History.

Everton was founded as St Domingo FC in 1878 so that members of the congregation of St Domingo Methodist New Connexion Chapel in Breckfield Road North, Everton could play sport year round – cricket was played in summer. The club's first game was a 1–0 victory over Everton Church Club. The club was renamed Everton in November 1879 after the local area, as people outside the congregation wished to participate.  The club was a founding member of the Football League in 1888–89 and won its first League Championship title in the 1890–91 season. Everton won the FA Cup for the first time in 1906 and the League Championship again in 1914–15. The outbreak of World War I in 1914 interrupted the football programme while Everton reigned, which was something that would again occur in 1939. It was not until 1927 that Everton's first sustained period of success began. In 1925 the club signed Dixie Dean from Tranmere Rovers. In 1927–28, Dean set the record for top-flight league goals in a single season with 60 goals in 39 league games, which is a record that still stands. He helped Everton win its third League Championship that season. However, Everton was relegated to the Second Division two years later during internal turmoil at the club. The club quickly rebounded and was promoted at the first attempt, while scoring a record number of goals in the Second Division. On return to the top flight in 1931–32, Everton wasted no time in reaffirming its status and won a fourth League Championship at the first opportunity. Everton also won its second FA Cup in 1933 with a 3–0 win against Manchester City in the final. The era ended in 1938–39 with a fifth League Championship.  The outbreak of the Second World War again saw the suspension of league football, and when official competition resumed in 1946, the Everton team had been split up and paled in comparison to the pre-war team. Everton was relegated for the second time in 1950–51 and did not earn promotion until 1953–54, when it finished as the runner-up in its third season in the Second Division. The club has been a top-flight presence ever since.  Everton's second successful era started when Harry Catterick was made manager in 1961. In 1962–63, his second season in charge, Everton won the League Championship. In 1966 the club won the FA Cup with a 3–2 win over Sheffield Wednesday. Everton again reached the final in 1968, but this time was unable to overcome West Bromwich Albion at Wembley. Two seasons later in 1969–70, Everton won the League Championship, finishing nine points clear of nearest rivals Leeds United. During this period, Everton was the first English club to achieve five consecutive years in European competitions – covering the seasons from 1961–62 to 1966–67.  However, the success did not last; the team finished fourteenth, fifteenth, seventeenth and seventh in the following seasons. Harry Catterick retired, but his successors failed to win any silverware for the remainder of the 1970s despite finishing fourth in 1974–75 under manager Billy Bingham, third in 1977–78 and fourth the following season under manager Gordon Lee. Lee was sacked in 1981.  Howard Kendall took over as manager and guided Everton to its most successful era. Domestically, Everton won the FA Cup in 1984 and two League Championships in 1984–85 and 1986–87. In Europe, the club won its first, and so far only, European trophy by securing the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1985. The European success came after first beating University College Dublin, Inter Bratislava and Fortuna Sittard. Then, Everton defeated German giants Bayern Munich 3–1 in the semi-finals, despite trailing at half time (in a match voted the greatest in Goodison Park history), and recorded the same scoreline over Austrian club Rapid Vienna in the final. Having won both the League and Cup Winners'

Colours.

Everton's traditional home colours are royal blue shirts, white shorts and white socks. However, during the first decades of its history, Everton had several different kit colours. The team originally played in white and then blue and white stripes, but as new players arriving at the club wore its old team's shirts during matches, confusion soon ensued. It was decided that the shirts would be dyed black, both to save on expenses and to instill a more professional look. However, the kit appeared morbid, so a scarlet sash was added. When the club moved to Goodison Park in 1892, the colours were salmon pink and dark blue striped shirts with dark blue shorts. The club later switched to ruby shirts with

Crest.

At the end of the 1937–38 season, Everton secretary Theo Kelly, who later became the club's first manager, wanted to design a club necktie. It was agreed that the colour be blue, and Kelly was given the task of designing a crest to be featured on the necktie. He worked on it for four months until deciding on a reproduction of Everton Lock-Up, which stands in the heart of the Everton district. The Lock-Up has been inextricably linked with the Everton area since its construction in 1787. It was originally used as a bridewell to incarcerate mainly drunks and minor criminals, and it still stands today on Everton Brow. The Lock-Up was accompanied by two laurel wreaths on either side and, according to the College of Arms in London, Kelly chose to include the laurels as they were the sign of winners. The crest was accompanied by the club motto, ""Nil Satis Nisi Optimum"", meaning "Nothing but the best is good enough". The ties were first worn by Kelly and the Everton chairman,

Nickname.

Everton's most widely recognised nickname is "The Toffees" or "The Toffeemen", which came about after Everton had moved to Goodison. There are several explanations for how this name came to be adopted with the best known being that there was a business in Everton village, between Everton Brow and Brow Side, named Mother Noblett's, which was a toffee shop that sold sweets including the Everton Mint. It was also located opposite the lock up which Everton's club crest is based on. The Toffee Lady tradition in which a girl walks around the perimeter of the pitch before the start of a game tossing free

Stadium.

Everton originally played in the southeast corner of Stanley Park. The first official match took place in 1879. In 1882, a man named J. Cruitt donated land at Priory Road which became the club's home. In 1884 Everton became tenants at Anfield, which was owned by John Orrell, a land owner who was a friend of Everton F.C. member John Houlding. Orrell lent Anfield to the club in exchange for a small rent. Houlding purchased the land from Orrell in 1885 and effectively became Everton's landlord by charging the club rent, which increased from £100 to £240 a year by 1888 – and was still rising until Everton left the ground in 1892. The club regarded the increase in rent as unacceptable. A further dispute between Houlding and the club's committee led to Houlding attempting to gain full control of the club by registering the company, "Everton F.C. and Athletic Grounds Ltd". Everton left Anfield for a new ground, Goodison Park, where the club has played ever since. Houlding attempted to take over Everton's name, colours, fixtures and league position, but was denied by The Football Association. Instead, Houlding formed a new club, Liverpool F.C.  Goodison Park, the first major football stadium to be built in England, was opened in 1892. Goodison Park has staged more top-flight football games than any other ground in the United Kingdom and was the only English club ground to host a semi-final at the 1966 FIFA World Cup. It was also the first English ground to have under-soil heating and the first to have two tiers on all sides. The church grounds of St Luke the Evangelist are adjacent to the corner of the Main Stand and the Howard Kendall Gwladys Street End.  On match days, in a tradition going back to 1962, players walk out to the tune "Johnny Todd", played in the arrangement used when it was the theme song for "Z-Cars". It is a traditional Liverpool children's song collected in 1890 by Frank Kidson and tells the story of a sailor betrayed by his lover while away at sea. On two separate occasions in 1994, the club walked out to different songs. In August 1994, the club played 2 Unlimited's song "Get Ready For This". A month later, the club used a reworking of the Creedence Clearwater Revival classic "Bad Moon Rising". Both songs were met with complete disapproval by Everton fans.

Supporters and rivalries.

Everton has a large fanbase, with the eighth-highest average attendance in the Premier League in the 2008–09 season. The majority of Everton's matchday support comes from the North West of England, primarily Merseyside, Cheshire, West Lancashire and parts of Western Greater Manchester along with many fans who travel from North Wales and Ireland. Within the city of Liverpool, support for Everton and city rivals Liverpool is not determined by geographical basis with supporters mixed across the city. Everton also has many supporters' clubs worldwide in places such as North America, Singapore, Indonesia, Lebanon, Malaysia, Thailand, India and Australia. The official supporters club is "FOREVERTON", and there are also several fanzines including "When Skies are Grey" and "Speke from the Harbour", which are sold around Goodison Park on match days. Everton regularly take large numbers away from home both domestically and in European fixtures. The club implements a loyalty points scheme offering the first opportunity to purchase away tickets to season

Players.

Notable former players.

"See also List of Everton F.C. international players.

Everton Giants.

The following players are considered "Giants" for their great contributions to Everton. A panel appointed by the club established the inaugural list in 2000 and a new inductee is announced every season.  Winners of the club's end of season award  At the start of the 2003–04 season, as part of the club's official celebration of its 125th anniversary, supporters cast votes to determine the greatest ever Everton team.  A number of Everton players have been inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame:  The Football League 100 Legends is a list of "100 legendary football players" produced by the Football League in 1998 to celebrate the 100th season of League football.

Ownership and finance.

Everton F.C. is a limited company with the board of directors holding a majority of the shares. The club's most recent accounts, from May 2014, show a net total debt of £28.1 million, with a turnover of £120.5 million and a profit of £28.2 million. The club's overdraft with Barclays Bank is secured against the Premier League's "Basic Award Fund", which is a guaranteed sum given to clubs for competing in the Premier League. Everton agreed to a long-term loan of £30 million with Bear Stearns and Prudential plc in 2002 for a duration of 25 years. The loan was a consolidation of debts at the time as well as a source of capital for new player acquisitions. Goodison Park is secured as collateral. On 27 February 2016, it was announced that Farhad Moshiri would buy a 49.9% stake in the club. Figures taken from 2013–14 accounts.

Shirt sponsors and manufacturers.

Commencing in the 2017–18 season, Everton's shirts are sponsored by SportPesa. Beginning with the 2020–21 season, the club's primary shirt sponsor for three years will be Cazoo, after the club announced the early termination of the previous deal with SportPesa in February 2020, though the sponsorship will not extent to the club's womens team, who for the first time will be able to sign their own shirt sponsor. Previous sponsors include Chang Beer (2004–17) Hafnia (1979–85), NEC (1985–95), Danka (1995–97), one2one (1997–2002) and Kejian (2002–04). For the 2008–09 season, Everton sold junior replica jerseys without

Managers.

The club's most recent manager, Carlo Ancelotti, is the eighteenth permanent holder of the position since it was established in 1939. There have also been four caretaker managers, and before 1939 the team was selected by either the club secretary

Records and statistics.

Neville Southall holds the record for the most Everton appearances with 751 first-team matches between 1981 and 1997. The late centre half and former captain Brian Labone comes in second with 534 matches. The longest serving player is goalkeeper Ted Sagar, who played for 23 years between 1929 and 1953. This tenure covered both sides of the Second World War and included a total of 495 appearances. Southall also previously held the record for the most league clean sheets during a season with 15. However, this record was beaten during the 2008–09 season by American goalkeeper Tim Howard, who ended the season with 17 clean sheets. The club's top goalscorer, with 383 goals in all competitions, is Dixie Dean; the second-highest goalscorer is Graeme Sharp with 159. Dean still holds the English national record of most goals in a season with 60.  The record attendance for an Everton home match is 78,299 against Liverpool on 18 September 1948.

Everton's community department.

Everton's community department, Everton in the Community (EitC), is a charity that provides sports and

Relationships with other clubs.

Everton is connected to many other sports clubs and organisations. It has links with Irish football academy Ballyoulster United in Celbridge, the Canadian Ontario Soccer Association, and the Thai Football Association (where there is a competition named the Chang-Everton Cup, competed for by local schoolboys). The club also has a football academy in the Cypriot city of Limassol and a partnership agreement with American club Pittsburgh Riverhounds.  Everton has links with Chilean team Everton de Viña del Mar, who were named after the club. On 4 August 2010, the two Evertons played each other in a friendly match at Goodison Park named the "Copa Hermandad" to mark the centenary of the Chilean team.

In popular culture.

Film and TV.

Ken Loach's 1969 television film "The Golden Vision" combined improvised drama with documentary footage to tell the story of a group of Everton fans for whom the main purpose of life—following the team—is interrupted by such inconveniences as work and weddings. Everton forward Alex Young, whose nickname was also the title of the film, appeared as himself.  Paul Greengrass's 1997 television film "The Fix" dramatised the true story of a match-fixing scandal in

Music.

The club entered the UK pop charts on four occasions under different titles during the 1980s and 1990s, when many clubs each released a song to mark reaching the FA Cup Final. "The Boys in Blue", released in 1984, peaked at No. 82. The following year, the club

Everton Football Club () is an English professional football club based in Liverpool that competes in the Premier League, the top tier of English football. The club has competed in the top division for a record 116 seasons, missing only four top-flight seasons (1930–31, 1951–52, 1952-53, 1953-54) since the creation of the Football League, of which it was a founding member. Everton is the second-longest continuous serving club in English top flight football and has won nine League Championships, five FA Cups, one UEFA Cup Winners Cup and nine Charity Shields.

Everton FC (celým názvem: Everton Football Club) je anglický fotbalový klub, který sídlí ve městě Liverpool v metropolitním hrabství Merseyside. Založen byl v roce 1878. Everton je jeden z nejúspěšnějších anglických fotbalových klubů; odehrál nejvíce sezón v nejvyšší soutěži a získal 9 mistrovských titulů.


History.

Romans used tubes inside the walls to draw smoke out of bakeries but chimneys only appeared in large dwellings in northern Europe in the 12th century. The earliest extant example of an English chimney is at the keep of Conisbrough Castle in Yorkshire, which dates from 1185 AD. However, they did not become common in houses until the 16th and 17th centuries. "Smoke hoods" were an early method of collecting the smoke into a chimney (see image). Another step in the development of chimneys was the use of built in ovens which allowed the household to bake at home. Industrial chimneys became common in the late 18th century.  Chimneys in ordinary dwellings were first built of wood and plaster or mud. Since then chimneys have traditionally been built of brick or stone, both in small and large buildings. Early chimneys were of a simple brick construction. Later chimneys were constructed by placing the bricks around tile liners. To control downdrafts, venting caps (often called "chimney pots") with a variety of designs are sometimes placed on the top of chimneys.  In the 18th and 19th centuries, the methods used to extract lead from its ore produced large amounts of toxic fumes. In the north of England, long near-horizontal chimneys were built, often more than 3 km (2 mi) long, which typically terminated in a short vertical chimney in a remote location where the fumes would cause less harm. Lead and silver deposits formed on the inside of these long chimneys, and periodically workers would be sent along the chimneys to scrape off these valuable deposits.

Construction.

As a result of the limited ability to handle transverse loads with brick, chimneys in houses were often built in a "stack", with a fireplace on each floor of the house sharing a single chimney, often with such a stack at the front and back of the house. Today's central heating systems have made chimney placement less critical, and the use of non-structural gas vent pipe allows a flue gas conduit to be installed around obstructions and through walls.  In fact, most modern high-efficiency heating appliances do not require a chimney. Such appliances are generally installed near an external wall, and a noncombustible wall thimble allows a vent pipe to run directly through the external wall.  On a pitched roof where a chimney penetrates a roof, flashing is used to seal up the joints. The down-slope piece is called an apron, the sides receive step flashing and a cricket is used to divert water around the upper side of the chimney underneath the flashing.  Industrial chimneys are commonly referred to as flue gas stacks and are generally external structures, as opposed to those built into the wall of a building. They are generally located adjacent to a steam-generating boiler or industrial furnace and the gases are carried to them with ductwork. Today the use of reinforced concrete has almost entirely replaced brick as a structural component in the construction of industrial chimneys. Refractory bricks are often used as a lining, particularly if the type of fuel being burned generates flue gases containing acids. Modern industrial chimneys sometimes consist of a concrete windshield with a number of flues on the inside.  The chimney at "Sasol Three" consists of a 26 m (85 ft) diameter windshield with four 4.6 metre diameter concrete flues which are lined with refractory bricks built on rings of corbels spaced at 10 metre intervals. The reinforced concrete can be cast by conventional formwork or sliding formwork. The height is to ensure the pollutants are dispersed over a wider area to meet legal or other safety requirements.

Residential flue liners.

A flue liner is a secondary barrier in a chimney that protects the masonry from the acidic products of combustion, helps prevent flue gas from entering the house, and reduces the size of an oversized flue. Since the 1950s, building codes in many locations require newly built chimneys to have a flue liner. Chimneys built without a liner can usually have a liner added, but the type of liner needs to match the type of appliance it services. Flue liners may be clay or concrete tile, metal, or poured in place concrete.  Clay tile flue liners are very common in the United States, although it is the only liner that does not meet Underwriters Laboratories 1777 approval and frequently they have problems such as cracked tiles and improper installation. Clay tiles are usually about long, available in various sizes and shapes, and are installed in new construction as the chimney is built. A refractory cement is used between each tile.  Metal liners may be stainless steel, aluminum, or galvanized iron and may be flexible or rigid pipes. Stainless steel is made in several types and thicknesses. Type 304 is used with firewood, wood pellet fuel, and non-condensing oil appliances, types 316 and 321 with coal, and type AL 29-4C is used with non-condensing gas appliances. Stainless steel liners must have a cap and be insulated if they service solid fuel appliances, but following the manufacturer's instructions carefully. Aluminum and galvanized steel chimneys are known as class A and class B chimneys. Class A are either an insulated, double wall stainless steel pipe or triple wall, air-insulated pipe often known by its genericized trade name Metalbestos. Class B are uninsulated double wall pipes often called B-vent, and are only used to vent non-condensing gas appliances. These may have an aluminum inside layer and galvanized steel outside layer.  Concrete flue liners are like clay liners but are made of a refractory cement and are more durable than the clay liners.  Poured in place concrete liners are made by pouring special concrete into the existing chimney with a form. These liners are highly durable, work with any heating appliance, and can reinforce a weak chimney, but they are irreversible.

Chimney pots, caps and tops.

A chimney pot is placed on top of the chimney to expand the length of the chimney inexpensively, and to improve the chimney's draft. A chimney with more than one pot on it indicates that multiple fireplaces on different floors share the chimney.  A cowl is placed on top of the chimney to prevent birds and other animals from nesting in the chimney. They often feature a rain guard to prevent rain or snow from going down the chimney. A metal wire mesh is often used as a spark arrestor to minimize burning debris from rising out of the chimney and making it onto the roof. Although the masonry inside the chimney can absorb a large amount of moisture which later evaporates, rainwater can collect at the base of the chimney. Sometimes weep holes are placed at the bottom of the chimney to drain out collected water.  A chimney cowl or wind directional cap is a helmet-shaped chimney cap that rotates to align with the wind and prevent a backdraft of smoke and wind down the chimney.  An "H-style cap" is a chimney top constructed from chimney pipes shaped like the letter H. It is an age-old method of regulating draft in situations where prevailing winds or turbulences cause downdraft and backpuffing. Although the H cap has a distinct advantage over most other downdraft caps, it fell out of favor because of its bulky design. It is found mostly in marine use but has been regaining popularity due to its energy-saving functionality. The H-cap stabilizes the draft rather than increasing it. Other downdraft caps are based on the Venturi effect, solving downdraft problems by increasing the updraft constantly resulting in much higher fuel consumption.  A chimney damper is a metal plate that can be positioned to close off the chimney when not in use and prevent outside air from entering the interior space, and can be opened to permit hot gases to exhaust when a fire is burning. A "top damper" or "cap damper" is a metal spring door placed at the top of the chimney with a long metal chain that allows one to open and close the damper from the fireplace. A "throat damper" is a metal plate at the base of the chimney, just above the firebox, that can be opened and closed by a lever, gear, or chain to seal off the fireplace from the chimney. The advantage of a top damper is the tight weatherproof seal that it provides when closed, which prevents cold outside air from flowing down the chimney and into the living space—a feature that can rarely be matched by the metal-on-metal seal afforded by a throat damper. Additionally, because the throat damper is subjected to intense heat from the fire directly below, it is common for the metal to become warped over time, thus further degrading the ability of the throat damper to seal. However, the advantage of a throat damper is that it seals off the living space from the air mass in the chimney, which, especially for chimneys positioned on an outside of wall of the home, is generally very cold. It is possible in practice to use both a top damper and a throat damper to obtain the benefits of both. The two top damper designs currently on the market are the Lyemance (pivoting door) and the Lock Top (translating door).  In the late Middle Ages in Western Europe the design of crow-stepped gables arose to allow maintenance access to the chimney top, especially for tall structures such as castles and great manor houses.

Chimney draught or draft.

When coal, oil, natural gas, wood, or any other fuel is combusted in a stove, oven, fireplace, hot water boiler, or industrial furnace, the hot combustion product gases that are formed are called flue gases. Those gases are generally exhausted to the ambient outside air through chimneys or industrial flue gas stacks (sometimes referred to as smokestacks).  The combustion flue gases inside the chimneys or stacks are much hotter than the ambient outside air and therefore less dense than the ambient air. That causes the bottom of the vertical column of hot flue gas to have a lower pressure than the pressure at the bottom of a corresponding column of outside air. That higher pressure outside the chimney is the driving force that moves the required combustion air into the combustion zone and also moves the flue gas up and out of the chimney. That movement or flow of combustion air and flue gas is called "natural draught/draft", "natural ventilation", "chimney effect", or "stack effect". The taller the stack, the more draught or draft is created. There can be cases of diminishing returns: if a stack is overly tall in relation to the heat being sent out of the stack, the flue gases may cool before reaching the top of the chimney. This condition can result in poor drafting, and in the case of wood burning appliances, the cooling of the gases before emission can cause creosote to condense near the top of the chimney. The creosote can restrict the exit of flue gases and may pose a fire hazard.  Designing chimneys and stacks to provide the correct amount of natural draft involves a number of design factors, many of which require iterative trial-and-error methods.  As a "first guess" approximation, the following equation can be used to estimate the natural draught/draft flow rate by assuming that the molecular mass (i.e., molecular weight) of the flue gas and the external air are equal and that the frictional pressure and heat losses are negligible:  Combining two flows into chimney: "A"+"A"<"A", where "A"=7.1 inch is the minimum required flow area from water heater tank and "A"=19.6 inch is the minimum flow area from a furnace of a central heating system.

Draft hood.

Gas fired appliances must have a draft hood to cool combustion products entering the chimney and prevent updrafts or downdrafts.

Maintenance and problems.

A characteristic problem of chimneys is they develop deposits of creosote on the walls of the structure when used with wood as a fuel. Deposits of this substance can interfere with the airflow and more importantly, they are combustible and can cause dangerous chimney fires if the deposits ignite in the chimney.  Heaters that burn natural gas drastically reduce the amount of creosote buildup due to natural gas burning much cleaner and more efficiently than traditional solid fuels. While in most cases there is no need to clean a gas chimney on an annual basis that does not mean that other parts of the chimney cannot fall into disrepair. Disconnected or loose chimney fittings caused by corrosion over time can pose serious dangers for residents due to leakage of carbon monoxide into the home. Thus, it is recommended—and in some countries even mandatory—that chimneys be inspected annually and cleaned on a regular basis to prevent these problems. The workers who perform this task are called chimney sweeps or steeplejacks. This work used to be done largely by child labour, and as such features in Victorian literature. In the Middle Ages in some parts of Europe, a crow-stepped gable design was developed, partly to provide access to chimneys without use of ladders.  Masonry (brick) chimneys have also proven to be particularly prone to crumbling during an earthquake. Government housing authorities in cities prone to earthquakes such as San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego now recommend building new homes with stud-framed chimneys around a metal flue. Bracing or strapping old masonry chimneys has not proven to be very effective in preventing damage or injury from earthquakes. It is now possible to buy "faux-brick" facades to cover these modern chimney structures.  Other potential problems include:

Dual-use chimneys.

Some very high chimneys are used for carrying antennas of mobile phone services and low power FM/TV-transmitters. Special attention must be paid to possible corrosion problems if these antennas are near the exhaust of the chimney.  In some cases the chimneys of power stations are used also as pylons. However this type of construction, which is used at several power stations in the former Soviet Union, is not very common, because of corrosion problems of conductor cables.  The Dům Dětí a Mládeže v Modřanech in Prague, Czech Republic is equipped with an observation deck.  The chimney of Pei Tou Incinerator carries a revolving restaurant.

Cooling tower used as an industrial chimney.

At some power stations, which are equipped with plants for the removal of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, it is possible to use the cooling tower as a chimney. Such cooling towers can be seen in Germany at the Power Station Staudinger Grosskrotzenburg and at the Power Station Rostock. At power stations that are not equipped for removing sulfur dioxide, such usage of cooling towers could result in serious corrosion problems which are not easy to prevent.

A chimney is an architectural ventilation structure made of masonry, clay or metal that isolates hot toxic exhaust gases or smoke produced by a boiler, stove, furnace, incinerator or fireplace from human living areas. Chimneys are typically vertical, or as near as possible to vertical, to ensure that the gases flow smoothly, drawing air into the combustion in what is known as the stack, or chimney effect. The space inside a chimney is called the "flue". Chimneys are adjacent to large industrial refineries, fossil fuel combustion facilities or part of buildings, steam locomotives and ships.

Komín nebo také spalinová cesta je obvykle svislá stavba, část stavby či konstrukce, popřípadě systém sloužící pro odvod spalin z topeniště. Za spalinovou cestu se nepovažuje odvod spalin z lokálních podokenních topidel o jmenovitém výkonu do 7 kW s vývodem přes fasádu.


History.

Lecce was founded as Sporting Club Lecce on 15 March 1908, initially including football, track-and-field and cycling sports. The first club president was Francesco Marangi. The first colours worn by Lecce during this time were black and white stripes, known in Italy as "bianconeri".  In its formative years, Lecce played in mostly regional leagues and competitions. During the 1923–24 season, the club dissolved before returning on 16 September 1927 as Unione Sportiva Lecce. The club was still wearing black and white stripes (similar to Juventus' kit) at this point, and the first president under the name Unione Sportiva Lecce was Luigi López y Rojo.

League: Early years 1930s, 40s and 50s.

Taranto Sport played Lecce in a game for promotion to Serie B from the local Southern Italian league; Lecce were victorious winning 3–2 after extra time. They were entered into Serie B for the 1929–30 season. The first game match played in the league was against Novara on 6 October 1929, a 2–1 victory. Lecce would eventually finish 13th. However, for the second time in the club's history, it ceased activity at the end of the 1931–32 season.  Four years later, Lecce returned and competed Serie C, finishing 11th in their return season. Around this time, the club was in turmoil: the following season they withdrew from Serie C after four days, and then during the 1938–39 season, they finished in third place but were moved down to 12th after it was revealed the club had violated the league's federal regulations.  The club finished in first place during the 1943–44 season, but club football was then suspended due to World War II. Nonetheless, when club football resumed, Lecce finished as champions of Serie C, gaining promotion back into Serie B. Two decent seasons followed (finishing fourth and third in respective seasons), with star player Silvestri scoring 20 goals in one season, before the club was relegated.  Lecce stayed down in Serie C for six seasons during this period, though this was not a particularly successful time for the club. Striker Anselmo Bislenghi scored 83 goals for the club during this period, thus becoming a hero. The club slipped even lower to Serie IV, where they spent three years.

Seventeen seasons of Serie C: 1960s, 70s and 80s.

From 1959 to 1975, Lecce played 17 seasons in Serie C. They came extremely close to promotion several times during that period, finishing in second place three seasons in a row (1971–72, 1972–73, 1973–74) before gaining promotion in the 1975–76 season.  The same year as their promotion, Lecce tasted cup success, winning the Coppa Italia Serie C. In 1976, Lecce took part in the Anglo-Italian Cup, notching up a 4–0 victory against Scarborough.  In 1980, a scandal occurred which rocked Italian football, including Lecce under president Franco Jurlano. However, Jurlano was able to demonstrate his innocence and the scandal only lead to disqualification of player Claudius Merlo. Later, the club was struck by a tragedy in 1983: players Michele Lo Russo and Ciro Pezzella died in an automotive accident. To this day, Lo Russo remains the club record holder for most number of appearances, with 415.

Promotion to Serie A: mid-1980s and 90s.

Under the management of Eugenio Fascetti, Lecce would achieve promotion to Serie A for the first time in 1985. They finished bottom and were relegated after only one season, but defeated Roma 3–2 away in the penultimate game to deal a fatal blow to Roma's title hopes. Losing a promotion play-off 2–1 to Cesena the following season, they would return to Serie A in 1988.  Under Carlo Mazzone, Lecce finished a respectable ninth place in 1989. Stars of the side included striker Pedro Pasculli and midfielders Antonio Conte and Paolo Benedetti. They lasted three seasons before relegation, and returned two years later. The 1993–94 season saw Lecce finish in last place with a pitiful 11 points, the lowest ever of any Serie A team, and a second relegation came the following year.  Giampiero Ventura saw Lecce achieve two successive promotions from Serie C to Serie A before leaving for Cagliari. Once more, it proved a struggle in Serie A despite the best efforts of striker Francesco Palmieri and a famous away win against Milan on 19 October 1997.  In the summer of 1998, Pantaleo Corvino was appointed new sports director, gaining a reputation for scouting new talents in the years to come. The team was good enough to return to Serie A in 1999 and begin another three-year stint in the top-flight, with yet another return to Serie A in 2003.

Three years in Serie A (2003–2006).

In 2004, under Delio Rossi, who had been managing the club since 2002, Lecce achieved an impressive result, reaching a high-point of tenth despite a poor first half of the season. Famous performances include two sensational victories in a row, first against Italian giants Juventus 3–4 in Turin (the first ever win at the Stadio Delle Alpi for Lecce) and then against Internazionale 2–1 at the Stadio Via del Mare.  In 2004–05, coach Zdeněk Zeman oversaw a highly attack-minded team that scored plenty of goals. Lecce ended the year again finishing tenth, putting in the spotlight talents like Valeri Bojinov and Mirko Vučinić. The team had the second-best attack with 66 goals (Juventus came first with 67) and the worst defence, with 73 goals conceded. This is a record, as for the first time the team with the worst defence managed to survive in the history of Serie A.  The 2005–06 season was a continual struggle for Lecce. The club changed its manager two times (Silvio Baldini for Angelo Adamo Gregucci and in January 2006 youth team coach Roberto Rizzo, supported by goalkeeper coach Franco Paleari, for Baldini). The numerous managerial moves could not turn Lecce's fortune as they were relegated with a few games to spare and ended the season in 19th place. In June 2006, Giovanni Semeraro returned at the helm of the club after nine months. The club re-appointed Zdeněk Zeman as manager, just one year after he left the club.  Lecce was unable to avoid relegation from Serie A, despite some initial hope due to the Serie A match-fixing scandal.

Two-year stint in Serie B and promotion.

The club had a mixed start to the 2006–07 season in Serie B, winning three home matches (including a win against early league leaders Genoa), though they suffered poor away form. After a large drop in form, recording 10 losses in 18 matches, Zeman was sacked as manager and replaced by Giuseppe Papadopulo. On 10 March 2007, Lecce clinched a historical victory over Frosinone, beaten 5–0 at Stadio Via del Mare. Having gained 36 points in the second half of the season, Lecce ended the season in the middle of the table, in ninth place. In 2007, Lecce gained more points than any other team in Serie B.  The 2007–08 season saw Lecce fight for a place in Serie A for the next season. Despite earning 83 points (12 more than sixth-placed Pisa) and boasting the best defence in the tournament, the "giallorossi" were forced to face play-offs for promotion in the top flight. In the semi-final, they beat Pisa in both legs (1–0 away and 2–1 at home) to secure a place in the final against AlbinoLeffe. Then they won the first leg 1–0 away, before securing a 1–1 draw in the second leg at the Studio Via del Mare to gain promotion.

Between Serie A and Serie B.

After persistent rumours, Papadopulo quit due to a difference of opinion with the general manager of the club and was replaced by Mario Beretta, who had a quite satisfactory start in the 2008–09 Serie A season. He remained in charge for twenty-seven games, but, due to four defeats in the last five matches, with the team one point below the survival zone, he was sacked and Luigi De Canio was appointed new manager. Seven points earned in ten matches were not enough to secure Lecce a spot in the next Serie A season. Relegation was official with one match to spare, after a 1–1 home draw against Fiorentina.  Lecce had a mixed start in the 2009–10 Serie B campaign, but clinched first place in November 2009 and kept it for the rest of the season. In May, the team was on the verge of promotion, but wasted opportunities in their last two matches meant they had to wait until the last match to celebrate their eighth elevation to the top flight in the last 25 years. A goalless home draw with Sassuolo proved enough to clinch the Serie B title with 75 points and win the Coppa Ali della Vittoria.  Lecce ended a satisfactory 2010–11 Serie A season successfully avoiding relegation with one match to spare after beating arch-rival and already relegated Bari 2–0 away on 15 May 2011. In the last few matches, the team managed to win a tough battle against other underdogs and some glorious teams such as Sampdoria that ended the season in despair. Manager Luigi De Canio left the team in June.  In the 2011–12 Serie A season, Lecce was relegated to Serie B. The start of the season was bad and new manager Eusebio Di Francesco was sacked in December, after 9 losses in 13 matches. Serse Cosmi was appointed new manager. Lecce refused to crumble as Cosmi's arrival instilled battling qualities into the relegation strugglers, who managed to gain a considerable number of points in the following months, but eventually failed to avoid relegation, due to four losses in the last five matches. Lecce managed to struggle until the very last game.

Third division years.

On 10 August 2012, Lecce was provisionally relegated by the Disciplinary Commission set up for the "Scommessopoli" scandal investigations 2012–13 Lega Pro Prima Divisione because of their involvement. Furthermore, the former president of Lecce, Semeraro, was suspended from all football activities for five years. On 22 August 2012, Lecce's relegation was confirmed by the Federal Court of Justice.  In the first season back into the third tier, Lecce ended in second place behind outsiders Trapani and was surprisingly defeated in the promotion playoffs finals by another outsider club, Carpi. The following season ended in similar fashion, with Lecce failing to win the league once again and then losing the playoffs finals, this time to Frosinone, despite a number of high-level signings such as former Palermo star, and well-known Lecce supporter, Fabrizio Miccoli. In 2014–15 Lecce ended the season in sixth place and did not enter the playoffs.  Following the departure of the Tesoro family, the club was taken over by a consortium of entrepreneurs led by Saverio Sticchi Damiani. The club ended the 2015–16 season in third place, two points behind the second-placed team, and qualified for the playoffs round. After defeating Bassano 3–0 at home, in the semi-finals Lecce lost to Foggia in both the home and the away match.  In the following season, Lecce finished in second place. The elimination came in the play-off quarterfinals against Alessandria on penalties after two draws in two matches.

Back to Serie A.

Lecce finally saw the light at the end of the 2017–18 season, when the "giallorossi" achieved promotion to Serie B under new manager Fabio Liverani securing a top two finish with a 1–0 victory against Paganese with one game to go. The following season saw Lecce clinch the second consecutive promotion, gaining a spot in Serie A for the first time in seven years, thanks to a second-place finish in Serie B.

Colours, badge, nicknames, and symbols.

The team plays in red and yellow stripes. Lecce players and fans are referred to as "salentini" or "giallorossi". The official anthem of Lecce is "Giallorossi per sempre" composed by Gioy Rielli. The symbol of Lecce is a female wolf under a holm oak, three which is typical to Apulia and is also the symbol of the city of Lecce.

Stadium.

Lecce's home games are played in the 31,533-seater Stadio Via del Mare.

Club rivalries.

The main rivalry is with the other best football team from Apulia, S.S.C. Bari. The match against them is called "derby di Puglia". The first derby di Puglia was played on 8 December 1929 in Serie B in Lecce, with the home team winning 1-0. After that occasion, the derby di Puglia was played many times in Serie C and Coppa Italia, and especially in Serie A. The first derby played in Serie A was played on 27 October 1985 in Bari, and was won by the home team. The last one was also played in Bari on 15 May 2011 and saw Lecce prevailing by 2-0 and securing their stay in Serie A (however that match was later object of an investigation for match-fixing. Among the most important wins in the derby for Lecce there is a Serie B match ended 4-0 in Bari on 22 December 2007.  On the other end, Lecce has a famous and long-standing friendship with the fans of Palermo.

Current squad.

Managerial history.

Lecce have had many managers and trainers throughout the history of a club, in some seasons more than one manager was in charge. Here is a chronological list of them from 1927 onwards.  "List of foreign football players who had at least one cup in their national team while playing for Lecce"

Player records.

World Cup players.

The following players have been selected by their country in the World Cup Finals, while playing for Lecce.

UEFA European Championship players.

The following players have been selected by their country in the European Championship Finals, while playing for Lecce.

In fiction.

Lecce is mentioned in many famous Italian movies and TV series. Among these there are the movies "Al bar dello sport", "Benvenuti al Nord" and Eccezzziunale veramente - Capitolo secondo... me and the TV series "I Cesaroni".  U.S. Lecce is also mentioned in many songs.  In the game, the main character Tsubasa Ohzora plays for this team.

Unione Sportiva Lecce, commonly referred to as Lecce (), is an Italian football club based in Lecce, Apulia. It currently plays in Serie A, the highest level of the Italian football pyramid, and plays its home games at Stadio Via del Mare which has a capacity of 31,533 spectators. Lecce's current coach is Fabio Liverani who joined in September 2017 leading the giallorossi to a double promotion from Serie C to Serie B first and Serie A TIM after.

Unione Sportiva Lecce je italský fotbalový klub hrající v sezóně 2019/20 ve nejvyšší ligu sídlící ve městě Lecce v regionu Apulie.


Etymology.

The term derives from Greek "poikilos" (), meaning "varied," ultimately from a root meaning "dappled" or “painted,” and "thermos" (), meaning "heat".

Physiology.

Poikilotherm animals must be able to function over a wider range of temperatures than homeotherms. The speed of most chemical reactions vary with temperature, and in order to function poikilotherms may have four to ten enzyme systems that operate at different temperatures for an important chemical reaction. As a result, poikilotherms often have larger, more complex genomes than homeotherms in the same ecological niche. Frogs are a notable example of this effect, though their complex development is also an important factor in their large genome.  Because their metabolism is variable and generally below that of homeothermic animals, sustained high-energy activities like powered flight in large animals or maintaining a large brain is generally beyond poikilotherm animals. The metabolism of poikilotherms favors strategies such as sit-and-wait hunting over chasing prey for larger animals with high movement cost. As they do not use their metabolisms to heat or cool themselves, total energy requirement over time is low. For the same body weight, poikilotherms need only 5 to 10% of the energy of homeotherms.

Ecology.

It is comparatively easy for a poikilotherm to accumulate enough energy to reproduce. Poikilotherms at the same trophic level often have much shorter generations than homeotherms: weeks rather than years. Such applies even to animals with similar ecological roles such as cats and snakes.  This difference in energy requirement also means that a given food source can support a greater density of poikilothermic animals than homeothermic animals. This is reflected in the predator-prey ratio which is usually higher in poikilothermic fauna compared to homeothermic ones. However, when homeotherms and poikilotherms have similar niches, and compete, the homeotherm can often drive poikilothermic competitors to extinction, because homeotherms can gather food for a greater fraction of each day.

In medicine.

In medicine, loss of normal thermoregulation in humans is referred to as "poikilothermia". This is usually seen with sedative and hypnotic drugs or in 'compartment syndrome'. For example, barbiturates, ethanol, and chloral hydrate may precipitate this effect. REM sleep is also considered a poikilothermic state in humans.

A poikilotherm () is an animal whose internal temperature varies considerably. It is the opposite of a homeotherm, an animal which maintains thermal homeostasis. While the term in principle can apply to all organisms, it is generally only applied to animals, and mostly to vertebrates. Usually the fluctuations are consequence of variation in the ambient environmental temperature. Many terrestrial ectotherms are poikilothermic. However some ectotherms remain in temperature-constant environments to the point that they are actually able to maintain a constant internal temperature (i.e. are homeothermic). It is this distinction that often makes the term "poikilotherm" more useful than the vernacular "cold-blooded", which is sometimes used to refer to ectotherms more generally.

Paňdžáb (gurmukhí ਪੰਜਾਬ, پنجاب, "Pandžāb" („Pětiříčí“), पंजाब, anglický přepis "Punjab") je historické území rozdělené dnes mezi Pákistán (provincie Paňdžáb) a Indii (státy Paňdžáb, Harijána a Himáčalpradéš a svazové teritorium Čandígarh). Jeho historickou metropolí je město Láhaur v dnešním Pákistánu.


Composition.

The list blends prehistorical, presumably mythical predynastic rulers enjoying implausibly lengthy reigns with later, more plausibly historical dynasties. Although the primal kings are historically unattested, that does not preclude their possible correspondence with historical rulers who were later mythicized. Some Assyriologists view the predynastic kings as a later fictional addition. Only one ruler listed is known to be female: Kug-Bau "the (female) tavern-keeper", who alone accounts for the Third Dynasty of Kish. The earliest listed ruler whose historicity has been archaeologically verified is Enmebaragesi of Kish, c. 2600 BC. Reference to him and his successor, Aga of Kish, in the "Epic of Gilgamesh" has led to speculation that Gilgamesh himself may have been a historical king of Uruk. Three dynasties are absent from the list: the Larsa dynasty, which vied for power with the (included) Isin dynasty during the Isin-Larsa period; and the two dynasties of Lagash, which respectively preceded and ensued the Akkadian Empire, when Lagash exercised considerable influence in the region. Lagash, in particular, is known directly from archaeological artifacts dating from c. 2500 BC. The list is important to the chronology of the 3rd millennium BC. However, the fact that many of the dynasties listed reigned simultaneously from varying localities makes it difficult to reproduce a strict linear chronology.

Sources.

The following extant ancient sources contain the "Sumerian King List" or portions of it:  The two sources marked WB are a part of the "Weld-Blundell collection", donated by Herbert Weld Blundell to the Ashmolean Museum. WB 62 is a small clay tablet, inscribed only on one side, unearthed from Larsa. It is the oldest dated source, at c. 2000 BC, that contains the list. WB 444, in contrast, is a unique inscribed vertical prism, dated c. 1817 BC, although some scholars prefer c. 1827 BC. The Kish Tablet or Scheil dynastic tablet is an early 2nd millennium BC tablet which came into possession of Jean-Vincent Scheil, but only contains list entries for four Sumerian cities. UCBC 9-1819 is a clay tablet housed in the collection of the Museum of Anthropology at the University of California. The tablet was inscribed during the reign of the Babylonian King Samsu-iluna, or slightly earlier, with the earliest date of 1712 BC. The Dynastic Chronicle (ABC 18) is a Babylonian king list written on six columns, beginning with entries for the antediluvian (prior to the flood) Sumerian rulers. K 11261+ is one of the copies of this chronicle, consisting of three joined Neo-Assyrian fragments discovered at the Library of Ashurbanipal. K 12054 is another of the Neo-Assyrian fragments from Uruk (c. 640 BC) but contains a variant form of the antediluvians on the list. The later Babylonian king lists and Assyrian king lists repeated the earliest portions of the list, thus preserving them well into the 3rd century BC. At this time, Berossus wrote "Babyloniaca", which popularized fragments of the list in the Hellenic world. In 1960, the Apkullu-list (Tablet No. W.20030, 7) or “Uruk List of Kings and Sages” (ULKS) was discovered by German archaeologists at an ancient temple at Uruk. The list, dating to c. 165 BC, contains a series of kings, equivalent to the Sumerian antediluvians, called "Apkullu".

List.

Early dates are approximate, and are based on available archaeological data. For most of the pre-Akkadian rulers listed, the king list is itself the lone source of information. Beginning with Lugal-zage-si and the Third Dynasty of Uruk (which was defeated by Sargon of Akkad), a better understanding of how subsequent rulers fit into the chronology of the ancient Near East can be deduced. The short chronology is used here.

Antediluvian rulers.

None of the following predynastic antediluvian rulers have been verified as historical by archaeological excavations, epigraphical inscriptions or otherwise. While there is no evidence they ever reigned as such, the Sumerians purported them to have lived in the mythical era before the great deluge. Some modern scholars believe the Sumerian deluge story corresponds to localized river flooding at Shuruppak (modern Tell Fara, Iraq) and various other cities as far north as Kish, as revealed by a layer of riverine sediments, radiocarbon dated to c. 2900 BC, which interrupt the continuity of settlement. Polychrome pottery from the Jemdet Nasr period (c. 3000–2900 BC) was discovered immediately below this Shuruppak flood stratum.  The antediluvian reigns were measured in Sumerian numerical units known as "sars" (units of 3,600), "ners" (units of 600), and "sosses" (units of 60). Attempts have been made to map these numbers into more reasonable regnal lengths.

Dynasty of Awan.

This was a dynasty from Elam.

Second dynasty of Kish.

The First dynasty of Lagash (c. 2500 – c. 2271 BC) is not mentioned in the King List, though it is well known from inscriptions

Fourth dynasty of Uruk.

The Second dynasty of Lagash (before c. 2093–2046 BC (short)) is not mentioned in the King List, though it is well known from inscriptions.

Third dynasty of Ur.

Independent Amorite states in lower Mesopotamia. The Dynasty of Larsa (c. 1961–1674 BC (short)) from this period is not mentioned in the King List.

The Sumerian King List is an ancient text in the Sumerian language, listing kings of Sumer (ancient southern Iraq) from Sumerian and neighboring dynasties, their supposed reign lengths, and the locations of the kingship. This text is preserved in several recensions. The list of kings is sequential, although modern research indicates many were contemporaries, reflecting the belief that kingship was handed down by the gods and could be transferred from one city to another, asserting to a hegemony in the region.

Sumerský královský seznam je starověký text v sumerštině. Jedná se o výpis sumerských králů, a to jak ze sumerských, tak i z cizích dynastií. Později prakticky podle tohoto vzoru vznikl i Seznam babylonských králů a Seznam asyrských králů. Sumerové věřili, že královský seznam pochází od bohů.


Biography.

Early life.

Mehmedalija Dizdar was born during World War I, to a Muslim Bosniak family in Stolac, Bosnia and Herzegovina. He was the son of Muharem (died 1923) and Nezira (née Babović; 1881–1945). Mehmedalija was the second of three children. His older brother Hamid was a writer. Mehmedalija's sister Refika (1921–1945) and mother were killed in the Jasenovac concentration camp.

Career.

In 1936, Dizdar relocated to Sarajevo where he attended and graduated from the Gymnasium. He started working for the magazine "Gajret", which his brother Hamid regulated and which was founded by Safvet beg Bašagić.  Dizdar spent his World War II years as a supporter of the Communist Partisans. He moved frequently from place to place in order to avoid the Independent State of Croatia authorities' attention.  After the war, Dizdar was a prominent figure in the cultural life of Bosnia and Herzegovina, working as the editor-in-chief of the daily "Oslobođenje" ("Liberation"). He served as head of a few state-sponsored publishing houses and eventually became a professional writer and the President of the Writers' Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a post he held until his death.

Personal life.

Dizdar's son Enver (8 June 1944 – 21 December 2012) was a journalist and publicist.  Mak Dizdar died aged 53 in 1971, having outlived his parents and both siblings.

Work.

Dizdar's two poetry collections and series of longer poems, "Kameni spavač" ("Stone Sleeper") (1966–71) and "Modra rijeka" ("Blue River", 1971), fused seemingly disparate elements. He drew inspiration from pre-Ottoman Bosnian Christian culture, from the sayings of heterodox Islamic visionary mystics, and from the 15th century Bosnian vernacular linguistic idiom. His poetry referenced medieval Bosnian tombstones ("stećci" or "mramorovi" - marbles) and their gnomic inscriptions on the ephemerality of life. It articulated a distinctive vision of life and death, drawing on Christian and Muslim Gnostic sensibilities of life as a passage between "tomb and stars", expressing both the Gnostic horror of corporeality and a sense of the blessedness of the universe.

Dizdar and Stećci.

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, there are about 60,000 stećci and a total of 70,000 in the greater region. The stećci are inscribed with various symbols and illustrations. Many of the symbols on the stećci bore significant religious symbolism in Dizdar’s works. The most common religious motifs visible on the stećci were a crescent moon, stars and circles (representing the sun). The second most common motif were the cross, which never appears alone. It regularly is seen in unison with a crescent moon and a star, and also sometimes with other symbols like a shield, sword, spear or flags. Other symbols used on stećci were men with large right hands, spirals, images of a kolo and deer. In addition to carved symbols on the stećci, short inscpritoins or epigraphs were also carved into many stećci.The inscriptions on the stećci characterized the whole life of the deceased, their habits, the manner of their death, the love of their country in which they lie, and their awe at death.  Dizdar used the symbols and the inscriptions on the stećci as the backbone for his most famous work, Kameni Spavač. Dizdar’s Bosnia was "defined by the stećci and Bosnia’s stigma regarding the question of it being the poetic subject response: its defiance from dreams." Dizdar used the symbols and inscriptions on the stećci to give Kameni Spavač a historical point of view, by envisioning the world through the eyes of the medieval peoples buried under the stećci. By envisioning the world through the eyes of the stone sleeps buried under the stećci, Dizdar was able to discuss many themes. Through the stećci, he discussed themes of "the intimate life journey of origin, of homeland or landscapes, of sources of knowledge, of experiences of the world, of a new and coordinated deciphering of signs, which reach pass their singularity."  Dizdar said that the themes expressed in the inscriptions were the “secrets of Bosnia.” Dizdar himself described the importance and mystery of the stećci by saying “stećak is for me what it is not for others, things that are on them or in them, others did not inscribe or knew to see. It is stone, but also a word, it is earth, but also heaven, it is matter, but also a spirit, it is a cry, but also a song, it is death, but also life, it is the past, but also the future.”  Mak Dizdar also fought against the forced influence of the Serbian language on the Bosnian language, in his 1970 article "Marginalije o jeziku i oko njega".  After the collapse of Communism and following the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Dizdar's poetic "magnum opus" has remained the cornerstone of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina literature.

Mehmedalija "Mak" Dizdar (17 October 1917 – 14 July 1971) was a Bosnian poet. His poetry combined influences from the Bosnian Christian culture, Islamic mysticism and cultural remains of medieval Bosnia, and especially the stećci.

Mak Dizdar (17. října 1917 Stolac, Bosna a Hercegovina – 14. července 1971 Sarajevo, SFRJ), vlastním jménem Mehmedalija, byl novinář a básník bosňáckého původu. Sdílí ho jak bosenskohercegovská, tak chorvatská literatura, známým pojmem je ale i pro literatury všech zemí bývalé Jugoslávie.


History.

IATA was formed in April 1945 in Havana, Cuba. It is the successor to the International Air Traffic Association, which was formed in 1919 at The Hague, Netherlands. At its founding, IATA consisted of 57 airlines from 31 countries. Much of IATA's early work was technical and IATA provided input to the newly created International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), which was reflected in the annexes of the Chicago Convention, the international treaty that still governs the technical of international air transport today.

Price fixing.

The Chicago Convention did not result in a consensus on the economic regulation of the airline industry. According to Warren Koffler, IATA was formed to fill the resulting void and provide international air carriers with a mechanism to fix prices.  In the late 1940s, IATA started holding conferences to fix prices for international air travel. IATA secretary J.G Gazdik stated that organization aimed to fix prices at reasonable levels, with due regard being paid to the cost of operations, in order to ensure reasonable profits for airlines.  IATA has been described as "the world aviation cartel". IATA enjoyed immunity from antitrust law in several nations.  From 1956 to 1975, IATA resolutions capped travel agent commissions at 7% of the airline ticket price. The legal scholar Kenneth Elzinga argued that IATA's commission cap harmed consumers by decreasing the incentive for travel agents to offer improved service to consumers.  At a time when many airlines were government owned and loss-making, IATA operated as a cartel, charged by the governments with setting a fixed fare structure that avoided price competition. The first Traffic Conference was held in 1947 in Rio de Janeiro and reached unanimous agreement on some 400 resolutions. IATA Director-General William Hildred recounted that about 200 of the resolutions at the Rio de Janeiro conference were related to establishing a uniform structure for tariffs charged for international air transportation.  According to the economist Pascal Salin, IATA's price fixing regime forced airlines to attempt to differentiate themselves through the quality of their passenger experience. IATA responded by imposing strict limits on the quality of airline service. In 1958, IATA issued a formal ruling barring airlines from serving economy passengers sandwiches with "luxurious" ingredients. The economist Walter Adams observed that the limited service competition permitted by IATA tended to merely to divert traffic from one air carrier to another without at the same time enlarging the overall air transport market.

Government response.

The American Civil Aeronautics Board did not intervene to stop IATA's price fixing. The law professor Louis B. Schwartz condemned the board's inaction as an "abdication of judicial responsibility".  In 2006, the United States Department of Justice adapted an order withdrawing the antitrust immunity of IATA tariff conferences.

Focus areas.

Safety.

IATA states that safety is its number one priority. The main instrument for safety is the IATA Operational Safety Audit (IOSA). IOSA has also been mandated at the state level by several countries. In 2017, aviation posted its safest year ever, surpassing the previous record set in 2012. The new global Western-built jet accident rate became the equivalent of one accident every 7.36 million flights. Future improvements will be founded on data sharing with a database fed by a multitude of sources and housed by the Global Safety Information Center. In June 2014, the IATA set up a special panel to study measures to track aircraft in flight in real time. The move was in response to the disappearance without a trace of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 on 8 March 2014.

Simplifying the Business.

Simplifying the Business was launched in 2004. This initiative has introduced a number of crucial concepts to passenger travel, including the electronic ticket and the bar coded boarding pass. Many other innovations are being established as part of the Fast Travel initiative, including a range of self-service baggage options.  An innovative program, launched in 2012 is New Distribution Capability. This will replace the pre-Internet EDIFACT messaging standard that is still the basis of the global distribution system /travel agent channel and replace it with an XML standard. This will enable the same choices to be offered to high street travel shoppers as are offered to those who book directly through airline websites. A filing with the US Department of Transportation brought over 400 comments.

Environment.

IATA members and all industry stakeholders have agreed to three sequential environmental goals:  At the 2013 IATA annual general meeting in Cape Town, South Africa, members overwhelmingly endorsed a resolution on "Implementation of the Aviation Carbon-Neutral Growth (CNG2020) Strategy." A representative for the European Federation for Transport and Environment, criticized the resolution for relying on carbon offsets instead of direct reductions in aviation carbon emissions.

Services.

IATA provides consulting and training services in many areas.

Publications - standards.

A number of standards are defined under the umbrella of IATA. One of the most important is the transport of dangerous goods (HAZMAT).

The International Air Transport Association (IATA ) is a trade association of the world's airlines founded in 1945. IATA has been described as a cartel since, in addition to setting technical standards for airlines, IATA also organized tariff conferences that served as a forum for price fixing.

The International Air Transport Association (IATA, Mezinárodní asociace leteckých dopravců) je nevládní mezinárodní organizace sdružující letecké dopravce, sídlí v Montrealu v Kanadě. Členy IATA je okolo 280 společností z celého světa. Tyto společnosti zajišťují okolo 83 % pravidelné mezinárodní letecké přepravy.


Signs and symptoms.

Lactation mastitis usually affects only one breast and the symptoms can develop quickly. The signs and symptoms usually appear suddenly and they include: Some women may also experience flu-like symptoms such as:  Contact should be made with a health care provider with special breastfeeding competence as soon as the patient recognizes the combination of signs and symptoms. Most of the women first experience the flu-like symptoms and just after they may notice a sore red area on the breast. Also, women should seek medical care if they notice any abnormal discharge from the nipples, if breast pain is making it difficult to function each day, or they have prolonged, unexplained breast pain.

Breast abscess.

A breast abscess is a collection of pus that develops into the breast with different causes. During lactation, breast abscess develops only rarely, most sources cite about 0.4–0.5% of breastfeeding women. Known risk factors are age over 30, primiparous and late delivery. No correlation was found with smoking status however this may be in part because much fewer smoking women choose to breastfeed. Antibiotics were not shown effective in prevention of lactation abscess but are useful to treat a secondary infection (see the section on the treatment of breast abscess in this article).  Keratinizing squamous metaplasia of lactiferous ducts may play a similar role in the pathogenesis of nonpuerperal subareolar abscess.

Causes.

Since the 1980s mastitis has often been divided into non-infectious and infectious sub-groups. However, recent research suggests that it may not be feasible to make divisions in this way. It has been shown that types and amounts of potentially pathogenic bacteria in breast milk are not correlated to the severity of symptoms. Moreover, although only 15% of women with mastitis in Kvist et al.'s study were given antibiotics, all recovered and few had recurring symptoms. Many healthy breastfeeding women wishing to donate breast milk have potentially pathogenic bacteria in their milk but have no symptoms of mastitis.

Risk factors.

Mastitis typically develops when the milk is not properly removed from the breast. Milk stasis can lead to the milk ducts in the breasts becoming blocked, as the breast milk is not being properly and regularly expressed. It has also been suggested that blocked milk ducts can occur as a result of pressure on the breast, such as tight-fitting clothing or an over-restrictive bra, although there is sparse evidence for this supposition. Mastitis may occur when the baby is not appropriately attached to the breast while feeding, when the baby has infrequent feeds or has problems suckling the milk out of the breast.  The presence of cracks or sores on the nipples increases the likelihood of infection. Tight clothing or ill-fitting bras may also cause problems as they compress the breasts. There is a possibility that infants carrying infectious pathogens in their noses can infect their mothers; the clinical significance of this finding is still unknown.  Mastitis, as well as breast abscess, can also be caused by direct trauma to the breast. Such injury can occur for example during sports activities or due to seat belt injury.  Mastitis can also develop due to contamination of a breast implant or any other foreign body, for example after nipple piercing. In such cases, the removal of the foreign body is indicated.  Women who are breastfeeding are at risk for developing mastitis especially if they have sore or cracked nipples or have had mastitis before while breastfeeding another baby. Also, the chances of getting mastitis increases if women use only one position to breastfeed or wear a tight-fitting bra, which may restrict milk flow Difficulties in getting a nursing infant to latch on to the breast can also increase the risk for mastitis.  Women with diabetes, chronic illness, AIDS, or an impaired immune system may be more susceptible to the development of mastitis.

Infection.

Some women (approximately 15%) will require antibiotic treatment for infection which is usually caused by bacteria from the skin or the baby's mouth that entering the milk ducts through skin lesions of the nipple or through the opening of the nipple. Infection is usually caused by "Staphylococcus aureus". Infectious pathogens commonly associated with mastitis are "Staphylococcus aureus", "Streptococcus" spp., and Gram-negative bacilli such as "Escherichia coli". "Salmonella spp.", mycobacteria, and fungi such as "Candida" and "Cryptococcus" have been identified in rare instances.  Recent research suggests that infectious pathogens play a much smaller role in the pathogenesis than was commonly assumed only a few years ago. Most detected pathogens are very common species that are natural part of the breast fauna and simple detection of their presence is not sufficient to prove a causative role. Furthermore, there are indications that treatment with antibiotics may have minimal impact, and over-all there is insufficient evidence to confirm or refute the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy for treating lactational mastitis.

Types.

When it occurs in breastfeeding mothers, it is known as puerperal mastitis, lactation mastitis, or lactational mastitis. When it occurs in non breastfeeding women it is known as non-puerperal or nonlactational. Mastitis can, in rare cases, occur in men. Inflammatory breast cancer has symptoms very similar to mastitis and must be ruled out.  The symptoms are similar for puerperal and nonpuerperal mastitis but predisposing factors and treatment can be very different.

Pregnancy related.

Puerperal mastitis is the inflammation of the breast in connection with pregnancy, breastfeeding or weaning. Since one of the most prominent symptoms is tension and engorgement of the breast, it is thought to be caused by blocked milk ducts or milk excess. It is relatively common; estimates range depending on methodology between 5–33%. However, only about 0.4–0.5% of breastfeeding mothers develop an abscess.  Some predisposing factors are known but their predictive value is minimal. It appears that proper breastfeeding technique, frequent breastfeeding and avoidance of stress are the most important factors that can be influenced.  Light cases of mastitis are often called breast engorgement; the distinction is overlapping and possibly arbitrary or subject to regional variations.

Non pregnancy related.

The term nonpuerperal mastitis describes inflammatory lesions of the breast occurring unrelated to pregnancy and breastfeeding. This article includes description of mastitis as well as various kinds of mammary abscesses. Skin related conditions like dermatitis and foliculitis are a separate entity.  Names for non-puerperal mastitis are not used very consistently and include mastitis, subareolar abscess, duct ectasia, periductal inflammation, Zuska's disease and others.  Periductal mastitis is a form of nonlactational mastitis, and is characterized by inflammation of the subareolar ducts. Although the cause of periductal mastitis is currently unknown, it is predicted that smoking may be related. This condition is mainly seen in young women but can also be seen in men.

Diagnosis.

The diagnosis of mastitis and breast abscess can usually be made based on a physical examination. The doctor will also take into account the signs and symptoms of the condition.  However, if the doctor is not sure whether the mass is an abscess or a tumor, a breast ultrasound may be performed. The ultrasound provides a clear image of the breast tissue and may be helpful in distinguishing between simple mastitis and abscess or in diagnosing an abscess deep in the breast. The test consists of placing an ultrasound probe over the breast.  In cases of infectious mastitis, cultures may be needed in order to determine what type of organism is causing the infection. Cultures are helpful in deciding the specific type of antibiotics that will be used in curing the disease. These cultures may be taken either from the breast milk or of the material aspirated from an abscess.  Mammograms or breast biopsies are normally performed on women who do not respond to treatment or on non-breastfeeding women. This type of tests is sometimes ordered to exclude the possibility of a rare type of breast cancer which causes symptoms similar to those of mastitis.

Differential diagnosis.

Breast cancer may coincide with or mimic symptoms of mastitis. Only full resolution of symptoms and careful examination are sufficient to exclude the diagnosis of breast cancer.  Lifetime risk for breast cancer is significantly reduced for women who were pregnant and breastfeeding. Mastitis episodes do not appear to influence lifetime risk of breast cancer.  Mastitis does however cause great difficulties in diagnosis of breast cancer and delayed diagnosis and treatment can result in worse outcome.  Breast cancer may coincide with mastitis or develop shortly afterwards. All suspicious symptoms that do not completely disappear within 5 weeks must be investigated.  Breast cancer incidence during pregnancy and lactation is assumed to be the same as in controls. Course and prognosis are also very similar to age matched controls. However diagnosis during lactation is particularly problematic, often leading to delayed diagnosis and treatment.  Some data suggest that noninflammatory breast cancer incidence is increased within a year following episodes of nonpuerperal mastitis and special care is required for follow-up cancer prevention screening. So far only data from short term observation is available and total risk increase can not be judged. Because of the very short time between presentation of mastitis and breast cancer in this study it is considered very unlikely that the inflammation had any substantial role in carcinogenesis, rather it would appear that some precancerous lesions may increase the risk of inflammation (hyperplasia causing duct obstruction, hypersensitivity to cytokines or hormones) or the lesions may have common predisposing factors.  A very serious type of breast cancer called inflammatory breast cancer presents with similar symptoms as mastitis (both puerperal and nonpuerperal). It is the most aggressive type of breast cancer with the highest mortality rate. The inflammatory phenotype of IBC is thought to be mostly caused by invasion and blocking of dermal lymphatics, however it was recently shown that NF-κB target genes activation may significantly contribute to the inflammatory phenotype. Case reports show that inflammatory breast cancer symptoms can flare up following injury or inflammation making it even more likely to be mistaken for mastitis. Symptoms are also known to partially respond to progesterone and antibiotics, reaction to other common medications can not be ruled out at this point.

Treatment.

In lactation mastitis, frequent emptying of both breasts by breastfeeding is essential. Also essential is adequate fluid supply for the mother and baby.  For breastfeeding women with light mastitis, massage and application of heat prior to feeding can help as this may aid unblocking the ducts. However, in more severe cases of mastitis heat or massage could make the symptoms worse and cold compresses are better suited to contain the inflammation.  Nonpuerperal mastitis is treated by medication and possibly aspiration or drainage (see in particular treatment of subareolar abscess and treatment of granulomatous mastitis). According to a BMJ best practice report, antibiotics are generally to be used in all nonpuerperal mastitis cases, with replacement of the antibiotics by an antifungal agent such as fluconazole in cases of deep fungal infections, and corticosteroids are to be used in case of granulomatous mastitis (with differential diagnosis to tuberculosis infection of the breast).  In idiopathic granulomatous mastitis, successful treatment includes invasive surgical procedures or less invasive treatment with steroid medications.

Antibiotics.

In lactational mastitis, antibiotics are not needed in the overwhelming majority of cases and should be used only for bacterial infections. For people with nonsevere infections, dicloxacillin or cephalexin are recommended. For people with severe infections, vancomycin is recommended. The length of antibiotic treatment ranges anywhere from 5–14 days. The effects of antibiotics has not been well studied as of 2013.

Breast abscess.

An abscess (or suspected abscess) in the breast may be treated by ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration (percutaneous aspiration) or by surgical incision and drainage; each of these approaches is performed under antibiotic coverage. In case of puerperal breast abscess, breastfeeding from the affected breast should be continued where possible.  For small breast abscesses, ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration such as to completely drain the abscess is widely recognized as a preferred initial management.  One recommended treatment includes antibiotics, ultrasound evaluation and, if fluid is present, ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration of the abscess with an 18 gauge needle, under saline lavage until clear. The exudate is then sent for microbiological analysis for identification of the pathogen and determination of its antibiotic sensitivity profile, which may in turn give an indication for changing the antibiotics. At follow-up, a mammography is performed if the condition has resolved; otherwise the ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration with lavage and microbiological analysis is repeated. If three to five aspirations still do not resolve the condition, percutaneous drainage in combination with placement of an indwelling catheter is indicated, and only if several attempts at ultrasound-guided drainage fail, surgical resection of the inflamed lactiferous ducts (preferably performed after the acute episode is over). It is noted, however, that even the excision of the affected ducts does not necessarily prevent recurrence.  Nonpuerperal breast abscesses have a higher rate of recurrence compared to puerperal breast abscesses. There is a high statistical correlation of nonpuerperal breast abscess with diabetes mellitus (DM). On this basis, it has recently been suggested that diabetes screening should be performed on patients with such abscess.  Although there are a number of recommendations regarding the treatment of breast abscesses, a 2015 review found not enough evidence regarding if needle aspiration is comparable to incision and drainage, or if antibiotics should generally be given to women undergoing incision and drainage.

Prognosis.

Temperature and severity of symptoms at presentation do not predict outcome; women with sore or damaged nipples may need special attention.

Epidemiology.

Mastitis is quite common among breastfeeding women. The WHO estimates that although incidences vary between 2.6% and 33%, the prevalence globally is approximately 10% of breastfeeding women. Most mothers who develop mastitis usually do so within the first few weeks after delivery. Most breast infections occur within the first or second month after delivery or at the time of weaning. However, in rare cases it affects women who are not breastfeeding.

Terminology.

Popular usage of the term "mastitis" varies by geographic region. Outside the US it is commonly used for puerperal and nonpuerperal cases, in the US the term nonpuerperal mastitis is rarely used and alternative names such as duct ectasia, subareolar abscess and plasma cell mastitis are more frequently used.  Chronic cystic mastitis is an older name for fibrocystic disease.  American usage: mastitis usually refers to puerperal (occurring to breastfeeding mothers) mastitis with symptoms of systemic infection. Lighter cases of puerperal mastitis are often called breast engorgement.  In this Wikipedia article, "mastitis" is used in the original sense of the definition as inflammation of the breast with additional qualifiers where appropriate.

Etymology and pronunciation.

The word "mastitis" () uses combining forms of "mast-" + "-itis". The word "mammitis" () uses combining forms of "mamm-" + "-itis". They are synonymous in modern usage, and "mastitis" is the more commonly used synonym.

Other animals.

Mastitis occurs in other animals as in humans, and is especially a concern in livestock, since milk from the affected udders of livestock may enter the food supply and pose a health risk.  It is a major condition in some species, like dairy cows. It is the cause of much unwanted suffering for the dairy cows. It is of tremendous economic importance for the dairy industry, and it is also of concern for public health. The same considerations apply to mastitis in sheep and goats and other milk-producing females. It is also of economic importance in the sow, but, in this species, it is not related to public health. In other domestic females (queen, mare, etc.), it is more an individual illness dealt with by veterinary practitioners.

Mastitis is inflammation of the breast or udder, usually associated with breastfeeding. Symptoms typically include local pain and redness. There is often an associated fever and general soreness. Onset is typically fairly rapid and usually occurs within the first few months of delivery. Complications can include abscess formation. Risk factors include poor latch, cracked nipples, use of a breast pump, and weaning. The bacteria most commonly involved are "Staphylococcus" and "Streptococci". Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms. Ultrasound may be useful for detecting a potential abscess. Prevention is by proper breastfeeding techniques. When infection is present, antibiotics such as cephalexin may be recommended. Breastfeeding should typically be continued, as emptying the breast is important for healing. Tentative evidence supports benefits from probiotics. About 10% of breastfeeding women are affected.

Mastitida je zánět mléčné žlázy – u žen zánět prsu, u zvířat zánět vemene. Mastitida se projeví nejčastěji během laktace. Celkové příznaky jsou zvýšená teplota, bolestivost, zarudnutí.