History and core principles.

Jyotiṣa is one of the Vedāṅga, the six auxiliary disciplines used to support Vedic rituals. Early jyotiṣa is concerned with the preparation of a calendar to determine dates for sacrificial rituals, with nothing written regarding planets. There are mentions of eclipse-causing "demons" in the Atharvaveda and Chāndogya Upaniṣad, the latter mentioning Rāhu (a shadow entity believed responsible for eclipses and meteors). The term "graha", which is now taken to mean planet, originally meant demon. The Ṛigveda also mentions an eclipse-causing demon, Svarbhānu, however the specific term "graha" was not applied to Svarbhānu until the later "Mahābhārata" and "Rāmāyaṇa".  The foundation of Hindu astrology is the notion of bandhu of the Vedas (scriptures), which is the connection between the microcosm and the macrocosm. Practice relies primarily on the sidereal zodiac, which differs from the tropical zodiac used in Western (Hellenistic) astrology in that an "ayanāṁśa" adjustment is made for the gradual precession of the vernal equinox. Hindu astrology includes several nuanced sub-systems of interpretation and prediction with elements not found in Hellenistic astrology, such as its system of lunar mansions ("Nakṣatra"). It was only after the transmission of Hellenistic astrology that the order of planets in India was fixed in that of the seven-day week. Hellenistic astrology and astronomy also transmitted the twelve zodiacal signs beginning with Aries and the twelve astrological places beginning with the ascendant. The first evidence of the introduction of Greek astrology to India is the "Yavanajātaka" which dates to the early centuries CE. The "Yavanajātaka" ( "Sayings of the Greeks") was translated from Greek to Sanskrit by Yavaneśvara during the 2nd century CE, and is considered the first Indian astrological treatise in the Sanskrit language. However the only version that survives is the verse version of Sphujidhvaja which dates to AD 270. The first Indian astronomical text to define the weekday was the "Āryabhaṭīya" of Āryabhaṭa (born AD 476).  According to Michio Yano, Indian astronomers must have been occupied with the task of Indianizing and Sanskritizing Greek astronomy during the 300 or so years between the first "Yavanajataka" and the "Āryabhaṭīya". The astronomical texts of these 300 years are lost. The later "Pañcasiddhāntikā" of Varāhamihira summarizes the five known Indian astronomical schools of the sixth century. Indian astronomy preserved some of the older pre-Ptolemaic elements of Greek astronomy.  The main texts upon which classical Indian astrology is based are early medieval compilations, notably the "", and "Sārāvalī" by. The "Horāshastra" is a composite work of 71 chapters, of which the first part (chapters 1–51) dates to the 7th to early 8th centuries and the second part (chapters 52–71) to the later 8th century. The "Sārāvalī" likewise dates to around 800 CE. English translations of these texts were published by N. N. Krishna Rau and V. B. Choudhari in 1963 and 1961, respectively.

Modern Hindu astrology.

Astrology remains an important facet of folk belief in the contemporary lives of many Hindus. In Hindu culture, newborns are traditionally named based on their jyotiṣa charts (Kundali), and astrological concepts are pervasive in the organization of the calendar and holidays, and in making major decisions such as those about marriage, opening a new business, or moving into a new home. Many Hindus believe that heavenly bodies, including the planets, have an influence throughout the life of a human being, and these planetary influences are the "fruit of karma". The Navagraha, planetary deities, are considered subordinate to Ishvara (the Hindu concept of a supreme being) in the administration of justice. Thus, it is believed that these planets can influence earthly life.

Status of astrology.

Astrology retains a position among the sciences in modern India.  India's University Grants Commission and Ministry of Human Resource Development decided to introduce "Jyotir Vigyan" (i.e. "") or "Vedic astrology" as a discipline of study in Indian universities, stating that "vedic astrology is not only one of the main subjects of our traditional and classical knowledge but this is the discipline, which lets us know the events happening in human life and in universe on time scale." The decision was backed by a 2001 judgement of the Andhra Pradesh High Court, and some Indian universities offer advanced degrees in astrology. This was met with widespread protests from the scientific community in India and Indian scientists working abroad. A petition sent to the Supreme Court of India stated that the introduction of astrology to university curricula is "a giant leap backwards, undermining whatever scientific credibility the country has achieved so far".  In 2004, the Supreme Court dismissed the petition, concluding that the teaching of astrology did not qualify as the promotion of religion. In February 2011, the Bombay High Court referred to the 2004 Supreme Court ruling when it dismissed a case which had challenged astrology's status as a science. despite continuing complaints by scientists, astrology continues to be taught at various universities in India, and there is a movement in progress to establish a national Vedic University to teach astrology together with the study of tantra, mantra, and yoga.

Elements.

There are sixteen "Varga" (, 'part, division'), or divisional, charts used in Hindu astrology:

Rāśi – zodiacal signs.

The Nirayana, or sidereal zodiac, is an imaginary belt of 360 degrees, which, like the Sāyana, or tropical zodiac, is divided into 12 equal parts. Each part (of 30 degrees) is called a sign or "rāśi" (Sanskrit: 'part'). Vedic (Jyotiṣa) and Western zodiacs differ in the method of measurement. While synchronically, the two systems are identical, Jyotiṣa primarily uses the sidereal zodiac (in which stars are considered to be the fixed background against which the motion of the planets is measured), whereas most Western astrology uses the tropical zodiac (the motion of the planets is measured against the position of the Sun on the spring equinox). After two millennia, as a result of the precession of the equinoxes, the origin of the ecliptic longitude has shifted by about 22 degrees. As a result, the placement of planets in the Jyotiṣa system is roughly aligned with the constellations, while tropical astrology is based on the solstices and equinoxes.

Nakṣhatras – lunar mansions.

The "nakshatras" or lunar mansions are 27 equal divisions of the night sky used in Hindu astrology, each identified by its prominent star(s).  Historical (medieval) Hindu astrology enumerated either 27 or 28 nakṣatras. In modern astrology, a rigid system of 27 nakṣatras is generally used, each covering 13° 20′ of the ecliptic. The missing 28th nakshatra is "Abhijeeta". Each nakṣatra is divided into equal quarters or "padas" of 3° 20′. Of greatest importance is the Abhiśeka Nakṣatra, which is held as king over the other nakṣatras. Worshipping and gaining favour over this nakṣatra is said to give power to remedy all the other nakṣatras, and is of concern in predictive astrology and mitigating Karma.  The 27 nakshatras are:

Daśās – planetary periods.

The word "dasha" (Devanāgarī: दशा, Sanskrit,"", 'planetary period') means'state of being' and it is believed that the "daśā" largely governs the state of being of a person. The Daśā system shows which planets may be said to have become particularly active during the period of the Daśā. The ruling planet (the Daśānātha or 'lord of the Daśā') eclipses the mind of the person, compelling him or her to act per the nature of the planet.  There are several "dasha" systems, each with its own utility and area of application. There are Daśās of "grahas" (planets) as well as Daśās of the Rāśis (zodiac signs). The primary system used by astrologers is the Viṁśottarī Daśā system, which has been considered universally applicable in the "kaliyuga" to all horoscopes.  The first Mahā-Daśā is determined by the position of the natal Moon in a given Nakṣatra. The lord of the Nakṣatra governs the Daśā. Each Mahā-Dāśā is divided into sub-periods called "bhuktis", or "antar-daśās", which are proportional divisions of the maha-dasa. Further proportional sub-divisions can be made, but error margins based on accuracy of the birth time grow exponentially. The next sub-division is called "pratyantar-daśā", which can in turn be divided into "sookshma-antardasa", which can in turn be divided into "praana-antardaśā", which can be sub-divided into "deha-antardaśā". Such sub-divisions also exist in all other Daśā systems.

Grahas – planets.

The Navagraha ("nava"; Devanāgarī: नव, Sanskrit:, "nine"; "graha"; Devanāgarī: ग्रह, Sanskrit:, 'planet')) describe nine celestial bodies used in Hindu astrology.  The Navagraha are said to be forces that capture or eclipse the mind and the decision making of human beings, thus the term "graha". When the "grahas" are active in their Daśās or periodicities they are said to be particularly empowered to direct the affairs of people and events.  Rahu and Ketu correspond to the points where the moon crosses the ecliptic plane (known as the ascending and descending nodes of the moon). Classically known in Indian and Western astrology as the "head and tail of the dragon", these planets are represented as a serpent-bodied demon beheaded by the Sudarshan Chakra of Vishnu after attempting to swallow the sun. They are primarily used to calculate the dates of eclipses. They are described as "shadow planets" because they are not visible in the night sky. They have an orbital cycle of 18 years and are always 180 degrees from each other.

Gocharas – transits.

A natal chart shows the position of the "grahas" at the moment of birth. Since that moment, the "grahas" have continued to move around the zodiac, interacting with the natal chart grahas. This period of interaction is called "gochara" (Sanskrit: "", 'transit').  The study of transits is based on the transit of the Moon (Chandra), which spans roughly two days, and also on the movement of Mercury (Budha) and Venus (Śukra) across the celestial sphere, which is relatively fast as viewed from Earth. The movement of the slower planets – Jupiter (Guru), Saturn (Śani) and Rāhu–Ketu — is always of considerable importance. Astrologers study the transit of the Daśā lord from various reference points in the horoscope.  The transit phase alway makes an impact on the lives of humans on earth which can be positive or negative however as per the astrologers the impact of transits can be nuetralised with remedies.

Yogas – planetary combinations.

In Hindu astronomy, "yoga" (Sanskrit: "", 'union') is a combination of planets placed in a specific relationship to each other.  Rāja yogas are perceived as givers of fame, status and authority, and are typically formed by the association of the Lord of Keṅdras ('quadrants'), when reckoned from the Lagna ('Ascendant'), and the Lords of the Trikona ('trines', 120 degrees—first, fifth and ninth houses). The Rāja yogas are culminations of the blessings of Viṣṇu and Lakṣmī. Some planets, such as Mars for Leo Lagna, do not need another "graha" (or Navagraha, 'planet') to create "Rājayoga", but are capable of giving "Rājayoga" by themselves due to their own lordship of the 4th Bhāva ('astrological house') and the 9th Bhāva from the Lagna, the two being a Keṅdra ('angular house'—first, fourth, seventh and tenth houses) and Trikona Bhāva respectively.  Dhana Yogas are formed by the association of wealth-giving planets such as the Dhaneśa or the 2nd Lord and the Lābheśa or the 11th Lord from the Lagna. Dhana Yogas are also formed due to the auspicious placement of the Dārāpada (from "dara",'spouse' and "pada", 'foot'—one of the four divisions—3 degrees and 20 minutes—of a Nakshatra in the 7th house), when reckoned from the Ārūḍha Lagna (AL). The combination of the Lagneśa and the Bhāgyeśa also leads to wealth through the Lakṣmī Yoga.  Sanyāsa Yogas are formed due to the placement of four or more "grahas", excluding the Sun, in a Keṅdra Bhāva from the Lagna.  There are some overarching yogas in Jyotiṣa such as Amāvasyā Doṣa, Kāla Sarpa Yoga-Kāla Amṛta Yoga and Graha Mālika Yoga that can take precedence over Yamaha yogar planetary placements in the horoscope.

Bhāvas – houses.

The Hindu Jātaka or Janam Kundali or birth chart, is the Bhāva Chakra (Sanskrit: 'division' 'wheel'), the complete 360° circle of life, divided into houses, and represents a way of enacting the influences in the wheel. Each house has associated kāraka (Sanskrit:'significator') planets that can alter the interpretation of a particular house. Each Bhāva spans an arc of 30° with twelve Bhāvas in any chart of the horoscope. These are a crucial part of any horoscopic study since the Bhāvas, understood as'state of being', personalize the Rāśis/ Rashis to the native and each Rāśi/ Rashi apart from indicating its true nature reveals its impact on the person based on the Bhāva occupied. The best way to study the various facets of Jyotiṣa is to see their role in chart evaluation of actual persons and how these are construed.

Dṛṣṭis – aspects.

"Drishti" (Sanskrit: "",'sight') is an aspect to an entire house. "Grahas" cast only forward aspects, with the furthest aspect being considered the strongest. For example, Mars aspects the 4th, 7th, and 8th houses from its position, and its 8th house aspect is considered more powerful than its 7th aspect, which is in turn more powerful than its 4th aspect.  The principle of Dristi (aspect) was devised on the basis of the aspect of an army of planets as deity and demon in a war field. Thus the Sun, a deity king with only one full aspect, is more powerful than the demon king Saturn, which has three full aspects.  Aspects can be cast both by the planets (Graha Dṛṣṭi) and by the signs (Rāśi Dṛṣṭi). Planetary aspects are a function of desire, while sign aspects are a function of awareness and cognizance.  There are some higher aspects of Graha Dṛṣṭi (planetary aspects) that are not limited to the Viśeṣa Dṛṣṭi or the special aspects. Rāśi Dṛṣṭi works based on the following formulaic structure: all movable signs aspect fixed signs except the one adjacent, and all dual and mutable signs aspect each other without exception.

Science.

Astrology has been rejected by the scientific community as having no explanatory power for describing the universe. Scientific testing of astrology has been conducted, and no evidence has been found to support any of the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions. There is no mechanism proposed by astrologers through which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth.  Astrologers in Indian astrology make grand claims without taking adequate controls into consideration. Saturn was in Aries in 1909, 1939 and 1968, yet the astrologer Bangalore Venkata Raman claimed that "when Saturn was in Aries in 1939 England had to declare war against Germany", ignoring the two other dates. Astrologers regularly fail in attempts to predict election results in India, and fail to predict major events such as the assassination of Indira Gandhi. Predictions by the head of the Indian Astrologers Federation about war between India and Pakistan in 1982 also failed.  In 2000, when several planets happened to be close to one another, astrologers predicted that there would be catastrophes, volcanic eruptions and tidal waves. This caused an entire sea-side village in the Indian state of Gujarat to panic and abandon their houses. The predicted events did not occur and the vacant houses were burgled.

Bibliography.

Popular treatments:

Jyotisha or Jyotishya (from Sanskrit ', from'"light, heavenly body") is the traditional Hindu system of astrology, also known as Hindu astrology, Indian astrology and more recently Vedic astrology. The term "Hindu astrology" has been in use as the English equivalent of "Jyotiṣa" since the early 19th century, whereas "Vedic astrology" is a relatively recent term, entering common usage in the 1970s with self-help publications on Āyurveda or yoga. "Vedanga Jyotishya" is one of the earliest texts about astronomy within the Vedas. However, some authors have claimed that the horoscopic astrology practiced in the Indian subcontinent came from Hellenistic influences, post-dating the Vedic period. Some authors argue that in the mythologies "Ramayana" and "Mahabharata", only electional astrology, omens, dreams and physiognomy are used but there have been several articles and blogs published which cites multiple references in those books about "Rashi"(zodiac sign) based astrology.

Védská astrologie (sanskrt: "džjótiša", z "džjótis" – „světlo, nebeské těleso“) je starobylý indický systém astronomie a astrologie známý též jako indická či hindská astrologie.


Acoustics.

Sibilants are louder than their non-sibilant counterparts, and most of their acoustic energy occurs at higher frequencies than non-sibilant fricatives—usually around 8,000Hz.

Sibilant types.

All sibilants are coronal consonants (made with the tip or front part of the tongue). However, there is a great deal of variety among sibilants as to tongue shape, point of contact on the tongue, and point of contact on the upper side of the mouth.  The following variables affect sibilant sound quality, and, along with their possible values, are ordered from sharpest (highest-pitched) to dullest (lowest-pitched):  Generally, the values of the different variables co-occur so as to produce an overall sharper or duller sound. For example, a laminal denti-alveolar grooved sibilant occurs in Polish, and a subapical palatal retroflex sibilant occurs in Toda.

Tongue shape.

The main distinction is the shape of the tongue. Most sibilants have a groove running down the centerline of the tongue that helps focus the airstream, but it's not known how widespread this is. In addition, the following tongue shapes are described, from sharpest and highest-pitched to dullest and lowest-pitched:  The latter three post-alveolar types of sounds are often known as "hushing" sounds because of their quality, as opposed to the "hissing" alveolar sounds. The alveolar sounds in fact occur in several varieties, in addition to the normal sound of English "s":  Speaking non-technically, the retroflex consonant sounds somewhat like a mixture between the regular English of "ship" and a strong American "r"; while the alveolo-palatal consonant sounds somewhat like a mixture of English of "ship" and the in the middle of "miss you".

Place of articulation.

Sibilants can be made at any articulation, i.e. the tongue can contact the upper side of the mouth anywhere from the upper teeth () to the hard palate (), with the in-between articulations being denti-alveolar, and postalveolar.

Point of contact on the tongue.

The tongue can contact the upper side of the mouth with the very tip of the tongue (an'articulation, e.g. ); with the surface just behind the tip, called the "blade" of the tongue (a'articulation, e.g. ); or with the underside of the tip (a "" articulation). Apical and subapical articulations are always "tongue-up", with the tip of the tongue above the teeth, while laminal articulations can be either tongue-up or "tongue-down", with the tip of the tongue behind the lower teeth. This distinction is particularly important for retroflex sibilants, because all three varieties can occur, with noticeably different sound qualities. For more information on these variants and their relation to sibilants, see the article on postalveolar consonants.  For tongue-down laminal articulations, an additional distinction can be made depending on where exactly behind the lower teeth the tongue tip is placed. A little ways back from the lower teeth is a hollow area (or pit) in the lower surface of the mouth. When the tongue tip rests in this hollow area, there is an empty space below the tongue (a "sublingual cavity"), which results in a relatively duller sound. When the tip of the tongue rests against the lower teeth, there is no sublingual cavity, resulting in a sharper sound. Usually, the position of the tip of the tongue correlates with the grooved vs. hushing tongue shape so as to maximize the differences. However, the palato-alveolar sibilants in the Northwest Caucasian languages such as Ubykh are an exception. These sounds have the tongue tip resting directly against the lower teeth, which gives the sounds a quality that Catford describes as "hissing-hushing". Ladefoged and Maddieson term this a ""closed" laminal postalveolar" articulation, and transcribe them (following Catford) as, although this is not an IPA notation. See the article on postalveolar consonants for more information.

Symbols in the IPA.

The following table shows the types of sibilant fricatives defined in the International Phonetic Alphabet:  Diacritics can be used for finer detail. For example, apical and laminal alveolars can be specified as "vs" ; a dental (or more likely "denti-alveolar") sibilant as ; a palatalized alveolar as ; and a generic "retracted sibilant" as, a transcription frequently used for the sharper-quality types of retroflex consonants (e.g. the laminal "flat" type and the "apico-alveolar" type). There is no diacritic to denote the laminal "closed" articulation of palato-alveolars in the Northwest Caucasian languages, but they are sometimes provisionally transcribed as.

Possible combinations.

The attested possibilities, with exemplar languages, are as follows. Note that the IPA diacritics are simplified; some articulations would require two diacritics to be fully specified, but only one is used in order to keep the results legible without the need for OpenType IPA fonts. Also, Ladefoged has resurrected an obsolete IPA symbol, the under dot, to indicate "apical postalveolar" (normally included in the category of retroflex consonants), and that notation is used here. (Note that the notation is sometimes reversed; either may also be called'retroflex' and written.)  Whistled sibilants occur in speech pathology and may be caused by dental prostheses or orthodontics. However, they also occur phonemically in several southern Bantu languages, the best known being Shona.  The whistled sibilants of Shona have been variously described—as labialized but not velarized, as retroflex, etc., but none of these features are required for the sounds. Using the Extended IPA, Shona "sv" and "zv" may be transcribed and. Other transcriptions seen include purely labialized and (Ladefoged and Maddieson 1996) and labially co-articulated and (or and ). In the otherwise IPA transcription of Shona in Doke (1967), the whistled sibilants are transcribed with the non-IPA letters and.  Besides Shona, whistled sibilants have been reported as phonemes in Kalanga, Tsonga, Tshwa, Changana—all of which are southern Bantu languages—and Tabasaran. The articulation of whistled sibilants may differ between languages. In Shona, the lips are compressed throughout, and the sibilant may be followed by normal labialization upon release. (That is, there is a contrast among "s, sw, ȿ, ȿw".) In Tsonga, the whistling effect is weak; the lips are narrowed but also the tongue is retroflex. Tswa may be similar. In Changana, the lips are rounded (protruded), but so in /s/ in the sequence /usu/, so there is evidently some distinct phonetic phenomenon occurring here that has yet to be formally identified and described.

Linguistic contrasts among sibilants.

Not including differences in manner of articulation or secondary articulation, some languages have as many as four different types of sibilants. For example, Northern Qiang and Southern Qiang have a four-way distinction among sibilant affricates, with one for each of the four tongue shapes. Toda also has a four-way sibilant distinction, with one alveolar, one palato-alveolar, and two retroflex (apical postalveolar and subapical palatal).  The now-extinct Ubykh language was particularly complex, with a total of 27 sibilant consonants. Not only all four tongue shapes were represented (with the palato-alveolar appearing in the laminal "closed" variation) but also both the palato-alveolars and alveolo-palatals could additionally appear labialized. Besides, there was a five-way manner distinction among voiceless and voiced fricatives, voiceless and voiced affricates, and affricates. (The three labialized palato-alveolar affricates were missing, which is why the total was 27, not 30.) The Bzyp dialect of the related Abkhaz language also has a similar inventory.  Some languages have four types when palatalization is considered. Polish is one example, with both palatalized and non-palatalized laminal denti-alveolars, laminal postalveolar (or "flat retroflex"), and alveolo-palatal (). Russian has the same surface contrasts, but the alveolo-palatals are arguably not phonemic. They occur only geminate, and the retroflex consonants never occur geminate, which suggests that both are allophones of the same phoneme.  Somewhat more common are languages with three sibilant types, including one hissing and two hushing. As with Polish and Russian, the two hushing types are usually postalveolar and alveolo-palatal since these are the two most distinct from each other. Mandarin Chinese is an example of such a language. However, other possibilities exist. Serbo-Croatian has alveolar, flat postalveolar and alveolo-palatal affricates whereas Basque has palato-alveolar and laminal and apical alveolar (apico-alveolar) fricatives and affricates (late Medieval peninsular Spanish and Portuguese had the same distinctions among fricatives).  Many languages, such as English, have two sibilant types, one hissing and one hushing. A wide variety of languages across the world have this pattern. Perhaps most common is the pattern, as in English, with alveolar and palato-alveolar sibilants. Modern northern peninsular Spanish has a single apico-alveolar sibilant fricative, as well as a single palato-alveolar sibilant affricate. However, there are also languages with alveolar and apical retroflex sibilants (such as Standard Vietnamese) and with alveolar and alveolo-palatal postalveolars (e.g. alveolar and laminal palatalized i.e. in Catalan and Brazilian Portuguese, the latter probably through Amerindian influence, and alveolar and dorsal i.e. proper in Japanese).  Only a few languages with sibilants lack the hissing type. Middle Vietnamese is normally reconstructed with two sibilant fricatives, both hushing (one retroflex, one alveolo-palatal). Some languages have only a single hushing sibilant and no hissing sibilant. That occurs in southern Peninsular Spanish dialects of the "ceceo" type, which have replaced the former hissing fricative with, leaving only.  Languages with no sibilants are fairly rare. Most have no fricatives at all or only the fricative. Examples include most Australian languages, and Rotokas, and what is generally reconstructed for Proto-Bantu. Languages with fricatives but no sibilants, however, do occur, such as Ukue in Nigeria, which has only the fricatives. Also, almost all Eastern Polynesian languages have no sibilants but do have the fricatives and/or : Māori, Hawaiian, Tahitian, Rapa Nui, most Cook Islands Māori dialects, Marquesan, and Tuamotuan.  Tamil only has the sibilant and fricative in loanwords, and they are frequently replaced by native sounds. The sibilants exist as allophones of and the fricative as an allophone of.

Contested definitions.

Authors including Chomsky and Halle group and as sibilants. However, they do not have the grooved articulation and high frequencies of other sibilants, and most phoneticians continue to group them together with bilabial, and (inter)dental, as non-sibilant anterior fricatives. For a grouping of sibilants and, the term "strident" is more common. Some researchers judge to be non-strident in English, based on measurements of its comparative amplitude, but to be strident in other languages (for example, in the African language Ewe, where it contrasts with non-strident ).  The nature of "sibilants" as so-called 'obstacle fricatives' is complicated – there is a continuum of possibilities relating to the angle at which the jet of air may strike an obstacle. The grooving often considered necessary for classification as a "sibilant" has been observed in ultrasound studies of the tongue for the supposedly "non-sibilant" voiceless alveolar fricative of English.

In phonetics, sibilants are fricative consonants of higher amplitude and pitch, made by directing a stream of air with the tongue towards the teeth. Examples of sibilants are the consonants at the beginning of the English words "sip", "zip", "ship", and "genre". The symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet used to denote the sibilant sounds in these words are, respectively,. Sibilants have a characteristically intense sound, which accounts for their paralinguistic use in getting one's attention (e.g. calling someone using "psst!" or quieting someone using "shhhh!").

Sykavky (sibilanty) jsou skupina třených souhlásek (frikativ), při jejichž výslovnosti vznikají výrazné turbulence vzduchu, které se při poslechu projevují intenzivním šumem. Tento šum vzniká v úžině mezi jazykem a dásňovým obloukem.


Early life.

Abbott was born in Asbury Park, New Jersey on October 2, 1897 into a show business family. His parents, Rae Fisher and Harry Abbott, had worked for the Barnum and Bailey Circus. She was a bareback rider and he was a concessionaire and forage agent. When Bud was a child his father became a longtime advance man for the Columbia Burlesque Wheel and the family relocated to Harlem, then the Coney Island section of Brooklyn. Abbott dropped out of grammar school and began working summers with his father at Dreamland Park in Coney Island. In his teens, Abbott signed on as a cabin boy on a Norwegian steamer but was soon forced to shovel coal. He worked his way back to the United States a year later.  In his late teens Abbott began working in the box office of the Casino Theater in Brooklyn. He spent the next few years in burlesque box offices, rising to treasurer. In 1918, while working in Washington, D.C., he met and married Jenny Mae Pratt, a burlesque dancer and comedian who performed as Betty Smith. They remained together until his death 55 years later. In 1923 Abbott produced a cut-rate vaudeville tab show called "Broadway Flashes", which toured on the small-time Gus Sun circuit. Abbott began performing as a straight man in the show when he could no longer afford to pay one. He continued producing and performing in burlesque shows on the Mutual Burlesque wheel, and as his reputation grew, he began working with veteran comedians like Harry Steppe and Harry Evanson. Abbott suffered from epilepsy starting from about 1926.

Career.

Lou Costello and Hollywood.

Abbott crossed paths with Lou Costello in the early 1930s when Abbott was producing and performing in Minsky's Burlesque shows and Costello was a rising comic. They first worked together in stock burlesque in 1935 at the Eltinge Theatre on 42nd Street, after an illness sidelined Costello's regular partner. They formally teamed up in 1936, and performed together in burlesque, minstrel shows, vaudeville, and stage shows.  In 1938, they received national exposure as regulars on the "Kate Smith Hour" radio show, which led to roles in a Broadway musical, "The Streets of Paris" in 1939. In 1940, Universal signed the team for their first film, "One Night in the Tropics". Despite having minor roles, Abbott and Costello stole the film with several classic routines, including an abbreviated version of "Who's On First?" Universal signed the team to a two-picture deal, and the first film, "Buck Privates" (1941), became a major hit and led to a long-term contract with the studio.  Arthur Lubin, who directed the team's first five starring films, later said: "I don't think there has ever been a finer straight man in the business than Bud Abbott. Lou would go off the script - because he was that clever with lines - and Bud would bring him right back."  During World War II, Abbott and Costello were among the most popular and highest-paid stars in the world. Between 1940 and 1956 they made 36 films and earned a percentage of the profits on each. They were among the Top 10 box office stars from 1941 through 1951, and placed No. 1 in 1942. They also had their own radio program (The Abbott and Costello Show) throughout the 1940s, first on NBC from 1942 to 1947, and from 1947 to 1949 on ABC. During a 35-day tour in the summer of 1942, the team sold $85 million worth of War Bonds.  In the 1950s, they introduced their comedy to live television on "The Colgate Comedy Hour", and launched their own half-hour filmed series, "The Abbott and Costello Show".

Strain and split.

Relations between Abbott and Costello were strained by egos and salary disputes. In their burlesque days, they split their earnings 60%–40%, favoring Abbott, because the straight man was always viewed as the more valuable member of the team. This was eventually changed to 50%–50%, but after a year in Hollywood, Costello insisted on a 60%–40% split in his favor, and it remained so for the remainder of their careers. Costello also demanded that the team be renamed "Costello and Abbott", but this was rejected by Universal Studios, resulting in a "permanent chill" between the two partners, according to Lou's daughter Chris Costello in her biography "Lou's on First". Their relationship was further strained by Abbott's alcohol abuse, a habit motivated by his desire to stave off epileptic seizures.  The team's popularity waned in the 1950s, and the IRS demanded substantial back taxes, forcing the partners (both of whom had been free spenders and serious gamblers) to sell most of their assets, including the rights to many of their films. When the team's long-term contract with Universal was up in 1954, they demanded more money than the studio was willing to pay, and they were dropped.  In November 1956, Lou was the subject of the Ralph Edwards-produced TV show, “This Is Your Life.” This was just before the team opened in Las Vegas for what would be their last engagement as a team.  Abbott and Costello split in 1957. Costello made solo appearances on several TV shows and did one film, "The Thirty-Foot Bride of Candy Rock" (released posthumously in 1959.) Lou died on March 3, 1959.

Later years.

Abbott faced financial difficulties in the late 1950s when the IRS disallowed $500,000 in tax exemptions which forced him to sell his home and come out of semi-retirement.  In 1960, Abbott began performing with a new partner, Candy Candido, to good reviews. But Abbott called it quits, remarking that "No one could ever live up to Lou." The following year, Abbott performed in a dramatic television episode of "General Electric Theater" titled "The Joke's on Me". In 1964, he suffered the first in a series of strokes. In 1966, Abbott provided his own voice for the Hanna-Barbera animated series "The Abbott and Costello Cartoon Show", with Stan Irwin providing the voice of Lou Costello.

Personal life.

Bud and Betty Abbott were married for 55 years. The couple adopted two children: Bud Jr. (born August 23, 1939) in 1942 and Vickie in 1949. Bud Jr. died on January 19, 1997, at age 57.  Norman and Betty Abbott, the children of Bud's older sister, Olive, started their careers in Hollywood working behind the scenes on the Abbott and Costello films. Betty became Blake Edwards' longtime script supervisor, and Norman directed episodes of many television series, including "Leave It to Beaver", "The Jack Benny Program", "Sanford and Son" and "Welcome Back, Kotter".  Bud has three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame: the radio star is located at 6333 Hollywood Boulevard, the motion pictures star is located at 1611 Vine Street, and the television star is located at 6740 Hollywood Boulevard.

Death.

Abbott died of cancer at age 76 on April 24, 1974, at his home in Woodland Hills, Los Angeles. He was cremated and his ashes scattered in the Pacific Ocean. His widow, Betty, died on September 12, 1981.  When Groucho Marx was asked about Abbott shortly after his death, his response was that Abbott was "the greatest straight man ever."

Honors and awards.

Abbott and Costello are among the few non-baseball personnel to be memorialized in the Baseball Hall of Fame, although they are not inductees of the Hall itself. A plaque and a gold record of the "Who's On First?" sketch have been on permanent display there since 1956, and the routine runs on an endless video loop in the exhibit area.  Abbott and Costello each have three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for their work in radio, television and motion pictures.  In 1942, they were voted the country's No. 1 Box Office Stars by exhibitors. They ranked among the Top Ten in 1941, 1942, 1943, 1944, 1948, 1949, 1950 and 1951.  Abbott received the Lifetime Achievement Award for Acting (posthumously) from the Garden State Film Festival in 2006; it was accepted on his behalf by his daughter Vickie Abbott Wheeler.  Abbott is a 2009 inductee of the New Jersey Hall of Fame.

William Alexander "Bud" Abbott (October 2, 1897 – April 24, 1974) was an American comedian, actor and straight man half of the comedy duo Abbott and Costello.

William Alexander „Bud“ Abbott (2. října 1897, Asbury Park, USA – 24. dubna 1974, Woodland Hills, USA) byl americký herec, producent a komik.


History.

From Stone age to Antiquity.

• Archeological foundings in Kysuce allow you to assume the presence of man on this territory already in the earlier stone age. This is evidenced by, for example, the findings of mammoths teeth and bones of a rhinosaurs, a fraction of patented clawed blade from Nezbudska Lúčka. Or a spear from Ochodnica. • An important place for archaeologists is Koscelisko in Radoľa. From there we have a hammer and blade from obsidian and various other fragments which can document settlement of Kysuce in Neolit, but also other findings from earlier periods. • the largest fortification built in Kysuce was built by local people on a small hill Malý Vreten in Oškerda, which is located close to Kysucká brána. Found ceramics in the fort is dating it back to the late Bronz age or the beginning if the old Iron Age (8th-7th century BCE)

Middle ages.

There is no evidence of human presence in Kysuce in the 1st century CE and it is believed that the territory began to be used again by the first Slavs in the 5th century CE. • The oldest direct written record of Kysuce is Belos deed from 1244 which was for Bohumír, the son of Sebeslav „...terram quandam in confinio Polonia...KisZudcze...“. This borders a great property between the rivers Kysuca, Divinka and Vranie, basically the territory of the later Budatín estate. • In Radoľa were discovered the foundations of a church coming from approximately 13th century. From historical documents, only data from the census of papal tithes (1332-1337) when the local pastor Peter paid tax 6 pennies and his rectory was the only one in region, can be assigned. In the deed from 1244 Belo IV gives Bohumír, the son of Sebeslav, territory west to Kysuce until the polish borders on the north and river Vranie on south. The core of this region was in 1254 town Jačatín, which was important as toll station in 1321 and as a settlement growing into a city in 1325 – nowadays Kysucké Nové mesto. • From 1325 comes the first written mention of the village Krasno nad Kysucou – the oldest town in the north of Kysuce. In the 15th-16th century the village belonged to the parish Radoľa, later to parish Kysucké Nové Mesto. In the 1770s and 1780s the village belonged to the parish of Stará Bystrica. In 1788 created in Krasno nad Kysucou a separated parish with an affiliate in Zborov nad Bystricou. Krásno nad Kysucou now has a status of a city.

Modern age.

From the period of the modern age comes great fortification Šance pri Mostoch near Jablunkov.  In 1535, the first time mentioned a new settlement Klubina first location in Kysuce established by the Wallachian law. In throwing Strečno, Bytča and old castle from 1540 mentions hills Zborov, Diedova and Blasovicz.  First mention of Čadca is located in a dispute over Hungary-Silesian border in 1565, which shows that as more permanent settlement started to develop only recently, got a name from a river Čadčianka (Čadečka). The landowners Budatín estate in 1572 was referred to as "Wes Cziatcza" that had Wallachian mayoralty, 2 peasant and one cotter homestead.  The landowners in 1572, in addition to Cadca first time in written documents also appears Lopušné. In 1578 states that privileged Vlachs are well established in Vadičov. Already in the 1580s several Wallachian sheep farms chorvarky concentrated in places Ochodnica, Stará Bystrica, Oščadnica, Zborov, Kalinov, Svrčinovec, Javorské, turned into villages, respectively. kopanice  In the second half of the 16th century incurred for shepherding rights settlements Dunajov, Ochodnica a Stará Bystrica.  The oldest settlement based on this law has been Turzovka. It was established Bytča estate of Turzo and began to be built in the late 16th century. First mentioned in 1601.  Additional settlements of Kysuce colonization based on this law include: Olešná, Vysoká nad Kysucou (from the homesteads in the early 18th century. Settlement began to shape Makov) mentioned in 1619. Lodno, Horelica, Raková, Svrčinovec a Staškov are first mentioned in 1640. In 1641 Oščadnica is written.  As a brand new complex provides landowners Nová Bystrica in 1662. Also Zborov, Pažite i Zákopčie are mentioned here as villages for the first time.  Radôstka and Lutiše were built by the people of Stará Bystrica in around half of the 17th century. Čierne is mentioned in 1662 also built by locals.  In 1696, a new village Riečnica, which was shared by Löwenburgs homestead in 1713. In division and in the borders Riečnica in the border states and Nova Bystrica mentions Vychylovka settlement, which later developed into a separate village. New Bystrica was part of the "mons Havrjelka" and "aqua Oselnicza" below which arose later hamlets inhabitants of the Old and New Bystrica. Their association was founded in 1950 Harvelka village. At the same time arose the vast Turzovka, of which only recently created municipality Klokočov, Korňa and Dlhá nad Kysucou.  The Manor-house in Radola is one of the oldest historical monuments in Kysuce.

Settlement.

The oldest known settlement in the Kysuce region is Kysucké Nové Mesto, which was first mentioned in 1321 as a toll collecting place, which was part of a trade route between Žilina and Těšín via Jablunkov Pass, but otherwise the region was relatively uninhabited.  Kysuce region began to be settled in the 16th and 17th centuries at the time of Valach colonization. The new inhabitants were mostly Slovaks, from foreign settlers Rusyns, Poles and Romanians, but also Czechs and Germans. Many towns were established first around this time, for example Čadca in 1572. Many people live in small villages or lone cottages in the mountains (which are called "kopanice"). Today main towns in the Kysuce region are Kysucké Nové Mesto, Čadca and Turzovka.

Climate.

Like the neighboring Orava region, Kysuce region has long winters and long-lasting snow cover, and cold and rainy weather in general, what forces local people to heat their homes from September/October until May, and during winter months, many of the villages and cottages are difficult to access.

Economy.

Traditionally, Kysuce was considered to be one of the poor regions in Slovakia. Inhabitants of Kysuce had to commute for work elsewhere, for example to the coal mines in the Ostrava Region in the Czech Republic, as the region has little industry. The worst situation was in the 1990s when many factories were shut down or reduced. However, the regional economy is now recovering and growing thanks to the good ski and cross-country conditions and the "Snow Paradise" center in Veľká Rača-Oščadnica is one of the most developed ski resorts in Slovakia, and car manufacturing companies. There are also many other tourist attractions available, for example the switchback railway near Nová Bystrica, or museum of the Kysuce village also near Nová Bystrica, which was created in 1974 primarily for the purpose of saving buildings from the villages inundated by the Nová Bystrica reservoir.

Transport.

The region is located at the main road and railway between Žilina and Ostrava, as well to Poland. The first railroad that connected Kysuce to the other parts of Austria-Hungary was built in 1871 as part of the Košice-Bohumín Railway. Currently, there is only one short part of the D3 motorway between Oščadnica and Čadca. Connection to Orava is currently under construction and should be opened in 2008. It should replace the original road, which was inundated along with the construction of Nová Bystrica reservoir, leaving 11 km gap between the two ends of formerly compact road.

Kysuce is a traditional informal name of a region in north-western Slovakia, situated around the Kysuca river and bordering the Orava region in the east, Poland in the north and the Czech Republic in the west. It consists of two districts: Čadca and Kysucké Nové Mesto. The region is surrounded by the numerous mountain ranges, for example Javorníky with the highest hill Veľký Javorník (1071m) in the west, the Moravian-Silesian Beskids with the highest hill Veľký Polom (1 067m) in the north. In the East there are Kysucké Beskydy with the highest mountain (also the highest in the region) - Veľká Rača (1236 m) -the symbol of Kysuce. In the South there is Kysucká vrchovina with the highest hill - Ľadonhora (999 m). The oldest known settlement in Kysuce is nowadays city Kysucké Nové Mesto, which is located on an important trade route, which lead through the region. This route, connecting north with south, went from Žilina through Jablunkovský priesmyk, to Tešín.

Kysuce (někdy také "Kysúce") je území na Slovensku, rozprostírající se severně od města Žilina, směrem k polským hranicím. Zasahují do regionů okresů Čadca a Kysucké Nové Mesto. Na západě hraničí s Českou republikou. Oblast charakterizují horská políčka, louky, lesy, pastviny a malé shluky dřevěných domků. Kysuce byly součástí historické Trenčínské župy.


Symbolism.

Pukao were not made until the 15th - 16th centuries and are later additions to the moai. The reason that pukao were made is not known, though various theories exist. One is that the placing of a pukao on top of the moai was a recognition of the power of the individual represented. This has credibility because such a task at the time was, and even now is, extremely difficult, especially because no evidence has been found of crane technology existing at the time. Another theory is that the pukao serve to distinguish between statues. Those moai with pukao are meant to be shown as more majestic and important. This distinction may have also indicated to islanders those statues at which various rituals should be performed. Pukao are now believed to represent hair because it was the custom for high-ranking men to have long hair tied in a bun on the top of their heads.

Construction.

Pukao are cylindrical in shape, with a dent on the underside to fit on the head of the moai and a boss or knot on top. They fit onto the moai in such a way that the pukao protrudes forwards. Their size varies in proportion to the moai they were on, but they can be from in diameter. Pukao weigh up to, and the placement of a pukao on top of a moai raised the height of the statues to an average of.  The pukao was balanced as a separate piece on top of the head of a moai. They are believed to have been raised using ramps, possibly requiring only several people. The ring-like indentations along the bottom and edges of the pukao support this theory, as they postulate a ramp made out of logs being used to roll the pukao to the tops of moai statues. In addition, various physicists have made models indicating that this as a possibility, and, given the oblong shape of pukao, the structures would have been easier to roll up the statue than roll back down. However, no one theory can be accepted as correct, because virtually any theorized method (such as the use of pulleys) is plausible.  To date, about 100 pukao have been documented archaeologically, but only at Ahu with fallen statues or at the source quarry.

Source of the Pukao.

The red-colored hats were made from reddish scoria, a volcanic rock. The rocks were sourced from a quarry known as Puna Pau, which was located inside the crater of a volcano with the same name, and on its outer lip. After the Pukao were made, they were rolled by hand or on tree logs along an ancient road to the site of the statues. The road was built out of a cement of compressed red scoria dust. Over 70 discarded Pukao have been found along the road and on raised ceremonial platforms. The indents found on the bottom of pukao that reached the statutes are not present in those strewn along the path from Puna Pau to the moai, hinting that basic quarrying was done at Puna Pau, as well as moulding the stone into a cylindrical shape easier to transport. Meanwhile, more intricate carvings were made at the site of the moai, immediately prior to the placement of pukao on the statues.

Pukao are the hat-like structures or topknots formerly placed on top of some moai statues on Easter Island. They were all carved from a very light-red volcanic scoria, which was quarried from a single source at Puna Pau.

Pukao jsou kamenné ozdoby soch "moai" na Velikonočním ostrově, nasazované na jejich hlavy. Původní představa, že pukaa představují klobouky, byla posléze nahrazena názorem, že znázorňují vlasový uzel. Byly vytesány z lehké červené vulkanické strusky, nacházející se ve východní části ostrova, v kráteru Puna Pau. Největší z nich mají průměr až dva metry a váží několik tun. Není zcela zřejmé jak byla pukaa na sochy nasazována, ale pravděpodobný názor je, že byla usazována na temeno hlavy až po vztyčení sochy. Každé pukao má na spodní ploše půlkulový zádlab, zajišťující jeho rovnováhu na temeni hlavy sochy.


Biography.

Early years.

Schmeling was born in Klein Luckow, in the Prussian Province of Brandenburg, the son of Max and Amanda ("née" Fuchs) Schmeling. He had an older brother, Rudolf, born in 1902 and a younger sister, Edith, born in 1913. He first became acquainted with boxing as a teenager, when his father took him to watch film of the heavyweight championship match between Jack Dempsey and Georges Carpentier. Impressed with Dempsey's performance in that fight, young Schmeling became determined to imitate his new hero. He began boxing in amateur competitions and, by 1924, won Germany's national amateur title in the light heavyweight division. Shortly thereafter, he turned professional. Ironically, though he idolised the raging, brawling Dempsey, Schmeling developed a careful, scientific style of fighting that lent itself more to counterpunching. Using this style, he won seventeen of his first twenty-three bouts, thirteen by knockout. In 1925, he got into the ring with Dempsey, who was then still heavyweight champion of the world and was touring Europe. Dempsey boxed for two rounds with the then-unknown German and, according to a story later told by Schmeling, was greatly impressed. He proved Dempsey's praises correct on 24 August 1926, when picking up the German light heavyweight championship with a first-round knockout of rival Max Diekmann, who had previously beaten Schmeling. The next year, Schmeling won the European championship by stopping Fernand Delarge in the first boxing match broadcast live in Germany. After defending both titles against Hein Domgoergen the same year and, in 1928, the European Title with a first-round knockout of Michele Bonaglia, he secured the German heavyweight championship with a points victory against Franz Diener and decided to chase bigger fights and bigger purses in the United States.  Arriving in New York for the first time in 1928, Schmeling was hardly noticed by the American fight circles. Considered a stiff European fighter who had padded his record against German and European unknowns, he was given few opportunities to prove himself until he hooked up with American manager Joe Jacobs. Schmeling's debut in America took place at Madison Square Garden with an eighth-round knockout of Joe Monte, who was not a top-flight heavyweight but nonetheless had been in with some tough competition. Two more victories led to a fight with Johnny Risko, one of the biggest names in the division, though somewhat beyond his prime. On 1 February 1929, Schmeling floored Risko four times with his right hand before the referee halted the contest in the ninth round, handing Risko his only loss by TKO. The surprised crowd in attendance roared with appreciation and "The Ring" magazine subsequently recognized the win as its 'Fight of the Year.'

The "Low Blow Champion".

When he defeated the highly regarded Spaniard Paulino Uzcudun via a fifteen-round decision at Yankee Stadium later that year, Schmeling was regarded as the foremost young contender in the division. With the World Heavyweight Champion Gene Tunney having recently retired, promoters arranged a matchup between the German and veteran contender Jack Sharkey to fill the vacancy. On 12 June 1930, at Yankee Stadium, in a fight billed as the 'Battle of the Continents,' Schmeling, known as a slow starter, fell slightly behind on points going into the fourth round. He was trying to corner his opponent when Sharkey let loose with a very fast, clear hit to the groin. Schmeling fell to the canvas, claiming to have been fouled. When manager Jacobs ran into the ring, prompting chaos, the referee disqualified Sharkey and declared Schmeling the victor and the first man to win the world heavyweight championship on a foul. The New York State Athletic Commission (NYSAC), reviewing the call, agreed.  The first European-born boxer to win the heavyweight championship in thirty-three years, Schmeling was also the first from Germany to hold the distinction. Still, the way in which he won the title proved an embarrassment. Called the 'low blow champion,' he was disparaged in both America and Europe as an unproven titleholder. When he initially refused to face Sharkey in a rematch, the NYSAC officially stripped him of their recognition as world champion, but he remained recognised by both the National Boxing Association (NBA) and "The Ring" magazine. Most of the criticism faded after Schmeling's first defence, a fifteen-round TKO over Young Stribling, a future hall-of-famer with 239 wins to his credit by 1931. In order to solidify his title as undisputed, Schmeling signed a contract to face the "Boston Gob" once more. On 21 June 1932, the championship picture became even more muddled when Sharkey won a highly controversial split decision, taking the championship. Many in attendance, including former heavyweight champion Gene Tunney and the mayor of New York, felt that Schmeling had proven himself the better man and was robbed. In losing the championship, the German had elevated his reputation in the minds of boxing fans.

Walker and Baer.

When Schmeling faced Mickey Walker, the future hall-of-famer who had recently held Sharkey to a draw that many felt Walker deserved, it was thought that this fight was for the real heavyweight championship. Walker, a former welterweight, was a popular slugger who had won championships in two divisions but was at a considerable size disadvantage against the European. Though Walker took the lead on points, Schmeling dealt out a beating as the fight progressed. After eight rounds, Walker's corner threw in the towel, confirming Schmeling's status as the leading heavyweight in the world. With the coming of 1933, however, Schmeling's image in America began to take a decided turn. In 1932, the Nazi Party became the most powerful political force in Germany, and its ideologies, voiced by party leader Adolf Hitler, overflowed with anti-Semitic tendencies. Major American cities such as New York had large Jewish populations, who worried over what the party could mean for people of their religion in the future. Schmeling, because he was German, was viewed as an extension of Hitler's plans for world domination. When he was slated to fight heavy-hitting contender Max Baer on 8 June 1933, he immediately became the 'bad guy' in the eyes of fans. Baer, who did not practice the Jewish religion but had a Jewish father, came into the ring wearing the Star of David on his shorts. Promoter Jack Dempsey played up this angle and suddenly the fight was viewed as Baer defending his faith against the prejudice of the Nazis, represented reluctantly by Schmeling. Thrown off of his game in part by the bad publicity but also because of Baer's wild, brawling style and frequent fouls (including backhand punches and rabbit punches), Schmeling was thrashed after ten rounds before nearly 60,000 onlookers at Yankee Stadium. While the German took a battering against the ropes in the tenth, the referee leapt in to stop the fight. The fight, combined with a follow-up loss to contender Steve Hamas early the next year, left many wondering if Schmeling was still a world top-class fighter.

Versus Joe Louis.

Returning to his native Germany, Schmeling won three of his next four fights, with one draw, including knockout wins over first Walter Neusel, then another redeeming his previous loss to Steve Hamas. However, many among the American press and fans remained unmoved on the idea of rooting for Schmeling in light of the Nazi Party's behavior. Articles continued to be published declaring the German "washed up", a "has been", or a "Nazi puppet". When he was matched with undefeated boxing sensation Joe Louis in 1936 for the German's first fight on American soil in more than two years, he was clearly the betting underdog, considered a name opponent for Louis to roll over on his route to the title. Nevertheless, he was number two contender for the title behind Louis. Prior to the match, Schmeling carefully studied films of Louis's prior fights, dissecting apparent flaws in the Detroit fighter's technique. Among the weaknesses he noticed was the fact that Louis lowered his left hand after throwing a left jab. In the ring, Schmeling exploited this subtle flaw to his own advantage, countering nearly every Louis jab with his best punch, the right cross. The fight proved to be a competitive, hard-hitting affair for the first three rounds, but, in the fourth, a counter right from the German dropped Louis for the first time in his career. Though Louis rose, he was badly dazed for the remainder of the fight. For a further eight rounds, Schmeling battered Louis, often standing toe-to-toe with the vaunted puncher and landing that same right hand to the jaw repeatedly. In the twelfth, he sent the American tumbling to the floor once more, and this time Louis could not recover. He was counted out on the floor, and Schmeling had scored the most talked-about sports upset of the year.  Now the unexpected number one contender for the heavyweight crown held by Jim Braddock, Schmeling looked forward to his chance to regain the title as first Heavyweight ever, scheduled for that September. The fight was postponed, however, when Braddock injured his hand in training. Rumors existed that the fight's organizers were stalling, afraid of the negative publicity that would be generated over a perceived Nazi getting a shot at the world's title. When it was confirmed that Braddock's managers were in talks with the Louis camp, the New York Commission officially released an order for Braddock to fight Schmeling for the title. Any other fight, with Louis or otherwise, would not be recognized by New York as being for the championship. The Madison Square Garden Corporation, the largest promotional company in the sport at the time, even attempted to get a legal injunction against a Braddock-Louis fight (Louis was not on their roster). Nonetheless, in February 1937, Schmeling received the news that the champion had indeed signed to defend his championship against Louis. A furious Schmeling protested, but to no avail, and he was forced to watch from ringside as Louis knocked Braddock out and gained the championship. Sorely disappointed and convinced that he would never receive his chance at redemption, Schmeling fought just once more in America, an eighth-round knockout of future contender Harry Thomas, before returning to Germany. In his native land, Schmeling was regarded as a hero and promoted by the Nazi propaganda machine as a perfect example of German supremacy over the rest of the world by virtue of his defeat of the current champion, Louis. The government ordered parades and rallies in his honor. He became a friend to Hitler and other powerful figures in the government and also a popular subject of newspaper articles and films. He continued to press for a chance at a rematch with Louis and in the meantime padded his record against overmatched fighters Ben Foord and Steve Dudas.

"Battle of the Century".

In 1938, champion Joe Louis announced that he would face Schmeling for the title. The rematch became an instant international sensation. Many clamored impatiently for its happening, but others, afraid of international tensions and the possibility of Hitler taking over the championship, protested. The controversy and ballyhoo led to the event becoming the most anticipated boxing match since the rematch between Dempsey and Gene Tunney, or possibly earlier. Louis, with his poor, lower-class roots, was adopted by American fans as the symbol of America as a land of opportunity. In contrast, Americans perceived Schmeling and his ties to Hitler as an obvious threat to those opportunities and ideals. When the German walked to the ring at Yankee Stadium on 22 June 1938, he did so under a hail of garbage thrown from the stands. Louis came out blazing in the first round and Schmeling tried to counter-punch as he had in the first bout, but to no avail. Driven into the ropes and battered with a fusillade of short, crisp blows from every angle, Schmeling turned his back to his opponent and clutched onto the ropes, letting out a scream that even years later, many spectators could recall vividly. Schmeling later said that he screamed because he had been hit with a blow to the kidneys. Schmeling's knees buckled under the punishment, and referee Arthur Donovan pushed Louis away, beginning a count on Schmeling. Schmeling reluctantly stepped away from the ropes, and Donovan allowed him to continue. A few punches later, Schmeling was knocked down again. From then on, he was helpless. He rose but fell moments later, and Donovan stopped the fight.  Many years later, in 1975, Schmeling said, "Looking back, I'm almost happy I lost that fight. Just imagine if I would have come back to Germany with a victory. I had nothing to do with the Nazis, but they would have given me a medal. After the war I might have been considered a war criminal."

Schmeling in his later years.

When he returned to Germany after his defeat by Joe Louis, Schmeling was now shunned by the Nazis. He won both the German and European heavyweight championships on the same night, with a first-round knockout of Adolf Heuser. During the Nazi purge of Jews from Berlin, he personally saved the lives of two Jewish children by hiding them in his apartment. It was not the first time that Schmeling defied the Nazi regime's hatred for Jews. As the story goes, Hitler let it be known through the Reich Ministry of Sports that he was very displeased at Schmeling's relationship with Joe Jacobs, his Jewish fight promoter, and wanted it terminated, but Schmeling refused to bow even to Hitler. During the war, Schmeling was drafted, where he served with the "Luftwaffe" and was trained as a paratrooper. He participated in the Battle of Crete in May 1941, where he was wounded in his right knee by mortar fire shrapnel during the first day of the battle. After recovering, he was dismissed from active service after being deemed medically unfit for duty because of his injury. Nevertheless, in July 1944 a rumor that he had been killed in action made world news. He later visited American P.O.W. camps in Germany and occasionally tried to help conditions for the prisoners. By early 1945, he was spending his time giving exhibition bouts against former British Free Corps member Eric Pleasants in German officers' messes.  After the war, Schmeling settled in Hamburg where in 1947, strapped for money, he embarked upon a moderately successful comeback in boxing, winning three of his five bouts with two point-defeats before re-entering retirement for good in October 1948.  During the 1950s, Schmeling began working for The Coca-Cola Company's offices in Germany. Before long, he owned his own bottling plant and held an executive's position within the company. He became friends with Joe Louis and assisted his former rival financially in his later years, eventually financing his funeral in 1981.  His wife of 54 years, the Czech-born actress Anny Ondra, died in 1987. In 1992, he was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame. He lived his remaining years as a wealthy man and avid boxing fan, dying on 2 February 2005, at the age of 99.  In 2010, a bronze statue of Schmeling was erected in Hollenstedt.

Cultural references.

Schmeling lived in Stettin, Germany (now known as Szczecin, Poland); a band from this city, the Analogs, recorded the song "Max Schmeling" on their album "Hlaskover rock" (2000).  In a season 9 or 10 episode of "Law and Order", Schmeling's name is mentioned when the detectives are looking for a certain gun. The man who is supposed to own it is a fighter from the 1930s who went the distance with Schmeling in 1937.  Schmeling briefly appears as himself in the film "The Zurich Engagement" (1957)  The American-German film "Joe and Max" (2002) tells the true story of Joe Louis and Max Schmeling and their enduring friendship.  In the book "The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay", Joe Kavalier is beaten up by someone who may or may not have been Max Schmeling. The author hints that it probably wasn't, as Schmeling should have been fighting in Poland at the time.  In "Rocky IV", the climactic fight between American Rocky Balboa and Russian Ivan Drago was inspired by the bout between Joe Louis and Max Schmeling, just updated to reflect Cold War relationships.  Schmeling also appears as a character in the opera, "Shadowboxer", based on the life of Joe Louis.  Schmeling figures prominently in the 2010 novel by P.F. Kluge "A Call From Jersey". In a novel by Curzio Malaparte, "Kaputt" (1944), Schmeling figures prominently in the chapter "Cricket in Poland" depicting a gathering in February 1942 hosted by Governor-General Dr. Hans Frank in the Belvedere palace in Warsaw.  Schmeling's role as a paratrooper in World War II is mentioned in the Gunter Grass novel "The Tin Drum" (1959).  Schmeling is the central figure in the stage play, "The Measure of a Man", written by Brian C. Petti.  For the film "Max Schmeling – Eine deutsche Legende" (2010) another former boxing champion, who moreover had known him, played Max Schmeling: Henry Maske.  The novel, "The Berlin Boxing Club" (2011) by Robert Sharenow, set in 1930s Berlin, features Schmeling heavily as the character who introduces a young Jewish boy to boxing, and later plays a larger role.  The "Voyagers!" episode "All Fall Down" depicts his second fight with Joe Louis. The series' time travelling protagonists Phineas Bogg and Jeffrey Jones convinced Louis not to back out of the fight and witnessed his victory over Schmeling in Yankee Stadium on June 22, 1938.  In season 1, episode 9 of "Babylon Berlin", the character of Bruno makes a reference to Max Schmeling in referring to a pair of old boxing gloves: "You've found my gloves. Come with me, little Schmeling."  Schmelling is mentioned in the song Ambling Alp by indie-band Yeasayer, "Oh Max Schmelling was a formidable foe, Ambling Alp was too at least that's what I'm told"

Maximillian Adolph Otto Siegfried "Max" Schmeling (; 28 September 1905 – 2 February 2005) was a German boxer who was heavyweight champion of the world between 1930 and 1932. His two fights with Joe Louis in 1936 and 1938 were worldwide cultural events because of their national associations. Schmeling is the only boxer to win the world heavyweight championship on a foul.

Max Adolph Otto Siegfried Schmeling (28. září 1905, Klein Luckow – 2. února 2005, Wenzendorf u Hamburku) byl německý boxer. V letech 1930 až 1932 byl mistrem světa v těžké váze. Vítězství vybojoval proti Jacku Sharkeyovi (vlastním jménem Joseph Paul Zukauskas) a boxerovi tmavé pleti Joe Louisovi, se kterým se posléze spřátelil. Dodnes je považován za jednoho z nejpopulárnějších německých sportovců, jeho popularita je srovnatelná s naším Emilem Zátopkem.


Biography.

Yang was born in Hefei, Anhui, China; his father, Ko Chuan Yang (; 1896–1973), was a mathematician, and his mother, Meng Hwa Loh Yang (), was a housewife. Yang attended elementary school and high school in Beijing, and in the autumn of 1937 his family moved to Hefei after the Japanese invaded China. In 1938 they moved to Kunming, Yunnan, where National Southwestern Associated University (Lianda), was located. In the same year, as a second year student, Yang passed the entrance examination and studied at Lianda. He received his bachelor's degree in 1942, with his thesis on the application of group theory to molecular spectra, under the supervision of Ta-You Wu. He continued to study graduate courses there for two years under the supervision of Wang Zhuxi, working on statistical mechanics. In 1944 he received his master's degree from Tsinghua University, which had moved to Kunming during the Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). Yang was then awarded a scholarship from the Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program, set up by the United States government using part of the money China had been forced to pay following the Boxer Rebellion. His departure for the United States was delayed for one year, during which time he taught in a middle school as a teacher and studied field theory.  From 1946, Yang studied with Edward Teller (1908–2003) at the University of Chicago, where he received his doctorate in 1948. He remained at the University of Chicago for a year as an assistant to Enrico Fermi. In 1949 he was invited to do his research at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, where he began a period of fruitful collaboration with Tsung-Dao Lee. He was made a permanent member of the Institute in 1952, and full professor in 1955. In 1963, Princeton University Press published his textbook, "Elementary Particles". In 1965 he moved to Stony Brook University, where he was named the Albert Einstein Professor of Physics and the first director of the newly founded Institute for Theoretical Physics. Today this institute is known as the C. N. Yang Institute for Theoretical Physics.  He retired from Stony Brook University in 1999, assuming the title Emeritus Professor. In 2010, Stony Brook University honored Yang's contributions to the university by naming its newest dormitory building C. N. Yang Hall.  He has been elected a Fellow of the American Physical Society, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Academia Sinica, the Russian Academy of Sciences, and the Royal Society. He was awarded honorary doctorate degrees by Princeton University (1958), Moscow State University (1992), and the Chinese University of Hong Kong (1997).  Yang visited the Chinese mainland in 1971 for the first time after the thaw in China–US relations, and has subsequently made great efforts to help the Chinese physics community rebuild the research atmosphere which was destroyed by the radical political movements during the Cultural Revolution. After retiring from Stony Brook he returned as an honorary director of Tsinghua University, Beijing, where he is the Huang Jibei-Lu Kaiqun Professor at the Center for Advanced Study (CASTU). He also is one of the two Shaw Prize Founding Members and is a Distinguished Professor-at-Large at the Chinese University of Hong Kong.

Personal life.

Yang married Chih-li Tu (), a teacher, in 1950 and has two sons and a daughter with her: Franklin Jr., Gilbert and Eulee. His father-in-law was a Kuomintang General Du Yuming. Some scholars suspect that Du was promoted to a high-ranking position in Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference in order to convince Yang to return to China after seeking refuge in the US. Tu died in October 2003, but in December 2004 the then 82-year-old Yang made controversy by marrying the then 28-year-old Weng Fan () who looks like a young Tu in appearance.  Yang became a U.S. citizen in 1964. He now resides in China, and he was granted permanent residency in mainland China in 2004. He renounced his U.S. citizenship as of Sep 30, 2015 and reclaimed his Chinese citizenship.  On Yang's religious views, he is an agnostic.

Academic achievements.

Yang has worked on statistical mechanics, condensed matter theory, particle physics and gauge theory/quantum field theory.  At The University of Chicago, Yang first spent twenty months working in an accelerator lab, but he later found he was not as good as an experimentalist and switched back to theory. His doctoral thesis was about angular distribution in nucleon reactions. Later he worked on particle phenomenology; a well-known work was the Fermi–Yang model treating pion meson as a bound nucleon–antinucleon pair. In 1956, he and Tsung Dao (T.D.) Lee proposed that in the weak interaction the parity symmetry was not conserved, Chien-shiung Wu's team at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington experimentally verified the theory. Yang and Lee received the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics for their parity violation theory. Yang has also worked on neutrino theory with Tsung Dao (T.D.) Lee, 1957, 1959, CT nonconservation (with Tsung Dao (T.D.) Lee and R. Oheme, 1957), electromagnetic interaction of vector mesons (with Tsung Dao (T.D.) Lee, 1962), CP nonconservation (with Wu Tai-tsun, 1964).  Yang is also well known for his collaboration with Robert Mills in developing non-Abelian gauge theory, widely known as the Yang–Mills theory. Subsequently, in the last three decades, many other prominent scientists have developed key breakthroughs to what is now known as gauge theory. In the 1970s Yang worked on the topological properties of gauge theory, collaborating with Wu Tai-Tsun to elucidate the Wu–Yang monopole. Unlike the Dirac monopole, it has no singular Dirac string.  Yang has had a great interest in statistical mechanics since his undergraduate time. In the 1950s and 1960s, he collaborated with Tsung Dao (T.D.) Lee and Kerson Huang, etc. and studied statistical mechanics and condensed matter theory. He studied the theory of phase transition and elucidated the Lee–Yang circle theorem, properties of quantum boson liquid, two dimensional Ising model, flux quantization in superconductors (with N. Byers, 1961), and proposed the concept of Off-Diagonal Long-Range Order (ODLRO, 1962). In 1967, he found a consistent condition for a one dimensional factorized scattering many body system, the equation was later named the Yang–Baxter equation, it plays an important role in integrable models and has influenced several branches of physics and mathematics.

Yang Chen-Ning or Yang Zhenning (; born October 1, 1922) is a Chinese theoretical physicist who made significant contributions to statistical mechanics, integrable systems, gauge theory, and both particle physics and condensed matter physics. He and Tsung-Dao Lee received the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on parity nonconservation of weak interaction. The two proposed that one of the basic quantum-mechanics laws, the conservation of parity, is violated in the so-called weak nuclear reactions, those nuclear processes that result in the emission of beta or alpha particles. Yang is also well known for his collaboration with Robert Mills in developing non-Abelian gauge theory, widely known as the Yang–Mills theory.

Prof. Jang Čen-ning či Chen Ning Yang (tradiční čínština: ; zjednodušená čínština: 杨振宁; pinyin: "Yáng Zhènníng") (* 1. října 1922 Che-fej, An-chuej, Čína) je americký vědec, fyzik, čínského původu. Spolu s Li Čeng-taem nositel Nobelovy ceny za fyziku z roku 1957 za základní výzkumy tzv. zákona zachování parity, což je vedlo k významným objevům, které se týkají základních částic.


History.

Ancient history.

There are traces of human settlement by prehistoric peoples, especially in the Périgord, but the earliest attested inhabitants in the south-west were the Aquitani, who were not proper Celtic people, but more akin to the Iberians (see Gallia Aquitania). Although a number of different languages and dialects were in use in the area during ancient times, it is most likely that the prevailing language of Aquitaine during the late pre-historic to Roman period was an early form of the Basque language. This has been demonstrated by various Aquitanian names and words that were recorded by the Romans, and which are currently easily readable as Basque. Whether this Aquitanian language (Proto-Basque) was a remnant of a Vasconic language group that once extended much farther, or it was generally limited to the Aquitaine/Basque region is not known. One reason the language of Aquitaine is important is because Basque is the last surviving non-Indo-European language in western Europe and it has had some effect on the languages around it, including Spanish and, to a lesser extent, French.  The original Aquitania (named after the inhabitants) at the time of Caesar's conquest of Gaul included the area bounded by the Garonne River, the Pyrenees and the Atlantic Ocean. The name may stem from Latin 'aqua', maybe derived from the town "Aquae Augustae", "Aquae Tarbellicae" or just "Aquis" (Dax, Akize in modern Basque) or as a more general geographical feature.  Under Augustus' Roman rule, since 27 BC the province of Aquitania was further stretched to the north to the River Loire, thus including proper Gaul tribes along with old Aquitani south of the Garonne (cf. Novempopulania and Gascony) within the same region.  In 392, the Roman imperial provinces were restructured as "Aquitania Prima" (north-east), "Aquitania Secunda" (centre) and "Aquitania Tertia", better known as "Novempopulania" in the south-west.

Early Middle Ages.

Accounts of Aquitania during the Early Middle Ages are a blur, lacking precision, but there was much unrest. The Visigoths were called into Gaul as "foederati", legalizing their status within the Empire. Eventually they established themselves as the "de facto" rulers in south-west Gaul as central Roman rule collapsed. Visigoths established their capital in Toulouse, but their tenure on Aquitaine was feeble. In 507, they were expelled south to Hispania after their defeat in the Battle of Vouillé by the Franks, who became the new rulers in the area to the south of the Loire.  The Roman Aquitania Tertia remained in place as Novempopulania, where a duke was appointed to hold a grip over the Basques (Vascones/Wascones, rendered "Gascons" in English). These dukes were quite detached from central Frankish overlordship, sometimes governing as independent rulers with strong ties to their kinsmen south of the Pyrenees. As of 660, the foundations for an independent Aquitaine/Vasconia polity were established by the duke Felix of Aquitaine, a magnate ("potente(m)") from Toulouse, probably of Gallo-Roman stock. Despite its nominal submission to the Merovingians, the ethnic make-up of the new Aquitanian realm was not Frankish, but Gallo-Roman north of the Garonne and in main towns and Basque, especially south of the Garonne. A united Basque-Aquitanian realm reached its heyday under Odo the Great's rule. In 721, the Aquitanian duke fended Umayyad troops ("Sarracens") off at Toulouse, but in 732 (or 733, according to Roger Collins), an Umayyad expedition commanded by Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi defeated Odo next to Bordeaux, and went on to loot its way up to Poitiers. Odo was required to pledge allegiance to the Frankish Charles Martel in exchange for help against the advancing Arab forces. Basque-Aquitanian self-rule temporarily came to a halt, definitely in 768 after the assassination of Waifer.  In 781, Charlemagne decided to proclaim his son Louis King of Aquitaine within the Carolingian Empire, ruling over a realm comprising the Duchy of Aquitaine and the Duchy of Vasconia. He suppressed various Basque ("Gascon") uprisings, even venturing into the lands of Pamplona past the Pyrenees after ravaging Gascony, with a view to imposing his authority also in the Vasconia to south of Pyrenees. According to his biography, he achieved everything he wanted and after staying overnight in Pamplona, on his way back his army was attacked in Roncevaux in 812, but narrowly escaped an engagement at the Pyrenean passes.  Seguin (Sihiminus), count of Bordeaux and Duke of Vasconia, seemed to have attempted a detachment from the Frankish central authority on Charlemagne's death. The new emperor Louis the Pious reacted by removing him from his capacity, which stirred the Basques into rebellion. The king in turn sent his troops to the territory, obtaining their submission in two campaigns and killing the duke, while his family crossed the Pyrenees and continued to foment risings against Frankish power. In 824, the 2nd Battle of Roncevaux took place, in which counts Aeblus and Aznar, Frankish vassals from the Duchy of Vasconia sent by the new King of Aquitaine, Pepin, were captured by the joint forces of Iñigo Arista and the Banu Qasi.  Before Pepin's death, emperor Louis had appointed a new king in 832, his son Charles the Bald, while the Aquitanian lords elected Pepin II as king. This struggle for control of the kingdom led to a constant period of war between Charles, loyal to his father and the Carolingian power, and Pepin II, who relied more on the support of Basque and Aquitanian lords.

Ethnic make-up in the Early Middle Ages.

Despite the early conquest of southern Gaul by the Franks after the Battle of Vouillé in 507, the Frankish element was feeble south of the Loire, where Gothic and Gallo-Roman Law prevailed and a small Frankish settlement took place. However scarce, some Frankish population and nobles settled down in regions like Albigeois, Carcassone (on the fringes of Septimania), Toulouse, and Provence and Lower Rhone (the last two not in Aquitaine). After the death of the king Dagobert I, the Merovingian tenure south of the Loire became largely nominal, with the actual power being in the hands of autonomous regional leaders and counts. The Franks may have become largely assimilated to the preponderant Gallo-Roman culture by the 8th century, but their names were well in use by the ruling class, like Odo. Still, in the Battle of Toulouse, the Aquitanian duke Odo was said to be leading an army of Aquitanians and Franks.  On the other hand, the Franks did not mix with the Basques, keeping separate paths. In the periods before and after the Muslim thrust, the Basques are often cited in several accounts stirring against Frankish attempts to subdue Aquitaine (stretching up to Toulouse) and Vasconia, pointing to a not preponderant but clearly significant Basque presence in the former too. Recorded evidence points to their deployment across Aquitaine in a military capacity as a mainstay of the Duke's forces. 'Romans' are cited as living in the cities of Aquitaine, as opposed to the Franks (mid 8th century).

Aquitaine after the Treaty of Verdun.

After the 843 Treaty of Verdun, the defeat of Pepin II and the death of Charles the Bald, the Kingdom of Aquitaine (subsumed in West Francia) ceased to have any relevance and the title of King of Aquitaine took on a nominal value. In 1058, the Duchy of Vasconia (Gascony) and Aquitaine merged under the rule of William VIII, Duke of Aquitaine.  The title "Duke of Aquitaine" was held by the counts of Poitiers from the 10th to the 12th century.

English Aquitaine.

Aquitaine passed to France in 1137 when the duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine married Louis VII of France, but their marriage was annulled in 1152. When Eleanor's new husband became King Henry II of England in 1154, the area became an English possession, and a cornerstone of the Angevin Empire. Aquitaine remained English until the end of the Hundred Years' War in 1453, when it was annexed by France.  During the three hundred years that the region was ruled by the Kings of England, links between Aquitaine and England strengthened, with large quantities of wine produced in southwestern France being exported to London, Southampton, and other English ports. In fact, so much wine and other produce was being exported to London and sold that by the start of the Hundred Years' War the profits from Aquitaine were the principal source of the English King's income per annum.

After the Hundred Years' War.

The region served as a stronghold for the Protestant Huguenots during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, who suffered persecution at the hands of the French Catholics. The Huguenots called upon the English crown for assistance against Cardinal Richelieu.  From the 13th century until the French Revolution, Aquitaine was usually known as Guyenne.

Demographics.

Aquitaine consists of 3,150,890 inhabitants, equivalent to 6% of the total French population.  The region of Aquitaine forms the 6th most populated region in France.

Culture.

Language.

French is the official language of the region. Many residents also have some knowledge of Basque, of a variety of Occitan (Gascon, Limousin, or Languedocien), or of the Poitevin-Saintongeais dialect of French.  In 2005, 78,000 children were learning Occitan as a second language in state schools and 2,000 were enrolled in Occitan-medium private schools.  Basque speakers number about 73,000, concentrated in the far south of the region:

Important cities.

Bordeaux is the largest city in Aquitaine. It is a port city on the Garonne River in the Gironde department. It is the capital of Aquitaine, as well as the prefecture of the Gironde department. Bordeaux is famous for its wine industry. Apart from Bordeaux, there are also other important cities in Aquitaine.

Sport.

The region is home to many successful sports teams. In particular worth mentioning are:  Football  Rugby union is particularly popular in the region. Clubs include:  Basketball  Bull-fighting is also popular in the region.  Major surfing championships regularly take place on Aquitaine's coast.

Aquitaine (,, ; ; ; Poitevin-Saintongeais: "Aguiéne"), archaic "Guyenne"/"Guienne" (), is a historical region of southwestern France and a former administrative region of the country. Since 1 January 2016 it has been part of the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It is situated in the far southwest corner of Metropolitan France, along the Atlantic Ocean and the Pyrenees mountain range on the border with Spain. It is composed of the five departments of Dordogne, Lot-et-Garonne, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, Landes and Gironde. In the Middle Ages, Aquitaine was a kingdom and a duchy, whose boundaries fluctuated considerably.

Akvitánie (francouzsky "Aquitaine") je bývalý francouzský region, který byl rozdělen na pět departementů: Dordogne, Gironde, Landes, Lot-et-Garonne a Pyrénées-Atlantiques. Akvitánie nese název bývalého Akvitánského vévodství, jehož vymezení však bylo zcela odlišné. Od roku 2016 byl spolu s regiony Limousin a Poitou-Charentes sloučen do nového regionu Nové Akvitánie.


Recipe.

The sweet dumplings are made of egg yolk, flour, sugar, and vanilla, mixed into a thin dough. Then egg white is whisked until it is stiff and folded carefully into the dough. Afterwards dumplings ("Nocken", diminutive: "Nockerl", cf. Gnocchi) are formed and baked on low heat in an oven.  Salzburger Nockerl are always freshly prepared and served warm with powdered sugar, sometimes with a raspberry sauce. Like any soufflé, the preparation requires a bit of practice. Though traditionally a dessert, the dish is so filling that it is also suitable as a main course.

Cultural significance.

Presumably derived from French soufflé dishes, Salzburger Nockerl, like Kaiserschmarrn or Apple strudel, have become an icon of Austrian cuisine. Legend has it that they were invented by Salome Alt (1568–1633), the concubine of Prince-Archbishop Wolf Dietrich Raitenau in the early 17th century. In any case the golden dumplings represent Salzburg's Baroque atmosphere left by the territorial prince, whose life of dissipation came to an end when his archbishopric was challenged by the Bavarian neighbours. They are supposed to represent the hillsides surrounding the city centre: Gaisberg, Mönchsberg and Kapuzinerberg. The dusting of powdered sugar resembles the snow-covered peaks.  Fred Raymond (1900–1954) composed in 1938 an operetta called "Saison in Salzburg - Salzburger Nockerln" (Season in Salzburg - Salzburger Nockerln). In this composition the sweet dumplings are praised as “"Süß wie die Liebe und zart wie ein Kuss"” (meaning "Sweet as love and tender as a kiss" in German).

Salzburger Nockerl (pl., Austro-Bavarian: "Soizburga Noggal") are a sweet soufflé served as a dessert, a culinary speciality in the Austrian city of Salzburg.

Salcburské noky () jsou spolu s Mozartovými koulemi nejznámější sladká pochoutka ze Salzburgu. Podává se jako dezert po hlavním jídle.


Authorship.

The argument against the authorship of Thomas Aquinas is that the style of "Aurora consurgens" does not correspond to that of Thomas Aquinas (except in the Fourth Parable, which in style and content is similar to the "Expositio" in "Symbolum Apostolorum", which is an oral lecture of Thomas of Aquin). According to von Franz the following arguments support the hypothesis of Thomas Aquinas being the author of "Aurora Consurgens": Its author knows both the Bible and liturgy intimately, he quotes rather little of classical alchemical texts and mentions neither chemical recipes nor technical instructions, which indicates a clergyman to be its author. His praising of the poor is typical for a Dominican or a Franciscan. The passionately style of being gripped could result from an intrusion of the unconscious which – as psychological experience tells - might have compensated a rather intellectual consciousness dominated by logic. The biography of Thomas Aquinas fits this, as, before his death, Thomas Aquinas is said to have had a disturbing vision, the content of which is not authenticated. But he is said to have interpreted the "Song of Songs" on his deathbed. Thus this treatise might well represent his last seminar or his last words.

Overview.

"Aurora consurgens" is a commentary on the Latin translation of "Silvery Waters" by Senior Zadith (Ibn Umayl). It also refers to the "Song of Songs", especially in its last (7th) parable (de confabulatione dilecti cum dilecta), which draws closely on it, in main parts paraphrasing it. Unusual for a work of this type, the text is accompanied by about thirty-seven fine miniatures in watercolour. The illustrations are representations of alchemical symbols depicted in human or animal form. For example, mercury is depicted as a serpent, gold as the sun and silver as the moon. These illustrations incorporate some of the earliest Greek alchemical symbols known, found in the "Authentic Memoirs" of Zosimos of Panopolis.

Illuminations.

The visuals found in "Aurora consurgens" are regarded by B. Obrist as alchemical metaphors that relate to human and animal procreation, procedures like calcination and putrefaction and other motifs. The manuscript also contains pictorial metaphors combined with glass vessels which depict the stages of the alchemical art of transformation. There are other metaphors found throughout the manuscript that are used in conjunction to create chains of metaphors. Some examples of this include cosmological and philosophical principles of the concepts like "two are one" and "nature vanquishes nature". Another illustration combines the motifs of Mercury decapitating the sun and the moon with a vase filled with silver and gold flowers. Another depicts two birds holding each other in a way that forms a circle which also symbolizes "two in one". This exemplifies the cosmic principle of unity, shown metaphorically as the dragon biting its tail. The ouroboros biting its tail has been stylized into a medallion of three concentric circles with inscriptions referring to the unity of everything and two natures attracting and dominating each other. It is associated with the symbols of the sun, moon, mercury, and sulfur. Another example includes the eagle and the dragon, which represent mercury as a volatile and as a solidified substance, respectively. Further, the unification of the opposite principles female/male, passive/active, cold/hot, moist/dry finds expression in the coupling of the sun and the moon, a cosmological motif of central importance since it symbolizes the generation of all things.

Copies of "Aurora consurgens".

Major differences.

In Glasgow, Sp. Coll. Ferguson MS 6 (f. 220v), a couple depicted performing intercourse are hidden under a sheet and a blue bedspread. Their child is shown sleeping in a small rocking cradle, along with a young servant boy standing at the foot of the bed. At the Staatsbibliothek in Berlin MS Ger. Quatro. 848 (f. 30v), the related illustration has been defaced by being covered with a brown wash even though they appear to be covered to their waists by bed clothes. The child and young servant boy at the end of the bed were not damaged. This implies that the defacer was likely offended by the sexual nature of the scene. Another illustration in the Berlin manuscript (f. 18r), in which the couple makes love on a bed in a forest surrounded by a wattle fence, has also been defaced with wash, although not to the same degree as the image of the couple in bed. (f. 30v). These defacements suggest that some readers of alchemical texts were offended by visualizations of sexual analogies.  The explicitness of sexual details also varies from text to text. In an illustration from Zürich Zentralbibliothek MS Rh. 172 (f. 11r), a menstruating woman bleeds profusely within a zodiac circle to illustrate her monthly cycle and the creation of menstruation and its use within the body. In the Spruch der Philosophien, Glasgow's Sp. Coll. Ferguson MS 6 (Pl. 3), the artist concealed her genitals under her skirt and reduced the blood flow, which obscures the meaning of the menstrual cloths she is holding up.

Impact.

The representation of sexuality within these images also provides many points of comparison. The lovemaking of King and Queen in the "Rosarium philosophorum" series is derived from scenes in the "Aurora consurgens" and the "Donum Dei" series.  Many patrons were interested in aesthetic and poetic contemplation and also in gaining the knowledge to perform alchemy. "Aurora consurgens" addresses all of the factors, implying it is directed to aristocratic and noble patrons. Some of these patrons include the margrave of Brandenburg and Barbara of Cilli, the wife of the emperor Sigismund.

The Aurora consurgens is an alchemical treatise of the 15th century famous for the rich illuminations that accompany it in some manuscripts. While in the last century, the text has been more commonly referred to as "Pseudo-Aquinas", there are as well arguments in favour of Thomas Aquinas, to whom it has originally been attributed in some manuscripts. The translated title from Latin into English is "Rising dawn."

Aurora Consurgens je duchovně a mysticky zaměřená alchymistická příručka ze 14. století zapsaná v kodexu a doprovázena velkým množstvím poněkud neumělých iluminací dokumentujících alchymistické procesy, které symbolizují význam a užitek z provozování alchymie jako Božího daru. Dílo se připisuje největšímu teologovi středověku, sv. Tomáši Akvinskému, ten však jeho autorem téměř jistě není.


Original concept.

Describing the idea as “A Personal Computer For Children of All Ages.” Kay wanted the Dynabook concept to embody the learning theories of Jerome Bruner and some of what Seymour Papert— who had studied with developmental psychologist Jean Piaget and who was one of the inventors of the Logo programming language — was proposing. This concept was created two years before the founding of Xerox PARC. The ideas led to the development of the Xerox Alto prototype, which was originally called “the interim Dynabook”. It embodied all the elements of a graphical user interface, or GUI, as early as 1972. The software component of this research was Smalltalk, which went on to have a life of its own independent of the Dynabook concept.  The hardware on which the programming environment ran was relatively irrelevant.  At the same time, Kay tried in his 1972 article to identify existing hardware components that could be used in a Dynabook, including screens, processors and storage memory. For example: The Dynabook vision was most fully laid out in Kay’s 1977 article "Personal Dynamic Media", co-authored with collaborator (and Smalltalk co-inventor) Adele Goldberg.  In 2019, Kay gave a detailed answer a question on Quora, about the origins of the Dynabook concept.

Later works.

Since the late 1990s, Kay has been working on the Squeak programming system, an open source Smalltalk-based environment which could be seen as a logical continuation of the Dynabook concept.  He is actively involved in the One Laptop Per Child project, which uses Smalltalk, Squeak, and the concepts of a computer for learning.

The KiddiComp concept, envisioned by Alan Kay in 1968 while a PhD candidate, and later developed and described as the Dynabook in his 1972 proposal "A personal computer for children of all ages", outlines the requirements for a conceptual portable educational device that would offer similar functionality to that now supplied via a laptop computer or (in some of its other incarnations) a tablet or slate computer with the exception of the requirement for any Dynabook device offering near eternal battery life. Adults could also use a Dynabook, but the target audience was children.

Dynabook je první přenosný osobní počítač, vytvořený Alanem Kayem v 70. letech v laboratořích firmy Xerox v Palo Alto v USA. Již v té době hovořil Kay o plochých displejích či o bezdrátových sítích.