History.

Formation.

A merger of Augsburg's two most successful clubs, TSV Schwaben and BC Augsburg, was discussed as early as in the late 1940s, but distrust between the two sides and a fear that the other club would dominate the merger caused each side to hesitate, despite the financial trouble both clubs were in. A first serious meeting between the two sides was held in 1964, both clubs having dropped out of tier-one football by then. The leadership of the multi-sports club Schwaben was completely behind a merger but the club's football department was not and once more the process of forming FCA was stalled. Traditionally, BCA saw itself as a working-class club, based in the north of Augsburg, while Schwaben was the club of the more affluent and based south of the city, with the river Wertach forming something of a boundary between the two clubs territories.  In 1968, with BCA struggling in the third division after relegation from professional football the year before and Schwaben soon to follow, another effort was made. In April 1969, a high-level meeting between the two club bosses brought the decision to merge the clubs and name the new side FC Augsburg. FCA was to be a football club only with no other sports department. The then-mayor of Augsburg, Hans Breuer, was one of the driving forces behind the move.  The merger came at a time of on-the-field decline for both sides, Schwaben had just been relegated from the tier-two Regionalliga Süd and decided that an attempt to regain their status was financially impossible, while "BCA" narrowly missed out on promotion to the league that season. In June, 256 of 265 of BCA's members present voted for the merger while, shortly after, 75 percent of Schwaben's members approved the motion, too.  Schwaben, however, opted for the "small solution"—the club was to remain independent with only its football department merging into the new club. But even this move was not universally popular within the club, with some former members forming a new football club, Eintracht Augsburg, and restarting at the lowest level of the pyramid. For this reason, FCA is generally not considered to carry on the traditions of TSV Schwaben, only those of BC Augsburg. A year later, the footballers of Eintracht rejoined Schwaben but, since then, have always remained an amateur club. It took the new football department until 1981 to regain its third-division status, where they were to meet FCA for the first time in league football and renewed the Augsburg derby.  The new FCA played its first game on 30 July 1969, when it met 1. FC Nürnberg in Augsburg in front of 13,000, losing 0–3 in extra time.

Early years: 1969 to 1974.

After the formation of the club in 1969, the side was to spend most of its time in tier-two and three leagues, the Bayernliga, Regionalliga Süd and the 2. Bundesliga. The new side, despite now concentrating Augsburg's football forces, was no instant success. A fourth-place finish in the league and dwindling supporter numbers proved that the new merger side had not yet been accepted in the city. The following season, FCA finished one place better in the league but, with an average support of 300 spectators per game, the club found it difficult to retain its top players. The 1971–72 season saw further decline, an eighth-place finish, but from there the team improved, winning the league the following year and returning professional football to town. By then, the club had found acceptance in town and, in the final game of the season, 15,000 spectators had turned up to celebrate the Bayernliga championship.  The 1973–74 season saw the return of one of Augsburg's greatest football talents to the city, and the FCA—former German international Helmut Haller had returned to the club after 11 years in Italy playing for Bologna and Juventus. FCA had paid DM 44,000 for the transfer of Haller.  FCA became an instant success in the Regionalliga, drawing an average crowd of over 22,000 for its home matches. When the club traveled to Munich to meet 1860 Munich in the then-new Olympic Stadium, 80,000 flocked to the game starting what remains today as a fierce rivalry between the two clubs. FCA dominated the season, eventually winning the league title as a freshly promoted team. The mood in Augsburg was one of excitement and the newspapers spoke of the atmosphere in the stadium as of "Augsburg, the Napoli of Germany."  Augsburg qualified for the promotion round of for the Bundesliga through its league title, where it met four other teams to determine the one available spot in the first division. FCA gave away easy points at home, drawing three times in four games. Away, the team lost only once, against Rot-Weiß Oberhausen, but nevertheless came only second, one point behind Tennis Borussia Berlin, who earned promotion. Nevertheless, FCA had qualified for the southern division of the new 2. Bundesliga through its league title.

Stagnation: 1974 to 1983.

The success of 1973–74 was quickly replaced with relegation trouble in the new 2. Bundesliga. The next five seasons saw lower table finishes, the temporary departure of Helmut Haller and frequent replacements of managers. By 1978–79, the club was unable to avoid relegation, despite Haller, at the age of 40, once more taking to the field for FCA for a last time. The club, after six seasons in the second division, returned to the Bayernliga.  FCA was able to break the fall and win the Bavarian league title to gain promotion back to the 2. Bundesliga straight away in 1979–80. On top of this, the team qualified for the German amateur football championship, where it went all the way to the final before losing to VfB Stuttgart's reserve side. But the club's promotion back to the second level faced a major obstacle. The 2. Bundesliga, after 1981, was to operate in a single division and with half as many clubs as before, meaning the club had to fulfill the qualifying norm, not an easy task for a freshly promoted side. FCA finished 18th in 1980–81, not enough to hold the league in a normal season and definitely not enough in 1981.  The club once more won the Bavarian league on first attempt, defeating Schwaben in the first two Augsburg league derbies since 1968, but now had to enter a promotion round to determine the two teams that would go up out of the four Southern German league champions. FCA came second behind FSV Frankfurt and returned to the 2. Bundesliga once more, despite some of the gate receipts already being processed during the game against FC 08 Homburg by the tax department due to outstanding debts. However, the side was again not strong enough for this level and was relegated on a slightly worse goal average then 16th-placed Union Solingen, lacking three goals to salvation. It was to be Augsburg's last season in the second tier for almost a quarter of a century.

Bayernliga: 1983 to 1994.

FCA was to spend the next 11 seasons once more in Bavaria's highest league, the Bayernliga, at the time still the third tier of league football in the state. With the gradual reduction of the number of second divisions from five in 1974 to one in 1981, a number of Bavarian clubs that had once played at higher level had now dropped down to this level, and competition in the league was much stronger than in the past: 1860 Munich, SpVgg Bayreuth, SpVgg Fürth, Jahn Regensburg, MTV Ingolstadt, FC Schweinfurt 05 and Bayern Hof had all played with Augsburg in the 2. Bundesliga in recent years.  While the club was one of the top sides in the league, another title did not seem to materialise; a second-place finish in 1985 being the best result, one point behind champions SpVgg Bayreuth. Again, the club changed managers frequently but had settled into the Bayernliga for good, it seemed. It was only when Armin Veh took over the team in 1991 that fortunes for the team seemed to improve, not harmed by the fact 1860 Munich made its "escape" from the league and returned to professional football that year.  In 1993, the club won its one and only national championship to date, when 1. FC Kaiserslautern was defeated in the German Under-19 championship final.  In 1994, the club had another try at promotion in the last year of promotion play-offs to the 2. Bundesliga. However, this time the Bavarian champion was not grouped with the other Southern German clubs as in previous years, and thus had to face stronger clubs in the northern group that included Eintracht Braunschweig and Fortuna Düsseldorf. Despite being overmatched and unable to advance, they still received strong support in the region with crowds of over 20,000 turning up at the games. While the performance was not enough to gain entry to the 2. Bundesliga, FCA did qualify for the new Regionalliga Süd, which was slotted between the second division and the Bayernliga as the new third tier.

Regionalliga: 1994 to 2000.

Augsburg spent the first four years in the new league as a mid-table side, never getting anywhere near the promotion ranks. The fifth season then saw a decline, with the team only finishing 14th and only two points clear of a relegation spot.  The following year was once more a qualifying season, with the number of Regionalligas being reduced in numbers from four to two. FCA fulfilled the on-the-field requirement, finishing eighth, its best Regionalliga result to that date. Financially, however, the club was in dire straits, with a real possibility of the club folding. While the latter threat could be averted, FCA was refused a Regionalliga licence when a potential investor backed out and the German Football Association (DFB) relegated it to the Bayernliga, now the fourth tier. Main sponsor Infomatec, which had promised to provide a DM 3 million security for the club with the DFB, was unable to do so and, faced with debts of DM 1.8 million, the club was not in the financial position to obtain a Regionalliga licence.

Recovery: 2000 to 2011.

Financial rescue came in the form of Walther Seinsch, a local entrepreneur, who took over as chairman and introduced sound financial management to the club. The club was able to field a competitive team in the Bayernliga once more and achieved promotion back to the Regionalliga in its second season, in 2002.  The club returned as a force in the third division, earning top-four finishes in all of the next four seasons there. FCA came achingly close to advancing to 2. Bundesliga in 2005, but missed their opportunity after giving up two goals to Jahn Regensburg in the last four minutes of their final game of the season. The club dominated the Regionalliga Süd the next year, winning the league and clinching a berth in the 2. Bundesliga for the 2006–07 season.  This marked their first appearance in the 2. Bundesliga in 23 years. They finished the campaign in seventh place on 52 points, only eight points away from promotion to the top-flight. Once again, the game at 1860 Munich was the highlight, with a 3–0 victory for Augsburg in front of 69,000 in the Allianz Arena. Ralf Loose replaced Rainer Hörgl as head coach in October 2007 when the club found itself in the relegation zone. Loose's contract was terminated on 16 April 2008 after a string of bad results. He was replaced with Holger Fach two days later. The club avoided relegation on goal average, being on equal points with relegated side Kickers Offenbach at the end of the season.  The longtime home ground of the FCA, Rosenau Stadion, built from World War II rubble, finally came to its well-deserved rest in 2009 when a new stadium was completed. The new Impuls Arena also hosted games of the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup.  Under Dutch manager Jos Luhukay, Augsburg enjoyed a successful season in 2009–10, when the club reached the semi-finals of the DFB-Pokal as well as finishing third in the 2. Bundesliga, which allowed it to play 1. FC Nürnberg for Bundesliga promotion. In two games there, the "Franconians" kept the upper hand and FCA was condemned to wait another year. However, at the end of the 2010–11 season, FC Augsburg finished second in the league and was promoted to the Bundesliga for the first time in its history.

Bundesliga: 2011 to present.

On 15 October 2011, FCA won its first-ever game in the first division, defeating Mainz 05 1–0. On 28 April 2012, FCA retained their status as a Bundesliga club for a second year with a game to spare. Only a week later, Luhukay resigned from the FCA job, citing doubts with regards to the club's prospects as the reason. On 17 May 2012, the club appointed Markus Weinzierl as its new manager.  In its second Bundesliga season, FCA struggled even more than in its first year, accumulating only nine points in the first half of the season. However, FCA secured its top-flight survival in the last match of the season against Greuther Fürth with a 3–1 victory.  In 2013–14, FCA finished eighth in the league and competed, unsuccessfully, for an UEFA Europa League place rather than struggling against relegation.  FCA began the 2014–15 season with a first round DFB-Pokal defeat against amateur fourth division side 1. FC Magdeburg.  FCA qualified for the 2015–16 Europa League after finishing fifth in the 2014–15 Bundesliga, their best ever finish. After a 3–1 away win in the last group match at Partizan, FCA advanced to the knockout stage of the competition, being drawn against Liverpool in the round of 32.  On 2 June 2016, Markus Weinzierl left FC Augsburg to become manager at Schalke 04, followed by the immediate signing of Dirk Schuster (then-outgoing manager at Darmstadt 98) as his successor.  He was subsequently followed by Manuel Baum on 14 December 2016. In 2017–18, he managed to lead FCA to the most successful start in the Bundesliga history of Augsburg.

Managers.

Recent managers of the club:

FC Augsburg seasons.

The last ten season-by-season performance of the club:

Youth and amateur sides.

Youth.

The historically indifferent performance of the senior side was offset by the success of the club's youth team, which captured a national championship in the under-18's in 1993, being the last non-Bundesliga club to do so. They also took four Cup titles in the early 1990s, all under the guidance of coach Heiner Schuhmann. With Schuhmann's departure for Bayern Munich, the golden age of FCA youth football ended and the club could not quite achieve so highly again. With the formation of the Under 19 Bundesliga (2004) and Under 17 Bundesliga (2007), the club's youth teams slipped to second division status but recovered and, in 2013–14, the youth teams played in the Under 19 Bundesliga and Under 17 Bundesliga, the first tier of youth football in Germany at their respective age levels.

Reserve team.

The club's reserve side had its greatest success before the merger, playing, as BC Augsburg Amateure, for a season in the southern division of the Amateurliga Bayern in 1962–63. A sixth place there allowed the side to qualify for the unified Bavarian league the following year but, along with the decline of the senior team, the reserve side got relegated too, finishing 17th.  The team disappeared into the lower amateur leagues after that but returned to the Landesliga Bayern-Süd in 1976, finishing runners-up in the league in its first season, now as FC Augsburg Amateure. By 1978 however, the side was relegated again, not to return to this level for a quarter of a decade. It did however take out the Schwaben Cup in 1977 and qualified for the first round of the 1977–78 DFB-Pokal. After away victories over second division side Arminia Hannover and fellow amateur side 1. FC Normannia Gmünd in the first two rounds, the team reached the third round, where it lost 0–4 to Hertha BSC.  After becoming a founding member of the Bezirksoberliga Schwaben in 1988, the team was withdrawn at the end of the season, disbanded altogether and not reformed for more than a decade.  Since 2004, the side once more played in the Landesliga Bayern-Süd, generally achieving good results and eventually being promoted to Regionalliga Bayern at the end of the 2011–12 season.

Fußball-Club Augsburg 1907 e. V., commonly known as FC Augsburg () or Augsburg, is a German football club based in Augsburg, Bavaria. FC Augsburg play in the Bundesliga, the top tier of the German football league system. The team was founded as Fußball-Klub Alemania Augsburg in 1907 and played as BC Augsburg from 1921 to 1969. With over 17,400 members, it is the largest football club in Swabian Bavaria.

FC Augsburg (celým názvem: Fußball-Club Augsburg) je německý fotbalový klub, který sídlí v bavorském městě Augsburg. Od sezóny 2011/12 hraje nejvyšší německou soutěž – 1. Bundesligu. Postup do Bundesligy v sezóně 2010/11 patří mezi největší úspěchy tohoto klubu. Klub byl založen 8. srpna 1907.


Production.

Cyclohexanol is produced by the oxidation of cyclohexane in air, typically using cobalt catalysts: This process co-forms cyclohexanone, and this mixture ("KA oil" for ketone-alcohol oil) is the main feedstock for the production of adipic acid. The oxidation involves radicals and the intermediacy of the hydroperoxide CHOH. Alternatively, cyclohexanol can be produced by the hydrogenation of phenol: This process can also be adjusted to favor the formation of cyclohexanone.

Basic reactions.

Cyclohexanol undergoes the main reactions expected for a secondary alcohol. Oxidation gives cyclohexanone, which is converted on a large scale in industry to the oxime, a precursor to caprolactam. As a laboratory exercise, this oxidation can be effected with chromic acid. Esterification affords the commercially useful derivatives dicyclohexyladipate and dicyclohexylphthalate, which are used as plasticizers. Heating in the presence of acid catalysts converts cyclohexanol to cyclohexene.

Structure.

Cyclohexanol has at least two solid phases. One of them is a plastic crystal.

Applications.

As indicated above, cyclohexanol is an important feedstock in the polymer industry, firstly as a precursor to nylons, but also to various plasticizers. Small amounts are used as a solvent.

Safety.

Cyclohexanol is somewhat toxic: the TLV for the vapor for 8 h is 50 ppm. The IDLH concentration is set at 400 ppm, based on studies on the acute oral toxicity in animals. Few studies have been done on its carcinogenicity, but one study on rats found it to have co-carcinogenic effects.

Cyclohexanol is the organic compound with the formula HOCH(CH). The molecule is related to cyclohexane ring by replacement of one hydrogen atom by a hydroxyl group. This compound exists as a deliquescent colorless solid with a camphor-like odor, which, when very pure, melts near room temperature. Billions of kilograms are produced annually, mainly as a precursor to nylon.

Cyklohexanol (CH)CHOH, sumární vzorec CHO) je organická sloučenina, konkrétně alicyklický alkohol. Prudce reaguje s oxidačními činidly. Rovněž se jedná o hořlavinu III. třídy. LD je pro krysy 2,06 g/kg (orálně).Tato sloučenina existuje jako navlhavá bezbarvá pevná látka, která, pokud je velmi čistá, taje těsně nad pokojovou teplotou. Ročně jsou vyrobeny miliony tun cyklohexanolu.


History.

Corporate raids became the hallmark of a handful of investors in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly highlighted by the public suicide of Eli Black. Among the most notable corporate raiders of the 1980s were Carl Icahn, Victor Posner, Meshulam Riklis, Nelson Peltz, Robert M. Bass, T. Boone Pickens, Paul Bilzerian, Harold Clark Simmons, Kirk Kerkorian, Sir James Goldsmith, Saul Steinberg and Asher Edelman. These investors used a number of the same tactics and targeted the same type of companies as more traditional leveraged buyouts and in many ways could be considered a forerunner of the later private equity firms. In fact it is Posner, one of the first "corporate raiders" who is often credited with coining the term "leveraged buyout" or "LBO".  Victor Posner, who had made a fortune in real estate investments in the 1930s and 1940s, acquired a major stake in DWG Corporation in 1966. Having gained control of the company, he used it as an investment vehicle that could execute takeovers of other companies. Posner and DWG are perhaps best known for the hostile takeover of Sharon Steel Corporation in 1969, one of the earliest such takeovers in the United States. Posner's investments were typically motivated by attractive valuations, balance sheets and cash flow characteristics. Because of its high debt load, Posner's DWG would generate attractive but highly volatile returns and would ultimately land in financial difficulty. In 1987, Sharon Steel entered Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection.  Carl Icahn developed a reputation as a ruthless "corporate raider" after his hostile takeover of TWA in 1985. The result of that takeover was Icahn systematically selling TWA's assets to repay the debt he used to purchase the company, which was described as asset stripping.  Icahn also attempted the grand prize of U.S. Steel, launching a hostile takeover for 89% of the industrial giant for $7 billion ($ billion today) in late 1986 and only being rebuffed finally by CEO David Roderick on January 8, 1987.  T. Boone Pickens' hostile takeover bid of Gulf Oil in 1984 led to shockwaves that such a large company could be raided. Gulf eventually sold out to Chevron for a then record $13.3 billion ($ billion today) "white knight" buyout.  Paul Bilzerian launched a number of takeover bids including Cluett, Peabody & Company, Hammermill Paper Company, Pay n Pack Stores, Allied Stores and the Singer Company. All of his takeover bids were for all cash and for all shares and he refused any greenmail. Bilzerian was indicted for 13d disclosure violations and despite his claims of innocence he was convicted in 1989. After spending thirty years fighting the government in his attempt to overturn his conviction, he renounced his US citizenship in 2019. After Bilzerian was convicted hostile takeovers ended for the most part as it became clear the government would go to any lengths to punish corporate raiders.  British raider Beazer also launched several successful hostile takeovers in the 1980s, the largest being that of Koppers in early 1988 for $1.81 billion ($ billion today).  Many of the corporate raiders of the 1980s were onetime clients of Michael Milken, whose investment banking firm, Drexel Burnham Lambert helped raise blind pools of capital which corporate raiders could use to make legitimate attempts to take over companies and provide high-yield debt financing of the buyouts.

Ronald Perelman and Revlon.

Drexel Burnham raised a $100 million blind pool in 1984 for Nelson Peltz and his holding company Triangle Industries (later Triarc) to give credibility for takeovers, representing the first major blind pool raised for this purpose. Two years later, in 1986, Wickes Companies, a holding company run by Sanford Sigoloff, would raise a $1.2 billion blind pool. In later years, Milken and Drexel would shy away from certain of the more "notorious" corporate raiders as the firm and the private equity industry attempted to move upscale.  In 1985, Milken raised $750 million for a similar blind pool for Ronald Perelman, which would ultimately prove instrumental in acquiring his biggest target: The Revlon Corporation. In 1980, Ronald Perelman, the son of a wealthy Philadelphia businessman, and future "corporate raider", having made several small but successful buyouts, acquired MacAndrews & Forbes, a distributor of licorice extract and chocolate, which Perelman's father had tried and failed to acquire 10 years earlier. Perelman would ultimately divest the company's core business and use MacAndrews & Forbes as a holding company investment vehicle for subsequent leveraged buyouts including Technicolor, Inc., Pantry Pride and Revlon. Using the Pantry Pride subsidiary of his holding company, MacAndrews & Forbes Holdings, Perelman's overtures were rebuffed. Repeatedly rejected by the company's board and management, Perelman continued to press forward with a hostile takeover, raising his offer from an initial bid of $47.50 per share until it reached $53.00 per share. After Revlon received a higher offer from a white knight, private equity firm Forstmann Little & Company, Perelman's Pantry Pride finally was able to make a successful bid for Revlon, valuing the company at $2.7 billion. The buyout would prove troubling, burdened by a heavy debt load. Under Perelman's control, Revlon sold 4 divisions: two were sold for $1 billion, its vision care division was sold for $574 million, and its National Health Laboratories division was spun out to the public market in 1988. Revlon also made acquisitions including Max Factor in 1987 and Betrix in 1989, later selling them to Procter & Gamble in 1991. Perelman exited the bulk of his holdings in Revlon through an IPO in 1996 and subsequent sales of stock. As of December 31, 2007, Perelman still retains a minority ownership interest in Revlon. The Revlon takeover, because of its well-known brand, was profiled widely by the media and brought new attention to the emerging boom in leveraged buyout activity. Litigation associated with the takeover has also become standard reading for introductory business organization classes in most law schools, introducing what have come to be known as "Revlon Duties" for boards of companies that are up for auction.

Decline of the corporate raiders.

In the late 1980s several famous corporate raiders suffered from bad investments financed by large amounts of leverage, ultimately losing money for their investors. Additionally, with the fall of Michael Milken and the subsequent collapse of Drexel Burnham Lambert, the credit lines for these investors dried up. By the end of the decade, management of many large publicly traded corporations reacted negatively to the threat of potential hostile takeover or corporate raid and pursued drastic defensive measures including poison pills, golden parachutes and increasing debt levels on the company's balance sheet. Finally, in the 1990s the overall price of the American stock market increased, which reduced the number of situations in which a company's share price was low with respect to the assets that it controlled. By the end of the 1990s, the corporate raider moniker was used less frequently as private equity firms pursued different tactics than their predecessors. Additionally, with revisionist history, in later years many of the corporate raiders would be re-characterized as "activist shareholders", such as Carl Icahn during his 2008 profile on CBS's "60 Minutes".

Media reflections of corporate raiders.

Although private equity rarely received a thorough treatment in popular culture, several films did feature stereotypical "corporate raiders" prominently. Among the most notable examples of private equity featured in motion pictures included:

In business, a corporate raid is the process of buying a large stake in a corporation and then using shareholder voting rights to require the company to undertake novel measures designed to increase the share value, generally in opposition to the desires and practices of the corporation's current management. The measures might include replacing top executives, downsizing operations, or liquidating the company.

Corporate raider je anglický termín pro osobu, která praktikuje tzv. corporate raiding. Corporate raiding obvykle vyjadřuje skoupení obchodní společnosti (nebo části společnosti) a následné uplatnění hlasovacích práv s cílem zvýšit hodnotu akcií. Toho se dosahuje restrukturalizací společnosti, snižováním počtu pracovníků ("downsizing"), popřípadě úplnou likvidací podniku s tím, že se vyberou některé fondy, finanční rezervy a zbývající majetek a parcely se rozprodají po částech (popřípadě jsou zastaveny jako záloha za úvěr) tak, aby se maximalizoval zisk.


Plot.

In 1985, Bud Fox is a junior stockbroker at Jackson Steinem & Co. in New York City. He wants to work with his hero, Gordon Gekko, a legendary Wall Street player. After calling Gekko's office 59 days in a row trying to land an appointment, Bud visits Gekko on his birthday with a box of Gekko's favorite, contraband Cuban cigars. Impressed at his boldness, Gekko grants Bud an interview. Bud pitches him stocks, but Gekko is unimpressed. Desperate, Bud provides him some inside information about Bluestar Airlines, which he has learned in a casual conversation with his father, Carl, leader of the company's maintenance workers union. Intrigued, Gekko tells Bud he will think about it. A dejected Bud returns to his office. However, Gekko places an order for Bluestar stock and becomes one of Bud's clients. Gekko gives Bud some capital to manage, but the other stocks Bud selects lose money.  Gekko offers Bud another chance, and tells him to spy on British CEO Sir Lawrence Wildman and discern Wildman's next move. Bud learns that Wildman is making a bid for a steel company. Through Bud's spying, Gekko makes money, and Wildman is forced to buy Gekko's shares to complete his takeover.  Bud becomes wealthy, enjoying Gekko's promised perks, including a penthouse on Manhattan's East Side and a girlfriend, interior decorator Darien. Bud is promoted as a result of the large commission fees he is bringing in and is given a corner office with a view. He continues to maximize inside information and use friends as straw buyers to provide more income for him and Gekko. Unknown to Bud, several of his trades attract the attention of the Securities and Exchange Commission.  Bud pitches a new idea to Gekko: buy Bluestar Airlines and expand the company, with Bud as president, using savings achieved by union concessions and the overfunded pension. Even though Bud is unable to persuade his father to support him and Gekko, he is able to get the unions to push for the deal. Soon afterward, Bud learns that Gekko plans to dissolve the company and sell off Bluestar's assets in order to access cash in the company's pension plan, leaving Carl and the entire Bluestar staff unemployed. Although this would leave Bud a very rich man, he is angered by Gekko's deceit and racked with the guilt of being an accessory to Bluestar's impending destruction, especially after his father suffers a heart attack. Bud resolves to disrupt Gekko's plans, and breaks up with Darien when she refuses to go against Gekko, her former lover.  Bud devises a plan to drive up Bluestar's stock before manipulating it back down. He and the other union presidents then secretly meet with Wildman and arrange for him to buy controlling interest in Bluestar at a significant discount. Gekko, realizing that his stock is plummeting, dumps his remaining interest in the company on Bud's advice. However, when Gekko learns on the evening news that Wildman is buying Bluestar, he realizes that Bud has engineered the entire scheme. Bud triumphantly goes back to work at Jackson Steinem the following day, only to be arrested for insider trading.  Sometime later, Bud confronts Gekko in Central Park. Gekko punches Bed several times, berating him for his role with Bluestar, and accuses him of ingratitude for several of their illicit trades. Following the confrontation, it is revealed that Bud was wearing a wire to record his encounter with Gekko. He turns the tapes over to the authorities, who suggest that he may get a lighter sentence in exchange for helping them make a case against Gekko. Later, Bud's parents drive him down the FDR Drive towards the New York County Courthouse to answer for his crimes, telling Bud that he's redeemed himself, and it's also mentioned that after his eventual prison sentence, Wildman will be offering Bud a job with Bluestar.

Production.

Development.

After the success of "Platoon" (1986), Stone wanted film school friend and Los Angeles screenwriter Stanley Weiser to research and write a screenplay about quiz show scandals in the 1950s. During a story conference, Stone suggested making a film about Wall Street instead. The director pitched the premise of two investment partners getting involved in questionable financial dealings, using each other, and they are tailed by a prosecutor as in "Crime and Punishment". The director had been thinking about this kind of a movie as early as 1981 and was inspired by his father, Lou Stone, a broker during the Great Depression at Hayden Stone.  The filmmaker knew a New York businessman who was making millions and working long days putting together deals all over the world. This man started making mistakes that cost him everything. Stone remembers that the "story frames what happens in my movie, which is basically a "Pilgrim's Progress" of a boy who is seduced and corrupted by the allure of easy money. And in the third act, he sets out to redeem himself". Stone asked Weiser to read "Crime and Punishment", but Weiser found that its story did not mix well with their own. Stone then asked Weiser to read "The Great Gatsby" for material that they could use, but it was not the right fit either. Weiser had no prior knowledge of the financial world and immersed himself in researching the world of stock trading, junk bonds, and corporate takeovers. He and Stone spent three weeks visiting brokerage houses and interviewing investors.

Screenplay.

Weiser wrote the first draft, initially called "Greed", with Stone writing another draft. Originally, the lead character was a young Jewish broker named Freddie Goldsmith, but Stone changed it to Bud Fox to avoid the stereotype that Wall Street was controlled by Jews. Reportedly, Gordon Gekko is said to be a composite of several people: Wall Street broker Owen Morrisey, an old friend of Stone's who was involved in a $20 million insider trading scandal in 1985, Dennis Levine, Ivan Boesky, corporate raider Carl Icahn, art collector Asher Edelman, agent Michael Ovitz, and Stone himself. For example, the "Greed, for lack of a better word, is good" line was based on a speech by Boesky (to the 1986 graduating class of the U.C. Berkeley School of Business Administration) where he said, "Greed is right".  According to Edward R. Pressman, producer of the film, "Originally, there was no one individual who Gekko was modeled on", he adds, "But Gekko was partly Milken". Also, Pressman has said that the character of Sir Larry Wildman was modeled on James Goldsmith, the Anglo-French billionaire and corporate-raider.  According to Weiser, Gekko's style of speaking was inspired by Stone. "When I was writing some of the dialogue I would listen to Oliver on the phone and sometimes he talks very rapid-fire, the way Gordon Gekko does". Stone cites as influences on his approach to business, the novels of Upton Sinclair, Sinclair Lewis and Victor Hugo, and the films of Paddy Chayefsky because they were able to make a complicated subject clear to the audience. Stone set the film in 1985 because insider trading scandals culminated in 1985 and 1986. This led to anachronisms in the script, including a reference to the Space Shuttle "Challenger" disaster, which had not yet occurred.

Casting.

Stone met with Tom Cruise about playing Bud Fox, but the director had already committed to Charlie Sheen for the role. Stone liked the "stiffness" of Sheen's acting style and used it to convey Bud's naivete. Michael Douglas had just come off heroic roles like the one in "Romancing the Stone" and was looking for something dark and edgy. The studio wanted Warren Beatty to play Gekko, but he was not interested. Stone initially wanted Richard Gere but the actor passed, so Stone went with Douglas despite having been advised by others in Hollywood not to cast him. Stone remembers, "I was warned by everyone in Hollywood that Michael couldn't act, that he was a producer more than an actor and would spend all his time in his trailer on the phone". Nevertheless, Stone found out that "when he's acting he gives it his all". Stone said that he saw "that villain quality" in Douglas and always thought he was a smart businessman. Douglas remembers that when he first read the screenplay, "I thought it was a great part. It was a long script, and there were some incredibly long and intense monologues to open with. I'd never seen a screenplay where there were two or three pages of single-spaced type for a monologue. I thought, whoa! I mean, it was unbelievable". For research, he read profiles of corporate raiders T. Boone Pickens and Carl Icahn.  Stone gave Charlie Sheen the choice of Jack Lemmon or Martin Sheen to play his father in the film, and Sheen picked his father. The elder Sheen related to the moral sense of his character. Stone cast Daryl Hannah as Bud Fox's materialistic girlfriend Darien Taylor, but felt that she was never happy with the role and did not know why she accepted it. He tried to explain the character to Hannah repeatedly, and thought that the materialism of the character conflicted with Hannah's idealism. Stone said later that he was aware early on that she was not right for the part. "Daryl Hannah was not happy doing the role and I should have let her go. All my crew wanted to get rid of her after one day of shooting. My pride was such that I kept saying I was going to make it work". Stone also had difficulties with Sean Young, who made her opinions known that Hannah should be fired and that she should play that role instead. Young would show up to the set late and unprepared. She did not get along with Charlie Sheen, which caused further friction on the set. In retrospect, Stone felt that Young was right and he should have swapped Hannah's role with hers. Stone admits that he had "some problems" with Young, but was not willing to confirm or deny rumors that she walked off with all of her costumes when she completed filming.

Principal photography.

Stone wanted to shoot the movie in New York City and that required a budget of at least $15 million, a moderate shooting budget by 1980s standards. The studio that backed "Platoon" felt that it was too risky a project to bankroll and passed. Stone and producer Edward R. Pressman took it to 20th Century Fox and filming began in April 1987 and ended on July 4 of the same year. Parts of the film were shot in Snowbird, Utah. According to Stone, he was "making a movie about sharks, about feeding frenzies. Bob [director of photography Robert Richardson] and I wanted the camera to become a predator. There is no letup until you get to the fixed world of Charlie's father, where the stationary camera gives you a sense of immutable values". The director saw [Wall Street] as a battle zone and "filmed it as such" including shooting conversations like physical confrontations and in ensemble shots had the camera circle the actors "in a way that makes you feel you're in a pool with sharks".  Jeffrey "Mad Dog" Beck, a star investment banker at the time with Drexel Burnham Lambert, was one of the film's technical advisers and has a cameo appearance in the film as the man speaking at the meeting discussing the breakup of Bluestar. Kenneth Lipper, investment banker and former deputy mayor of New York for Finance and Economic Development, was also hired as chief technical adviser. At first, he turned Stone down because he felt that the film would be a one-sided attack. Stone asked him to reconsider and Lipper read the script responding with a 13-page critique. For example, he argued that it was unrealistic to have all the characters be "morally bankrupt". Lipper advised Stone on the kind of computers used on the trading floor, the accurate proportion of women at a business meeting, and the kinds of extras that should be seated at the annual shareholders meeting where Gekko delivers his "Greed is good" speech. Stone agreed with Lipper's criticism and asked him to rewrite the script. Lipper brought a balance to the film and this helped Stone get permission to shoot on the floor of the New York Stock Exchange during trading hours. Lipper and Stone disagreed over the character of Lou Mannheim. Stone shot a scene showing the honest Mannheim giving in to insider trading, but Lipper argued that audiences might conclude that everyone on Wall Street is corrupt and insisted that the film needed an unimpeachable character. Stone cut the scene.  Stone also consulted with Carl Icahn, Asher Edelman, convicted inside trader David Brown, several government prosecutors, and Wall Street investment bankers. In addition, traders were brought in to coach actors on the set on how to hold phones, write out tickets, and talk to clients. Stone asked Lipper to design a six-week course that would expose Charlie Sheen to a cross section of young Wall Street business people. The actor said, "I was impressed and very, very respectful of the fact that they could maintain that kind of aggressiveness and drive".  Douglas worked with a speech instructor on breath control in order to become better acclimatized to the fast rhythm of the film's dialogue. Early on in the shoot, Stone tested Douglas by enhancing his "repressed anger", according to the actor. At one point, Stone came into Douglas' trailer and asked him if he was doing drugs because "you look like you haven't acted before". This shocked Douglas, who did more research and worked on his lines again and again, pushing himself harder than he had before. All of this hard work culminated with the "Greed is good" speech. Stone planned to use a "Fortune" magazine cover in exchange for promotional advertisements, but "Forbes" magazine made a similar offer. Stone stuck with "Fortune", which upset "Forbes" publisher Malcolm Forbes, who turned down a later request to use his private yacht. Stone switched from 12- to 14-hour shooting days in the last few weeks in order to finish principal photography before an impending Directors Guild of America strike and finished five days ahead of schedule. Sheen remembered that Stone was always looking at the script and at his watch.

Soundtrack.

The original score composed by Stewart Copeland was released on LP record in 1988, with the first five tracks from Copeland's score from the film "Talk Radio", followed by a CD version in 1993.  Side 1  Side 2

Themes.

The film has come to be seen as the archetypal portrayal of 1980s excess, with Douglas advocating "greed, for lack of a better word, is good". "Wall Street" defines itself through a number of morality conflicts putting wealth and power against simplicity and honesty, and an attack on the value system of extreme competitiveness where ethics and the law are simply irrelevant parts of the show.  Carl (Martin Sheen's character) represents the working class in the film: he is the union leader for the maintenance workers at Bluestar. He constantly attacks big business, money, mandatory drug screening, greedy manufacturers, and anything that he sees as a threat to his union. The conflict between Gekko's relentless pursuit of wealth and Carl Fox's leftward leanings form the basis of the film's subtext. This subtext could be described as the concept of the two fathers battling for control over the morals of the son, a concept Stone had also used in "Platoon". In "Wall Street" the hard-working Carl Fox and the cutthroat businessman Gordon Gekko represent the fathers. The producers of the film use Carl as their voice in the film, a voice of reason amid the creative destruction brought about by Gekko's unrestrained personal philosophy.  A significant scene in the film is a speech by Gekko to a shareholders' meeting of Teldar Paper, a company he is planning to take over. Stone uses this scene to give Gekko, and by extension, the Wall Street raiders he personifies, the chance to justify their actions, portraying himself as a liberator of the company value from the ineffective and excessively compensated executives. The inspiration for the "Greed is good" speech seems to have come from two sources. The first part, where Gekko complains that the company's management owns less than three percent of its stock, and that it has too many vice presidents, is taken from similar speeches and comments made by Carl Icahn about companies he was trying to take over. The defense of greed is a paraphrase of the May 18, 1986, commencement address at the UC Berkeley's School of Business Administration, delivered by arbitrageur Ivan Boesky (who himself was later convicted of insider trading charges), in which he said, "Greed is all right, by the way. I want you to know that. I think greed is healthy. You can be greedy and still feel good about yourself."  "Wall Street" is not a wholesale criticism of capitalism, but of the cynical, quick-buck culture of the 1980s. The "good" characters in the film are themselves capitalists, but in a more steady, hardworking sense. In one scene, Gekko scoffs at Bud Fox's question as to the moral value of hard work, quoting the example of his (Gekko's) father, who worked hard his entire life only to die in debt. Lou Mannheim, the film's archetypal mentor, says early in the film, that "good things sometimes take time", referring to IBM and Hilton—in contrast, Gekko's "Greed is Good" credo typifies the short-term view prevalent in the 1980s.

Reception.

"Wall Street" was released on December 11, 1987, in 730 theaters and grossed $4.1 million on its opening weekend. It went on to make $43.8 million in the United States and Canada, earning theatrical rentals of $20 million. Internationally, it earned rentals of $21 million for a worldwide total of $41 million.  The film has a 78% rating on Rotten Tomatoes from 54 critics and a 56 metascore from 16 reviews on Metacritic. In his review for "The New York Times", Vincent Canby, while quite critical of the film overall, praised Douglas' work as "the funniest, canniest performance of his career". Roger Ebert gave the film three-and-a-half stars out of four and praised it for allowing "all the financial wheeling and dealing to seem complicated and convincing, and yet always have it make sense. The movie can be followed by anybody, because the details of stock manipulation are all filtered through transparent layers of greed. Most of the time we know what's going on. All of the time, we know why". "Time" magazine's Richard Corliss wrote, "This time he works up a salty sweat to end up nowhere, like a triathlete on a treadmill. But as long as he keeps his players in venal, perpetual motion, it is great scary fun to watch him work out". In his review for "The Globe and Mail", Jay Scott praised the performances of the two leads: "But Douglas's portrayal of Gordon Gekko is an oily triumph and as the kid Gekko thinks he has found in Fox ('Poor, smart and hungry; no feelings'), Charlie Sheen evolves persuasively from gung-ho capitalist child to wily adolescent corporate raider to morally appalled adult". Rita Kempley wrote in "The Washington Post" that the film "is at its weakest when it preaches visually or verbally. Stone doesn't trust the time-honored story line, supplementing the obvious moral with plenty of soapboxery".  Michael Douglas won the Academy Award for Best Actor and thanked Oliver Stone for "casting me in a part that almost nobody thought I could play". However, Daryl Hannah's performance was not as well received and earned her a Razzie for Worst Supporting Actress, thus making this the only film to date to win both an Oscar and a Razzie. The "quintessential financial high-roller's attire" of Michael Douglas in the movie, designed by Alan Flusser, was emulated in the 1980s by yuppies.  Interest in the film was renewed in 1990 when the cover of "Newsweek" magazine asked, "Is Greed Dead?" after 1980s icons like Michael Milken and Ivan Boesky ran afoul of insider trading laws. Over the years, the film's screenwriter Stanley Weiser has been approached by numerous people who told him, "The movie changed my life. Once I saw it I knew that I wanted to get into such and such business. I wanted to be like Gordon Gekko". In addition, both Charlie Sheen and Michael Douglas still have people come up to them and say that they became stockbrokers because of their respective characters in the film. In recent years, Stone was asked how the financial market depicted in "Wall Street" has changed and he replied, "The problems that existed in the 1980s market grew and grew into a much larger phenomenon. Enron is a fiction, in a sense, in the same way that Gordon Gekko's buying and selling was a fiction... Kenny Lay—he's the new Gordon Gekko". "Entertainment Weekly" magazine's Owen Gleiberman recently commented that the film, "reveals something now which it couldn't back then: that the Gordon Gekkos of the world weren't just getting rich—they were creating an alternate reality that was going to crash down on all of us".  A 20th-anniversary edition was released on September 18, 2007. New extras include an on-camera introduction by Stone, extensive deleted scenes, "Greed is Good" featurettes, and interviews with Michael Douglas and Martin Sheen.  In reviewing the film's sequel 23 years later, "Variety" noted that though the original film was "intended as a cautionary tale on the pitfalls of unchecked ambition and greed, Stone's 1987 original instead had the effect of turning Douglas' hugely charismatic (and Oscar-winning) villain into a household name and boardroom icon -- an inspiration to the very power players and Wall Street wannabes for whom he set such a terrible example".  The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

Sequel.

In 2007, "The New York Times" reported that a sequel to "Wall Street", to be subtitled "Money Never Sleeps", was already in pre-production. Michael Douglas would reprise his role as Gordon Gekko. The film would also focus on Gekko, recently released from prison and re-entering a much more chaotic financial world than the one he once oversaw. Charlie Sheen would also reprise his character of Bud Fox, but only in a cameo role. Daryl Hannah would not be involved in the sequel.  But by April 2009, 20th Century Fox confirmed that the sequel was already in development and announced that Oliver Stone would direct. In addition, Shia LaBeouf was cast with Josh Brolin. Javier Bardem had been considered, but Bardem dropped out due to scheduling conflicts. The film was finally released on September 24, 2010.

Wall Street is a 1987 American drama film, directed and co-written by Oliver Stone, which stars Michael Douglas, Charlie Sheen, and Daryl Hannah. The film tells the story of Bud Fox (Sheen), a young stockbroker who becomes involved with Gordon Gekko (Douglas), a wealthy, unscrupulous corporate raider.

Wall Street je americký film z roku 1987 společnosti 20th Century Fox. Režíroval ho Oliver Stone a v hlavních rolích se objevili Michael Douglas, Charlie Sheen, Martin Sheen a Daryl Hannah. Film vypráví o mladém ambicióním makléřovi Bud Foxovi (Charlie Sheen), který se chce dostat do vyšších kruhů, které představuje Budův hrdina - Gordon Gekko (Michael Douglas).


History.

Founded in 1985 by major figures of the European political scene, EUREKA's steady growth over the years has helped to make it one of the longest running European organisations dedicated to the financing of joint European R&D projects. EUREKA is loosely affiliated with COST, its non-competitive research counterpart, although the two focus on different aspects of R&D with COST's efforts geared towards more socially focused areas of public interest while EUREKA's mandate is to provide funding for projects envisaged, developed, and executed by private industry.

Foundation.

EUREKA was established with the "Paris Declaration" of July 17, 1985, and its principles are based on the later Hannover Declaration, subscribed by Ministers on November 6, 1985. The two main founders were former head of states François Mitterrand (France) and Helmut Kohl (Germany). Other important personalities involved were Hubert Curien, French ex-Minister of Research and former Chairman of the European Space Agency and Jacques Attali, adviser to François Mitterrand. Briefly, it [EUREKA] is about assuring the technological independence of Europe in the key domains of the future; encouraging, wherever possible, co-operation between European businesses and researchers; mobilising the necessary financial resources; accompanying the efforts of our enterprises by creating the necessary environment and supporting the unification of our internal markets.  There are numerous obstacles. Once the initial idea of EUREKA was formulated, we were able to foresee the difficulties to be faced. But we know that each time we come together — for example to address high-energy physics, research into nuclear fusion, the development of an integrated space programme or the construction of crucial scientific equipment — our successes encourage us in the idea that we can work together in R&D areas close to industrial markets, despite the problems arising from the normal and legitimate competition between firms.

Structure.

Chairs.

Before 1989, EUREKA chairmanship changed hands every six months. Since then, the chairmanship rotates every 1 July, for a period of one year.

Selected projects.

Eureka projects are numbered, preceded by 'E! '.

"Clusters".

EUREKA ‘"Clusters"’ are long-term, strategically significant industrial initiatives. They usually have a large number of participants, and aim to develop inclusive technologies of key importance for European competitiveness mainly in ICT, energy and more recently in the biotechnology and automation sectors. Eureka "Clusters" are known to have had a particular impact on the ability of the European microelectronics sector to compete with other continents.

"Umbrellas".

"Umbrellas" are thematic networks within the Eureka framework which focus on a specific technology area or business sector. The main goal of an "umbrella" is to facilitate the generation of EUREKA projects in its own target area.

EUREKA, often abbreviated as E!, or Σ! (from the ancient Greek way to write "E" and unrelated to modern "Sigma") is an intergovernmental organisation for pan-European research and development funding and coordination. EUREKA is an open platform for international cooperation in innovation.

EUREKA (: "European Research Coordination Agency") je evropská organizace pro výzkum a rozvoj a síť pro obchod a přeshraniční výzkum. Byla založená Pařížskou deklarací z roku 1985. Jejími dvěma hlavními zakladateli byli François Mitterrand a Helmut Kohl. K roku 2010 má 39 členů.


Signs and symptoms.

Reye syndrome progresses through five stages:

Causes.

The cause of Reye syndrome is unknown. It usually begins shortly after recovery from a viral infection, such as influenza or chickenpox. About 90% of cases in children are associated with aspirin (salicylate) use. Inborn errors of metabolism are also a risk factor.  The association with aspirin has been shown through epidemiological studies. The diagnosis of "Reye Syndrome" greatly decreased in the 1980s, when genetic testing for inborn errors of metabolism was becoming available in developed countries. A retrospective study of 49 survivors of cases diagnosed as "Reye's Syndrome" showed that the majority of the surviving patients had various metabolic disorders, particularly a fatty-acid oxidation disorder medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency.

Aspirin.

There is an association between taking aspirin for viral illnesses and the development of Reye syndrome, but no animal model of Reye syndrome has been developed in which aspirin causes the condition.  The serious symptoms of Reye syndrome appear to result from damage to cellular mitochondria, at least in the liver, and there are a number of ways that aspirin could cause or exacerbate mitochondrial damage. A potential increased risk of developing Reye syndrome is one of the main reasons that aspirin has not been recommended for use in children and teenagers, the age group for which the risk of lasting serious effects is highest.  In some countries, oral mouthcare product Bonjela (not the form specifically designed for teething) has labeling cautioning against its use in children, given its salicylate content. There have been no cases of Reye syndrome following its use, and the measure is a precaution. Other medications containing salicylates are often similarly labeled as a precaution.  The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the U.S. Surgeon General, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommend that aspirin and combination products containing aspirin not be given to children under 19 years of age during episodes of fever-causing illnesses. Hence, in the United States, it is advised that the opinion of a doctor or pharmacist should be obtained before anyone under 19 years of age is given any medication containing aspirin (also known on some medicine labels as acetylsalicylate, salicylate, acetylsalicylic acid, ASA, or salicylic acid).  Current advice in the United Kingdom by the Committee on Safety of Medicines is that aspirin should not be given to those under the age of 16 years, unless specifically indicated in Kawasaki disease or in the prevention of blood clot formation.

Diagnosis.

Differential diagnosis.

Causes for similar symptoms include

Treatment.

Prognosis.

Documented cases of Reye syndrome in adults are rare. The recovery of adults with the syndrome is generally complete, with liver and brain function returning to normal within two weeks of onset.  In children, mild to severe permanent brain damage is possible, especially in infants. Over thirty percent of the cases reported in the United States from 1981 through 1997 resulted in fatality.

Epidemiology.

Reye syndrome occurs almost exclusively in children. While a few adult cases have been reported over the years, these cases do not typically show permanent neural or liver damage. Unlike in the United Kingdom, the surveillance for Reye syndrome in the United States is focused on people under 18 years of age.  In 1980, after the CDC began cautioning physicians and parents about the association between Reye syndrome and the use of salicylates in children with chickenpox or virus-like illnesses, the incidence of Reye syndrome in the United States began to decline, prior to the FDA's issue of warning labels on aspirin in 1986. In the United States between 1980 and 1997, the number of reported cases of Reye syndrome decreased from 555 cases in 1980 to about two cases per year since 1994. During this time period 93% of reported cases for which racial data were available occurred in whites and the median age was six years. In 93% of cases a viral illness had occurred in the preceding three-week period. For the period 1991–1994, the annual rate of hospitalizations due to Reye syndrome in the United States was estimated to be between 0.2 and 1.1 per million population less than 18 years of age.  During the 1980s, a case-control study carried out in the United Kingdom also demonstrated an association between Reye syndrome and aspirin exposure. In June 1986, the United Kingdom Committee on Safety of Medicines issued warnings against the use of aspirin in children under 12 years of age and warning labels on aspirin-containing medications were introduced. United Kingdom surveillance for Reye syndrome documented a decline in the incidence of the illness after 1986. The reported incidence rate of Reye syndrome decreased from a high of 0.63 per 100,000 population less than 12 years of age in 1983–1984 to 0.11 in 1990–1991.  From November 1995 to November 1996 in France, a national survey of pediatric departments for children under 15 years of age with unexplained encephalopathy and a threefold (or greater) increase in serum aminotransferase and/or ammonia led to the identification of nine definite cases of Reye syndrome (0.79 cases per million children). Eight of the nine children with Reye syndrome were found to have been exposed to aspirin. In part because of this survey result, the French Medicines Agency reinforced the international attention to the relationship between aspirin and Reye syndrome by issuing its own public and professional warnings about this relationship.

History.

The syndrome is named after Dr. Douglas Reye, who, along with fellow physicians Drs. Graeme Morgan and Jim Baral, published the first study of the syndrome in 1963 in "The Lancet". In retrospect, the occurrence of the syndrome may have first been reported in 1929. Also in 1964, Dr. George Johnson and colleagues published an investigation of an outbreak of influenza B that described 16 children who developed neurological problems, four of whom had a profile remarkably similar to Reye syndrome. Some investigators refer to this disorder as Reye-Johnson syndrome, although it is more commonly called Reye syndrome. In 1979, Dr. Karen Starko and colleagues conducted a case-control study in Phoenix, Arizona, and found the first statistically-significant link between aspirin use and Reye syndrome. Studies in Ohio and Michigan soon confirmed her findings pointing to the use of aspirin during an upper respiratory tract or chickenpox infection as a possible trigger of the syndrome. Beginning in 1980, the CDC cautioned physicians and parents about the association between Reye syndrome and the use of salicylates in children and teenagers with chickenpox or virus-like illnesses. In 1982 the U.S. Surgeon General issued an advisory, and in 1986 the Food and Drug Administration required a Reye syndrome-related warning label for all aspirin-containing medications.

Reye syndrome is a rapidly worsening brain disease. Symptoms may include vomiting, personality changes, confusion, seizures, and loss of consciousness. Even though liver toxicity typically occurs, jaundice usually does not. Death occurs in 20–40% of those affected and about a third of those who survive are left with a significant degree of brain damage. The cause of Reye syndrome is unknown. It usually begins shortly after recovery from a viral infection, such as influenza or chickenpox. About 90% of cases in children are associated with aspirin (salicylate) use. Inborn errors of metabolism are also a risk factor. Changes on blood tests may include a high blood ammonia level, low blood sugar level, and prolonged prothrombin time. Often the liver is enlarged. Prevention is typically by avoiding the use of aspirin in children. When aspirin was withdrawn for use in children a decrease of more than 90% in rates of Reye syndrome was seen. Early diagnosis improves outcomes. Treatment is supportive. Mannitol may be used to help with the brain swelling. The first detailed description of Reye syndrome was in 1963 by Douglas Reye, an Australian pathologist. Children are most commonly affected. It affects fewer than one in a million children a year. The general recommendation to use aspirin in children was withdrawn because of Reye syndrome, with use of aspirin only recommended in Kawasaki disease.

Reyův syndrom je potenciálně smrtelné onemocnění, které působí četná poškození mnoha orgánů, zvláště mozku a jater; způsobuje též snížení hladiny krevního cukru (hypoglykémii). Přesná příčina není známa, a přestože byl Reyův syndrom spojován s léčbou virových nemocí u dětí kyselinou acetylsalicylovou, vyskytuje se i bez přítomnosti tohoto léčiva. Často je přítomna vrozená metabolická porucha.


Early career.

Pittman attended Matthew Pearce Primary School, Mount St Benedict College and Girraween High School in western Sydney. She is second cousin to diver Melissa Wu. She competed until April 2006 under her maiden name Pittman, then under her married name Rawlinson, and in 2009, following the breakdown of her marriage, as Pittman-Rawlinson.  Pittman won the 400 m hurdles at the 1999 World Youth Championships in Athletics in Bydgoszcz and became treble champion in 200 m, 400 m and 400 m hurdles at the national championships of that year. In 2000, she became the first woman ever to win the 400 m flat and hurdles double at any IAAF or IOC championships – in this case, the 2000 World Junior Championships in Santiago (Chile).

Knee injury.

Just before the Athens Olympics, Pittman tore her cartilage in her right knee during a warm-up for a track meet in Zurich, where she had been favoured to win the 400 m hurdles event. After undergoing surgery in London only one week before the start of the games, she ran 5th in the final.

2006 Commonwealth Games.

At the Melbourne Commonwealth Games Jana Pittman successfully defended her two Commonwealth titles.

4×400 m Relay.

As at the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, Pittman-Rawlinson was a member of Australia's gold medal-winning 4 × 400 m relay team (with Tamsyn Lewis, Caitlin Willis and Rosemary Hayward). However, the 2006 Aussie team was awarded the gold medal after the disqualification of the England team for a baton-change violation. Pittman later wrote a letter of apology to the English team and offered her gold medal to them. She blamed the disqualification on Lewis who, alongside Pittman, went up to the officials after the race to point out the violation of Englishwoman Natasha Danvers-Smith of taking an incorrect position on the starting leg. According to the ABC Sports Desk the officials were moving to disqualify England anyway. England head coach, Brad McStravick, in an interview with the ABC TV program "Offsiders", questioned Pittman's motivation for writing the letter: "I know she is going to spend, well, at least half the year in England and I think some of the girls wondered whether it was just to try and make peace, so that she wouldn't face any animosity once she was living and training in England," he said.

400 m Hurdles.

Pittman won the 400 m hurdles title with a new Games record time of 53.82 seconds. This was her first major championship in the event since her 2004 knee injury and subsequent stress fractures in her back.

Osaka 2007.

After delivering Cornelis, Pittman had her wisdom teeth removed and a 10-week injury break with plantar fasciitis. Despite these difficulties, she ran well on the European circuit and comfortably won the 400 m Hurdles at the Osaka World Championships.  She carried a slight injury through her 2007 season, having surgery later in the year to remove loose cartilage and floating bone fragments in the second toe of her right foot.  Pittman was pre-selected for the 2008 Australian Olympic team in late 2007.

Beijing 2008.

In January 2008, Pittman was nominated for 'Comeback of the Year' at the Laureus World Sports Awards.  In February 2008, Pittman was quoted as saying she could visualise her win at the Beijing Olympics and that she would run a world record time. But on 9 July 2008, Pittman announced she would not be competing at the Beijing Games, because of the complications with the toe injury. "The Australian" subsequently reported that a large number of Australians had "viciously turned against the fallen track star", strongly criticising her.

Injury problems.

On 29 June 2009, Pittman returned to racing after more than a year with a victory in the Grand Prix event at Málaga, Spain. She won the 400 metre hurdles in a time of 55.67 seconds ahead of Ukrainian Anastasiya Rabchenyuk and Janet Wienand of South Africa. However, she was not fit enough to defend her title at the 2009 World Championships. A hamstring problem caused by bulging disc in her back interrupted her preparation for the tournament, but she was confident of a return, saying "I hope I can recover from this latest setback and get back on track for my long-term goal and dream – winning Olympic Gold in London in 2012".  Another 20 months passed before her return to competition. In April 2011, she beat domestic rival Lauren Boden on the final leg of the Australian Athletics Tour.  Pittman suffered a foot injury in March 2012 which put her out of contention for the London Olympics, and resulted in her deciding to retire from athletics. After trying rowing and boxing, she elected to try her hand at bobsledding, acting as brakewoman to Australian pilot Astrid Radjenovic with a view to competing at the 2014 Winter Olympics. In her first race Radjenovic and Pittman scored Australia's best ever World Cup finish with a seventh place at Altenberg in January 2013.

2014 Sochi Winter Olympics.

In 2014 Pittman competed in the two-person bobsleigh event at the Sochi Winter Olympics. In doing so she became the first female (and second overall after Paul Narracott) to represent Australia in both the summer and winter olympics. The team of Pittman (brakeman) and Astrid Radjenovic (pilot) finished in 14th position.

2013-18 Medical career.

In January 2013 whilst training for the Sochi Winter Olympic Games, Jana began her career in Medicine (MBBS) at Western Sydney University. In 2017, Jana completed a Bachelor of Medical Research. Jana is an Australian ambassador for Cervical Cancer (ACCF) after having a personal scare with CINIII of the cervix in 2014. After completion of her medical degree she plans to be an obstetrician and gynaecologist.

Personal life.

In May 2009 it was revealed that Pittman had undergone breast implant surgery after the birth of her son. The following year she announced she'd had the implants removed as they had "affected her running", but would consider having her breasts augmented again once her athletic career was over.

Marriage to Chris Rawlinson.

On 31 March 2006, Pittman married English athlete Chris Rawlinson at Morningstar Estate on the Mornington Peninsula, Victoria. Rawlinson, also a specialist 400 m hurdler, coached Jana from 2004–2009. On 14 December 2006 she gave birth to the couple's first child, son Cornelis Levi. She later stated that she had gone for a hard twenty-minute run on the morning of the birth and "felt like a whale".  In April 2009 it was announced that Pittman and Rawlinson had separated after three years of marriage and in May 2009 she returned to training under Craig Hilliard who had previously coached her. In an interview on 24 October 2009 her new role as a single mother was described as "Jana's toughest hurdle".  In January 2010 it was announced that Pittman had been reconciled with Rawlinson and that they would renew their vows. On 31 March 2010, Pittman renewed vows with Rawlinson in England, wearing an unconventional red wedding dress. However, on 16 April 2011 it was announced that Pittman and Rawlinson had split again and they divorced.  In 2015, after her cervical cancer scare Jana decided to use an anonymous sperm donor to conceive her second child, a daughter. In 2016, she had her third child using the same donor, another daughter.

Jana Pittman-Rawlinson (born 9 November 1982) is an Australian athlete, who specialises in the 400 metres run and 400 metre hurdles events. She is a two-time world champion in the 400 m hurdles, from 2003 and 2007. She also won the gold medal in this event at the 2002 and 2006 Commonwealth Games and was part of Australia's winning 4 × 400 metres relay teams at both events.

Jana Emily Pittmanová, rozvedená Jana Rawlinsonová (* 9. listopadu 1982 Sydney) je bývalá australská atletka, dvojnásobná mistryně světa v běhu na 400 metrů překážek.


History.

In 1924, Sinclair Oil, a U.S. oil company, and the Italian Ministry of National Economy created a fifty-year joint venture agreement to explore for oil in Emilia-Romagna and Sicily, over an area of 40,000 km2. 40% of the capital was held by the ministry, all expenditure was incurred by Sinclair Oil and 25% of profits went to the Italian ministry. The political opposition, headed by Giacomo Matteotti and Don Sturzo, alleged that the joint venture was damaging to the nation and started a controversy which led to suspicions of corruption; Matteotti indeed was killed two days before he was due to give a speech on this issue. Don Sturzo continued the controversy, stating that a public company was the only way to maintain national energy independence.  Coal in Italy was scarce and of poor quality. It was imported from abroad at prices that weighed on Italy’s trade balance and limited industrial growth. Power plants, which were not very developed and mainly concentrated in the north of the country, could not satisfy the needs of energy.

The constitution of the company and the "ad aziendam" laws.

With a royal decree on April 3, 1926, the government of the Kingdom of Italy established the "Azienda Generale Italiana Petroli" (AGIP), a joint stock company, to conduct all activities relating to the petroleum industry. 60 percent of the share capital was held by the Ministry of the Treasury, 20% by Istituto Nazionale Assicurazioni (INA), and the remaining 20% by the Italian Social Insurance fund. The first president was Ettore Conti, a contractor in the electricity sector. The establishment of the company was attributed by many analysts to Giuseppe Volpi di Misurata, Ministry of Finance, and Giuseppe Belluzzo, Ministry for the National Economy. Volpi di Misurata, however, was directly involved in oil-related interests, working together with FIAT of Giovanni Agnelli, and with the financial backing of Banca Commerciale Italiana, which had searched unsuccessfully for oil in Emilia-Romagna. In 1927 a "Mining Act" was enacted, which gave the ownership of the subsoil to the State and imposed the rule that any oil-related activity was subject to government authorization and/or grant.  Agip experienced difficulties after the crisis of 1929 but began to flourish in the 1930s. In 1933 a new law was issued that restrained protectionist refineries and AGIP could operate with greater ease in this area.

Early stages and development.

AGIP had a facility for refining at Fiume and in 1936 it took over a refinery at Porto Marghera, owned by Volpi di Misurata. Soon after it made an agreement with Montecatini to create a joint enterprise, Anic (Fuel Hydrogenation National Company), which was to pursue the derivation of fuel by hydrogenation of brown coal. Anic built two refineries to process the oil extracted in Albania from Azienda Italiana Petroli Albanesi (AIPA), a subsidiary of AGIP. However, the Albanian oil was of poor quality and its processing proved uneconomical.  Simultaneously, however, because of the costs to support colonial campaigns, Agip had to exit some foreign investments, in particular their exploration campaigns in Iraq. It was the explorer Ardito Desio who found oil in Libya and in 1939 came the so-called "Petrolibia operation", in which AGIP was linked to FIAT, with which the year before it had created an Italian company for synthetic fuels, to explore the possibility of obtaining gasoline from synthetic chemistry.

External links.

Agip Lubricants Australia

Agip ("Azienda Generale Italiana Petroli", ) was an Italian automotive gasoline, diesel, LPG, lubricants, fuel oil, and bitumen retailer established in 1926. It had been a subsidiary of the multinational petroleum company Eni since 2003, when Eni acquired Agip Petroli S.p.A., creating the Refining and Marketing Division (R&M).

Agip ("Azienda Generale Italiana Petroli") je italská firma zabývající se prodejem pohonných hmot, založená v roce 1926. Od roku 1953 je dceřinou společností nadnárodní ropné společnosti Eni.


Background.

The first Jews settled in Łachwa, Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, after the Khmelnytsky Uprising (1648-1650). In 1795 there were 157 tax-paying Jewish citizens in Łachwa; already a majority of its inhabitants. Main sources of income were trade in agricultural products and in fishing, expanded into meat and wax production, tailoring, and transportation services. Several decades after the Partitions of Poland by Russia, Prussia and Austria, the railway line Vilna-Luninets-Rivne extended to Łachwa, helping local economies withstand the downturn. In 1897 there were 1,057 Jews in the town.  After the formation of Second Polish Republic in the aftermath of World War I in 1918, Łachwa became part of the Polesie Voivodeship in the Kresy region. According to the Polish census of 1921, Łachwa population was 33 per cent Jewish. Eliezer Lichtenstein was the last Rabi before the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939. After the Soviet-German invasion of Poland, Łachwa was annexed by the Soviet Union and became part of Belorussian SSR.

Ghetto history.

On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. Two weeks later on 8 July 1941, the German Wehrmacht overran the town. A Judenrat was established by the Germans, headed by a former Zionist leader, Dov Lopatyn. Rabbi Hayyim Zalman Osherowitz was arrested by the police. His release was secured later, only after the payment of a large ransom.  On 1 April 1942, the town's Jewish residents were forcibly moved into a new ghetto consisting of two streets and 45 houses, and surrounded by a barbed wire fence. The ghetto housed roughly 2,350 people, which amounted to approximately per person.  The news of massacres, committed throughout the region by German Einsatzgruppe B, soon spread to Łachwa. The Jewish youth organized an underground resistance under the leadership of Isaac Rochczyn (also spelled Yitzhak Rochzyn or Icchak Rokchin), the head of the local Betar group. With the assistance of Judenrat, the underground managed to stockpile axes, knives, and iron bars, although efforts to secure firearms were largely unsuccessful.  By August 1942, the Jews in Łachwa knew that the nearby ghettos in Łuniniec (Luninets) and Mikaszewicze (now Mikashevichy, Belarus) had been liquidated. On 2 September 1942, the local populace was informed that some farmers, summoned by the Nazis, had been ordered to dig large pits just outside the town. Later that day, 150 German troops from an "Einsatzgruppe" killing squad with 200 Belarusian and Ukrainian auxiliaries surrounded the ghetto. Rochczyn and the underground wanted to attack the ghetto fence at midnight to allow the population to flee, but others refused to abandon the elderly and children. Lopatyn asked that the attack be postponed until the morning.

Uprising and massacre.

On 3 September 1942, the Germans informed Dov Lopatyn that the ghetto was to be liquidated, and ordered the ghetto inhabitants to gather for "resettlement". To secure the cooperation of the ghetto's leaders, the Germans promised that the members of Judenrat, the ghetto doctor and 30 labourers (whom Lopatyn could choose personally) would be spared. Lopatyn refused the offer, reportedly responding: "Either we all live, or we all die."  When the Germans entered the ghetto, Lopatyn set fire to the Judenrat headquarters, which was the signal to commence the uprising. Other buildings were also set on fire. Members of the Ghetto underground attacked the Germans as they entered the ghetto, using axes, sticks, molotov cocktails and their bare hands. This battle is believed to have represented the first ghetto uprising of the war. Approximately 650 Jews were killed in the fighting or in the flames, with another 500 or so taken to the pits and shot. Six German soldiers and eight German and Ukrainian (or Belarusian) policemen were also killed. The ghetto fence was breached and approximately 1,000 Jews were able to escape, of whom about 600 were able to take refuge in the Prypeć (Pripet) Marshes. Rochczyn was shot and killed as he jumped into the Smierc River, after killing a German soldier with an axe to the head. Although an estimated 120 of the escapees were able to join partisan units, most of the others were eventually tracked down and killed. Approximately 90 residents of the ghetto survived the war. Dov Lopatyn joined a communist partisan unit and was killed on 21 February 1944 by a landmine.

Aftermath.

The Red Army reached Łachwa in mid-July 1944 during Operation Bagration. The Jewish community was never restored. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Lakhva has been one of the smaller towns in the Luninets district of Brest Region in sovereign Belarus.

External links.

Pre-war Polish topographic maps showing Łachwa

Łachwa (or Lakhva) Ghetto was a Nazi ghetto in Western Belarus during World War II. Located in Lakhva, Belarus), the ghetto was created with the aim of persecution and exploitation of the local Jews. The ghetto existed until September 1942. It was the location of one of the first Jewish ghetto uprising.

Ghetto Łachwa (Lachva) bylo ghetto vytvořené v době druhé světové války nacistickým Německem ve městě Łachwa v okupovaném Polsku (nyní Lachva, Bělorusko) s cílem pronásledování a vykořisťování místních Židů. Ghetto existovalo pouze od začátku dubna do září 1942. Bylo místem jednoho z prvních povstání v židovském ghettu po nacisticko-sovětské invazi do Polska.


Development.

"Hang Tuah" was a singleton vessel, originally built for Ghana. It was to have been named "Black Star" and to have functioned as the flagship of Ghana's navy as well as the presidential yacht for Kwame Nkrumah, the President of Ghana. Built by Yarrow Shipbuilders on the River Clyde in Scotland, the new frigate was still on the slipway, when in February 1966, a military coup in Ghana ousted President Nkrumah; the new government cancelled the order due to the excessive cost of around GBP 5 million. Yarrow decided that the best course was to complete the ship in the hope that she could be sold to another navy; she was launched without any ceremony in December 1966.  The frigate was completed in June 1968 and kept at anchor for several years awaiting a buyer. In 1971, the newly elected Conservative government decided that by purchasing the ship for the Royal Navy, they could provide an indirect subsidy to a vital shipbuilder. Accordingly, in April 1972, she was transferred to Portsmouth Dockyard and then to Chatham Dockyard, to be refitted to bring her up to operational standards.

Design.

The hull and machinery of the ship were based on the British Type 41 and Type 61 frigates, but modified to suit the requirements of the Ghana Navy. The hull was flush decked; the large quarterdeck could be used to land a helicopter but there were no facilities to operate one. The exhausts from the eight diesel engines were trunked into a single streamlined funnel.  There were extra accommodation areas in the superstructure including a large dining and conference room. The armament and sensors were kept relatively simple to keep the cost down and for ease of maintenance. Mounted forward of the bridge was a Mark 19 mounting with twin QF 4 inch Mk 16 dual-purpose guns, there were four single Bofors 40 mm guns around the upper superstructure, and a Squid anti-submarine mortar mounted aft in a well. Sonar Types 170 and 176 were carried as was a Plessey AWS-1 radar on the foremast and a navigational radar forward of this on a platform.  The ship had a displacement of 2,300 tons as standard, had a maximum speed of and a complement of 177 officers and men in Royal Navy service.

Royal Navy service.

She was commissioned on 16 May 1973 into the Royal Navy as with the pennant number F76 and after working up was dispatched to the Far East where she was based at Singapore. Her light armament and minimal sensor fittings made her unsuitable for a role in the European environment but could provide a useful presence in the Far East, undertaking what is now known as 'defence diplomacy' roles. She stood in for (the guardship for Hong Kong) at times and stood by at the end of the Vietnam War in case British nationals had to be evacuated from Saigon.  Returning to home waters in 1976, "Mermaid" was deployed to protect British trawlers off Iceland during the Third Cod War. After a previous ramming incident with the Icelandic gunboat on 12 March, she suffered heavy collision damage on 6 May during aggressive manoeuvring with the patrol boat. During a NATO exercise on 20 September 1976, she was involved in a collision with the minesweeper that resulted in the "Fittleton"s sinking and the deaths of 12 personnel, mainly RNR members.  "Mermaid"'s last task before being paid off was to conduct trials on a moving target indication system that enabled radar to pick out targets moving against the clutter generated by the surface of the sea. Her Royal Navy career of only five years ended in early 1977, but she was the last British warship to operate twin 4-inch guns, which had been in service for well over thirty years.

Royal Malaysian Navy service.

In April 1977 she was transferred to the Royal Malaysian Navy and commissioned at Southampton on 22 July, and named "Hang Tuah" after a legendary 15th century Malaccan warrior and "Laksamana" (admiral). She replaced another "Hang Tuah", the ex-, a. Although "Mermaid" took her predecessor's name, the Malaysian Navy retained the British pennant number F76. For a number of years she served as the flagship of the Royal Malaysian Navy after joining as the two major assets of the Royal Malaysian Navy.  "Hang Tuah" became a training ship in 1992. Between 1995 and 1997, the ship was subject to a major refit, with two new diesel engines being fitted, with a power of giving a speed of, the obsolete 4-inch guns being replaced by a Bofors 57 mm gun, and the Squid anti-submarine mortar and sonars being removed. In 1992, "Hang Tuah" is serving as a training ship and is assigned to Frigate Squadron 21. In April 2017, "Hang Tuah" was one of the Malaysian Navy ships which were opened to the public at the "Armada 2017" event at Lumut naval base, where she celebrated her 40th anniversary. "Hang Tuah" was retired in 2018 and turned into a museum ship.

KD "Hang Tuah" is a frigate operated by the Royal Malaysian Navy since 1977. She was built in the United Kingdom, originally for the Ghana Navy, but was launched and completed as a private venture, before being purchased by the Royal Navy in 1972. She served for five years as HMS "Mermaid" (F76) before being purchased by Malaysia, where she replaced another ex-British frigate also called "Hang Tuah". She became a training ship in 1992 and was refitted to replace obsolete weapons and machinery.

Hang Tvah (F76) je fregata Malajsijského královského námořnictva, sloužící v současnosti jako cvičné plavidlo. Původně se jednalo o britskou fregatu HMS "Mermaid" stavěnou pro Ghanu, zakoupenou Malajsií v roce 1977.


Composition.

Muskeg forms because permafrost, clay or bedrock prevents water drainage. The water from rain and snow collects, forming permanently waterlogged vegetation and stagnant pools. Muskeg is wet, acidic, and relatively infertile, which prevents large trees from growing, although stunted shore pine, cottonwood, some species of willow, and black spruce are typically found in these habitats. It needs two conditions to develop: abundant rain and cool summers. A dead plant that falls on dry soil is normally attacked by bacteria and fungi and quickly rots. If the same plant lands in water or on saturated soil, it decomposes differently. Less oxygen is available under water, so aerobic bacteria and fungi fail to colonize the submerged debris effectively. In addition, cool temperatures retard bacterial and fungal growth. This causes slow decomposition, and thus the plant debris gradually accumulates to form peat and eventually muskeg. Depending on the underlying topography of the land, muskeg can reach depths greater than 30 metres (100 ft).

Description.

Although at first glance muskeg resembles a plain covered with short grasses, a closer look reveals a bizarre and almost unearthly landscape. Small stands of stunted and often dead trees, which vaguely resemble bonsai, grow where land protrudes above the water table, with small pools of water stained dark red scattered about. Its grassland appearance invites the unwary to walk on it, but even the most solid muskeg is spongy and waterlogged. Traveling through muskeg is a strange and dangerous experience for the unaccustomed. Muskeg can grow atop bodies of water, especially small ponds and streams. Because of the water beneath, the muskeg surface sometimes ripples underfoot. Thinner patches allow large animals to fall through, becoming trapped under the muskeg and drowning. Moose are at a special disadvantage in muskeg due to their long legs, minimal hoof area, and great weight. Hunters and hikers may occasionally encounter young moose in muskeg-covered ponds submerged up to their torsos or necks, having been unaware of the unstable ground.

Surface strength.

Muskeg can be a significant impediment to transportation. During the 1870s, muskeg in Northern Ontario was reported to have swallowed a railroad engine whole when a track was laid on muskeg instead of clearing down to bedrock.  Many other instances have been reported of heavy construction equipment vanishing into muskeg in the spring as the frozen muskeg beneath the vehicle thawed. Construction in muskeg-laden areas sometimes requires the complete removal of the soil and filling with gravel. If the muskeg is not completely cleared to bedrock, its high water content will cause buckling and distortion from winter freezing, much like permafrost.  One method of working atop muskeg is to place large logs on the ground, covered with a thick layer of clay or other stable material. This is commonly called a corduroy road. To increase the effectiveness of the corduroy, prevent erosion, and allow removal of material with less disturbance to the muskeg, a geotextile fabric is sometimes placed down before the logs. However temporary winter access roads on muskeg (ice road), created by clearing the insulating snow and allowing the muskeg to freeze, are more commonly used as they are cheaper to construct and easier to decommission. Water is often sprayed on these roads to thicken the ice allowing heavy trucks and equipment to safely access remote sites in the winter.

In fiction.

In Jack London's short story, "Love of Life," the starving protagonist eats muskeg berries along the trail. "A muskeg berry is a bit of seed enclosed in a bit of water. In the mouth the water melts away and the seed chews sharp and bitter. The man knew there was no nourishment in the berries, but he chewed them patiently with a hope greater than knowledge and defying experience."  Also, in Rick Riordan's young adult novel "The Son of Neptune", one of the protagonists accidentally gets swallowed by muskeg soil as a trap laid by the Earth goddess Gaia.

Muskeg (Ojibwe: mashkiig; ;, lit. "moss bog") is an acidic soil type common in Arctic and boreal areas, although it is found in other northern climates as well. Muskeg is approximately synonymous with bogland, but "muskeg" is the standard term in Western Canada and Alaska, while 'bog' is common elsewhere. The term became common in these areas because it is of Cree origin; (ᒪᐢᑫᐠ) meaning low-lying marsh. Large tracts of this soil existing in Siberia may be called muskeg or bogland interchangeably.

Maskek je kyselý typ půdy běžný v arktických a boreálních oblastech, i když stejně tak se může vyskytovat i v jiných oblastech se studeným podnebím. "Maskek" je sice víceméně částečným synonymem pro bažinné půdy, ale standardním termínem je pro západní Kanadu a Aljašku (zatímco pojem bažina, bahnisko či mokřad je běžnější v ostatních oblastech světa). Termín je kríjského původu, kríjský výraz "maskek" (ᒪᐢᑫᐠ) znamená nízko položenou mokřinu. Rozsáhlá pásma této půdy existující na Sibiři mohou být nazývána jak maskek tak bažinaté půdy. Maskek se skládá z mrtvých rostlinných těl v různém stádiu rozkladu (dekompozice) (jako rašelina), různící se od téměř nedotčeného sphagna mechu až po vysoce rozložené bláto. Kousky dřeva, jako třeba pohřbené větve stromů, mohou tvořit až 15 procent tohoto rašelinného typu půdy. "Maskek" má tendenci mít hladinu podzemní vody velice blízko k povrchu. Podobným faktem je, že sphagna mechu, která tuto půdu také tvoří, mohou v sobě zadržovat patnáctkrát až třicetkrát více vody než je jejich vlastní váha. Tím umožňují houbovitě vlhkému "maskeku" vytvářet typický „kopečkovitý“ povrch země. Plošky "maskeku" v severských lesích nabízejí ideální podmínky pro bobry, láčky, některé druhy agarických hub (anglicky "agaricales") a celou škálu dalších organismů.