirical and humorous lyrical style and presentation, and a lighthearted melody and simple and dancable rhythm, attempting to appeal to as wide an audience as possible in disseminating its art and ideas. As keyboardist Brano Jakubović put it: "[Our songs] prove that people can dance and think at the same time."  The content of many Dubioza songs is addressed and especially pertinent to the wider Balkan region, addressing the shared experience of (post-)transitional societies, their collective consciousnesses characteristically marred by the perception of widespread corruption, of failed privatisation of socially owned property, and opportunistic political oligarchy. With their expanding reach, the band has also begun to address social and political topics common to all Western and global contemporary society, often with lyrics written in English. The group nonetheless consistently incorporates a "Balkan sound" into its music, in part to combat common prejudices based on stereotypes regarding the musical form of the region, and to make their music instantly recognisable.  The group has also adopted a distinctive on-stage image, featuring yellow-black dress replete with the band's, Ziggi rolling papers', and The Pirate Bay' logos, a tight stage choreography, lively and rambunctious performance antics, and proactive audience interaction.  Members of the group embrace a "DIY" approach to music, writing, recording and producing it in their own studio, self-designing disc covers and websites, and carrying out most of the remaining band-related work like administering the band's social media presence and producing music videos largely by themselves. The band has an internal contest where band members who successfully contribute lyrics receive a monetary reward so as to self-encourage the group's songwriting.  Dubioza has consistently embraced socially and politically conscious texts, speaking out about injustices befalling ordinary people, political corruption, and attempting to raise public political awareness. Band members believe that it is the duty of artists to utilise their media to promote positive ideas and values.

Activism.

The group's activism against "right-wing parties, xenophobia and fascism" is in part based on their home country's experience with the repercussions of such ideologies.  Dubioza has supported various civic movements and non-governmental organisations (including by advocating them during live performances), having attended and performed at the 2012 Slovenian protests and 2015 Macedonian protests, and supported the Dosta! Roma awareness raising campaign, the Refugees Welcome campaign, a Slovenian environmentalist campaign to preserve the Mura River, and a campaign to revive the Bosnian Dita Tuzla laundry detergent factory wrecked by the Bosnian War and subsequent privatisation. Dubioza also actively advocates for the legalisation of marijuana through their lyrics and during live performances.  Dubioza kolektiv has made all their recent albums available for download free of charge on their website, also uploading them onto The Pirate Bay. Their song "Free.mp3 (The Pirate Bay Song)" pays homage to the peer-to-peer website and its jailed founders, lampoons global pop culture and political figures including Kim Kardashian, Miley Cyrus, and Barack Obama, and explores copyright in the digital age, internet privacy, and freedom of information. The song and music video were subsequently featured on Pirate Bay's homepage.  Instead of monetising their songs through intellectual property, Dubioza has instead been committed to exploring alternate modes of generating income as artists, including promoting their live performances instead of record sales, marketing the group's merchandise, and soliciting cryptocurrency donations, while regarding the traditional mode of music industry income generation as "outdated" and unfair to the artists. Dubioza believes in free exchange of art, ideas, and knowledge, with the audience voluntarily deciding whether they wish to monetarily reward the authors depending on whether they like their work. The band has also stated they found releasing albums online has strengthened their bond with their audience.  Dubioza has dedicated multiple concerts to charitable causes and donated the earnings, including to victims of 2014 Southeast Europe floods in Bosnia, and the children's Mostar Rock School.

Awards.

Their album "Happy Machine" was shortlisted by IMPALA (The Independent Music Companies Association) for the Album of the Year Award 2016, which rewards on a yearly basis the best album released on an independent European label.

Dubioza kolektiv (also known simply as Dubioza) is a Bosnian avant-garde dub rock group known for their crossover style that incorporates elements of hip hop, dub, ska, reggae, rock, punk, electronic music, and Balkan music, and for their socially and politically conscious songwriting with lyrics in multiple languages. In 2015, Dubioza kolektiv was referred to as the most popular Bosnian musical act.

Dubioza kolektiv (nazývána některými fanoušky pouze jako Dubioza) je bosenská kapela z Zenici, jejíž hudba se skládá z několika hudebních stylů reggae, dubu a rocku a politických textů.


Small LAN parties.

Usually, smaller LAN parties consist of people bringing their computers over to each other's houses to host and play multiplayer games.  These are sometimes established between small groups of friends, and hosted at a central location or one that is known to all participants. Such events are often organized quickly with little planning, and some overnight events, with some stretching into days (or even weeks). Because of the small number of players, games are usually played on small levels and/or against bots.  A small LAN party requires either a network switch, with enough ports to accommodate all the players, or if all the computers have Wi-Fi capability, an ad hoc network may be set up. This allows two or more computers to connect over a wireless connection, thereby eliminating the need for a wired network, a fair amount of power, and suitable surfaces for all the computers. Providing refreshments is often also a duty of the host, though guests are usually asked to contribute. In larger parties where participants may not all know each other personally, an entry fee may even be charged. Another tradition of some small groups is to purchase large amounts of fast food for consumption over many days. Many LAN participants will also bring food or drink to consume over the course of the party—though they can be held at any hour, many LAN parties begin late in the evening and run through the next morning, making energy drinks a popular choice.  When some of the participants cannot be present or when merging a few LAN parties together, VPN software such as Hamachi can be used to arrange computers over the Internet so they appear to be on the same LAN.  Normally, the host will host the games but sometimes at very small LAN parties (e.g. 2 or 3 people) all participants will connect to an online internet server and add a word in front of their name to tell everyone else that they are a clan or group. At bigger LANs (e.g. 5 or more people) the host or a friend of the host will use a spare PC as a game server to serve all the participants. Usually the host and/or the owner are administrators.  The group can play together in another server as well if they wish as long as they are in the same LAN.  Private LAN parties were at their peak in popularity during the late 1990s to early 2000s when broadband internet access was either unavailable or too expensive for most people at the time. Another purpose for attending private LAN parties was also the opportunity to share software, movies or music among the participants. File-sharing over LAN networks provided a convenient way to exchange content among participants, as most average internet users did not have access to the high-speed and bandwidth that a broadband Internet connection offers to accommodate large file size downloads. Since the wide availability of high-speed internet, friends can more easily remotely play their multiplayer games together, using gaming-orientated software such as TeamSpeak, Discord and Steam. Social media can also assist in online meet-ups and communication for groups of friends to be able to play their multiplayer games online together, in the comfort of their own homes rather than the inconvenience of packing and then setting up their PC's to the LAN party host's location.

Console-based LAN parties.

While traditional LAN parties have solely consisted of computer gaming, the widespread adoption of network-centric console platforms, such as Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, has led to an evolution in LAN parties. Modern consoles equipped with Ethernet ports are able to communicate with each other over standard routers or switches, much like traditional computers.  Console-LAN attendees need only their console, games, and television to garner the same local gaming experience as their computer-based counterparts. Many popular multiplayer games for the console have also been ported to the PC (e.g. " and "). Developers have given consumers the choice to enjoy the same multiplayer games on multiple platforms, paving way for an alternative stage in 21st-century LAN parties.

Larger LAN parties.

Many commercialized parties offer various tournaments, with competitions in such games as "StarCraft", "Warcraft III", "World of Warcraft", "", "", "Unreal Tournament", "Fortnite", "Kirby Air Ride", "PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds", "Garry's Mod", and games from the "Quake", "Left 4 Dead", "Call of Duty", "Battlefield", "Doom" and "Halo" series. Prizes may be awarded to winners, and can include computer hardware such as overclocking kits, cases, lights, fans, graphics cards and sometimes even complete computers (often considered humorous as typically the winner of the competition would already have (and be competing on) a custom PC far superior to the prize).  The duration of events is not standardized; organized parties often last for a weekend.  Big LAN parties often offer a quiet place to sleep, shower, and eat, as well as hired security, alternative entertainment (such as music), and a dedicated support crew, as well as a professionally managed network (or alternatively managed by an outside company) including a connection to the Internet. Catering might come in the form of a bar, delivered food such as pizza, or nearby shops. Some parties come fully catered in the form of regular barbecues or even employment of a catering staff running a public canteen.  Gaming clans — groups of gamers that often play in team games—often use these gatherings to meet one another, since they typically play together over the Internet between other parties with little real-world contact. Their goal is often to win tournaments. Clans are often in "ladders" where they move up after winning a match. As well as counting for standings in national and international gaming leagues such as the CPL there are regular events such as QuakeCon in which the very best players from around the world compete against one another, much like in popular sports. Practice matches are usually held prior to a match so competitors can get a rough idea of what they are up against.  Often case modders and overclockers attend these events to display their computers, which otherwise would be seen by few. Some come just to display their computers and look at others' computers.  Some attendees also use these parties for the purpose of file sharing. Copyright infringement via file sharing is often discouraged or forbidden by the larger parties. However, enforcement is rare and spotty due to the time involved and often a lack of desire by organizers. Some LAN parties actively support file sharing for legitimate purposes (game patches, updates, user contributed content), and may run Direct Connect hubs or other P2P service servers. One of the main reasons for running such servers is so file sharing can be monitored/controlled while standard Windows file sharing (SMB/CIFS) can be blocked, thus preventing the spread of SMB/CIFS-based viruses. Most P2P setups used at LAN parties also have a 'centralized' chat area, where all members of the LAN party can converse in an IRC-like environment.  There are also other kinds of parties not referred to as "LAN parties" where temporary LANs are built, but are not used as a main attraction. Amongst these are demoparties such as Assembly and hacker conventions such as DEF CON.  In the traditionally active demoscene countries, such as those in Northern Europe, the LAN party culture is often heavily influenced by demoparties. This is due to the fact that many of the largest demoparties were already well established in the early 1990s and their facilities were also suitable for large-scale LAN party activity. This eventually led gaming clans and other similar groups to attend these events and regard them merely as large LAN parties. On the other hand, it is not uncommon for "pure" LAN parties in Northern Europe to organize some demoscene-like competitions in areas such as computer graphics or home videos.

Sponsorship.

Many computer companies, including NVIDIA, Cooler Master, Cyber Snipa, Antec, Corsair, Alienware, SteelSeries, Tesoro, and Thermaltake, offer sponsorship packages to large LAN parties, with funding, prizes, or equipment given in return for advertising. Many large-scale LAN parties seek such sponsorship, in order to reduce operating risk (often the organisers risk losing tens of thousands of dollars) and provide prizes for attendees.

Culture.

LAN parties have their own unique culture. Enthusiasts often show off computers with extravagant aftermarket cooling systems, LED lighting effects, multi-display setups, and custom-built cases, and many other enhancements. Highly caffeinated drinks, termed energy drinks, are very popular in these events to improve concentration and stamina, since LAN parties often run into the early morning hours. Large parties can last for several days with no scheduled breaks. Most of the time, sleep is compromised to play for extended periods of time lasting from night to morning. There are also designated rooms separated from the LAN party for sleep.

A LAN party is a gathering of people with computers or compatible game consoles, where a local area network (LAN) connection is established between the devices using a router or switch, primarily for the purpose of playing multiplayer video games together. The size of these networks may vary from as few as two people, to very large gatherings of a hundred or more. Small parties can form spontaneously and take advantage of common household networking equipment, but larger ones typically require more planning, equipment, and preparation.

Jake Sisko je fiktivní postava v televizním sci-fi seriálu. "Jake Sisko" je synem kapitána Hvězdné flotily Benjamina Siska a jeho ženy "Jennifer". Rozhodl se nejít ve stopách svého otce a místo člena Hvězdné flotily se stal spisovatelem. Jeho nejbližším přítelem na stanici Deep Space Nine, kde vyrůstal, byl Fereng Nog.


Background.

Fortitude was one of the major elements of Operation Bodyguard, the overall Allied deception stratagem for the Normandy landings. Bodyguard's main objective was to ensure the Germans would not increase troop presence in Normandy and to do so by promoting the appearance that the Allied forces would attack in other locations.  After the 6 June 1944 invasion, the plan was to delay movement of German reserves to the Normandy beachhead and to prevent a potentially-disastrous counterattack. Fortitude's objectives were to promote alternative targets of Norway and Calais.  The planning of Operation Fortitude came under the auspices of the London Controlling Section (LCS), a secret body that was set up to manage Allied deception strategy during the war. However, the execution of each plan fell to the various theatre commanders; in the case of Fortitude, it was Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) under General Dwight Eisenhower. A special section, Ops (B), was established at SHAEF to handle the operation and all of the theatre's deception warfare. The LCS retained responsibility for what was called "special means", the use of diplomatic channels and double agents.  Fortitude was split into two parts, North and South, both with similar aims. Fortitude North was intended to convince the German High Command that the Allies, staging out of Scotland, would attempt an invasion of occupied Norway. Fortitude South employed the same tactic, with the apparent objective being Pas de Calais.

Planning.

Planning was ostensibly the responsibility of Noel Wild and his Ops (B) staff. However, in practice, the work was shared between Wild and the heads of the LCS and B1a. Work began in December 1943, at first under the codename Mespot. Prime Minister Winston Churchill judged that to be unsuitable and so the Fortitude name was adopted on February 18.

Fortitude South.

Wild's first version of the Fortitude South plan was produced in early January 1943 and aimed to counter the likelihood that the Germans would notice invasion preparations in the southern England. The intention was to create the impression that an invasion was aimed at the Pas-de-Calais sometime in mid-July. Once the real invasion had landed, six fictional divisions would keep the threat to Calais alive. The Fortitude South plan would be implemented, at an operational level, by the invasion force, the 21st Army Group under the command of General Bernard Montgomery.  That presented a problem in the form of Colonel David Strangeways, head of Montgomery's R Force deception staff. Strangeways had, in the opinion of Ops(B)'s Christopher Harmer, the same arrogance as his commanding officer. More importantly, he held a low opinion of the London establishment of the "old boys'" clubs of Ops (B) and LCS. Dissatisfied with the Fortitude South outline, he, in the words of Harmer, set out to ride "roughshod over the established deception organization". Strangeways's criticisms highlighted that the plan aimed to cover the Allies' real intentions, rather than to create a realistic threat to Calais. That was not the only issue, and Strangeways was not the only one to notice them. If the Germans were able to correctly judge the Allied state of readiness in southwestern England, they would be expecting an invasion in early June, which left several weeks to defeat any bridgehead and to turn to the defence of Calais. On 25 January, Montgomery's Chief of Staff, Francis de Guingand, sent a letter to the deception planners that included asking them to focus on Pas-de-Calais as the main assault; it was almost certainly sent at the behest of Strangeways. With those criticisms in hand, Wild produced his final draft for Fortitude South. In the revised plan, issued on 30 January and approved by the Allied chiefs on 18 February, fifty divisions would be positioned in Southern England to attack Pas de Calais. After the real invasion had landed, the story would change, suggesting to the Germans that several assault divisions remained in England that were ready to conduct a cross-channel attack once the Normandy beachhead had drawn German defences away from Calais. The plan still retained some of its earlier form, most notably since the first part of the story still aimed to suggest an invasion date of mid-July.  Strangeways was still unimpressed. He pointed out that convincing the Germans of so many fictional divisions would be tough and that even that would be easier than convincing them of Montgomery's ability to manage two entire invasions at the same time. Wild's plan outlined ten divisions for the Calais assault, six of them fictional and the remainder being the real American V Corps and British I Corps. However, the corps would be part of the actual Normandy invasion and so it would be difficult to imply Calais being the main assault after D-Day. Strangeways's final concerns related to the effort required for physical deception, as the plan called for large numbers of troop movements and dummy craft. Strangeways's objections were so strong that he refused to undertake most of the physical deception. A power struggle ensued throughout February and early March, between Ops(B) and Strangeways as to who had authority to implement each part of the deception plan. Montgomery put his full support behind his head of deception and so Strangeways prevailed. Finally, in a 23 February meeting between R Force and Ops(B), Strangeways tore up a copy of the plan, decreeing it useless, and announced that he would rewrite it from scratch. The established deceivers were dubious about Strangeways's announcement and assumed he would resubmit the existing plan with some modifications. However, he duly submitted a rewritten operation that was met, in Harmer's words, with "astonishment".  Strangeways's revised Fortitude South invented an entire new field army. The First United States Army Group (FUSAG), commanded by Lt. Gen. George Patton, was a skeleton formation formed for administrative purposes but never used. However, the Germans had discovered its existence through radio intercepts. Strangeways proposed activating the unit, with a series of fictional and real formations, to overcome the problem of Montgomery handling two invasions. Moreover, he proposed that FUSAG should represent the main Allied threat to the Germans, which they would expect to land around Calais. Once Operation Neptune's landings had taken place, that should be passed off as a diversion to distract German defences from the main attack by FUSAG.  The new Fortitude South came with six subsidiary plans, Quicksilver I-VI, with specific implementation details.

Special means.

For deceptions, the Allies had developed a number of methodologies, which were referred to as "special means". They included combinations of physical deception, fake wireless activity, leaks through diplomatic channels and double agents. Fortitude used all of those techniques to various extents. For example, Fortitude North relied heavily on wireless transmission (the Allies thought that Scotland was too far for German reconnaissance to reach), and Fortitude South used the Allies' network of double agents.

Double agents.

One of the main deception channels for the Allies was the use of double agents. B1A, the Counter-Intelligence Division of MI5, had done a good job in intercepting all of the German agents in Britain. Many of them were recruited as double agents under the Double Cross System. These were the three most important double agents during the Fortitude operation:

Fortitude North.

Fortitude North was designed to mislead the Germans into expecting an invasion of Norway. By threatening any weakened Norwegian defence, the Allies hoped to prevent or to delay reinforcement of France after the Normandy invasion. The plan involved simulating a buildup of forces in northern England and political contact with Sweden.  During a similar operation in 1943, Operation Cockade, a fictional field army (British Fourth Army) had been created, headquartered in Edinburgh Castle. It was decided to continue to use the same force during Fortitude. Unlike its southern counterpart, the deception relied primarily on "Special Means" and fake radio traffic since it was judged unlikely that German reconnaissance planes could reach Scotland unintercepted. False information about the arrival of troops in the area was reported by double agents Mutt and Jeff, who had surrendered following their 1941 landing in the Moray Firth, and the British media co-operated by broadcasting fake information, such as football scores or wedding announcements, to nonexistent troops. Fortitude North was so successful that by late spring 1944, Hitler had thirteen army divisions in Norway.  In the early spring of 1944, British commandos attacked targets in Norway to simulate preparations for invasion. They destroyed industrial targets, such as shipping and power infrastructure, as well as military outposts. That coincided with an increase in naval activity in the northern seas and in political pressure on neutral Sweden.

Operation Skye.

Operation Skye was the codename for the radio deception component of Fortitude North, involving simulated radio traffic between fictional army units. The programme began on 22 March 1944, overseen by Colonel R. M. McLeod, and became fully operational by 6 April. The operation was split into four sections, relating to different divisions of the Fourth Army:  In his 2000 book, "Fortitude: The D-Day Deception Campaign", Roger Fleetwood-Hesketh, who was a member of Ops (B), concluded, "No evidence has so far been found to show that wireless deception or visual misdirection made any contribution to Fortitude North". It is thought that the Germans were not actually monitoring the radio traffic that was being simulated.

Fortitude South.

Fortitude South employed similar deception in the south of England, threatening an invasion at Pas de Calais by the fictional 1st U.S. Army Group (FUSAG). France was the crux of the Bodyguard plan. As the most logical choice for an invasion, the Allied high command had to mislead the German defences in a very small geographical area. The Pas de Calais offered a number of advantages over the chosen invasion site, such as the shortest crossing of the English Channel and the quickest route into Germany. As a result, the German High Command, particularly Erwin Rommel, took steps to fortify that area of coastline heavily. The Allies decided to amplify that belief of a Calais landing.  Montgomery, commanding the Allied landing forces, knew that the crucial aspect of any invasion was the ability to enlarge a beachhead into a full front. He also had only 37 divisions at his command, compared to around 60 German formations. Fortitude South's main aims were to give the impression of a much larger invasion force (the FUSAG) in the South-East of England; to achieve tactical surprise in the Normandy landings and, once the invasion had occurred, to mislead the Germans into thinking that it a diversionary tactic, with Calais being the real objective.

Operation Quicksilver.

The key element of Fortitude South was Operation Quicksilver. It entailed misleading the Germans that the Allied force consisted of two army groups, 21st Army Group under Montgomery (the genuine Normandy invasion force), and 1st US Army Group (FUSAG) (a fictitious force under General George Patton), positioned in southeastern England for a crossing at the Pas de Calais.  At no point were the Germans fed false documents describing the invasion plans. Instead, they were allowed to construct a misleading order of battle for the Allied forces. To mount a massive invasion of Europe from England, military planners had little choice but to stage units around the country with those that would land first being nearest to the embarkation point. Since FUSAG was placed in the South-East of England, German intelligence was correctly predicted to deduce that the centre of the invasion force was opposite Calais, the point on the French coast that is closest to England and so would be a likely landing point.  To facilitate the deception, additional buildings were constructed, and dummy aircraft and landing craft were placed around possible embarkation points. Patton paid many of them a visit, along with a photographer. Contrary to popular belief, there was no use of other dummy vehicles, such as inflatable tanks, in large part due to Strangeways's refusal to implement widespread physical deception.  It is thought that the Army encouraged the idea that the dummies were used to draw attention away from some of the other means of deception, such as double agents. In any case, the Allies overestimated the Germans' abilities to conduct aerial surveillance and so many of the props were never constructed. Patton was photographed while he was visiting the props that were mocked up on regular occasions.  A deception of such a size required input from many organisations, including MI5, MI6, SHAEF via Ops B, and the armed services. Information from the various deception agencies was organised by and channelled through the London Controlling Section, under the direction of Lieutenant-Colonel John Bevan.

Fortitude South II.

On 20 July Ops (B) took over control of Fortitude South from R Force. Earlier the previous month, they had begun work to follow up the operation. The new story centered on the idea that Eisenhower had decided to defeat the Germans through the existing beachhead. As a result, elements of FUSAG had been detached and sent to reinforce Normandy, and a second, smaller, Second American Army Group (SUSAG) would be formed to threaten the Pas de Calais.  The plan met some criticism; firstly, there was opposition to the creation of so many fictional US formations in the face of a known manpower shortage in that country. Secondly, the plan reduced the threat to Pas de Calais and so the Fifteenth Army might be moved to reinforce Normandy. As with its predecessor operation, in late June Strangeways rewrote the operation to ensure that the focus remained on Calais. In his version, the Normandy beachhead was not as successful, and Eisenhower had taken elements of FUSAG to reinforce its efforts.  FUSAG would be rebuilt with newly-arrived US formations with the aim of landing in France toward the end of July.

Effect.

By 28 September 1944, the Allies had agreed to end the Fortitude deception by moving to operational deceptions in the field under the overall charge of Ops (B).  The Allies were able to judge how well Fortitude worked because of Ultra, the signals intelligence that was obtained by breaking German codes and ciphers. On June 1, a decrypted transmission by Hiroshi Ōshima, the Japanese ambassador, to his government that recounted a recent conversation with Hitler confirmed the effectiveness of Fortitude. When asked for Hitler's thoughts on the Allied battle plan, he had said, "I think that diversionary actions will take place in a number of places - against Norway, Denmark, the southern part of western France, and the French Mediterranean coast", and he added that he expected the Allies would then attack in force across the Straits of Dover.  The Allies maintained the pretense of FUSAG and other forces threatening Pas-de-Calais for some considerable time after D-Day, possibly even as late as September 1944. That was vital to the success of the Allied plan by forcing the Germans to keep most of their reserves bottled up in wait for an attack on Calais that never came. That allowed the Allies to maintain and to build upon their marginal foothold in Normandy.  During the course of Fortitude, the almost-complete lack of German aerial reconnaissance, together with the absence of uncontrolled German agents in Britain, came to make physical deception almost irrelevant. The unreliability of "diplomatic leaks" resulted in their discontinuance. Most deception was carried out by means of false wireless traffic and through German double agents. The latter proved to be far more significant.

Reasons for success.

The operation was successful for several reasons:

Operation Fortitude was the code name for a World War II military deception employed by the Allied nations as part of an overall deception strategy (code named "Bodyguard") during the build-up to the 1944 Normandy landings. Fortitude was divided into two sub-plans, North and South, with the aim of misleading the German High Command as to the location of the invasion.

Operace Fortitude bylo kódové jméno pro klamavou operaci spojeneckých sil během druhé světové války a to přímo v souvislosti s vyloděním spojeneckých sil v Normandii (operace Overlord). Operace Fortitude byla rozdělena na dvě části – Fortitude North, předstírající invazi do Norska, a Fortitude South, která byla navržena tak, aby uvedla Němce v domnění, že hlavní spojenecká invaze do Francie bude vedena na Pas-de-Calais. Tato operace byla jednou z mnohých úspěšných klamných operací v průběhu druhé světové války a lze říci, že i velmi důležitou operací. Obě operace (Fortitude North a Fortitude South) byly součástí rozsáhlejšího klamného plánu s názvem Operace Bodyguard.


History.

The settlement of Datyně was first mentioned in 1577 as z Datynie. It belonged then to the Duchy of Teschen, a fee of the Kingdom of Bohemia and a part of the Habsburg Monarchy. Later two separate settlements were differentiated: Dolní and Horní Datyně.  After Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire a modern municipal division was introduced in the re-established Austrian Silesia. The village became a part of the municipality of Dolní Bludovice but gained independent status in June 1864. It was the subscribed to the political and legal district of Cieszyn. According to the censuses conducted in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910 the population of the municipality grew from 462 in 1880 to 586 in 1910. In 1880 80.7% of the population declared speaking Czech-language at home and the rest (19.3%) Polish language. In the three next censuses the majority were Polish-speakers (between 93.3% and 96.9%) followed by Czech-speaking minority (between 3.1% and 6.3%). In terms of religion in 1910 majority were Protestants (85.7%), followed by Roman Catholics (14.3%). The village was also traditionally inhabited by Silesian Lachs, speaking Cieszyn Silesian dialect.  After World War I, fall of Austria-Hungary, Polish–Czechoslovak War and the division of Cieszyn Silesia in 1920, it became a part of Czechoslovakia. Following the Munich Agreement, in October 1938 together with the Zaolzie region it was annexed by Poland, administratively adjoined to Cieszyn County of Silesian Voivodeship. It was then annexed by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II. After the war it was restored to Czechoslovakia.  The first school, which conducted classes in both Polish and German, was built in the 19th century; it is not clear in what year it was completed. In 1879 a brick Polish school was built, and in 1920, a Czech school. The Polish school was closed several years after World War II due to lack of children. Its building now houses a Czech school.

Landmarks.

The most notable landmark in the village is the Protestant chapel, built in 1886 by Józef Prymus and Jan Kołorz.

People.

Notable people associated with the village include Józef Kiedroń, Polish politician; Josef Kotas, Mayor of Ostrava; Franciszek Czyż, Polish politician; and Jan Bystroń, Polish linguist.

At 218 hectares in area it is one of the smallest villages in Zaolzie, and it is one of the youngest villages in the whole of Cieszyn Silesia.

Dolní Datyně (pol.: "Datynie Dolne", něm.: "Nieder Dattin") jsou část města Havířov v okrese Karviná. V roce 2009 zde bylo evidováno 178 adres. V roce 2001 zde trvale žilo 390 obyvatel. Dolní Datyně je také název katastrálního území o rozloze 2,17 km.


Conditions screened.

The most common abnormality the test can screen is trisomy 21 (Down syndrome). In addition to Down syndrome, the triple and quadruple screens assess risk for fetal trisomy 18 also known as Edward's syndrome, open neural tube defects, and may also detect an increased risk of Turner syndrome, triploidy, trisomy 16 mosaicism, fetal death, Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome, and steroid sulfatase deficiency.

Values measured.

The triple test measures the following three levels in the maternal serum:

Interpretation.

The levels may indicate increased risk for certain conditions or may be benign:  An estimated risk is calculated and adjusted for the expectant mother's age; if she's diabetic; if she's having twins or other multiples, and the gestational age of the fetus. Weight and ethnicity may also be used in adjustments. Many of these factors affect the levels of the substances being measured and the interpretation of the results:  The test is for screening, not for diagnosis, and does not have nearly the same predictive power of amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling. The screening test carries a much lower risk to the fetus, however, and in conjunction with the age-related risk of the patient it is useful to help determine the need for more invasive tests.

Variations.

If only two of the hormones above are tested for, then the test is called a double test. A quad test tests an additional hormone, inhibin. Furthermore, the triple test may be combined with an ultrasound measurement of nuchal translucency.

Double test.

Free beta hCG and PAPP-A are measured. However, the maternal age, weight, ethnicity etc. are still included. In the UK the double test is part of the combined test for prenatal diagnostics.

Quadruple test.

A test of levels of dimeric inhibin A (DIA) is sometimes added to the other three tests, under the name "quadruple test." Other names used include "quad test", "quad screen", or "tetra screen." Inhibin A will be found high in cases of trisomy 21 and unchanged in cases of trisomy 18.

The triple test, also called triple screen, the Kettering test or the Bart's test, is an investigation performed during pregnancy in the second trimester to classify a patient as either high-risk or low-risk for chromosomal abnormalities (and neural tube defects).

Triple test (z angličtiny, někdy překládáno trojitý test) je vyšetření krevního séra na hodnoty choriogonadotropinu, estriolu a alfa-fetoproteinu. Provádí se v těhotenství, v druhém trimestru, a slouží k detekci rizik genetických poruch a poruch vývoje nervové trubice. Testem lze například odhalit riziko Downova nebo Edwardsova syndromu.


History.

Mariposa County was one of the original counties of California, created at the time of statehood in 1850. While it began as the state's largest county, territory that was once part of Mariposa was ceded over time to form all or part of twelve other counties, including all of Merced, Madera, Fresno, Tulare, Kings, and Kern; and parts of San Benito, Mono, Inyo, San Bernardino, and Los Angeles. Thus, Mariposa County is known as the "Mother of Counties".  Mariposa County's original seat was a now-nonexistent hamlet known as Agua Fria (Spanish for "cold water"), about 3 miles directly west of Mariposa proper on Agua Fria Road, which runs from Highway 140 to the south, to the community of Mt. Bullion to the northwest. Charles Fremont moved the county seat to Mariposa in 1854, resulting in the construction of the Mariposa County Courthouse, whose grounds occupies an entire block. The historic structure is fronted by Bullion Street; Jones Street is to the rear, with 9th and 10th Streets on either side. This handsome, white judicial building erected with whip-sawed wood from nearby forests is the oldest courthouse still in use in California: cases are still tried there to this day. The courthouse is so recognizable that its likeness is on the Mariposa County Seal. Also particularly noteworthy is the courthouse's clock tower and bell, which chimes every hour, on the hour, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.  The county took its name from Mariposa Creek, which was so named by Spanish explorers in 1806, when they discovered a great cluster of butterflies (""mariposas"" in Spanish and Portuguese) in the foothills of the Sierra. Each year, the first weekend in May, residents mark the annual arrival of migrating monarch butterflies with a "Butterfly Days" festival and parade.

Gold Rush.

Mariposa County is located at the southern end of California's Mother Lode region. During the California Gold Rush, great quantities of the prized mineral were found and extracted, first in local stream-beds and later in hard rock mines. One of the most notable beneficiaries of this wealth was the famed explorer and 1856 Republican presidential candidate, John Charles Frémont, for whom the local hospital and Charles Street (more commonly known as "Highway 140") are named. Jessie Street, in the town of Mariposa, is named for Fremont's wife, Jessie Benton Frémont, who came to Mariposa with her husband on many extended visits although they never took up permanent residence within the county.  Many aspects of the area's mining history are depicted in exhibits at two local museums: the Mariposa History Museum, located in the town of Mariposa; and the California Mining and Mineral Museum, located at the Mariposa Fairgrounds (2 miles east of Mariposa on Highway 49).  Two small gold mines in Mariposa county, the Mockingbird and the Colorado Quartz, intermittently produce world-class (and very expensive) specimens of crystalline gold for mineral collectors. "Specimens from these occurrences commonly have bright luster and rich color, with well-developed crystals in unusual and attractive arrangements." The best-known example is "The Dragon", now on display at the Houston Museum of Natural Science.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (1.0%) is water. Along the banks of the Merced River is found the sole habitat for the limestone salamander, a rare species endemic to Mariposa County.

Demographics.

2014.

The largest self-reported ancestry groups in Mariposa County were English (14.5%), German (13.7%), Irish (13.1%), Italian (4.1%), "American" (3.8%), Scottish (3.2%) and Portuguese (3.0%).

2010.

The 2010 United States Census reported that Mariposa County had a population of 18,251. The racial makeup of Mariposa County was 16,103 (88.2%) White, 138 (0.8%) African American, 527 (2.9%) Native American, 204 (1.1%) Asian, 26 (0.1%) Pacific Islander, 508 (2.8%) from other races, and 745 (4.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1,676 persons (9.2%).

2000.

As of the census of 2000, there were 17,130 people, 6,613 households, and 4,490 families residing in the county. The population density was 12 people per square mile (5/km). There were 8,826 housing units at an average density of 6 per square mile (2/km). The racial makeup of the county was 88.9% White, 0.7% Black or African American, 3.5% Native American, 0.7% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.7% from other races, and 3.4% from two or more races. 7.8% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 17.8% were of German, 13.4% English, 12.7% Irish and 6.7% American ancestry according to Census 2000. 96.0% spoke English and 3.5% Spanish as their first language.  There were 6,613 households out of which 25.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.8% were married couples living together, 8.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.1% were non-families. 26.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.86.  In the county, the population was spread out with 21.6% under the age of 18, 6.9% from 18 to 24, 25.1% from 25 to 44, 29.2% from 45 to 64, and 17.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 104.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.4 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $34,626, and the median income for a family was $42,655. Males had a median income of $31,194 versus $25,440 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,190. About 10.5% of families and 14.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.5% of those under age 18 and 9.0% of those age 65 or over.

Government.

The Government of Mariposa County is defined and authorized under the California Constitution and law as a general law county. The County government is composed of the Board of Supervisors, which has legislative and executive power. It is composed of five members elected from the five separate districts of the County, on a non-partisan basis, to serve four-year staggered terms.

State and federal representation.

In the California State Legislature, Mariposa is in, and in.  In the United States House of Representatives, Mariposa County is in.

Politics.

In its early history Mariposa was one of the most reliable Democratic counties in California. Along with Colusa County, it was one of only two counties in the Pacific States to support Alton B. Parker in 1904. Over time, however, the county has steadily moved away from its Democratic roots, seen demonstrably in 1948 when Thomas E. Dewey won Mariposa without carrying California, as part of a trend turning the Great Basin into a rock-solid Republican stronghold. Currently Mariposa is a strongly Republican county in Presidential and congressional elections. The last Democrat to win a majority in the county was Lyndon Johnson in 1964 but the last Democrat to win Mariposa was Bill Clinton in 1992 who won a plurality of forty-one votes.  On Nov. 4, 2008, Mariposa County voted 62.1% for Proposition 8 which amended the California Constitution to ban same-sex marriages.

Crime.

The following table includes the number of incidents reported and the rate per 1,000 persons for each type of offense.

Healthcare.

Mariposa County has one hospital, John C. Fremont Hospital.  According to a 2013 study, Mariposa County had the highest rate of child abuse and neglect, and as recently as 2014, had the second highest of rate of unvaccinated children in the state of California.

Media.

Several media sources are located in Mariposa. These include:

Transportation.

Airports.

Mariposa Yosemite Airport is a general aviation airport. The nearest airports with scheduled flights are in Fresno and Merced.

Communities.

Population ranking.

The population ranking of the following table is based on the 2010 census of Mariposa County.  † "county seat"

Mariposa County is a county in the U.S. state of California. As of the 2010 U.S. Census, the population was 18,251. The county seat is Mariposa. It is located in the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains, north of Fresno, east of Merced, and southeast of Stockton.

Mariposa County je okres v americkém státě Kalifornie, nacházející se při západním úpatí pohoří Sierra Nevada. Okres leží severně od Fresna, východně od města Merced a jihovýchodně od Stocktonu. Rozkládá se na celkové ploše 3789 km a v roce 2000 v něm žilo 17 130 obyvatel. Hlavním městem okresu je Mariposa.