Introduction.

Introduced in the end of 1983 for a March 1984 start of sales, the Renault 25 was a large step forward in nearly every aspect from the Renault 20 / Renault 30 range it was replacing. Its five-door liftback body was penned by designers Gaston Juchet and Robert Opron of Citroën SM fame, and the unconventional style (the wraparound rear window was its most famous feature) was aimed at giving the car a notchback look in order to overcome customer preference outside France for formal sedans in the segment.  The 25 was one of the first cars designed from the start for aerodynamic efficiency; its drag coefficient (C) was 0.31, a key factor in improving fuel economy. The TS model briefly held the unofficial title of "world's most aerodynamic mass production car" with a C of 0.28, and at its launch the 25 was easily the best in its class for fuel economy.  All Renault 25 models were front-wheel drive, with four cylinder (2 litre and 2.2 litre petrol injection or 2.1 litre diesel) and six cylinder (2849 cc and 2458 cc turbo injection) engines mounted longitudinally forward of the front axle. The 25's performance was above average for its class, at least in the V6 Turbo specification. A turbodiesel version of the J8S engine was also available.  The 25 was praised for its ride comfort and spirited handling (despite slight understeer, and torque steer on V6 Turbo models). A newly designed manual transmission drew unanimous praise for its precision and smoothness (although the detent spring on fifth gear could cause misselection of third gear). The futuristic interior was executed by Italian designer Marcello Gandini (of Lamborghini fame) and was somewhat controversial, but the 25's passenger compartment was considered quiet, spacious, and well lit.  Equipment levels were high and set new standards for French cars, the 25 including among other features, an express up and down feature on the driver's power window, voice alerts (covering items such as improperly shut doors/bonnet/boot – oil pressure, engine temperature/charging circuit and blown bulbs), and one of the world's first remote stereo controls, mounted to the right of the steering column (controlling volume +/–, station search, station select (jog wheel) in radio mode & Volume +/–, mute and track advance (if supported)). For the first time since World War II, Renault had a realistic chance of breaking into the full size market segment outside France.

Automatic transmission.

The Renault 25's least durable part was the automatic transmission. As a result, most 25s remaining are the five speed manual and few automatics have survived. Three automatic transmissions were used on R25: MJ3, 4141, both three speed, and a new four speed AR4, later used on the Renault Safrane as AD4/AD8. Due to the poor quality and design of the ATF cooler, especially on the later AR4, these versions have gained a poor reputation for reliability. A leaking ATF cooler could lead to gearbox failure with little or no physical warning, except for ATF stains beneath the vehicle to which not all drivers paid attention or not quickly enough.  The first transmissions started failing within a few years, while the model was still in production. Renault then prepared a package that was to replace the original poor quality cooler regardless of vehicle age and mileage. However, the cooler location in front of the right wheel could not be changed. As a result, Renault 25 Automatics with the AR4 transmission are rare today.

Facelift.

The car underwent a facelift in June 1988, with a new front end, taillights, interior materials, and front suspension. Essentially, every panel was changed on the facelifted car, with the intent to smooth the styling. The new version also featured more powerful engines, the 2.2i engine being dropped and replaced by a 12v version of the 2.0i engine which produced 140 bhp.  There were a small number of run out post facelift cars fitted with the 2.2i engine to use up stocks, these were rated at the normal 123 bhp for that engine. Production ended in February 1992, to make way for the Renault Safrane.

Related models.

Eagle Premier/Dodge Monaco.

The Renault 25 was the basis of the car platform for the American market Eagle Premier that was introduced by American Motors (AMC). The Premier featured exterior styling by Italdesign Giugiaro using the Renault 25 chassis, although the suspension was derived from the Eagle Medallion (Renault 21). The interior was designed by American Motors. When launched In January 1988, the model was branded as Eagle Premier, subsequent to Renault selling its 47% stake in AMC to Chrysler in 1987. From 1990 to 1992, Chrysler also marketed a rebadged version as the Dodge Monaco.

Renault 25 Limousine.

An extended wheelbase version of the initial Renault 25, called the Renault 25 Limousine, was offered. It was longer than the standard car and was available in two variants. The standard 25 Limousine had the same rear bench seat of the standard wheelbase model whereas the Executive version had two individual seats with electric adjustment. The limousine (only available as 2.7 V6 for RHD) was dropped from the range of Renault UK, within two years of its introduction in 1985, but continued in other European markets.  Coach builders, such as Boonaker, provided bulletproof variants as well as fitting 2.5 V6 Turbo engines. For a time, the President of France used an armoured limousine variant of the Renault 25, with some special modifications. Not least of these were two extra fuel injectors fitted into the sill mouldings on either side of the car at the 'B' Pillar position.  These were directly connected to the engine fuel system through a switch in the passenger compartment that would, if the engine was running, simultaneously pulse high pressure jets of neat petrol and ignite them as a deterrent. Since the fuel injection system runs at high pressure this would have been a quite effective flamethrower but somewhat dangerous for innocent bystanders. The system was later removed for this reason.

Trim levels.

French market specifications:

Engines.

"(French-market specifications unless indicated otherwise. All hp metric.)"

Australia and the United Kingdom.

The 25 was also exported to Australia. Introduced in 1985, it was priced at A$35,000 without cruise control. It had a disc drum brake setup, rather than a four-wheel discs as on the Renault 18.  The R25 was exported to the United Kingdom from the beginning of 1984, where its hatchback bodystyle helped it to stand out compared with conventional saloons.  GTX in the United Kingdom was equivalent to Level 3 in the above list & used the 123 hp 2.2i engine. For the facelift versions the equivalent to the GTX was the TXI, with the 2.0 12v engine of 140 hp. The 12v head from the 2.0 engine was latterly used in the J7T 2.2i engine in Safrane. The 2.2 engines in the Safrane are effectively a long stroke version of the 2.0 engine – which gave better torque but was less free revving.  For the United Kingdom, the pre facelift range included TS, Monaco (being a special edition with metallic brown paint, Monaco badging on boot and C-Pillar insert panels, Leather interior and some other changes from the TS spec), GTX, V6 & V6 Turbo.  The facelift cars were TX (2.0 12v/2.2i special order), TXI (2.0i 12v/2.2i special order), V6, V6 Turbo for a short period and Baccara (2.9i V6/2.4i V6 Turbo) which was the top of the range. The 2.2i (123 hp) engine in the Phase 2 cars was only available 'while stocks last', and is very rare vehicle. The lower compression 108 hp 2.2 was never sold in the United Kingdom.

The Renault 25 is an executive car produced by the French automaker Renault from 1983 to 1992. During its time, the 25 was Renault's flagship, the most expensive, prestigious, and largest vehicle in the company's line up. It placed second in the 1985 European Car of the Year contest. All 25s were built in Sandouville, near Le Havre, France.

Renault 25, zkráceně též jako R25 je automobil, který se vyráběl od roku 1984 jako nástupce modelů R20 a R30. V roce 1990 prošel faceliftem a jeho výroba byla ukončena roku 1992. Během výroby se měnila nabídka a výkony motorů, dodávaly se benzínové motory od 2.0 po 2.9 a naftové 2.1D a 2.1TD.


Playing career.

Brent grew up in the Cambridge, Ontario, area playing minor ice hockey for the Hespeler Shamrocks of the OMHA and the Cambridge Hawks of the Alliance Pavilion League. He played in the 1998 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with a team from Cambridge.  At age 15, Brent signed with the Cambridge Winterhawks Jr.B. team of the OHA Midwestern Ontario Hockey League in the 1999–2000 season. After completing his Jr.B. season, Brent was the 2nd overall selection of the OHL's Toronto St. Michael's Majors in the 2000 OHL Priority Selection.  Brent began his major junior career on the Toronto St. Michael's Majors of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) in the 2000–01 season. He played on the team for four seasons, until 2003–04. During that time, he was drafted twice, both times by Anaheim. He was first drafted 37th overall in the 2002 NHL Entry Draft, but was re-entered into the draft two years later after not signing with Anaheim. In the 2004 NHL Entry Draft, he was selected 75th overall, again by the Ducks.  In the 2004–05 season, he started his professional career with the Cincinnati Mighty Ducks. The next season, he played on the Portland Pirates, the Ducks' new minor league affiliate. He began his 2006–07 season with Portland, but was recalled to the Stanley Cup-winning Ducks and scored his first NHL goal February 20 against the Vancouver Canucks. Brent did receive a Stanley Cup Ring, but did not play enough games to be included on the Stanley Cup.  On June 23, 2007, the Anaheim Ducks traded Brent to the Pittsburgh Penguins in exchange for centre Stephen Dixon. On July 17, 2008, Brent was traded to the Chicago Blackhawks in exchange for Danny Richmond. On July 6, 2009, Brent signed a one-year contract with the Toronto Maple Leafs.  During his first preseason game of the 2009–2010 season, Brent tore his pectoral muscle – requiring surgery that would see him miss 4 months of action. After recovering, Brent returned to play with the Toronto Marlies, recording 28 points in 33 games. He was called up for the final game of the season to make his debut with the Toronto Maple Leafs versus the Montreal Canadiens.  A strong training camp with Toronto saw Brent dress for the Maple Leafs in the season opener on October 7, 2010, versus the Montreal Canadiens. Brent immediately made an impact, scoring the first goal of the game at 6:42 of the first period. Brent went on to suit up for 79 games that season.  A game on February 3, 2011 against the Carolina Hurricanes saw him block 5 shots and clear the puck in a single penalty kill. This play earned him a standing ovation at the Air Canada Centre as well as TSN's "No Guts, No Glory" award. It was also a nomination for NHL Play of the Year.  Brent signed a two-year contract with the Carolina Hurricanes on July 1, 2011.  Upon completion of his contract with the Hurricanes, Brent signed his first contract outside North America, on a one-year deal with Russian club, Torpedo Nizhny Novgorod of the KHL on July 30, 2013. After eighteen games with Torpedo, he was traded to Metallurg Magnitogorsk for Justin Hodgman. With Metallurg he won the Gagarin Cup.  Brent returned to North America following the 2014–15 season, signing a one-year, two-way contract with the Philadelphia Flyers on July 1, 2015. He was assigned for the duration of the 2015–16 season to the team's AHL affiliate, the Lehigh Valley Phantoms. In 52 games with the Phantoms, Brent contributed with 10 goals and 28 points before announcing his retirement from professional hockey at season's end on May 25, 2016.

Tim Brent (born March 10, 1984) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey forward who played over 200 games in the National Hockey League (NHL), most notably for the Toronto Maple Leafs and Carolina Hurricanes. Tim is married to Eva Shockey.

Tim Brent (* 10. března 1984 Cambridge, Kanada) je kanadský profesionální hokejista, který už ukončil sezónu. Poprvé byl draftován v roce 2002 týmem Mighty Ducks of Anaheim jako 37. v pořadí, ale smlouvu nakonec nepodepsal, a tak byl stejným klubem draftován znovu v roce 2004 jako 75. v celkovém pořadí.


Name.

Contrary to popular belief among both non-Chinese and Chinese, the term "Semu" (interpreted literally as "color-eye") did not imply that caste members had "colored eyes" and it was not a physical description of the people it labelled. It in fact meant "assorted categories" (各色名目, "gè sè míng mù"), emphasizing the ethnic diversity of Semu people.

Classification.

The Semu categories are pointed to people who come from Central and West Asia by Yuan dynasty, it is told that there are 31 categories among them. They had come to serve the Yuan dynasty by enfranchising under the dominant Mongol caste. The Semu were not a self-defined and homogeneous ethnic group "per se", but one of the four castes of the Yuan dynasty: the Mongols, Semu (or Semuren), the "Han" ("Hanren" in Chinese, or all subjects of the former Jin dynasty, Dali Kingdom and Koreans) and the Southerners ("Nanren" in Chinese, or all subjects of the former Southern Song dynasty; sometimes called Manzi). Among the Semu were Buddhist Turpan Uyghurs, Tanguts and Tibetans; Nestorian Christian tribes like the Ongud; Alans; Muslim Central Asian Persian and Turkic peoples including the Khwarazmians and Karakhanids; West Asian Jewish and other minor groups who are from even further Europe.  Islam was not the religion of the Uighurs during the Mongol Empire. The Uighur land itself was not Muslim inhabited while the Muslim lands were towards its west. They were Nestorian, Manichaeans, and Buddhist, and by Mongol times the Buddhists and Nestorians absorbed the Manichaeans, and Buddhist clerics dominated the Mongol employed educated sector of their own population. The '"Compendium of the Turkic Dialects" by Mahmud al-Kashgari, included among the infidels, the Uighurs. It was written ""just as the thorn should be cut at its root, so the Uighur should be struck on the eye"" by Kashgari, who viewed them as untrustworthy and noted that Muslim Turks used the derogatory name "Tat" against the Buddhist Uighurs whom Kashgari described as "infidels". The identities of "Buddhist" and "Uyghur" were intertwined with each other.  While administratively classified as Semu, many of these groups rather referred to themselves by their self-aware ethnic identities in everyday life, such as Uyghur. Muslims, Persians, Karakhanids and Khwarazmians in particular, were actually mistaken to be Uyghurs or at least, "from the land of the Uyghurs". Therefore, they adopted the label conferred to them by the Chinese: "Huihui", which was a corruption of the name Uyghur, but at the same time distinguishable from the name reserved for Buddhist Turpan Uyghurs proper, "Weiwuer". Of the many ethnic groups classified as "Semu" during the Yuan, only the Muslim Hui managed to survive into the Ming period as a large collective identity with self-awareness of common identity spanning across the whole China.  Other ethnic groups were either small and confined to limited localities (such as the Buddhist Turpan Uyghurs in Wuling, Hunan, and the Kaifeng Jews), or were forced to assimilate into the Han Chinese or Muslim Huis (such as some Christian and Jewish Semu in the Northwest, who, though thoroughly Islamicized, still unto this day retain peculiar labels like "Black Cap/Doppa Huihui", "Blue Cap Huihui").  The historian Frederick W. Mote wrote that the usage of the term "social classes" for this system was misleading and that the position of people within the 4 class system was not an indication of their actual social power and wealth, but just entailed "degrees of privilege" to which they were entitled institutionally and legally so a person's standing within the classes was not a guarantee of their standing, since there were rich and well socially standing Chinese while there were less rich Mongol and Semu than there were Mongol and Semu who lived in poverty and were ill-treated.  The reason for the order of the classes and the reason why people were placed in a certain class was the date they surrendered to the Mongols, and had nothing to do with their ethnicity. The earlier they surrendered to the Mongols, the higher they were placed, the more the held out, the lower they were ranked. The Northern Chinese were ranked higher and Southern Chinese were ranked lower because southern China withstood and fought to the last before caving in. Major commerce during this era gave rise to favorable conditions for private southern Chinese manufacturers and merchants.  When the Mongols placed the Uighurs of the Kingdom of Qocho over the Koreans at the court the Korean King objected, then the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan rebuked the Korean King, saying that the Uighur King of Qocho was ranked higher than the Karluk Kara-Khanid ruler, who in turn was ranked higher than the Korean King, who was ranked last, because the Uighurs surrendered to the Mongols first, the Karluks surrendered after the Uighurs, and the Koreans surrendered last, and that the Uighurs surrendered peacefully without violently resisting. Koreans were ranked as Han people along with northern Chinese.  Japanese historians like Uematsu, Sugiyama and Morita criticized the perception that a four class system existed under Mongol rule and Funada Yoshiyuki questioned the very existence of the Semu as a class.  The Yuan dynasty "Han people" classification included Koreans, Bohais, Jurchens and Khitans, and they are included in statistics of intermarriage between Semu and "Han people". Semu and Han intermarried with Mongols. The Haluhu (哈剌鲁) Semu married Koreans, Uighurs Tangwu, Mongols and Han during Yuan rule. Tibetan, Qincha, Uighur, Hui Hui, and Han intermarried with Korean women during the Yuan dynasty.  Korean women married Indian, Uyghur, and Turkic Semu men. This intermarriage of Korean women and Semu men was extensive in China during the Yuan dynasty.  A rich merchant from the Ma'bar Sultanate, Abu Ali (P'aehali) 孛哈里 (or 布哈爾 Buhaer), was associated closely with the Ma'bar royal family. After falling out with them, he moved to Yuan dynasty China and received a Korean woman as his wife and a job from the Mongol Emperor, the woman was formerly 桑哥 Sangha's wife and her father was 蔡仁揆 채송년 Ch'ae In'gyu during the reign of 忠烈 Chungnyeol of Goryeo, recorded in the Dongguk Tonggam, Goryeosa and 留夢炎 Liu Mengyan's 中俺集 Zhong'anji. 桑哥 Sangha was a Tibetan. Tamil Hindu Indian merchants traded in Quanzhou during the Yuan dynasty. Indian Hindu statues were found in Quanzhou dating to this period. Korean (Koryŏ) women's beauty was highly commended and viewed by the Ming Zhengde Emperor's Muslim advisor.  Gypsies were called 羅里回回 "Luoli Huihui". The term Lûrî which was of Persian origin was where Luoli derived from.  Zhuhu Huihui was a name for the Jews.

Lineages.

Among the Huihui, or Hui, there were in fact Muslim lineages that have migrated to China via Central Asia or by sea route prior to the Yuan migration of merchants, adventurers, craftsmen and service men from the Muslim world to China. These Muslims were not previously known as Hui, but have come to associate themselves with the "Muslims from the land of the Khwarezem" by the mere fact of common religious identity. "Hui" has thus become synonymous with the Islamic religion in the Chinese language since the Ming period (but not before that). Besides identifying themselves as Huis, the Semu Muslims of the Yunnan province, especially those descended from the Khwarazmian statesman Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, or Sayyid Ajjal, came to be labeled as Panthay wherever they migrated to in Southeast Asia, including Myanmar and Thailand.  This name Panthay is particular to the Yunnan Huis and is not shared by Huis in other parts of China such as Fujian and Ningxia. Zheng He is probably the best-known Panthay Hui in the West. The learned Semu, including scribes, interpreters and statesmen who served the Mongol military class, were known for their contributions to Chinese literature and sciences. Many of them became masters of Chinese poetry and also helped compose state-commissioned historical works on previous dynasties. Their privileged position in the Yuan bureaucracy was in part due to the Mongol military class's distrust of the native Khitay and Manji subjects. One such Yuan Semu mandarin and poet was Guan Yunshi, a Turk of disputed origin.

Soldiers.

After the fall of the Yuan, many Semu intellectuals and soldiers, due to their less entrenched loyalty to the Mongols, also became quickly assimilated into the Ming political culture and became prominent mandarins and aristocrats. Some no longer retained separate ethnic identity and became Han Chinese, others still served the Ming court as Muslim Huis. The Ming court's tolerance for loyal Muslims and respect for their practices and ethnic identity partially explains the strength and vitality of the Muslim Hui community in modern China, compared to other Semu groups such as the Christians and Jews.

Similar practices in other areas of the Mongol Empire.

Bukhara and Samarqand were visited by Changchun. At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Han Chinese and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara and Samarqand in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands. The surname of Li was held by one of Yelu Ahai's staff of Han Chinese. There were various Chinese craftsmen. Tangut, Khitan and Han Chinese took control over gardens and fields from the Muslims. Han Chinese were moved to Central Asian areas like Besh Baliq, Almaliq, and Samarqand by the Mongols where they worked as artisans and farmers. Alans were recruited into the Mongol forces with one unit called "Right Alan Guard" which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers, Mongols, and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former Kingdom of Qocho and in Besh Balikh the Mongols established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Kongzhi (Ch'i Kung-chih).  After the Mongol conquest by Genghis Khan, foreigners were chosen as administrators and co-management with Chinese and Qara-Khitays (Khitans) of gardens and fields in Samarqand was put upon the Muslims as a requirement since Muslims were not allowed to manage without them.  The Mongol appointed Governor of Samarqand was a Qara-Khitay (Khitan), held the title Taishi, familiar with Chinese culture his name was Ahai.  Muslims viewed Chagatai Khan with negativity and hostility because Chagatai Khan strictly enforced Mongol Yasa law against Islamic Shariah law banning Halal animal slaughter and Islamic prayer ritual ablution as well as the Islamic legal system. The Uyghur steward Vajir was accused of poisoning Chagatai Khan to death in 1242 by his wife Yisulun.  Han Chinese officials and colonists were sent by the Mongol Yuan dynasty to areas of Lingbei province (和宁路 益蘭州 謙州).  The 1258 Baghdad siege involved a Chinese officer. Each of Eurasia's ends saw their specialists moved to the other end under the Mongols. The Yenisei area had a community of weavers of Chinese origin and Samarkand and Outer Mongolia both had artisans of Chinese origin seen by Changchun.

Discrimination.

Yuan dynasty.

Genghis Khan and the following Yuan emperors forbade Islamic practices like Halal butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret. Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and Jews "slaves", and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. Circumcision was also forbidden. Jews were also affected, and forbidden by the Mongols to eat Kosher. Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim Generals joined Han Chinese in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang had Muslim Generals like Lan Yu who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had the name in Chinese which meant "barracks" and also mean "thanks"; many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Han Chinese for assisting them.  The Muslims in the semu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the Ispah Rebellion but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding. After the massacre, the remaining Jews and Muslims escaped. Some were back to their own country, but some like Jews escaped to Guangdong.

Ming dynasty.

After expelling the Mongols, the Ming dynasty was soon founded. Because of the Semu's help, some of them were being employed into the central government. However, the Ming dynasty enforced assimilation to Chinese customs, such as banning used their own languages, customs, names and instead switching to speaking Chinese and using Chinese names and intermarrying with Han people.  Both Mongol and Central Asian Semu Muslim women and men were required by Ming Code to marry Han Chinese after the first Ming Emperor Hongwu passed the law in Article 122.  The aim for it is to reduce Semu's population since Semu was in the second class in Yuan and used to help the Mongols. Some Hui claim that the order was secretly done by the Ming Hongwu Emperor to protect them from attacks since they stood out while they thought Zhu was a Hui too.  Indeed, Zhu was not a Hui while at that time only the Semu used this name. But in the middle period of Ming Dynasty, the royalties separated Semu into different groups while the groups as Muslims and Tibetans were still many. The Islam and Tibetan religions have survived until today. But the minority groups such as Jews, most of their customs were no more, leaving them into the Han group. This separation continued until the establishment of the Republic of China. Although the Communist Party of China founded the People's Republic, Chinese are scientifically separated into more groups which is now determined to be as many as 56 different ethnic groups. Some people claim that this number is higher than the periods before.  The new separation doesn't mean there are only 56 ethnic groups. This list doesn't include small populations like Jewish. Even if such ethnicities are so few in numbers, they still continue to exist in China.  The Ming dynasty allowed Islam and Judaism to be practiced and issued edicts that said they conformed to Confucianism while it banned religions such as Nestorian Christianity, Manicheanism and the White Lotus sect. Nestorian Christianity and Manicheanism died out during the Ming dynasty while Islam and Judaism were protected.  Around 1376 the 30-year-old Chinese merchant Lin Nu visited Ormuz in Persia, converted to Islam, and married a Semu girl (“娶色目女”) (either a Persian or an Arab girl) and brought her back to Quanzhou in Fujian. The Confucian philosopher Li Zhi was their descendant. This was recorded in the Lin and Li genealogy《林李宗谱》.  An anti pig slaughter edict led to speculation that the Zhengde Emperor adopted Islam due to his use of Muslim eunuchs who commissioned the production of porcelain with Persian and Arabic inscriptions in white and blue color. Muslim eunuchs contributed money in 1496 to repairing Niujie Mosque. Central Asian women were provided to the Zhengde Emperor by a Muslim guard and Sayyid Hussein from Hami. The guard was Yu Yung and the women were Uighur. It is unknown who really was behind the anti-pig slaughter edict. The speculation of him becoming a Muslim is remembered alongside his excessive and debauched behavior along with his concubines of foreign origin. Muslim Central Asian girls were favored by Zhengde like how Korean girls were favored by Xuande. A Uighur concubine was kept by Zhengde. Foreign origin Uighur and Mongol women were favored by the Zhengde emperor.  Tatar (Mongol) and Central Asian women were bedded by Zhengde and he wore Mongol clothing and was fluent in Mongol language, and he adopted Persian, Buddhist, and Mongol names and titles 威武大將軍太師鎮國公 沙吉敖爛 大寶法王 忽必列. probably studied Persian and Tibetan as well.  Zhengde received Central Asian Muslim Semu women from his Muslim guard Yu Yong Ni'ergan was the name of one of his Muslim concubines.  The Uyghurs of Taoyuan are the remnants of Uyghurs from Turpan from the Kingdom of Qocho.

Semu () is the name of a caste established by the Yuan dynasty. The Semu categories refers to people who come from Central and West Asia, it is told that there are 31 categories among them. They had come to serve the Yuan dynasty by enfranchising under the dominant Mongol caste. The Semu were not a self-defined and homogeneous ethnic group per se, but one of the four castes of the Yuan dynasty: the Mongols, Semu (or Semuren), the "Han" (Hanren in Chinese, or all subjects of the former Jin dynasty, Dali Kingdom and Koreans) and the Southerners (Nanren in Chinese, or all subjects of the former Southern Song dynasty; sometimes called Manzi). Among the Semu were Buddhist Turpan Uyghurs, Tanguts and Tibetans; Nestorian Christian tribes like the Ongud; Alans; Muslim Central Asian Persian and Turkic peoples including the Khwarazmians and Karakhanids; West Asian Arab, Jewish and other minor groups who are from even further west.

Se-mu nebo se-mu žen () bylo zkrácené označení druhé třídy obyvatelstva mongolské říše Jüan plným názvem "ke-se ming-mu č’-žen" ( ).


Early life.

Sprengtporten was born in Porvoo (), Uusimaa (), Kingdom of Sweden (now Finland). He entered the army and rose to the rank of captain during the Seven Years' War. He assisted his brother in the revolution of 1772, and in 1775 was made a colonel and brigadier of the Savolax brigade in east Finland. Here he distinguished himself greatly as an organizer and administrator. The military school which he founded at Haapaniemi (then Tuhkaniemi), Kuopio (1 August 1780 until 1 May 1781 when it was moved to Haapaniemi estate in Rantasalmi, where it operated until a transfer to Hamina in 1819) subsequently became a state institution (Hamina Cadet School).

1779–81.

Like his brother he also came to the conclusion that his services had not been adequately appreciated, and the flattering way in which he was welcomed by the Russian court during a visit to Saint Petersburg in 1779 still further incensed him against the perceived ingratitude of his own sovereign. For the next two years he was in the French service, returning to Finland in 1781. Due in part to contacts with Benjamin Franklin who was there contemporaneously he conceived of the idea of separating the grand duchy from Sweden. This aim was first approached through the Walhalla-orden subversive secret society and scheming with the king's brother, Charles XIII of Sweden. This scheming was apparently stillborn, as Charles informed his brother of the schemers' approaches.

1786.

The chosen Plan B was to establish an independent state under the protection of Russia. During the Riksdag of 1786 he openly opposed Gustav III of Sweden, at the same time engaging in a secret and treasonable correspondence with the Russian ministers with the view of inducing them to assist his plans for an independent Finland by force of arms.

1788–1808.

In the following year, at the invitation of Catherine II of Russia, he formally entered the Russian service. When the Russo-Swedish War of 1788–1790 began, Sprengtporten received the command of a Russian army corps directed against Finland. He took no direct part in the Anjala conspiracy but urged Catherine to support it more energetically. His own negotiations with his fellow countrymen, especially after Gustav III of Sweden had brought the treacherous army officers of the Anjala conspiracy back to their allegiance, failed utterly. Nor was he able to serve Russia very effectively in the field for he was seriously wounded at the battle of Porrassalmi 1789. At the end of the war, indeed, his position was somewhat precarious, as the High Court of Turku condemned him as a traitor, while Catherine regarded him as an incompetent impostor who could not perform his promises. For the next five years, therefore 1793–1798, he thought it expedient to quit Russia and live at Teplice in Bohemia. He was re-employed by the emperor Paul of Russia who, in 1800, sent him to negotiate with Napoleon concerning the Maltese Order and the interchange of prisoners. After Paul's death Sprengtporten was again in disgrace for seven years, but was consulted in 1808 on the eve of the outbreak of hostilities with France. On 1 December 1808 he was appointed the first Russian Governor-General of Finland with the title of count, but was so unpopular that he had to resign his post the following year.

Retirement.

The last ten years of his life were lived in retirement. Sprengtporten died in Saint Petersburg in 1819.

Memorial stones.

Georg Magnus Sprengtporten's Memorial stones are located in Harbour park (Satamapuisto) of Kuopio, near the place where his military school was originally located. While staying in Teplice, Sprengtporten was in regular contact with the Count Waldstein's librarian, Giacomo Casanova. Their correspondence has been saved and is well known to scholars.

Count Georg Magnus Sprengtporten (; ; ; 16 December 1740 – 13 October 1819), was a Finland-Swedish politician, younger brother of Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten. As he defected to Russia, he went down Swedish history as a traitor.

Georg Magnus hrabě Sprengtporten nebo (jak sám sebe nazýval) Göran Magnus Sprengtporten (16. prosince 1740 – 13. října 1819) byl švédský, finský a ruský politik, první generální guvernér Finského velkoknížectví v historii.


Principle.

The core principle behind microarrays is hybridization between two DNA strands, the property of complementary nucleic acid sequences to specifically pair with each other by forming hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide base pairs. A high number of complementary base pairs in a nucleotide sequence means tighter non-covalent bonding between the two strands. After washing off non-specific bonding sequences, only strongly paired strands will remain hybridized. Fluorescently labeled target sequences that bind to a probe sequence generate a signal that depends on the hybridization conditions (such as temperature), and washing after hybridization. Total strength of the signal, from a spot (feature), depends upon the amount of target sample binding to the probes present on that spot. Microarrays use relative quantitation in which the intensity of a feature is compared to the intensity of the same feature under a different condition, and the identity of the feature is known by its position.

Uses and types.

Many types of arrays exist and the broadest distinction is whether they are spatially arranged on a surface or on coded beads:  DNA microarrays can be used to detect DNA (as in comparative genomic hybridization), or detect RNA (most commonly as cDNA after reverse transcription) that may or may not be translated into proteins. The process of measuring gene expression via cDNA is called expression analysis or expression profiling.  Applications include:

Fabrication.

Microarrays can be manufactured in different ways, depending on the number of probes under examination, costs, customization requirements, and the type of scientific question being asked. Arrays from commercial vendors may have as few as 10 probes or as many as 5 million or more micrometre-scale probes.

Spotted vs. "in situ" synthesised arrays.

Microarrays can be fabricated using a variety of technologies, including printing with fine-pointed pins onto glass slides, photolithography using pre-made masks, photolithography using dynamic micromirror devices, ink-jet printing, or electrochemistry on microelectrode arrays.  In "spotted microarrays", the probes are oligonucleotides, cDNA or small fragments of PCR products that correspond to mRNAs. The probes are synthesized prior to deposition on the array surface and are then "spotted" onto glass. A common approach utilizes an array of fine pins or needles controlled by a robotic arm that is dipped into wells containing DNA probes and then depositing each probe at designated locations on the array surface. The resulting "grid" of probes represents the nucleic acid profiles of the prepared probes and is ready to receive complementary cDNA or cRNA "targets" derived from experimental or clinical samples. This technique is used by research scientists around the world to produce "in-house" printed microarrays from their own labs. These arrays may be easily customized for each experiment, because researchers can choose the probes and printing locations on the arrays, synthesize the probes in their own lab (or collaborating facility), and spot the arrays. They can then generate their own labeled samples for hybridization, hybridize the samples to the array, and finally scan the arrays with their own equipment. This provides a relatively low-cost microarray that may be customized for each study, and avoids the costs of purchasing often more expensive commercial arrays that may represent vast numbers of genes that are not of interest to the investigator. Publications exist which indicate in-house spotted microarrays may not provide the same level of sensitivity compared to commercial oligonucleotide arrays, possibly owing to the small batch sizes and reduced printing efficiencies when compared to industrial manufactures of oligo arrays.  In "oligonucleotide microarrays", the probes are short sequences designed to match parts of the sequence of known or predicted open reading frames. Although oligonucleotide probes are often used in "spotted" microarrays, the term "oligonucleotide array" most often refers to a specific technique of manufacturing. Oligonucleotide arrays are produced by printing short oligonucleotide sequences designed to represent a single gene or family of gene splice-variants by synthesizing this sequence directly onto the array surface instead of depositing intact sequences. Sequences may be longer (60-mer probes such as the Agilent design) or shorter (25-mer probes produced by Affymetrix) depending on the desired purpose; longer probes are more specific to individual target genes, shorter probes may be spotted in higher density across the array and are cheaper to manufacture. One technique used to produce oligonucleotide arrays include photolithographic synthesis (Affymetrix) on a silica substrate where light and light-sensitive masking agents are used to "build" a sequence one nucleotide at a time across the entire array. Each applicable probe is selectively "unmasked" prior to bathing the array in a solution of a single nucleotide, then a masking reaction takes place and the next set of probes are unmasked in preparation for a different nucleotide exposure. After many repetitions, the sequences of every probe become fully constructed. More recently, Maskless Array Synthesis from NimbleGen Systems has combined flexibility with large numbers of probes.

Two-channel vs. one-channel detection.

"Two-color microarrays" or "two-channel microarrays" are typically hybridized with cDNA prepared from two samples to be compared (e.g. diseased tissue versus healthy tissue) and that are labeled with two different fluorophores. Fluorescent dyes commonly used for cDNA labeling include Cy3, which has a fluorescence emission wavelength of 570 nm (corresponding to the green part of the light spectrum), and Cy5 with a fluorescence emission wavelength of 670 nm (corresponding to the red part of the light spectrum). The two Cy-labeled cDNA samples are mixed and hybridized to a single microarray that is then scanned in a microarray scanner to visualize fluorescence of the two fluorophores after excitation with a laser beam of a defined wavelength. Relative intensities of each fluorophore may then be used in ratio-based analysis to identify up-regulated and down-regulated genes.  Oligonucleotide microarrays often carry control probes designed to hybridize with RNA spike-ins. The degree of hybridization between the spike-ins and the control probes is used to normalize the hybridization measurements for the target probes. Although absolute levels of gene expression may be determined in the two-color array in rare instances, the relative differences in expression among different spots within a sample and between samples is the preferred method of data analysis for the two-color system. Examples of providers for such microarrays includes Agilent with their Dual-Mode platform, Eppendorf with their DualChip platform for colorimetric Silverquant labeling, and TeleChem International with Arrayit.  In "single-channel microarrays" or "one-color microarrays", the arrays provide intensity data for each probe or probe set indicating a relative level of hybridization with the labeled target. However, they do not truly indicate abundance levels of a gene but rather relative abundance when compared to other samples or conditions when processed in the same experiment. Each RNA molecule encounters protocol and batch-specific bias during amplification, labeling, and hybridization phases of the experiment making comparisons between genes for the same microarray uninformative. The comparison of two conditions for the same gene requires two separate single-dye hybridizations. Several popular single-channel systems are the Affymetrix "Gene Chip", Illumina "Bead Chip", Agilent single-channel arrays, the Applied Microarrays "CodeLink" arrays, and the Eppendorf "DualChip & Silverquant". One strength of the single-dye system lies in the fact that an aberrant sample cannot affect the raw data derived from other samples, because each array chip is exposed to only one sample (as opposed to a two-color system in which a single low-quality sample may drastically impinge on overall data precision even if the other sample was of high quality). Another benefit is that data are more easily compared to arrays from different experiments as long as batch effects have been accounted for.  One channel microarray may be the only choice in some situations. Suppose formula_1 samples need to be compared: then the number of experiments required using the two channel arrays quickly becomes unfeasible, unless a sample is used as a reference.

A typical protocol.

This is an example of a DNA microarray experiment which includes details for a particular case to better explain DNA microarray experiments, while listing modifications for RNA or other alternative experiments.

Microarrays and bioinformatics.

The advent of inexpensive microarray experiments created several specific bioinformatics challenges: the multiple levels of replication in experimental design (Experimental design); the number of platforms and independent groups and data format (Standardization); the statistical treatment of the data (Data analysis); mapping each probe to the mRNA transcript that it measures (Annotation); the sheer volume of data and the ability to share it (Data warehousing).

Experimental design.

Due to the biological complexity of gene expression, the considerations of experimental design that are discussed in the expression profiling article are of critical importance if statistically and biologically valid conclusions are to be drawn from the data.  There are three main elements to consider when designing a microarray experiment. First, replication of the biological samples is essential for drawing conclusions from the experiment. Second, technical replicates (two RNA samples obtained from each experimental unit) help to ensure precision and allow for testing differences within treatment groups. The biological replicates include independent RNA extractions and technical replicates may be two aliquots of the same extraction. Third, spots of each cDNA clone or oligonucleotide are present as replicates (at least duplicates) on the microarray slide, to provide a measure of technical precision in each hybridization. It is critical that information about the sample preparation and handling is discussed, in order to help identify the independent units in the experiment and to avoid inflated estimates of statistical significance.

Standardization.

Microarray data is difficult to exchange due to the lack of standardization in platform fabrication, assay protocols, and analysis methods. This presents an interoperability problem in bioinformatics. Various grass-roots open-source projects are trying to ease the exchange and analysis of data produced with non-proprietary chips:  For example, the "Minimum Information About a Microarray Experiment" (MIAME) checklist helps define the level of detail that should exist and is being adopted by many journals as a requirement for the submission of papers incorporating microarray results. But MIAME does not describe the format for the information, so while many formats can support the MIAME requirements, no format permits verification of complete semantic compliance. The "MicroArray Quality Control (MAQC) Project" is being conducted by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to develop standards and quality control metrics which will eventually allow the use of MicroArray data in drug discovery, clinical practice and regulatory decision-making. The MGED Society has developed standards for the representation of gene expression experiment results and relevant annotations.

Data analysis.

Microarray data sets are commonly very large, and analytical precision is influenced by a number of variables. Statistical challenges include taking into account effects of background noise and appropriate normalization of the data. Normalization methods may be suited to specific platforms and, in the case of commercial platforms, the analysis may be proprietary. Algorithms that affect statistical analysis include:  Microarray data may require further processing aimed at reducing the dimensionality of the data to aid comprehension and more focused analysis. Other methods permit analysis of data consisting of a low number of biological or technical replicates; for example, the Local Pooled Error (LPE) test pools standard deviations of genes with similar expression levels in an effort to compensate for insufficient replication.

Annotation.

The relation between a probe and the mRNA that it is expected to detect is not trivial. Some mRNAs may cross-hybridize probes in the array that are supposed to detect another mRNA. In addition, mRNAs may experience amplification bias that is sequence or molecule-specific. Thirdly, probes that are designed to detect the mRNA of a particular gene may be relying on genomic EST information that is incorrectly associated with that gene.

Data warehousing.

Microarray data was found to be more useful when compared to other similar datasets. The sheer volume of data, specialized formats (such as MIAME), and curation efforts associated with the datasets require specialized databases to store the data. A number of open-source data warehousing solutions, such as InterMine and BioMart, have been created for the specific purpose of integrating diverse biological datasets, and also support analysis.

Alternative technologies.

Advances in massively parallel sequencing has led to the development of RNA-Seq technology, that enables a whole transcriptome shotgun approach to characterize and quantify gene expression. Unlike microarrays, which need a reference genome and transcriptome to be available before the microarray itself can be designed, RNA-Seq can also be used for new model organisms whose genome has not been sequenced yet.

A DNA microarray (also commonly known as DNA chip or biochip) is a collection of microscopic DNA spots attached to a solid surface. Scientists use DNA microarrays to measure the expression levels of large numbers of genes simultaneously or to genotype multiple regions of a genome. Each DNA spot contains picomoles (10 moles) of a specific DNA sequence, known as "probes" (or "reporters" or "oligos"). These can be a short section of a gene or other DNA element that are used to hybridize a cDNA or cRNA (also called anti-sense RNA) sample (called "target") under high-stringency conditions. Probe-target hybridization is usually detected and quantified by detection of fluorophore-, silver-, or chemiluminescence-labeled targets to determine relative abundance of nucleic acid sequences in the target. The original nucleic acid arrays were macro arrays approximately 9 cm × 12 cm and the first computerized image based analysis was published in 1981. It was invented by Patrick O. Brown.

DNA čip (často i v našem prostředí nazýván anglickým názvem DNA microarray) je technologie umožňující molekulárně-biologické analýzy výrazně paralelního rázu, především analýzu exprese genů. Jedná se o destičku (povětšinou skleněnou nebo silikonovou), s mnoha (běžně desetitisíci, výjimečně až miliony) vzorky jednovláken DNA oligonukleotidů. Tyto vzorky se nazývají vlastnosti (features) a každý z nich obsahuje několik molekul jednoho konkrétního DNA oligonukleotidu. Po kontaktu takovéto destičky s testovaným vzorkem − směsí označených DNA oligonukleotidů − molekuly vzorku (nazývané cílové) hybridizují s komplementárními molekulami přichycenými na destičce. Poté jsou (typicky na bázi fluorescence) detekována místa, kde došlo k hybridizaci a je tak zjištěno, jaké molekuly oligonukleotidů vzorek obsahoval. I jediný experiment produkuje velké množství dat, proto je pro porozumění výsledků takřka vždy nutné použít metody bioinformatiky. V dnešní době existuje několik firem, produkujících DNA čipy komerčně (např. Affymetrix, Agilent Technologies, Eppendorf či Illumina), rovněž jsou ale hojně vytvářeny přímo ve výzkumných laboratořích pro vlastní potřebu. Obdobou DNA čipů jsou RNA čipy a proteinové čipy.


1896 Olympics.

With a fencing mask, sabre and a racing bike, Schmal got a train ticket and headed for Athens, Greece for the first Olympics, and on 8 April 1896, he competed in the 100 km cycling race, but like seven other starters from the original ten he didn't finish the race. The next day he was competing in the sabre fencing event, and was looking at a medal having won both his opening two rounds, but then entered the King and his entourage and the officials decided to start the event again, in which Schmal only won one out of his four rounds. After a day off, Schmal was back in the saddle and winning two bronze medals, in the time trial Schmal finished on a time of 26 seconds which matched the time of Stamatios Nikolopoulos in second place behind the Frenchman Paul Masson, but Nikolopoulos won the race-off and Schmal finished in third place, he also finished in third place in the 10 km race behind the French duo of Léon Flameng and winner Paul Masson. On 13 April, Schmal won his gold medal in the 12 hour race, seven cyclists started the race and by lap 10 Schmal had lapped them all, so he then kept on the wheel of Englishman Frederick Keeping for the rest of the race, only Schmal and Keeping finished the race.

Writing.

Schmal was also a journalist like his father and later an author, he would later write under the name of Adolf Schmal-Filius, his most popular book was written in 1904 called "Ohne Chauffeur" which was like a "Handbook for Motorcyclist"

Felix Adolf Schmal (18 September 1872 – 28 August 1919) was an Austrian fencer and racing cyclist. He was born in Dortmund and died in Salzburg. He competed at the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens.

Felix Adolf Schmal (18. srpna 1872, Dortmund – 28. srpna 1919, Salzburg) byl rakouský šermíř a závodní cyklista, olympijský vítěz. Účastnil se soutěží prvních novodobých olympijských her v roce 1896 v Athénách.


Development and design.

The Type C65 corvette was built to counter the improved performance of submarines in the 1960s, and was designed around two recently developed systems: the DUBV43 towed active sonar, and the Malafon anti-submarine missile. Although considered to be the ultimate evolution of the, performance did not live up to expectations, and the development of the propulsion system took much longer than expected. The lack of facilities for landing helicopters was considered a significant drawback, and she was the last major warship built in France without them. Eventually the C65 programme, in which five ships were planned, was cancelled.

Service history.

"Aconit" was laid down at the Arsenal de Lorient on 22 March 1968, launched on 7 March 1970 and commissioned on 30 March 1973. She was initially based at Toulon before transferring to Brest in 1975, having changed her pennant number from F703 to D609 on 1 January 1974.  The ship received several upgrades during her lifetime. In the 1970s she was fitted with the ARBR-16 radar detector and two Syllex chaff launchers. In 1984–85 she underwent a "Indisponibilité pour Entretien et Réparations" ("Unavailability for Maintenance and Repairs") during which the 305 mm anti-submarine mortar was replaced by eight Exocet MM40 missiles, and the DRBV-13 radar in the radome upgraded to the DRBV-15A.  In 1988 she was re-designated a Type F65 frigate.  Another IPER in 1992 added the DSBV62C towed passive sonar, two Oerlikon 20 mm cannon, two 12.7 mm machine guns, and the Inmarsat and Syracuse satellite telecommunications systems. In addition, the Decca 1226 navigation radar was replaced with the DRBN34A, and the DRBC-32B radar was upgraded to the DRBC-32D.  Scheduled to be in service until 2004, she was decommissioned on 27 February 1997 as part of a Fleet Reduction Programme. As of 2010 she was laid up at the French Navy "graveyard" at Lanvéoc awaiting demolition.

Aconit was a unique frigate built for the French Navy during the Cold War, in commission from 1973 until 1997. She was named after the corvette which fought in the Free French Naval Forces during World War II.

Aconit (F65) byl torpédoborec francouzského námořnictva, jediný dokončený z pěti plánovaných jednotek své třídy (Francouzi je však původně klasifikovali jako protiponorkové fregaty). Řešení s jedním lodním šroubem se pro nízkou rychlost lodi neosvědčilo, stejně jako absence protiponorkového vrtulníku. Jako náhrada za zrušené jednotky této třídy proto byly postaveny tři vylepšené torpédoborce třídy "Tourville". "Aconit" sloužil ve francouzském námořnictvu až do svého vyřazení v roce 1996.


Overview.

Endodontics encompasses the study (practice) of the basic and clinical sciences of normal dental pulp, the etiology, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases and injuries of the dental pulp along with associated periradicular conditions. Endodontics has evolved tremendously in the past decade and its applications have immensely improved the quality of dental treatment.  In clinical terms, endodontics involves either preserving part, or all of the dental pulp in health, or removing all of the pulp in irreversible disease. This includes teeth with irreversibly inflamed and infected pulpal tissue. Not only does endodontics involve treatment when a dental pulp is present, but also includes preserving teeth which have failed to respond to non-surgical endodontic treatment, or for teeth that have developed new lesions, e.g., when root canal re-treatment is required, or periradicular surgery.  Endodontic treatment is one of the most common procedures. If the dental pulp (containing nerves, arterioles, venules, lymphatic tissue, and fibrous tissue) becomes diseased or injured, endodontic treatment is required to save the tooth.

Procedures.

Root canal treatment.

Root canal treatment is a dental procedure used to treat infected tooth pulp which would be otherwise extracted. The pulp is the soft tissue core of the tooth which contains nerves, blood supply and connective tissue necessary for tooth health. This is usually caused when bacteria enter the pulp through a deep cavity or failed filling.  Root canal treatment is required when the dental pulp is irreversibly damaged and involves both coronal and apical pulp. Root canal treatment can also be carried out on teeth with doubtful pulpal state before placing post-retained crowns and overdentures. Root canal therapy is not only performed when pain relief from an infected or inflamed pulp is required. It is also done to prevent adverse signs and symptoms from the surrounding sequelae and promote the healing and repair of the surrounding periradicular tissues. An example of which is if there is trauma to a front tooth which has caused it to be avulsed from the bony socket; endodontic treatment is required following re-implantation to preserve the aesthetics and function of the tooth, even though there may be no adverse symptoms of the dental pulp, or pain present at the time.  Prior to root canal treatment, clinical examination and radiographic examinations are carried out to diagnose and plan treatment. Local anaesthesia is delivered to make the procedure pain free. The tooth to be root canal treated is then isolated using rubber dam4. Rubber dam prevents saliva entering the tooth during treatment and protects the airway from the fine files and strong chemicals used. The root canal treatment procedure is often carried out over single or multiple appointments. Root canal treatment involves:  Instrument fractures are common procedural mishaps in root canal treatment. It is essential to prevent instrument fractures. The success of removing of broken instrument depends on the location, direction and type of instrument. Sodium hypochlorite accident can result in long term functional and aesthetic complications. Extrusion of sodium hypochlorite irrigating solution during root canal procedure can cause a severe inflammatory reaction and tissue damage. Thorough clinical and radiographic examination is required to assess the extent of damage if suspected sodium hypochlorite extrusion injury. Treatment is provided based on the severity of the injury. Tooth discolouration as result of root canal treatment can occur if the pulpal tissue remnants are not completely removed or if the root canal sealer material containing silver is used.

Periradicular surgery.

Periradicular surgeries involve the root surface. These include apicoectomy (removal of a root end), root resection (removal of an entire root), repair of an injured root due to perforation or resorption, removal of broken fragments of the tooth or a filling material, and exploratory surgery to look for root fractures.

Apicoectomy.

An apicoectomy is a surgical procedure through which the apex of a root is resected, and a root-end filling is placed, preventing bacterial leakage into the root canal system from the periradicular tissues. A microsurgical technique is used to carry out apicectomy, which improves post-operative healing.  An apicoectomy can be carried out when a previous root canal treatment fails, and re-root canal treatment is not possible. This may be as a result of anatomical features, such as root dilaceration, which can compromise the completion of cleaning and obturating the root canal system. Procedural errors including ledges or perforations, may also be indications for an apicectomy.  Local anaesthetic is utilised to achieve anaesthesia as well as haemostasis for improved visualisation. A flap in the gum is designed, and then raised to allow for exposure of the periapical lesion. Bone removal (osteotomy) is carried out to enable access to root apex, and diseased tissue is removed at this point through curettage. The root end resection is carried out, removing 3mm apically. The canal(s) is then obturated, and the flap is sutured. There are a number of root-end filling materials available, including zinc oxide eugenol cements, and mineral trioxide aggregate.  Complications that may arise include:

Other procedures.

Other non-surgical endodonic procedures include pulp capping, pulpotomy, apexification, and pulpal regeneration. Hemisection, where a root and its overlying portion of the crown are separated from the rest of the tooth and optionally removed, is another (non-periradicular) endodontic surgery.

Tools.

Microsurgical endodontics, the use of magnification devices such as microscopes, and dental loupes, has been widely accepted among endodontists and practitioners; its use is believed to increase accuracy and visualization in the operating field. However, a Cochrane review in 2015 found no evidence to determine whether there's a difference in the outcome of a procedure done by magnification devices or a conventional procedure done with no magnification. The American Association of Endodontics strongly encourages its members to pursue the use of an oral microscope to ensure the highest level of excellence.  The use of a CBCT is also becoming the standard of care.

Training.

Endodontists are specialist dentists with additional training, experience and formal qualifications in endodontic treatment, apicectomies, microsurgery, and dental emergency and trauma management. Endodontics is recognized as a specialty by many national dental organizations including the Dental Board of Australia, British General Dental Council, American Dental Association, Royal College of Dentists of Canada, Indian Dental Association, and Royal Australasian College of Dental Surgeons.

Australia.

In Australia, endodontics is recognized as one of the thirteen registered dental specialties. In addition to a dental degree, Endodontists have an additional three years of postgraduate University training in the area of Endodontics to be recognized and registered by the Dental Board of Australia. A general dentist is permitted by law to perform endodontic treatment, but must be competent in the skills required for the endodontic treatment, and refer complex cases for specialist management.

United States.

In the United States after finishing a dental degree, a dentist must undergo 2–3 additional years of postgraduate training to become an Endodontist. American Dental Association (CODA) accredited programs are a minimum of two years in length. Following successful completion of this training, the dentist becomes Board eligible to sit for the American Board of Endodontics examination. Successful completion of board certification results in Diplomate status in the American Board of Endodontics.  Although general dentists can perform endodontic treatment, there are several things which set endodontists apart. Endodontists use microscopes during treatment to better treat the small internal anatomy of teeth without taking away too much tooth structure, or causing iatrogenic damage. Also, endodontists use CBCT (3D imaging) to assess case difficulty and for diagnosis and treatment planning of endodontic cases.

Endodontics (from the Greek roots "endo-" "inside" and "odont-" "tooth") is the dental specialty concerned with the study and treatment of the dental pulp.

Endodoncie (z řeckého "endon", "uvnitř", a "odus" (genitiv "odontos"), "zub") je jedna ze specializací zubního lékařství. Zabývá se zubní dření a tkáněmi zubních kořenů. Endodontisté provádějí škálu zákroků, mezi které patří ošetřování kořenových kanálků (včetně opakovaného), zubní chirurgie, léčba prasklých zubů nebo zubních úrazů. Jednou z nejčastějších procedur je ošetřování kořenových kanálků. Při poškození zubní dřeně (která obsahuje nervy, krevní cévy a lymfatickou a vazivovou tkáň) nemocí nebo zraněním je endodontická léčba nezbytná pro záchranu zubu.


Landscape and history.

The island arose during the last glacial period and its shape has been very variable since then. Dominant processes are sand drifting, erosion and sedimentation along the coasts, characteristic for a tidal landscape. In former times, only few people lived on the island, most fishermen. Around 1900, the state started forestry programs to prevent sand drifting. In addition, dikes were built to protect the island and its population. Some of the marshes were embanked in the course of time and transformed to polders for agriculture. During the 20th century tourism and recreation became more important and part of the island was designated as nature reserve. At present, we find dunes, forests, polders, tidal flats, marshes and beaches on the island, as well as a small lake and a village.

Flora and fauna.

The island has a very rich fauna and flora. In the dunes we find common hawthorn, the common sea-buckthorn, honeysuckle; on the marshes sea lavender, sea wormwood, sea aster and glasswort. On the whole island lichens and mushrooms can be found, as well as many species of insects. On the marshes and tidal flats thousands of birds occur, such as common redshank, barnacle goose, spoonbill, hen harrier, oystercatcher, red knot, bar-tailed godwit, curlew and European herring gull. In the past the rabbit was very common, but because of the rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD), the species is rare now. In the sea there are gray seal, common seal, eelgrass and many species of seaweeds.

Management.

Natuurmonumenten is responsible for the management of the national park and Rijkswaterstaat for coastal protection. One of the aims of the management is to make the dunes more dynamic. The bird colonies are protected through regulation of the numbers of visitors in spring and summer.

Recreation.

The island is a popular place to visit, especially the beaches. Because the island is isolated, because the use of cars by visitors is forbidden and because there are very few inhabitants and farmers on the island, it is one of the best protected Dutch national parks. There is a visitors centre in the village of Schiermonnikoog. There is one campground and there are several hotels and restaurants.

Schiermonnikoog National Park is a national park in the Dutch province of Friesland. It was founded in 1989. It covers about, the majority of the island Schiermonnikoog.

Národní park Schiermonnikoog (niz. "Nationaal Park Schiermonnikoog") je chráněné území v Nizozemsku. Leží na stejnojmenném ostrově na severu země v provincii Frísko. Zaujímá většinu ostrova s výjimkou obce Schiermonnikoog a jejího těsného okolí. Rozloha je 72 km2. Vyhlášen byl v roce 1989. Sídlo správy parku, informační středisko i další infrastruktura pro turisty se nachází v obci Schiermonnikoog, jediném sídle na ostrově. Dostat se na ostrov je možno lodí z města Lauwersoog nebo za odlivu lze přejít z pevniny po bahnitém mořském dně.


Current teams.

Since 2002, like the NFC, the AFC has 16 teams, organized into four divisions each with four teams: East, North, South and West.

Season structure.

Currently, the thirteen opponents each team faces over the 16-game regular season schedule are set using a pre-determined formula:  Each AFC team plays the other teams in their respective division twice (home and away) during the regular season, in addition to 10 other games assigned to their schedule by the NFL. Two of these games are assigned on the basis of a particular team's final divisional standing from the previous season. The remaining 8 games are split between the roster of two other NFL divisions. This assignment shifts each year and will follow a standard cycle. Using the 2012 regular season schedule as an example, each team in the AFC West plays against every team in the AFC North and NFC South. In this way, non-divisional competition will be mostly among common opponents – the exception being the two games assigned based on the team's prior-season divisional standing.  At the end of each season, the four division winners and two wild cards (non-division winners with best regular season record) in the AFC qualify for the playoffs. The AFC playoffs culminate in the AFC Championship Game with the winner receiving the Lamar Hunt Trophy. The AFC Champion then plays the NFC Champion in the Super Bowl.

History.

Both the AFC and the NFC were created after the NFL merged with the American Football League (AFL) in 1970. The AFL began play in 1960 with eight teams, and added two more expansion clubs (the Miami Dolphins in 1966 and the Cincinnati Bengals in 1968) before the merger. In order to equalize the number of teams in each conference, three NFL teams that predated the AFL's launch (the Cleveland Browns, Pittsburgh Steelers, and the then-Baltimore Colts) joined the ten former AFL teams to form the AFC. The two AFL divisions AFL East and AFL West were more or less intact, while the NFL's Century Division, in which the Browns and the Steelers had played since 1967, was moved from the NFL to become the new AFC Central. Upon the completion of the merger of the AFL and NFL in 1970, the newly-minted American Football Conference had already agreed upon their divisional setup along mostly geographical lines for the 1970 season; the National Football Conference, however, could not agree upon their setup, and one was chosen from a fishbowl on January 16, 1970.  Since the merger, five expansion teams have joined the AFC and two have left, thus making the current total 16. When the Seattle Seahawks and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers joined the league in 1976, they were temporarily placed in the NFC and AFC respectively. This arrangement lasted for one season only before the two teams switched conferences. The Seahawks eventually returned to the NFC as a result of the 2002 realignment. The expansion Jacksonville Jaguars joined the AFC in 1995. There have been five teams that have relocated at least once. In 1984, the Baltimore Colts relocated to Indianapolis. In 1995, the Cleveland Browns had attempted to move to Baltimore; the resulting dispute between Cleveland and the team led to Modell establishing the Baltimore Ravens with the players and personnel from the Browns, while the Browns were placed in suspended operations before they were reinstated by the NFL. The Ravens were treated as an expansion team.  In California, the Oakland Raiders relocated to Los Angeles in 1982, back to Oakland in 1995, and then to Las Vegas in 2020, while the San Diego Chargers returned to Los Angeles in 2017 after 56 years in San Diego.  The Houston Oilers moved to Tennessee in 1997, where they were renamed the Tennessee Oilers. The team would change its name again, two years later, to the Tennessee Titans.  The NFL would again expand in 2002, adding the Houston Texans to the AFC. With the exception of the aforementioned relocations since that time, the divisional setup has remained static ever since.  Between 1995 and 2019, the AFC has sent only half of its 16 teams to the Super Bowl: New England Patriots (10 times), Denver Broncos (4 times), Pittsburgh Steelers (4 times), Baltimore Ravens (2 times), Indianapolis Colts (2 times), Kansas City Chiefs (1 time), Las Vegas Raiders (1 time), and Tennessee Titans (1 time). By contrast, the NFC has sent 13 of the 16 NFC teams during that same time frame with only the Detroit Lions, Minnesota Vikings, and Washington Redskins missing out on an appearance in the Super Bowl. 16 of the last 19 AFC champions have started one of just three quarterbacks - Tom Brady, Peyton Manning and Ben Roethlisberger - in the Super Bowl. The AFC has started 6 quarterbacks in the last 19 Super Bowls, while the NFC has started 16.

Logo.

The merged league created a new logo for the AFC that took elements of the old AFL logo, specifically the "A" and the six stars surrounding it. The AFC logo basically remained unchanged from 1970 to 2009. The 2010 NFL season introduced an updated AFC logo, with the most notable revision being the removal of two stars (leaving four representing the four divisions of the AFC), and moving the stars inside the letter, similar to the NFC logo.

Television.

NBC aired the AFC's Sunday afternoon and playoff games from 1970 through the 1997 season. From 1998 to 2013, CBS was the primary broadcast rightsholder to the AFC; in those years, all interconference games in which the AFC team was the visiting team were broadcast on either NBC or CBS. Since 2014, the cross-flex policy allows select AFC games (that involve them playing an NFC team at home or intraconference games) to be moved from CBS to Fox. Since 1990, select AFC playoffs games have been seen on ABC or ESPN.

The American Football Conference (AFC) is one of the two conferences of the National Football League (NFL), the highest professional level of American football in the United States. This conference and its counterpart the National Football Conference (NFC), currently contain 16 teams organized into 4 divisions. Both conferences were created as part of the 1970 merger with the rival American Football League (AFL), with all ten of the former AFL teams and three NFL teams forming the AFC, and the remaining thirteen NFL clubs forming the NFC. A series of league expansions and division realignments have occurred since the merger, thus making the current total of 16 clubs in each conference. The current AFC champions are the Kansas City Chiefs, who defeated the Tennessee Titans in the 2019 AFC Championship Game for their first conference championship in team history.

American Football Conference (AFC, Americká fotbalová konference) je jedna ze dvou konferencí v National Football League (NFL, Národní fotbalová liga). Tato konference v současné době obsahuje stejně jako její protějšek, National Football Conference (NFC, Národní fotbalová konference), 16 týmů. Těchto 32 týmů tvoří NFL.


Overcrowding, disease, crime, and unrest in the center of the old Paris.

In the middle of the nineteenth century, the center of Paris was viewed as overcrowded, dark, dangerous, and unhealthy. In 1845, the French social reformer Victor Considerant wrote: "Paris is an immense workshop of putrefaction, where misery, pestilence and sickness work in concert, where sunlight and air rarely penetrate. Paris is a terrible place where plants shrivel and perish, and where, of seven small infants, four die during the course of the year." The street plan on the Île de la Cité and in the neighborhood called the "quartier des Arcis", between the Louvre and the "Hôtel de Ville" (City Hall), had changed little since the Middle Ages. The population density in these neighborhoods was extremely high, compared with the rest of Paris; in the neighborhood of Champs-Élysées, population density was estimated at 5380 per

Earlier attempts to modernize the city.

The urban problems of Paris had been recognized in the 18th century; Voltaire complained about the markets "established in narrow streets, showing off their filthiness, spreading infection and causing continuing disorders." He wrote that the façade of the Louvre was admirable, "but it was hidden behind buildings worthy of the Goths and Vandals." He protested that the government "invested in futilities rather than investing in public works." In 1739 he wrote to the King of Prussia: "I saw the fireworks which they fired off with such management; would rather they started to have a Hôtel de Ville, beautiful squares, magnificent and convenient markets, beautiful fountains, before having fireworks."  The 18th century architectural theorist and historian Quatremere de Quincy had proposed establishing or widening public squares in each of the neighbourhoods, expanding and developing the squares in front the Cathedral of Nôtre Dame and the church of Saint Gervais, and building a wide street to connect the Louvre with the Hôtel de Ville, the new city hall. Moreau, the architect in chief of Paris, suggested paving and developing the embankments of the Seine, building monumental squares, clearing the space around landmarks, and cutting new streets. In 1794, during the French Revolution, a Commission of Artists drafted an ambitious plan to build wide avenues, including a street in a straight line from the Place de la Nation to the Louvre, where the Avenue Victoria is today, and squares with avenues radiating in different directions, largely making use

Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte comes to power, and the rebuilding of Paris begins (1848–1852).

King Louis-Philippe was overthrown in the February Revolution of 1848. On 10 December 1848, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, the nephew of Napoléon Bonaparte, won the first direct presidential elections ever held in France with an overwhelming 74.2 percent of the votes cast. He was elected largely because of his famous name, but also because of his promise to try to end poverty and improve the lives of ordinary people. Though he had been born in Paris, he had lived very little in the city; from the age of seven, he had lived in exile in Switzerland, England, and the United States, and for six years in prison in France for attempting to overthrow King Louis-Philippe. He had been especially impressed by London, with its wide streets, squares and large public parks. In 1852 he gave a public speech declaring: "Paris is the heart of France. Let us apply our efforts to embellishing this great city. Let us open new streets, make the working class quarters, which lack air and light, more healthy, and let the beneficial sunlight reach everywhere within our walls". As soon as he was President, he supported the building of the first subsidised housing project for workers in Paris,

Haussmann begins work – the Croisée de Paris (1853–59).

Napoléon III dismissed Berger as the Prefect of the Seine and sought a more effective manager. His minister of the interior, Victor de Persigny, interviewed several candidates, and selected Georges-Eugène Haussmann, a native of Alsace and Prefect of the Gironde (capital: Bordeaux), who impressed Persigny with his energy, audacity, and ability to overcome or get around problems and obstacles. He became Prefect of the Seine on 22 June 1853, and on 29 June, the Emperor showed him the map of Paris and instructed Haussmann to "aérer, unifier, et embellir" Paris: to give it air and open space, to connect and unify the different parts of the city into one whole, and to make it more beautiful.  Haussmann went to work immediately on the first phase of the renovation desired by Napoléon III: completing the "grande croisée de Paris", a great cross in the centre of Paris that would permit easier communication from east to west along the rue de Rivoli and rue Saint-Antoine, and north-south communication along two new Boulevards, Strasbourg and Sébastopol. The grand cross had been proposed by the Convention during the Revolution, and begun by Napoléon I; Napoléon III was determined to complete it. Completion of the rue de Rivoli was given an even higher priority, because the Emperor wanted it finished before the opening of the Paris Universal Exposition of 1855, only two years away, and he wanted the project to include a new hotel, the Grand Hôtel du Louvre, the first large luxury hotel in the city, to house the Imperial guests at the Exposition.  Under the Emperor, Haussmann had greater power than any of his predecessors. In February 1851, the French Senate had simplified the laws on expropriation, giving him the authority to expropriate all the land on either side of a new street; and he did not

The second phase – a network of new boulevards (1859–1867).

In the first phase of his renovation Haussmann constructed of new boulevards, at a net cost of 278 million francs. The official parliamentary report of 1859 found that it had "brought air, light and healthiness and procured easier circulation in a labyrinth that was constantly blocked and impenetrable, where streets were winding, narrow, and dark." It had employed thousands of workers, and most Parisians were pleased by the results. His second phase, approved by the Emperor and parliament in 1858 and begun in 1859, was much more ambitious. He intended to build a network of wide boulevards to connect the interior of Paris with the ring of grand boulevards built by Louis XVIII during the restoration, and to the new railroad stations which Napoleon III considered the real gates of the city. He planned to construct of new avenues and streets, at a cost of 180 million francs. Haussmann's plan called for the following:  On the right bank:  On the left bank:  On the :

Paris doubles in size – the annexation of 1860.

On 1 January 1860 Napoleon III officially annexed the suburbs of Paris out to the ring of fortifications around the city. The annexation included eleven communes; Auteuil, Batignolles-Monceau, Montmartre, La Chapelle, Passy, La Villette, Belleville, Charonne, Bercy, Grenelle and Vaugirard, along with pieces of other outlying towns. The residents of these suburbs were not entirely happy to be annexed; they did not want to pay the higher taxes, and wanted to keep their independence, but they had no choice; Napoleon III was Emperor, and he could arrange boundaries

The third phase and mounting criticism (1869–70).

The third phase of renovations was proposed in 1867 and approved in 1869, but it faced much more opposition than the earlier phases. Napoleon III had decided to liberalize his empire in 1860, and to give a greater voice to the parliament and to the opposition. The Emperor had always been less popular in Paris than in

The downfall of Haussmann (1870) and the completion of his work (1927).

In 1867, one of the leaders of the parliamentary opposition to Napoleon, Jules Ferry, ridiculed the accounting practices of Haussmann as "Les Comptes fantastiques d'Haussmann" ("The fantastic (bank) accounts of Haussmann"), a play-on-words based on the "Les Contes d'Hoffman" Offenbach operetta popular at the time. In the parliamentary elections of May 1869, the government candidates won 4.43 million votes, while the opposition republicans won 3.35 million votes. In Paris, the republican candidates won 234,000 votes to 77,000 for the Bonapartist candidates, and took eight of the nine seats of Paris deputies. At the same time Napoleon III was increasingly ill, suffering from gallstones which were to cause his death in 1873, and preoccupied by the political crisis that would lead to the Franco-Prussian War. In December 1869 Napoleon III named an opposition

Green space – parks and gardens.

Prior to Haussmann, Paris had only four public parks: the Jardin des Tuileries, the Jardin du Luxembourg, and the Palais Royal, all in the center of the city, and the Parc Monceau, the former property of the family of King Louis Philippe, in addition to the Jardin des Plantes, the city's botanical garden and oldest park. Napoleon III had already begun construction of the Bois de Boulogne, and wanted to build more new parks and gardens for the recreation and relaxation of the Parisians, particularly those in the new neighborhoods of the expanding city. Napoleon III's new parks were inspired by his memories of the parks in London, especially Hyde Park, where he had strolled and promenaded in a carriage while in exile; but he wanted to build on a much larger scale. Working with Haussmann, Jean-Charles Alphand, the engineer who headed the new Service of Promenades and Plantations, whom Haussmann brought with him from Bordeaux, and his new chief gardener, Jean-Pierre Barillet-Deschamps, also from Bordeaux, laid out a plan for four major parks at the cardinal points of the compass around the

The architecture of Haussmann's Paris.

Napoleon III and Haussmann commissioned a wide variety of architecture, some of it traditional, some of it very innovative, like the glass and iron pavilions of Les Halles; and some of it, such as the Opéra Garnier, commissioned by Napoleon III, designed by Charles Garnier but not finished until 1875, is difficult to classify. Many of the buildings were designed by the city architect, Gabriel Davioud, who designed everything from city halls and theaters to park benches and kiosks.  His

The Haussmann building.

The most famous and recognizable feature of Haussmann's renovation of Paris are the Haussmann apartment buildings which line the boulevards of Paris. Street blocks were designed as homogeneous architectural wholes. He treated buildings not as independent structures, but as pieces of a unified urban landscape.  In 18th-century Paris, buildings were usually narrow (often only six meters wide); deep (sometimes forty meters) and tall—as many as five or six stories. The ground floor usually contained a shop, and the shopkeeper lived in the rooms above the shop. The upper floors were occupied by families; the top floor, under the roof, was originally a storage place, but under the pressure of the growing population, was usually turned into a low-cost residence. In the early 19th century, before Haussmann, the height of buildings was strictly limited to 22.41 meters, or four floors above the ground floor. The city also began to see a demographic shift; wealthier families began moving to the western neighborhoods, partly because there was more space, and partly because the prevailing winds carried the smoke from the new factories in Paris toward the east.  In Haussmann's Paris, the streets

Underneath the streets of Haussmann's Paris – the renovation of the city's infrastructure.

While he was rebuilding the boulevards of Paris, Haussmann simultaneously rebuilt the dense labyrinth of pipes, sewers and tunnels under the streets which provided Parisians with basic services. Haussmann wrote in his mémoires: "The underground galleries are an organ of the great city, functioning like an organ of the human body, without seeing the light of day; clean and fresh water, light and heat circulate like the various fluids whose movement and maintenance serves the life of the body; the secretions are taken away mysteriously and don't disturb the good functioning of the city and without spoiling its beautiful exterior."  Haussmann began with the water supply. Before Haussmann, drinking water in Paris was either lifted by steam engines from the Seine, or brought by a canal, started by Napoleon I, from the river Ourcq, a tributary of the river Marne. The quantity of water was insufficient for the fast-growing city, and, since the sewers also emptied into the Seine near the intakes for drinking water, it was also notoriously unhealthy. In March 1855 Haussmann appointed Eugene Belgrand, a graduate of the École Polytechnique, to the post of Director of Water and Sewers of Paris.  Belgrand first addressed the city's fresh water needs, constructing a system of aqueducts that nearly doubled the amount of water available per person per day and quadrupled the number of homes with running water. These aqueducts discharged their water in reservoirs situated within the city. Inside the city limits and opposite Parc Montsouris, Belgrand built the largest water reservoir in the world to hold the water from the River Vanne.  At the same time Belgrand began rebuilding

Critics of Haussmann's Paris.

"Triumphant vulgarity".

Haussmann's renovation of Paris had many critics during his own time. Some were simply tired of the continuous construction. The French historian Léon Halévy wrote in 1867, "the work of Monsieur Haussmann is incomparable. Everyone agrees. Paris is a marvel, and M. Haussmann has done in fifteen years what a century could not have done. But that's enough for the moment. There will be a 20th century. Let's leave something for them to do." Others regretted that he had destroyed a historic part of the city. The brothers Goncourt condemned the avenues that cut at right angles through the center of the old city, where "one could no longer feel in the world of Balzac." Jules Ferry, the most vocal critic of Haussmann in the French parliament, wrote: "We weep with our eyes full of tears for the old Paris, the Paris of Voltaire, of Desmoulins, the Paris of 1830 and 1848, when we see the grand and intolerable new buildings, the costly confusion, the triumphant vulgarity, the awful materialism, that we are going to pass on to our descendants."  The 20th century historian of Paris René Héron de Villefosse shared the

The debate about the military purposes of Haussmann's boulevards.

Some of Haussmann's critics said that the real purpose of Haussmann's boulevards was to make it easier for the army to maneuver and suppress armed uprisings; Paris had experienced six such uprisings between 1830 and 1848, all in the narrow, crowded streets in the center and east of Paris and on the left bank around the Pantheon. These critics argued that a small number of large, open intersections allowed easy control by a small force. In addition, buildings set back from the center of the street could not be used so easily as fortifications. Emile Zola repeated that argument in his early novel,

Social disruption.

Haussmann was also blamed for the social disruption caused by his gigantic building projects. Thousands of families and businesses had to relocate when their buildings were demolished for the construction of the new boulevards. Haussmann was also blamed for the dramatic increase in rents, which increased by three hundred percent during the Second Empire, while wages, except for those of construction workers, remained flat, and blamed for the enormous amount of speculation in the real estate market. He was also blamed for reducing the amount of housing available for low income

Legacy.

The Baron Haussmann's transformations to Paris improved the quality of life in the capital. Disease epidemics (save tuberculosis) ceased, traffic circulation improved and new buildings were better-built and more functional than their predecessors.  The Second Empire renovations left such a mark on Paris' urban history that all subsequent trends and influences were forced to refer to, adapt to, or reject, or to reuse some of its elements. By intervening only once in Paris's ancient districts, pockets of insalubrity remained which explain the resurgence of both hygienic ideals and radicalness of some planners of the 20th century.  The end of "pure Haussmannism" can be traced to urban legislation of 1882 and 1884 that ended the uniformity of the classical street, by permitting staggered façades and the first

References.

"Portions of this article have been translated from."

Haussmann's renovation of Paris was a vast public works program commissioned by Emperor Napoléon III and directed by his prefect of Seine, Georges-Eugène Haussmann, between 1853 and 1870. It included the demolition of medieval neighborhoods that were deemed overcrowded and unhealthy by officials at the time; the building of wide avenues; new parks and squares; the annexation of the suburbs surrounding Paris; and the construction of new sewers, fountains and aqueducts. Haussmann's work was met with fierce opposition, and he was finally dismissed by Napoleon III in 1870; but work on his projects continued until 1927. The street plan and distinctive appearance of the center of Paris today are largely the result of Haussmann's renovation.

Přestavba Paříže během druhého císařství byla komplexní modernizace města Paříže v letech 1852–1870, kterou nařídil císař Napoleon III. a pověřil dohledem nad jejím průběhem prefekta barona Haussmanna, podle kterého se označuje také Haussmannova přestavba Paříže. Projekt se týkal všech oblastí urbanismu jak v centru Paříže, tak i v jeho okrajových obvodech: rozšiřování ulic a bulvárů, úpravy fasád, budování městské zeleně, kanalizace a zásobování vodou, veřejných zařízení a památek. Koncepce byla ve své době některými současníky silně kritizována, ovšem během stavebních změn v Paříži po druhé světové válce byla naopak vyzdvihována oproti výstavbě 20. století. Dodnes určuje každodenní používání města jeho obyvateli, neboť zásadně přeměnila středověkou Paříž s úzkými uličkami na město s rozsáhlými bulváry a parky. Tento koncept pak převzala i některá jiná evropská města, i když ne v tak rozsáhlé míře.


Life.

She was the fifth child but second daughter of King James II of Majorca and Esclaramunda of Foix. The exact date of her birth is unknown, although the Chronicle of San Juan de la Peña placed her as the second daughter of the Majorca Royal couple: "la primera...Isabel...la otra Sancha", and traditionally she is placed as the penultimate of the six children born from them.  In Perpignan on 17 June 1304 Sancha was married by proxy to Robert, Duke of Calabria and Prince of Salerno, the widower heir of the throne of Naples. The wedding in person took place three months later, on 20 September at the "Chapelle des Hospitaliers" at the Royal Palace of Collioure, Pyrénées-Orientales. The union was childless.  Sancha became Queen consort of Naples with the death of her father-in-law King Charles II of Naples on 5 May 1309. Two years later (2 August 1311) her husband gave her the Lordships of Potenza, Venosa, Lanciano, Alessa and Sant'Angelo dei Lombardi. The next year, on 24 March 1312, the testament of her mother Queen Esclaramunda ("Sclarmunda...regina Majoricæ") secured a bequest to her ("...Sanciæ..Reginæ Siciliæ...filiæ nostræ..."). On 22 May 1319 at Marseille, Sancha and her husband prayed before the relics of his brother Saint Louis of Toulouse.  At her court in Naples, Sancha welcomed her brother Philip, who was recently joined the Franciscans. He wanted to practice strictly the Rules of Saint Francis of Assisi, and gathered around him a group that became known as ""the brothers of poor life"", a branch of Fraticelli or "zelanti". This group was therefore a great influence over the King and Queen of Naples and over Delphine of Glandèves, Sancha's confident. Philip of Majorca asked his sister and his brother-in-law to intercede with the Avignon Papacy to obtain the privileges necessary for the transformation of the Santa Chiara monastery in a place where would welcome ""the brothers of poor life"". However, Pope Benedict XII ended their hopes with three bulls dated on 24 June 1336, 20 February 1337 and 7 August 1340.  After the death of Philip of Majorca in 1342, Sancha and her husband remained under the influence of ""the brothers of poor life"". Their chaplains, Andrea de Galiano and Pietro de Cadeneto were also followers of Michael of Cesena. The rulers had hosted at Castel Nuovo two spiritual bishops, John Bertholeo, who had just been relieved of his office of Calvi, and William of Scala, who became confessor to the Queen; however, the worst of all was certain Fra Roberto, a personal friend of Angelo Clareto, the leader of the Fraticelli.  On numerous occasions, Sancha petitioned the Pope for the dissolution of her marriage, as she desired to become a nun. King Robert died on 20 January 1343, and Sancha became Queen Mother, Regent of the Kingdom and "tutrix" of her husband's granddaughter and successor, Joanna I. In his will dated four days before, on 16 January, Robert created a Council of Regency who would rule until Joanna's majority, who was fixed at the age of twenty-five. The Council was composed by Sancha, the Vice-Chancellor Philippe de Cabassoles, Bishop of Cavaillon, Fillipo di Sanginetto, Great Seneschal of Provence, and Admiral Giffredo di Marzano. When Petrarch arrived in Naples in September 1343 as an ambassador of Pope Clement VI, he discovered a Kingdom similar to ""a ship that was directly to a sinking"". He particularly put into question the work of Fra Roberto, whose real name was Roberto de Mileto. This little fat man, dressed in rags, still leaning on a cane and wearing a hat or head covering, it seemed like the height of abjection and is described as ""a horrible animal with three legs"".  Sancha supported her step-granddaughter in the first year of her reign against other factions. However, the ineffectiveness of the Council of Regency forced the Pope, in his capacity as Overlord, to impose his direct rule by sending a Legate, Cardinal Aimery de Châtelus.  In the first anniversary of her husband's death (20 January 1344), and under the influence of her chaplains and confessors, Sancha formally renounced to the Regency and became a nun at the convent of Santa Maria della Croce in Naples, which was known as the place of the buried-alive ("sepolte vive"). She died there eighteen months later (28 July 1345), aged about 60. Initially was buried at Santa Maria della Croce, but later her remains where translated to Santa Chiara Basilica.

Sancia of Majorca (c. 1285 – 28 July 1345), also known as Sancha, was Queen of Naples from 1309 until 1343 as the wife of Robert the Wise. She served as regent of Naples during the minority of her stepgrandaughter, Joan II, from 1343 until 1344.

Sancha Mallorská ("šp. Sancha de Mallorca, it. Sancha d'Aragona", 1285 - 28. června 1345 Neapol) byla kalábrijská vévodkyně a neapolská královna, manželka Roberta Moudrého.