Etymology and definition.

"Apophatic", (noun); from ἀπόφημι "apophēmi", meaning "to deny". From "Online Etymology Dictionary": "Via negativa" or "via negationis" (Latin), "negative way" or "by way of denial". The negative way forms a pair together with the "kataphatic" or positive way. According to Deirdre Carabine,

Origins and development.

According to Fagenblat, "negative theology is as old as philosophy itself;" elements of it can be found in Plato's "unwritten doctrines," while it is also present in Neo-Platonic, Gnostic and early Christian writers. A tendency to apophatic thought can also be found in Philo of Alexandria.  According to Carabine, "apophasis proper" in Greek thought starts with Neo-Platonism, with its speculations about the nature of the One, culminating in the works of Proclus. According to Carabine, there are two major points in the development of apophatic theology, namely the fusion of the Jewish tradition with Platonic philosophy in the writings of Philo, and the works of Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite, who infused Christian thought with Neo-Platonic ideas.  The Early Church Fathers were influenced by Philo, and Meredith even states that Philo "is the real founder of the apophatic tradition." Yet, it was with Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and Maximus the Confessor, whose writings shaped both Hesychasm, the contemplative tradition of the Eastern Orthodox Churches, and the mystical traditions of western Europe, that apophatic theology became a central element of Christian theology and contemplative practice.

Greek philosophy.

Pre-Socratic.

For the ancient Greeks, knowledge of the gods was essential for proper worship. Poets had an important responsibility in this regard, and a central question was how knowledge of the Divine forms can be attained. Epiphany played an essential role in attaining this knowledge. Xenophanes (c. 570 – c. 475 BC) noted that the knowledge of the Divine forms is restrained by the human imagination, and Greek philosophers realized that this knowledge can only be mediated through myth and visual representations, which are culture-dependent.  According to Herodotus (484–425 BC), Homer and Hesiod (between 750 and 650 BC) taught the Greek the knowledge of the Divine bodies of the Gods. The ancient Greek poet Hesiod (between 750 and 650 BC) describes in his "Theogony" the birth of the gods and creation of the world, which became an "ur-text for programmatic, first-person epiphanic narratives in Greek literature," but also "explores the necessary limitations placed on human access to the divine." According to Platt, the statement of the Muses who grant Hesiod knowledge of the Gods "actually accords better with the logic of apophatic religious thought."  Parmenides (fl. late sixth or early fifth century BC), in his poem "On Nature", gives an account of a revelation on two ways of inquiry. "The way of conviction" explores Being, true reality ("what-is"), which is "What is ungenerated and deathless,/whole and uniform, and still and perfect." "The way of opinion" is the world of appearances, in which one's sensory faculties lead to conceptions which are false and deceitful. His distinction between unchanging Truth and shifting opinion is reflected in Plato's allegory of the Cave. Together with the Biblical story of Moses's ascent of Mount Sinai, it is used by Gregory of Nyssa and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite to give a Christian account of the ascent of the soul toward God. Cook notes that Parmenides poem is a religious account of a mystical journey, akin to the mystery cults, giving a philosophical form to a religious outlook. Cook further notes that the philosopher's task is to "attempt through 'negative' thinking to tear themselves loose from all that frustrates their pursuit of wisdom."

Plato.

Plato (428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC), "deciding for Parmenides against Heraclitus" and his theory of eternal change, had a strong influence on the development of apophatic thought.  Plato further explored Parmenides's idea of timeless truth in his dialogue "Parmenides", which is a treatment of the eternal forms, "Truth, Beauty and Goodness", which are the real aims for knowledge. The Theory of Forms is Plato's answer to the problem "how one unchanging reality or essential being can admit of many changing phenomena (and not just by dismissing them as being mere illusion)."  In "The Republic", Plato argues that the "real objects of knowledge are not the changing objects of the senses, but the immutable Forms," stating that the "Form of the Good" is the highest object of knowledge. His argument culminates in the Allegory of the Cave, in which he argues that humans are like prisoners in a cave, who can only see shadows of the Real, the "Form of the Good". Humans are to be educated to search for knowledge, by turning away from their bodily desires toward higher contemplation, culminating in an intellectual understanding or apprehension of the Forms, c.q. the "first principles of all knowledge."  According to Cook, the "Theory of Forms" has a theological flavour, and had a strong influence on the ideas of his Neo-Platonist interpreters Proclus and Plotinus. The pursuit of "Truth, Beauty and Goodness" became a central element in the apophatic tradition, but nevertheless, according to Carabine "Plato himself cannot be regarded as the founder of the negative way." Carabine warns not to read later Neo-Platonic and Christian understandings into Plato, and notes that Plato did not identify his Forms with "one transcendent source," an identification which his later interpreters made.

Middle Platonism.

Middle Platonism (1st century BC–3rd century AD) further investigated Plato's "Unwritten Doctrines," which drew on Pythagoras' first principles of the Monad and the Dyad (matter). Middle Platonism proposed a hierarchy of being, with God as its first principle at its top, identifying it with Plato's "Form of the Good". An influential proponent of Middle Platonism was Philo (c. 25 BC–c. 50 AD), who employed Middle Platonic philosophy in his interpretation of the Hebrew scriptures, and asserted a strong influence on early Christianity. According to Craig D. Allert, "Philo made a monumental contribution to the creation of a vocabulary for use in negative statements about God." For Philo, God is undescribable, and he uses terms which emphasize God's transcendence.

Neo-Platonism.

Neo-Platonism was a mystical or contemplative form of Platonism, which "developed outside the mainstream of Academic Platonism." It started with the writings of Plotinus (204/5–270), and ended with the closing of the Platonic Academy by Emperor Justinian in 529 AD, when the pagan traditions were ousted. It is a product of Hellenistic syncretism, which developed due to the crossover between Greek thought and the Jewish scriptures, and also gave birth to Gnosticism. Proclus was the last head of the Platonic Academy; his student Pseudo-Dinosysius had a far-stretching Neo-Platonic influence on Christianity and Christian mysticism.

Plotinus.

Plotinus (204/5–270) was the founder of Neo-Platonism. In the Neo-Platonic philosophy of Plotinus and Proclus, the first principle became even more elevated as a radical unity, which was presented as an unknowable Absolute. For Plotinus, "the One" is the first principle, from which everything else emanates. He took it from Plato's writings, identifying the Good of the "Republic", as the cause of the other Forms, with "the One" of the first hypothesis of the second part of the "Parmenides". For Plotinus, "the One" precedes the Forms, and "is beyond Mind and indeed beyond Being." From "the One" comes the Intellect, which contains all the Forms. "The One" is the principle of Being, while the Forms are the principle of the essence of beings, and the intelligibility which can recognize them as such. Plotinus's third principle is Soul, the desire for objects external to the person. The highest satisfaction of desire is the contemplation of "the One", which unites all existents "as a single, all-pervasive reality."  "The One" is radically simple, and does not even have self-knowledge, since self-knowledge would imply multiplicity. Nevertheless, Plotinus does urge for a search for the Absolute, turning inward and becoming aware of the "presence of the intellect in the human soul," initiating an ascent of the soul by abstraction or "taking away," culminating in a sudden appearance of "the One". In the "Enneads" Plotinus writes: Carabine notes that Plotinus' apophasis is not just a mental exercise, an acknowledgement of the unknowability of "the One", but a means to "ecstasis" and an ascent to "the unapproachable light that is God." Pao-Shen Ho, investigating what are Plotinus' methods for reaching "henosis", concludes that "Plotinus' mystical teaching is made up of two practices only, namely philosophy and negative theology." According to Moore, Plotinus appeals to the "non-discursive, intuitive faculty of the soul," by "calling for a sort of prayer, an invocation of the deity, that will permit the soul to lift itself up to the unmediated, direct, and intimate contemplation of that which exceeds it (V.1.6)." Pao-Shen Ho further notes that "for Plotinus, mystical experience is irreducible to philosophical arguments." The argumentation about "henosis" is preceded by the actual experience of it, and can only be understood when "henosis" has been attained. Ho further notes that Plotinus's writings have a didactic flavour, aiming to "bring his own soul and "the souls of others" by way of Intellect to union with the One." As such, the "Enneads" as a spiritual or ascetic teaching device, akin to "The Cloud of Unknowing", demonstrating the methods of philosophical and apophatic inquiry. Ultimately, this leads to silence and the abandonment of all intellectual inquiry, leaving contemplation and unity.

Proclus.

Proclus (412-485) introduced the terminology which is being used in apophatic and cataphatic theology. He did this in the second book of his "Platonic Theology", arguing that Plato states that "the One" can be revealed "through analogy," and that "through negations ["dia ton apophaseon"] its transcendence over everything can be shown." For Proclus, apophatic and cataphonic theology form a contemplatory pair, with the apophatic approach corresponding to the manifestation of the world from "the One", and cataphonic theology corresponding to the return to "the One". The analogies are affirmations which direct us toward "the One", while the negations underlie the confirmations, being closer to "the One". According to Luz, Proclus also attracted students from other faiths, including the Samaritan Marinus. Luz notes that "Marinus' Samaritan origins with its Abrahamic notion of a single ineffable Name of God () should also have been in many ways compatible with the school's ineffable and apophatic divine principle."

Christianity.

Apostolic Age.

The Book of Revelation mentions "the silence of the perpetual choir in heaven." According to Dan Merkur,

Early Church Fathers.

The Early Church Fathers were influenced by Philo (c. 25 BC – c. 50 AD), who saw Moses as "the model of human virtue and Sinai as the archetype of man's ascent into the "luminous darkness" of God." His interpretation of Moses was followed by Clement of Alexandria, Origen, the Cappadocian Fathers, Pseudo-Dionysius, and Maximus the Confessor.  God's appearance to Moses in the burning bush was often elaborated on by the Early Church Fathers, especially Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 – c. 395), realizing the fundamental unknowability of God; an exegesis which continued in the medieval mystical tradition. Their response is that, although God is unknowable, Jesus as person can be followed, since "following Christ is the human way of seeing God."  Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c. 215) was an early proponent of apophatic theology. Clement holds that God is unknowable, although God’s unknowability, concerns only his essence, not his energies, or powers. According to R.A. Baker, in Clement's writings the term "theoria" develops further from a mere intellectual "seeing" toward a spiritual form of contemplation. Clement's apophatic theology or philosophy is closely related to this kind of "theoria" and the "mystic vision of the soul." For Clement, God is transcendent and immanent. According to Baker, Clement's apophaticism is mainly driven not by Biblical texts, but by the Platonic tradition. His conception of an ineffable God is a synthesis of Plato and Philo, as seen from a Biblical perspective. According to Osborne, it is a synthesis in a Biblical framework; according to Baker, while the Platonic tradition accounts for the negative approach, the Biblical tradition accounts for the positive approach. "Theoria" and abstraction is the means to conceive of this ineffable God; it is preceded by dispassion.  According to Tertullian (c. 155 – c. 240), Saint Cyril of Jerusalem (313-386), in his "Catechetical Homilies", states:  Augustine of Hippo (354-430) defined God "aliud, aliud valde", meaning "other, completely other", in "Confessions" 7.10.16, wrote "Si [enim] comprehendis, non est Deus", meaning "if you understand [something], it is not God", in "Sermo 117.3.5" ("PL" 38, 663), and a famous legend tells that, while walking along the Mediterranean shoreline meditating on the mystery of the Trinity, he met a child who with a seashell (or a little pail) was trying to pour the whole sea into a small hole dug in the sand. Augustine told him that it was impossible to enclose the immensity of the sea in such a small opening, and the child replied that it was equally impossible to try to understand the infinity of God within the limited confines of the human mind.

The Chalcedonian Christological dogma.

The Christological dogma, formulated by the Fourth Ecumenical Council held in Chalcedon in 451, is based on dyophysitism and hypostatic union, concepts used to describe the union of humanity and divinity in a single hypostasis, or individual existence, that of Jesus Christ. This remains transcendent to our rational categories, a mystery which has to be guarded by apophatic language, as it is a personal union of a singularly unique kind.

Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite.

Apophatic theology found its most influential expression in the works of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (late 5th to early 6th century), a student of Proclus (412-485), combining a Christian worldview with Neo-Platonic ideas. He is a constant factor in the contemplative tradition of the eastern Orthodox Churches, and from the 9th century onwards his writings also had a strong impact on western mysticism.  Dionysius the Areopagite was a pseudonym, taken from Acts of the Apostles chapter 17, in which Paul gives a missionary speech to the court of the Areopagus in Athens. In Paul makes a reference to an altar-inscription, dedicated to the Unknown God, "a safety measure honoring foreign gods still unknown to the Hellenistic world." For Paul, Jesus Christ is this unknown God, and as a result of Paul's speech Dionysius the Areopagite converts to Christianity. Yet, according to Stang, for Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite Athens is also the place of Neo-Platonic wisdom, and the term "unknown God" is a reversal of Paul's preaching toward an integration of Christianity with Neo-Platonism, and the union with the "unknown God."  According to Corrigan and Harrington, "Dionysius' central concern is how a triune God,... who is utterly unknowable, unrestricted being, beyond individual substances, beyond even goodness, can become manifest to, in, and through the whole of creation in order to bring back all things to the hidden darkness of their source." Drawing on Neo-Platonism, Pseudo-Dionysius described human ascent to divinity as a process of purgation, illumination and union. Another Neo-Platonic influence was his description of the cosmos as a series of hierarchies, which overcome the distance between God and humans.

Eastern Orthodox Christianity.

In Orthodox Christianity apophatic theology is taught as superior to cataphatic theology. The fourth-century Cappadocian Fathers stated a belief in the existence of God, but an existence unlike that of everything else: everything else that exists was created, but the Creator transcends this existence, is uncreated. The essence of God is completely unknowable; mankind can know God only through His energies. Gregory of Nyssa (c.335-c.395), John Chrysostom (c. 349 – 407), and Basil the Great (329-379) emphasized the importance of negative theology to an orthodox understanding of God. John of Damascus (c.675/676–749) employed negative theology when he wrote that positive statements about God reveal "not the nature, but the things around the nature."  Maximus the Confessor (580-622) took over Pseudo-Dionysius' ideas, and had a strong influence on the theology and contemplative practices of the Eastern Orthodox Churches. Gregory Palamas (1296–1359) formulated the definite theology of Hesychasm, the Orthodox practices of contemplative prayer and theosis, "deification."  Influential modern Eastern Orthodox theologians are Vladimir Lossky, John Meyendorff, John S. Romanides and Georges Florovsky. Lossky argues, based on his reading of Dionysius and Maximus Confessor, that positive theology is always inferior to negative theology which is a step along the way to the superior knowledge attained by negation. This is expressed in the idea that mysticism is the expression of dogmatic theology "par excellence".  According to Lossky, outside of directly revealed knowledge through Scripture and Sacred Tradition, such as the Trinitarian nature of God, God in His essence is beyond the limits of what human beings (or even angels) can understand. He is transcendent in essence ("ousia"). Further knowledge must be sought in a direct experience of God or His indestructible energies through "theoria" (vision of God). According to Aristotle Papanikolaou, in Eastern Christianity, God is immanent in his hypostasis or existences.

Western Christianity.

Negative theology has a place in the Western Christian tradition as well. The 9th-century theologian John Scotus Erigena wrote:  When he says ""He is not anything"" and ""God is not"", Scotus does not mean that there is no God, but that God cannot be said to exist in the way that creation exists, i.e. that God is uncreated. He is using apophatic language to emphasise that God is "other".  Theologians like Meister Eckhart and John of the Cross (San Juan de la Cruz) exemplify some aspects of or tendencies towards the apophatic tradition in the West. The medieval work, "The Cloud of Unknowing" and Saint John's "Dark Night of the Soul" are particularly well known. In 1215 apophatism became the official position of the Catholic Church, which, on the basis of Scripture and church tradition, during the Fourth Lateran Council formulated the following dogma:

The "via eminentiae".

Thomas Aquinas was born ten years later (1225-1274) and, although in his "Summa Theologiae" he quotes Pseudo-Dionysius 1,760 times, stating that "Now, because we cannot know what God is, but rather what He is not, we have no means for considering how God is, but rather how He is not" and leaving the work unfinished because it was like "straw" compared to what had been revealed to him, his reading in a neo-Aristotelian key of the conciliar declaration overthrew its meaning inaugurating the "analogical way" as "tertium" between "via negativa" and "via positiva": the "via eminentiae" (see also "analogia entis"). According to Adrian Langdon, According to "Catholic Encyclopedia", the "Doctor Angelicus" and the scholastici declare [that] Since then Thomism has played a decisive role in resizing the negative or apophatic tradition of the magisterium.

20th century.

Apophatic statements are still crucial to many modern theologians, restarting in the 1800s by Søren Kierkegaard (see his concept of the infinite qualitative distinction) up to Rudolf Otto, Karl Barth (see their idea of "Wholly Other", i.e. "ganz Andere" or "totaliter aliter"), the Ludwig Wittgenstein of the "Tractatus", and Martin Heidegger after his "kehre".  C. S. Lewis, in his book "Miracles" (1947), advocates the use of negative theology when first thinking about God, in order to cleanse our minds of misconceptions. He goes on to say we must then refill our minds with the truth about God, untainted by mythology, bad analogies or false mind-pictures.  The mid-20th century Dutch philosopher Herman Dooyeweerd, who is often associated with a neo-Calvinistic tradition, provides a philosophical foundation for understanding why we can never absolutely know God, and yet, paradoxically, truly know something of God. Dooyeweerd made a sharp distinction between theoretical and pre-theoretical attitudes of thought. Most of the discussion of knowledge of God presupposes theoretical knowledge, in which we reflect and try to define and discuss. Theoretical knowing, by its very nature, is never absolute, always depends on religious presuppositions, and cannot grasp either God or the law side. Pre-theoretical knowing, on the other hand, is intimate engagement, and exhibits a diverse range of aspects. Pre-theoretical intuition, on the other hand, can grasp at least the law side. Knowledge of God, as God wishes to reveal it, is pre-theoretical, immediate and intuitive, never theoretical in nature. The philosopher Leo Strauss considered that the Bible, for example, should be treated as pre-theoretical (everyday) rather than theoretical in what it contains.  Ivan Illich (1926-2002), the historian and social critic, can be read as an apophatic theologian, according to a longtime collaborator, Lee Hoinacki, in a paper presented in memory of Illich, called "Why Philia?"

21st century.

According to Deirdre Carabine, negative theology has become a hot topic since the 1990s, resulting from a broad effort in the 19 and 20th century to portray Plato as a mysticist, which revived the interest in Neoplatonism and negative theology.  Karen Armstrong, in her book "The Case for God" (2009), notices a recovery of apophatic theology in postmodern theology.

Islam.

The Arabic term for "negative theology" is "lahoot salbi", which is a "system of theology" or "nizaam al lahoot" in Arabic. Different traditions/doctrine schools in Islam called Kalam schools (see Islamic schools and branches) use different theological approaches or "nizaam al lahoot" in approaching God in Islam ("Allah", Arabic الله) or the ultimate reality. The "lahoot salbi" or "negative theology" involves the use of "ta'til", which means "negation," and the followers of the Mu'tazili school of Kalam, founded by Imam Wasil ibn Ata, are often called the "Mu'attili", because they are frequent users of the "ta'tili" methodology.  Rajab ʿAlī Tabrīzī, an Iranian and Shiat philosopher and mystic of the 17th century. instilled a radical apophatic theology in a generation of philosophers and theologians whose influence extended into the Qajar period. Mulla Rajab affirmed the completely unknowable, unqualifiable, and attributeless nature of God and upheld a general view concerning God’s attributes which can only be negatively ‘affirmed’, by means of the via negativa.  Shia Islam adopted "negative theology". In the words of the Persian Ismaili missionary, Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani: "There does not exist a tanzíh ["transcendence"] more brilliant and more splendid than that by which we establish the absolute transcendence of our Originator through the use of these phrases in which a negative and a negative of a negative apply to the thing denied." Early Sunni scholars who held to a literal reading of the Quran and hadith rejected this view, adhering to its opposite, believing that the Attributes of God such as "Hand", "Foot" etc... should be taken literally and that, therefore, God is like a human being. Today, most Sunnis, like the Ash'ari and Maturidi, adhere to a middle path between negation and anthropomorphism.

Judaism.

Maimonides (1135/1138-1204) was "the most influential medieval Jewish exponent of the "via negativa"." Maimonides, but also Samuel ibn Tibbon, draw on Bahya ibn Paquda, who shows that our inability to describe God is related to the fact of His absolute unity. God, as the entity which is "truly One" (האחד האמת), must be free of properties and is thus unlike anything else and indescribable. According to Rabbi Yosef Wineberg, Maimonides stated that "[God] is knowledge," and saw His Essence, Being, and knowledge as completely one, "a perfect unity and not a composite at all." Wineberg quotes Maimonides as stating In "The Guide for the Perplexed", Maimonides stated: According to Fagenblat, it is only in the modern period that negative theology really gains importance in Jewish thought. Yeshayahu Leibowitz (1903-1994) was a prominent modern exponent of Jewish negative theology. According to Leibowitz, a person's faith is his commitment to obey God, meaning God's commandments, and this has nothing to do with a person’s image of God. This must be so because Leibowitz thought that God cannot be described, that God's understanding is not man's understanding, and thus all the questions asked of God are out of place.

Indian parallels.

There are interesting parallels in Indian thought, which developed largely separate from Western thought. Early Indian philosophical works which have apophatic themes include the Principal Upanishads (800 BCE to the start of common era) and the Brahma Sutras (from 450 BCE and 200 CE). An expression of negative theology is found in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, where Brahman is described as "neti neti" or "neither this, nor that". Further use of apophatic theology is found in the Brahma Sutras, which state:  Buddhist philosophy has also strongly advocated the way of negation, beginning with the Buddha's own theory of anatta (not-atman, not-self) which denies any truly existent and unchanging essence of a person. Madhyamaka is a Buddhist philosophical school founded by Nagarjuna (2nd-3rd century AD), which is based on a fourfold negation of all assertions and concepts and promotes the theory of emptiness (shunyata). Apophatic assertions are also an important feature of Mahayana sutras, especially the prajñaparamita genre. These currents of negative theology are visible in all forms of Buddhism.  Apophatic movements in medieval Hindu philosophy are visible in the works of Shankara (8th century), a philosopher of Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism), and Bhartṛhari (5th century), a grammarian. While Shankara holds that the transcendent noumenon, Brahman, is realized by the means of negation of every phenomenon including language, Bhartṛhari theorizes that language has both phenomenal and noumenal dimensions, the latter of which manifests Brahman.  In Advaita, Brahman is defined as being Nirguna or without qualities. Anything imaginable or conceivable is not deemed to be the ultimate reality. The Taittiriya hymn speaks of Brahman as "one where the mind does not reach". Yet the Hindu scriptures often speak of Brahman's positive aspect. For instance, Brahman is often equated with bliss. These contradictory descriptions of Brahman are used to show that the attributes of Brahman are similar to ones experienced by mortals, but not the same.  Negative theology also figures in the Buddhist and Hindu polemics. The arguments go something like this – Is Brahman an object of experience? If so, how do you convey this experience to others who have not had a similar experience? The only way possible is to relate this unique experience to common experiences while explicitly negating their sameness.

Apophatic theology and atheism.

Even though the "via negativa" essentially rejects theological understanding in and of itself as a path to God, some have sought to make it into an intellectual exercise, by describing God only in terms of what God is not. One problem noted with this approach is that there seems to be no fixed basis on deciding what God is not, unless the Divine is understood as an abstract experience of full aliveness unique to each individual consciousness, and universally, the perfect goodness applicable to the whole field of reality. Apophatic theology is often accused of being a version of atheism or agnosticism, since it cannot say truly that God exists. "The comparison is crude, however, for conventional atheism treats the existence of God as a predicate that can be denied (“God is nonexistent”), whereas negative theology denies that God has predicates". "God or the Divine is" without being able to attribute qualities about "what He is" would be the prerequisite of positive theology in negative theology that distinguishes theism from atheism. "Negative theology is a complement to, not the enemy of, positive theology". Since religious experience—or consciousness of the holy or sacred, is not reducible to other kinds of human experience, an abstract understanding of religious experience cannot be used as evidence or proof that religious discourse or praxis can have no meaning or value. In apophatic theology, the negation of theisms in the "via negativa" also requires the negation of their correlative atheisms if the dialectical method it employs is to maintain integrity.

Apophatic theology, also known as negative theology, is a form of theological thinking and religious practice which attempts to approach God, the Divine, by negation, to speak only in terms of what may not be said about the perfect goodness that is God. It forms a pair together with cataphatic theology, which approaches God or the Divine by affirmations or positive statements about what God "is".

Apofatická teologie (z řec. "ἀπόφημι" – apophēmi, „popírat“), též negativní teologie či via negativa je teologie, která se snaží popsat Boha negativními (popíravými) výroky. Vychází z toho, že Bůh natolik přesahuje stvoření a lidskou mysl, že pozitivní výroky o něm jsou v podstatě nepravdivé pro svou neúplnost a nedostatečnost a jsou jen podobenstvími, metaforami či paradoxy.


Early life.

Wilson was born in Shelby, Mississippi, and at the age of 16 moved to Detroit, Michigan where he graduated from Cass Technical High School (one of his classmates was saxophonist Wardell Gray). He joined the Jimmie Lunceford orchestra in 1939, replacing its trumpeter and arranger, Sy Oliver. While with Lunceford, Wilson contributed songs to the band, including "Hi Spook" and "Yard-dog Mazurka", the first influenced by Ellington's recording of "Caravan" and the latter an influence on Stan Kenton's "Intermission Riff".  During World War II, Wilson also performed for a brief time with the U.S. Navy, with Clark Terry, Willie Smith and Jimmy Nottingham. Around 2005, many of the members of the band reunited as The Great Lakes Experience Big Band" with Wilson conducting and Ernie Andrews making a guest appearance at the invitation of Clark Terry. Wilson also played and arranged for the bands of Benny Carter, Duke Ellington, Count Basie and Dizzy Gillespie.

Career.

Wilson formed his own band, with some success in the mid-1940s. Wilson and His 20-Pc. Recording Orchestra performed at the famed twelfth Cavalcade of Jazz held at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles which was produced by Leon Hefflin, Sr. on September 2, 1956. Also performing that day were Dinah Washington, The Mel Williams Dots, Julie Stevens, Little Richard, Chuck Higgin's Orchestra, Willie Hayden & Five Black Birds, The Premiers, Bo Rhambo, and Jerry Gray and his Orchestra.  In 1960, he formed a Los Angeles-based band that began a series of critically acclaimed recordings for the Pacific Jazz label. His 1968 album "California Soul" featured a title track written by Ashford & Simpson, as well as a version of The Doors' hit "Light My Fire". Musicians in the band at various times included lead trumpeter Snooky Young, trumpet soloist Carmell Jones and saxophonists Bud Shank, Joe Maini, Harold Land, Teddy Edwards, and Don Raffell. The rhythm section included guitarist Joe Pass, Richard Holmes (organist), vibists Roy Ayers and Bobby Hutcherson, and drummers Mel Lewis and Mel Lee.  Wilson's wife of more than 50 years, Josefina Villasenor Wilson, is Mexican-American, and a number of his compositions showed his love of Spanish/Mexican themes, especially "Viva Tirado", which later became a hit for the rock band El Chicano. Along with his wife, Wilson had three daughters (Jeri, Lillian (Teri) and Nancy Jo), his son Anthony (who is guitarist for Diana Krall), and a number of grandchildren, all of whom have songs composed for them - his compositions were often inspired by his family members.  Wilson continued leading bands and recording in later decades for the Discovery and MAMA labels. Recent musicians included Luis Bonilla, Rick Baptist, Randall Willis, Wilson's son-in-law Shuggie Otis and son Anthony Wilson (both guitarists); his grandson Eric Otis also played on such recordings. Wilson continued to record Spanish-flavored compositions, notably the bravura trumpet solos "Carlos" (named for Mexican matador Carlos Arruza, and recorded three times over the years, featuring trumpeters Jimmy Owens, Oscar Brashear, and Ron Barrows) and "Lomelin" (also named for a matador—Antonio Lomelin—and recorded twice, with solos by Oscar Brashear and Jon Faddis).  The National Endowment for the Arts named Wilson an NEA Jazz Master in 1990. In 1998 Wilson received a commission from the Monterey Jazz Festival for an original composition, resulting in "Theme for Monterey", which was performed at that year's festival. In later years, he formed orchestras on the West and East coasts, each with local outstanding musicians. He also made special appearances as guest conductor, including with the Carnegie Hall Jazz Band (now the Jon Faddis Jazz Orchestra of New York), the Lincoln Center Jazz Orchestra, the Chicago Jazz Ensemble and European radio jazz orchestras, conducting the BBC Big Band in 2005. He hosted an innovative show, in the 1970s, on KBCA in Los Angeles, which was co-hosted by Dennis Smith, where he played "...music of the past, the present, and the future."  Wilson was a member of the faculty at California State University, Los Angeles and the University of California, Los Angeles, for many years recently winning a "teacher of the year" award. In the 1970s he also served on the faculty at California State University, Northridge, where he taught Jazz History to wide acclaim among the student body, and has also taught at Cal Arts in Los Angeles.  In February 2006, Wynton Marsalis and the Lincoln Center Jazz Orchestra performed his music with Gerald Wilson conducting. He had a unique style of conducting: "Garbed in well tailored suits, his long white hair flowing, Wilson shaped the music with dynamic movements and the elegant grace of a modern dancer." Asked about his style of conducting by Terry Gross on the NPR show "Fresh Air" in 2006, he replied, "It's different from any style you've ever seen before. I move. I choreograph the music as I conduct. You see, I point it out, everything you're to listen to."  In June 2007, Wilson returned to the studio with producer Al Pryor and an all-star big band to record a special album of compositions commissioned and premiered at the Monterey Jazz Festival for the festival's 50th anniversary. Wilson had helped lead celebrations of the festival's 20th and 40th anniversary with his specially commissioned works (1998's Grammy-nominated album "Theme for Monterey"). The album "Monterey Moods" was released on Mack Avenue Records in September 2007. In September 2009, Wilson conducted his eight-movement suite "Detroit", commissioned by the Detroit Jazz Festival to mark its 30th anniversary. The work includes a movement entitled "Cass Tech" in honor of his high school alma mater. In 2011, his last recording was the Grammy nominated "Legacy".

Death.

Wilson died at his home in Los Angeles, California, on September 8, 2014, four days after his 96th birthday, after a brief illness that followed a bout of pneumonia, which had hospitalized him.

Awards and honors.

Grammy nominations  Grammy Award nominated and winning singles or albums contributed to! Year! Grammy category! Album or Single! Primary artist! Label! Role/Content composed or arranged! Honor

Discography.

As sideman.

With Buddy Collette  With Duke Ellington  With Jimmy Witherspoon  With others

Gerald Stanley Wilson (September 4, 1918 – September 8, 2014) was an American jazz trumpeter, big band bandleader, composer, arranger, and educator. Born in Mississippi, he was based in Los Angeles from the early 1940s. In addition to being a band leader, Wilson wrote arrangements for Duke Ellington, Sarah Vaughan, Ray Charles, Julie London, Dizzy Gillespie, Ella Fitzgerald, Benny Carter, Lionel Hampton, Billie Holiday, Dinah Washington, and Nancy Wilson.

Gerald Wilson (4. září 1918 Shelby, Mississippi, USA − 8. září 2014 Los Angeles, Kalifornie, USA) byl americký jazzový trumpetista, hudební skladatel a aranžér. V roce 1939 nastoupil do orchestru Jimmieho Lunceforda, kde působil jako aranžér a trumpetista. Jako aranžér pracoval i s dalšími hudebníky, mezi něž patří Dizzy Gillespie, Lionel Hampton nebo Sarah Vaughan. Od čtyřicátých let měl vlastní skupiny. V roce 1990 získal ocenění NEA Jazz Masters. V roce 2006 jeho tvorbu zahrál Wynton Marsalis při koncertě v Lincoln Center Jazz Orchestra, který Wilson dirigoval. Zemřel v roce 2014 na zápal plic ve věku 96 let. Jeho synem byl jazzový kytarista Anthony Wilson.


History.

Edward Robinson in the early 19th century thought Al-Bireh was the biblical Be'eroth, but modern scholars believe Be'eroth was located at Kh. el-Burj near Beit Iksa.  Claude Reignier Conder and others identified it with Beirothah of the Samaritan chronicles.  The Crusaders captured and named the town Birra. It was also called Castrum Mahomeria, Magna Mahomeria or Mahomeria Major. It was one of 21 villages given by King Godfrey as a fief to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In 1114, the gift was re-confirmed by Baldwin I of Jerusalem.  In 1156, 92 people from "Mahomeria" pledged their allegiance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and a further 50 names were added in the next three decades. Hence, it has been estimated that the total Frankish population at this time was 500–700.  The Crusaders built a castle, church and hospice there. The latter two buildings were built by the Knights Templar in 1146 and belonged to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The Ayyubids under Saladin drove away the Crusaders from Birra when they reconquered interior Palestine after the Battle of Hattin in 1187, and completely demolished the town. Yaqut al-Hamawi mentions seeing the ruins a few times during his travels in the area. Nearing the end of Ayyubid rule, in 1280, the modern town of al-Bireh was an inhabited village. The Ayyubids built a mosque in the town dedicated to Umar ibn al-Khattab adjacent to the church ruins.  Potsherds from the Crusader/Ayyubid era have been found.

Ottoman era.

Al-Bireh, like the rest of Palestine, was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517, and in the census of 1596 the village, called Bira al-Kubra, was a part of the "nahiya" ("subdistrict") of Al-Quds which was under the administration of the "liwa" ("district") of Al-Quds. It had a population of 45 households, all Muslim, and paid taxes on wheat, barley, olive trees, fruit trees, occasional revenues, beehives and/or goats; a total of 4,570 akçe. Half of the revenue went to a waqf.  In the spring of 1697, Henry Maundrell noted at Al Bireh, which he called "Beer", the remains of a Church, which he wrote was built by Empress Helena.  After the 1834 Arab revolt in Palestine, the Ottoman authorities conscripted many men from Al-Bireh as soldiers. In 1838, when Robinson visited, 60 had been taken away to be soldiers, out of a total population of 700. Robinson noted it as a Muslim village, "el-Bireh", located in the area immediately north of Jerusalem.  When French explorer Victor Guérin visited the village in 1863, he found it to have 800 inhabitants.  Socin, citing an official Ottoman village list compiled around 1870, noted that Al-Bireh had a population of 399 Muslims in 142 houses, and 20 "Greeks" in 5 houses, though that population count included only men. It was further noted that the name meant "The cistern". Hartmann found that Al-Bireh had 142 houses.  In 1883, the PEF's "Survey of Western Palestine" (SWP) described Bireh as a good-sized village, with "fairly well built" houses.  In 1896 the population of Bireh was estimated to be about 1,080 persons.  Until 1917, the city served as a political and administrative center for the Ottoman Empire.

British Mandate era.

In the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by the British Mandate authorities, "Al-Bireh" had a population of 1,479; 1,407 Muslims, and 72 Christians, where the Christians were 61 Orthodox, 3 Roman Catholics and 8 "other". The population had increased in the 1931 census to 2,292; 2,044 Muslim and 248 Christians, in 541 houses.  In the 1945 statistics, the town's residents numbered 2,920; of which 280 were Christians and 2,640 Muslims, while urban Bireh had 967 dunams of land, and rural Bireh 22,045 dunams, according to an official land and population survey. Of this, 5,162 dunams were plantations and irrigable land, 11,226 used for cereals, while 759 dunams were built-up (urban) land.

Jordanian era.

In the wake of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and the 1949 Armistice Agreements, Al-Bireh came under Jordanian rule.  In 1961, the population of "Bira" was 14,510.

Post-1967 era.

During the Six-Day War, on June 6, 1967, Israeli troops occupied the city, and Al-Bireh has been under Israeli occupation since.  Israel confiscated 346 dunams of land from Al-Bireh in order to build the Israeli settlement of Beit El (established in 1977) in addition to 780 dunams in order to build Pesagot (established in 1981).  In 1994, the civil administration of the city was turned over to the Palestinian National Authority under the Oslo Accords. Al-Bireh is the second largest center of Palestinian administration after Gaza. Besides the governor's headquarters, it also hosts a considerable number of governmental, non-governmental, and private organizations, including the Ministries of Transportation, Supply, Information, Public Works and Higher Education, as well as the Palestine Broadcasting Corporation and the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics. Due to its proximity with Ramallah, the cities form a single constituency for elections to the Palestinian National Authority.  After the 1995 accords, 39.8% of village land was classified as Area A, 5% as Area B, while the remaining 55.2% was classified as Area C.

Demographics.

The 1997 census carried out by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics counted 27,856 residents, exactly half male and half female. The majority of the inhabitants were Palestinian refugees who made up 55.4% of the total population. In the 2007 PCBS census, there were 38,202 people living in the city.  Al-Bireh is inhabited by 5 major clans: Qur'an, Hamayel, 'Abed, Qaraqra, At Taweel and Ar Rafidi.

Government.

Al-Bireh established a city council headed by mayor Eid Musa in 1928 under the British Mandate. Eight other mayors took office either through elections or government appointments. The city had some well known mayors, including Abudul Jawad Saleh who was mayor in the 1970s until exiled by the Israelis. He later went on to become a member of the PLO executive committee and then minister of agriculture in the Palestinian Authority. In 1982, Israel instated a civil administration, but later appointed an Arab mayor, Hassan al-Tawil. In 1988, after two years in office, he was stabbed and critically wounded outside his office. In 1996, a 12-member municipal council was established by the Palestinian National Authority with Sheikh Jamal al-Tawil as mayor.  In the Palestinian municipal elections in 2005, the Hamas-backed Reform and Change List won 9 of the 15 seats, while independent lists won the remaining 6. The current mayor is Azzam Esmail.  In 2010, a public square in al-Bireh was dedicated to the memory of Dalal Mughrabi, leader of an attack that killed 38 Israeli civilians, including 13 children, in 1978.

Health and education.

In 2010, the Jerusalem Fund, National Arab American Medical Association Foundation and Physicians for Peace dedicated the Palestine Diabetes Institute in al-Bireh. Al-Quds University maintains a campus in al-Bireh.

Sports.

The 7,000-seat Majed Ass'ad or Al Bireh International Stadium was completed in 2010; originally constructed in 1996, it was upgraded to international standards from 2006 to 2010 at a cost of €3 million. The work was funded by France, the German Development Bank, the UN Development Agency, and FIFA. Construction was halted by the Israeli Supreme Planning Council on November 1, 2009, but resumed in late December. In November 2009, the nearby settlement of Psagot petitioned the High Court of Justice to have the stadium shut down, citing concerns that rowdy soccer fans might attack Psagot.  Al Bireh Youth Foundation is the most prominent sports club in the city, mostly famous for its football teams and ancient scouts association.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Al-Bireh is twinned with:

Al-Bireh, al-Birah, or el-Bira (; also known historically as Castrum Mahomeria, Magna Mahomeria, Mahomeria Major, Birra, or Beirothah) is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank, north of Jerusalem. It is situated on the central ridge running through the West Bank and is above sea level, covering an area of.

Al-Bíra (arabsky, také "al-Bíre") je město na Západním břehu Jordánu v guvernorátu Ramalláh - al-Bíra. Je spravováno vládou Státu Palestina. Nachází se 15 km na sever od Jeruzaléma na předměstí Ramalláhu. Jméno znamená „studna“ a je zřejmě odvozené od biblického Be'erot.


History.

Arcade was chartered in 1909. Early plans to erect an arcade-style schoolhouse accounts for the name.

Geography.

Arcade is located in southern Jackson County at (34.076951, -83.551147). It is bordered to the north by Jefferson, the county seat.  U.S. Route 129 passes through the southern side of the city, leading northwest to Interstate 85 in the northern outskirts of Jefferson, and southeast to Athens. Georgia State Route 82 leads south from Arcade to Winder.  According to the United States Census Bureau, Arcade has a total area of, of which are land and, or 0.90%, are water.  Arcade does not have its own ZIP code, but instead uses neighboring Jefferson's code of 30549.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 1,643 people, 565 households, and 457 families residing in the city. The population density was 254.2 people per square mile (98.2/km). There were 609 housing units at an average density of 94.2 per square mile (36.4/km). The racial makeup of the city was 88.37% White, 7.18% African American, 0.06% Native American, 2.31% Asian, 0.67% from other races, and 1.40% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.70% of the population.  There were 565 households, out of which 42.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.5% were married couples living together, 11.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.1% were non-families. 15.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 1.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.91 and the average family size was 3.19.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 29.8% under the age of 18, 8.8% from 18 to 24, 35.5% from 25 to 44, 20.8% from 45 to 64, and 5.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.4 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $37,604, and the median income for a family was $37,750. Males had a median income of $31,914 versus $21,602 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,159. About 11.9% of families and 12.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.8% of those under age 18 and 12.5% of those age 65 or over.

Arcade is a city in Jackson County, Georgia, United States. As of the 2010 census it had a population of 1,786.

Arcade je město v Jackson County, v Georgii, ve Spojených státech amerických. V roce 2011 žilo ve městě 1792 obyvatel.


College.

She attended the University of South Carolina, graduating with a bachelor's degree from the Moore School of Business in 1999.

Professional.

Williams-Darling had a breakout year in 2004. She started with a bronze medal at the 2004 IAAF World Indoor Championships in Budapest, Hungary, running a personal best behind Russia's Natalya Nazarova and Olesya Krasnomovets. Then in July, at the Rome meeting of the IAAF Golden League, Tonique broke Mexican world champion Ana Guevara's 23 race winning streak in the 400 meter race.  At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece Williams-Darling beat Guevara again. In a head to head final straight, she proved to be more powerful than the Mexican runner who had been hampered with injuries and trained only on a limited basis prior to the Games. Winning the race, she became the Bahamas' first individual Olympic gold medalist.  After the Olympics she secured the win in the overall Golden League-jackpot, cashing in US $500,000 after splitting the US $1M pot with Christian Olsson.  She also won the gold medal in the 400 meters at 2005 World Championships in Athletics, in a head-to-head race with American 400-meter specialist Sanya Richards. At the 2006 Commonwealth Games, despite being the favourite, she was beaten unexpectedly both in her semi-final and the final by Christine Ohuruogu of England, claiming silver instead.  Williams-Darling took the 2007 season off to nurse a hamstring injury and did not compete during the 2008 season.  In November 2012, she was elected as Public Relations Director of the Bahamas Association of Athletic Associations (BAAA) for the period 2012-2015.

Other.

She is married to fellow Bahamian Track and Field athlete Dennis Darling and is the sister-in-law of NFL wide receiver Devard Darling and Devaughn Darling.  For her achievements to date, the Bahamas Government has honoured Tonique by naming a major highway the "Tonique Williams-Darling Highway."

Tonique Williams-Darling (born January 17, 1976 in Nassau, Bahamas) is a Bahamian sprint athlete. She won the gold medal in the 400 meters at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece. She graduated from St. John's College Bahamas (high school).

Tonique Williams-Darling (* 17. ledna 1976 Nassau) je bývalá bahamská atletka, sprinterka, olympijská vítězka v běhu na 400 metrů z roku 2004.


Club career.

Early career.

Born in Maipú, Mendoza, Pérez began his career in Deportivo Maipú, like his father, and started his professional playing career with Godoy Cruz, where he wrote his name into club history by scoring a fifth-minute goal in the 1–1 draw with Belgrano on 9 September 2006. This was the first goal ever scored by Godoy Cruz in the Argentine first division. In total, he scored 12 goals in his career at Godoy Cruz, most coming from penalties. In 2007, Pérez joined Estudiantes de La Plata, where he finished as runner-up with the team in the 2008 Copa Sudamericana. He was then a first team regular in the team that won the 2009 Copa Libertadores.

Benfica.

On 8 June 2011, Pérez signed a five-year contract with Portuguese club Benfica for a fee rumored to be around €5.5 million for his full rights from Estudiantes. After a serious knee injury sustained in the Champions League qualifiers, Pérez was loaned back to Estudiantes for six months on 9 February 2012.  On 27 July 2012, at the Eusébio Cup, Pérez scored a long-range goal against Real Madrid from a tight angle to complete a 5–2 win.  In the 2012–13 season, Pérez was successfully converted into a central midfielder, partnering with Nemanja Matić, assuming a central role in the team.  In the 2013–14 season, his influence was further increased after the departure of Matić to Chelsea on 15 January 2014, becoming a vital piece in Benfica's domestic treble (Primeira Liga, Taça de Portugal and Taça da Liga) and their second consecutive Europa League Final. Pérez, however, was not present in the eventual loss on penalties (4–2) to Sevilla in the final, having picked up a suspension in the semi-final against Juventus on 1 May 2014. His performances attracted attention from other clubs, while Benfica manager Jorge Jesus named Pérez his side's most difficult player to replace and the "brain" of the team. On 6 July 2014, Pérez won the Player of the Year award.  At the beginning of the 2014–15 season, Pérez won the Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira, thus winning all four Portuguese titles with Benfica in the 2014 calendar year.

Valencia, River Plate.

On 2 January 2015, Spanish La Liga club Valencia CF signed Pérez for a transfer fee of €25 million, the tenth-highest ever fee for an Argentine player. On 4 January, he debuted for Valencia in a home win over Real Madrid (2–1) in La Liga.  On 29 June 2017, Pérez returned to Argentina and signed for River Plate.

International career.

Pérez made his Argentina senior squad debut on 30 September 2009 under then-manager Diego Maradona in a friendly match against Ghana, an eventual 2–0 victory for the "Albicelestes".  On 2 June 2014, Pérez was called up for the 2014 FIFA World Cup by manager Alejandro Sabella. After midfielder Ángel Di María sustained an injury in the quarter-finals, Pérez started in his placed in both the semi-final and final against Germany, which Argentina lost 1–0 after extra time.  In May 2018, Pérez was named in Argentina's preliminary squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, but did not make the final list. However, on 9 June 2018, he was called up as a replacement for the injured Manuel Lanzini.

Honours.

Godoy Cruz  Estudiantes  Benfica  River Plate Argentina  Individual

Enzo Nicolás Pérez (; born 22 February 1986) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a central midfielder for CA River Plate and the Argentina national team.

Enzo Nicolás Pérez (* 22. února 1986, Maipú, Mendoza, Argentina) je argentinský fotbalový záložník a reprezentant, od ledna 2015 působí v klubu Valencia CF.


History.

In 2003 the impending end of Microsoft's support for Windows NT 4.0 led Munich City Council to commission a report on choices for a successor for use on its office computers. The report yielded two main alternatives, either migration to Windows XP or a move to a free, open source operating system based on Linux with an accompanying emphasis on web browsers as OS-neutral application clients.  A majority of Council members voted for the Linux-based solution, which was dubbed LiMux, referencing the M on Munich vehicle registrations and MUC, the code of International Air Transport Association (IATA) for Munich airport. On 16 May 2007, the TÜV confirmed by a comprehensive certification process, the usability of the LiMux-based client as a user interface for interactive computer systems according to the ISO standard 9241-110.  The migration was interrupted in the summer of 2004, because the city wanted to investigate the legal implications of software patents. In late 2006, the actual migration began.  A tool called Wollmux was developed to extend OpenOffice capabilities in areas required by Munich Council, including managing consistent letterheads, form templates, saved blocks of standard text, document versioning and merging. Wollmux was released in May 2008.  In May 2009, 1800 workstations were converted to Linux, and 12,000 received OpenOffice. By October 2013, the city of Munich had migrated over 15,000 desktop PCs (of about 18,000 desktops) to Linux and OpenOffice.org. The usability project group interviewed users regularly to achieve a good fit to the needs.  In 2014, Munich deputy mayor, Josef Schmid, and mayor, Dieter Reiter, considered going back to Windows due to alleged productivity problems. However, Stefan Hauf, the spokesman of the Munich city council stated that the majority of issues stem from compatibility issues in OpenOffice, something which could be solved by switching to LibreOffice. Moreover, the head of municipal IT services, Karl-Heinz Schneider, stated that most things were fine, and they had managed saved some 10 million euros (more than 13 million dollars). He emphasized that the number of complaints and malfunctions hadn't exceeded the usual level for an organization of this size. Microsoft had announced in 2013 its willingness to move its German headquarters to Munich in 2016, which according to Reiter though, is unrelated to the criticism they've presented against the LiMux project.  In November 2017 Munich city council decided to revert to Windows by 2020 with all systems being replaced by Windows 10 counterparts. Some of the reasons cited were adoption and users being unhappy with the lack of software available for Linux. A report commissioned by Munich and undertaken by Accenture, found the most important issues were organizational.  In 2018, journalistic group Investigate Europe released a video documentary via German public television network ARD that claimed that the majority of city workers were satisfied with the operating system, with council members insinuating that the reversal was a personally motivated decision by lord mayor Dieter Reiter. Reiter denied that he had initiated the reversal in gratitude for Microsoft moving its German headquarters from Unterschleißheim back to Munich.

Objectives.

The main goal was to achieve more independence from software distributors. The decision in 2003 had two components: to get free software running on most desktops, and to buy and develop web-based and platform independent (e.g. Java-based) business applications. A core goal was to reduce reliance of Microsoft-based software stacks and fund local developers to write replacement software.

LiMux client software.

LiMux Client 4.0 was released in August 2011, based on Ubuntu 10.04 LTS with KDE desktop 3.5. It included OpenOffice.org 3.2.1, Mozilla Thunderbird and Mozilla Firefox and other free software products.  LiMux Client version 5.0 was released in November 2014, based on Ubuntu 12.04 LTS with KDE SC 4.12 as the desktop. The default office suite was LibreOffice 4.1. Mozilla Firefox and Mozilla Thunderbird were included in their Extended Support Release versions.  LiMux Client Version 5.5 based on Ubuntu 14.04 LTS with KDE 4.14.3a, LibreOffice 4.15.23.0, and Firefox 24.8.1 (optional 45.5.1)  LiMux Client version 6.0 offers KDE Plasma 5, Firefox 60 ESR, and Okular as Adobe Reader replacement. First rollout was done in April 2019 and is estimated to be fully rolled out in 2020.

LiMux was a project launched by the city of Munich in 2004 in order to migrate from Windows to a desktop infrastructure of its own, based on Linux. By 2012, the city had already migrated 12 600 of the total of 15 500 desktops, until in November 2017, the Munich City Council ("Stadtrat") resolved to reverse the migration and return to Microsoft Windows-based software by 2020. In May 2020 however, it was reported that the newly elected politicians in Munich will go back to the original plan of migrating to LiMux.

LiMux je projekt radnice německého velkoměsta Mnichov, jehož cílem je provozovat na městských počítačích (včetně zhruba 15 000 osobních počítačů a notebooků) převážně svobodný software. Současně se jedná o název za tímto účelem vznikající linuxové distribuce postavené nejprve čistě na Debianu a později na Ubuntu. Jedná se o první linuxový systém certifikovaný pro průmyslové užití (ISO 9241) dle TÜV.


History.

Barnesville was founded in 1826 and named for Gideon Barnes, proprietor of a local tavern. In 1920, Barnesville was designated seat of the newly formed Lamar County.  Barnesville served as a major hospital site for wounded southern troops during the Civil War. Local families took wounded soldiers into their homes and treated them, with highly successful recovery rates. Major General William B. Bate, CSA of Hardees Corps., wounded in Atlanta at Utoy Creek on August 10, 1864, was treated here. After the war, General Bate was elected governor of Tennessee and served in the United States Senate until his death in 1912. He commented on his successful recovery as a result of the kindness of the local populace in Barnesville.

Notable weather events.

On the morning of April 28, 2011, at 12:38 A.M., a tornado rated EF3 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale with winds touched down in Pike County, south of Meansville. The tornado went on to destroy several homes in Barnesville. Two deaths occurred in Barnesville along Grove Street. The tornado also destroyed a Chevron gas station and a church in Barnesville. Three tractor trailers were blown off Interstate 75 at approximately 1:02 A.M. This tornado was part of the 2011 Super Outbreak.

Geography.

Barnesville is located south of the center of Lamar County at (33.053090, -84.156217). U.S. Route 41 passes through the western, southern, and eastern outskirts of the city on a bypass; the highway leads northwest to Griffin and east to Forsyth. U.S. Route 341 branches off US 41 on the south side of Barnesville and leads southeast to Perry, where it rejoins US 41. Georgia State Route 18 follows US 41 around the southern and eastern sides of Barnesville but leads west to Zebulon. State Route 36 follows the western side of the Barnesville bypass and leads northeast to Jackson and southwest to Thomaston.  According to the United States Census Bureau, Barnesville has a total area of, of which are land and, or 0.78%, are water.  Barnesville sits on a low ridge at an elevation of above sea level. Hog Mountain rises above the city to the north, with a summit elevation of. The north side of the city drains via Big Towaliga Creek to the Little Towaliga River, the Towaliga River, and eventually the Ocmulgee River. The east side drains via Tobesofkee Creek to the Ocmulgee south of Macon. The south end of the city drains via Tobler Creek to the Flint River, and the west side drains via Little Potato Creek, then Potato Creek, to the Flint River. Because the Ocmulgee River ultimately drains to the Atlantic Ocean and the Flint River ultimately to the Gulf of Mexico, Barnesville sits on the Eastern Continental Divide.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2011, there were 6,669 people, 2,079 households, and 1,382 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,055.9 people per square mile (407.4/km). There were 2,257 housing units at an average density of 399.1 per square mile (154.0/km). The racial makeup of the city was 48.11% White, 49.87% African American, 0.15% Native American, 0.33% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.57% from other races, and 0.94% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.69% of the population.  There were 2,079 households, out of which 31.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.1% were married couples living together, 25.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.5% were non-families. 29.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 3.04.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 23.6% under the age of 18, 17.7% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 18.5% from 45 to 64, and 13.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 83.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.6 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $30,375, and the median income for a family was $36,492. Males had a median income of $26,740 versus $20,160 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,423. About 16.1% of families and 20.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 31.5% of those under age 18 and 15.6% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

Lamar County School District.

The Lamar County School District holds pre-school to grade twelve, and consists of two elementary schools, a middle school, and a high school. The district has 143 full-time teachers and over 2,600 students.

Annual events and festivals.

The Barnesville-Lamar County Chamber of Commerce hosts three annual festivals each year.  Nearby events include the following,

Featured in media.

Music.

Barnesville was the location of an auto accident that killed 16-year-old Jeanette Clark, who was on a date with J.L. Hancock, also 16, on December 22, 1962. This accident was rumored to be the inspiration of the hit song "Last Kiss" written by Wayne Cochran, Joe Carpenter, Randall Hoyal & Bobby McGlon (1961). Hancock was driving a 1954 Chevrolet on the Saturday before Christmas with some friends. In heavy traffic on U.S. Highway 341 their car hit a tractor-trailer carrying a load of logs. Clark, Hancock and Wayne Cooper were killed. Cochran lived on Georgia's Route 19/41 when he wrote "Last Kiss", only 15 miles away from the crash site. He rerecorded "Last Kiss" for release on King Records in 1963 and dedicated it to Clark, a fact which probably explains the association of the song with the tragic crash.

Television.

The 2018 HBO miniseries "Sharp Objects", starring Amy Adams, filmed many of its exterior scenes for the fictional town of Wind Gap, Missouri, in Barnesville and the surrounding area. A large mural reading "Welcome to Wind Gap" remains in the town painted by artist Andrew Patrick Henry.

Barnesville is a city in Lamar County, Georgia, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 6,755, up from 5,972 at the 2000 census. The city is the county seat of Lamar County.

Barnesville je město v Forsyth County, v Georgii, ve Spojených státech amerických. V roce 2011 žilo ve městě 6669 obyvatel. Město patří do části Atlanta Metropolitan Area. Kdysi dávno bylo město přezdíváno jako "Hlavní město Kočárků Světa". Na přelomu století vyrobily ročně ve městě 16000 kočárků. Každý rok v třetím týdnu září město hostí každoroční ́ ́Kočárkové Dny ́ ́.


Early life.

Kopelev was born in Kiev, then Russian Empire, to a middle-class Jewish family. In 1926, his family moved to Kharkov. While a student at Kharkov State University's philosophy faculty, Kopelev began writing in Russian and Ukrainian languages; some of his articles were published in the "Komsomolskaya Pravda" newspaper.  An idealist communist and active Bolshevik, he was first arrested in March 1929 for "consorting with the Bukharinist and Trotskyist opposition," and spent ten days in prison.

Career.

Later, he worked as an editor of radio news broadcasts at a locomotive factory. In 1932, as a correspondent, Kopelev witnessed the NKVD's forced grain requisitioning and the dekulakization. Later, he described the Holodomor in his memoirs "The Education of a True Believer". Robert Conquest's "The Harvest of Sorrow" later quoted him directly (see also Collectivisation in the USSR).  He graduated from the Moscow State Institute of Foreign Languages in 1935 in the German language faculty, and, after 1938, he taught at the Moscow Institute of Philosophy, Literature and History where he earned a PhD.  When the German–Soviet War broke out in June 1941, he volunteered for the Red Army and used his knowledge of German to serve as a propaganda officer and an interpreter. When he entered East Prussia with the Red Army throughout the East Prussian Offensive, he sharply criticized the atrocities against the German civilian population and was arrested in 1945 and sentenced to a ten-year term in the Gulag for fostering "bourgeois humanism" and for "compassion towards the enemy". In the sharashka Marfino he met Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. Kopelev became a prototype for Rubin from "The First Circle".  Released in 1954, in 1956 he was rehabilitated. Still an optimist and believer in the ideals of communism, during the Khrushchev Thaw he restored his Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) membership. From 1957–1969 he taught in the Moscow Institute of Polygraphy and the Institute of History of Arts. It was Kopelev who approached Aleksandr Tvardovsky, editor of the top Soviet literary journal, the "Novy Mir" (New World) to urge publication of Solzhenitsyn's "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich".  From 1968 onward Kopelev actively participated in the human rights and dissident movement. In 1968 he was fired from his job and expelled from the CPSU and the Writers' Union for signing protest letters against the persecution of dissidents, publicly supporting Andrei Sinyavsky and Yuli Daniel and actively denouncing the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. He also protested Solzhenitsyn's expulsion from the Writers' Union and wrote in defense of dissenting General Pyotr Grigorenko, imprisoned at a psikhushka.  Kopelev's books were distributed via samizdat (underground publishing), smuggled out of Russia and published in the West.  For his political activism and contacts with the West, he was deprived of the right to teach or be published in 1977.

Germany.

As a scientist, Kopelev led a research project on the history of Russian-German cultural links at the University of Wuppertal. In 1980, while he was on a study trip to West Germany, his Soviet citizenship was revoked. After 1981 Kopelev was a Professor at the University of Wuppertal.  Kopelev was an honorary PhD at the University of Cologne and a winner of many international awards. In 1990 Soviet premier Mikhail Gorbachev restored his Soviet citizenship.

Personal life.

Kopelev was married for many years to Raisa Orlova, a Soviet specialist in American literature, who emigrated with him to Germany. Her memoirs were published in the United States in 1984.

Death.

Lev Kopelev died in Cologne, Germany on June 18, 1997 at the age of 85, and was buried in the New Donskoy Cemetery in Moscow.

Lev Zalmanovich (Zinovyevich) Kopelev (, German: Lew Sinowjewitsch Kopelew, 9 April 1912, Kiev – 18 June 1997, Cologne) was a Soviet author and dissident.

Lev Zinovjevič Kopelev (rusky "лев зиновьевич копелев"; 9. dubna 1912 Kyjev − 18. června 1997 Kolín nad Rýnem) byl sovětský spisovatel, disident a humanista.


History.

Bethlehem was incorporated in 1902 by an act of the Georgia General Assembly. The town took its name from the local Bethlehem Methodist Church.

Geography.

Bethlehem is located in southern Barrow County at (33.936492, -83.710481), south of Winder, the county seat.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of, all land.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 716 people, 254 households, and 199 families residing in the town. The population density was 331.8 people per square mile (128.0/km). There were 265 housing units at an average density of 122.8 per square mile (47.4/km). The racial makeup of the town was 85.61% White, 14.75% African American, 0.14% Native American, 2.93% Asian, 6.01% from other races, and 0.56% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.54% of the population.  There were 254 households, out of which 40.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69.7% were married couples living together, 5.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.3% were non-families. 18.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.82 and the average family size was 3.19.  In the town, the population was spread out, with 29.2% under the age of 18, 8.4% from 18 to 24, 35.2% from 25 to 44, 17.5% from 45 to 64, and 9.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 106.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.6 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $47,500, and the median income for a family was $50,625. Males had a median income of $35,714 versus $25,163 for females. The per capita income for the town was $17,214. About 3.4% of families and 3.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.2% of those under age 18 and 24.1% of those age 65 or over.

Bethlehem is a town in Barrow County, Georgia, United States. As of the 2010 census, it had a population of 601.

Bethlehem je město v Barrow County, v Georgii, ve Spojených státech amerických. V roce 2011 žilo ve městě 609 obyvatel.


Colour light signals.

Semi-automatic signals.

Semi-automatic is the most important type of signal on Polish railways. Its name reflects the fact that it switches to a red (stop) aspect automatically after a train has passed it but it must be switched back to clear by an explicit action from a signal box or dispatch centre. It is the typical signal in use at stations.  A semi-automatic signal can be recognized by its post which is painted with red and white strips. Dwarf versions have their boxes painted so.  A red (stop) aspect on a semi-automatic signal must not be passed.  As presented on this compact chart, semi-automatic signals can display both near and distant functions. Near signals either command a stop or impose a certain speed limit beginning at that signal. Distant signals tell the driver what to expect at the next signal, especially when braking is required.

Other speeds.

Since 2007 the Ie-1 code which regards signalling allows other speed limits. They are indicated by a number representing the speed in tens of km/h (e.g. 5 means 50 km/h) which is lit only with adequate aspect of the signal. These numbers are incorporated into signalling so, that they always loosen the restriction presented by the aspect of signal.  On distant signals and repeaters these other speeds are not displayed, therefore more restrictive aspect is effectively announced.

Nameplates.

Semi-automatic signals on a station are tagged with consecutive letters of Latin alphabet, or with a letter followed by a number.  The nameplates also contain speed indication which appears as a superscript or a fraction. The numbers have following meaning:  Therefore, a nameplate H / means a signal named H that aside S1 will also display S2-S5 aspects for straight direction and S10-S13 for diverging direction. Whereas P3 means a signal of name P3 that aside S1 only displays S10-S13 aspects because it is only followed by diverging direction.  There may also be a letter m which specifies that this signal also functions as a shunting signal (see below).

Automatic signals.

Automatic signals are used on lines equipped with automatic block signaling. Their colour language is the same as aspects S1-S5 of semi-automatic signals. The main difference regards the S1 (red) aspect - After stopping, it can be passed but the subsequent maximum speed is limited to 20 km/h.  Automatic signals have their posts painted white (without red strips) to be easily distinguished from semi-automatic signals.

Distant-only signals.

Distant-only signal (Pol. "tarcza ostrzegawcza" literally meaning "warning shield") is used on lines not equipped with ABS and lines with 2-state ABS. These signals are usually placed at braking distance from the next signal. The aspects they display are the same as signal aspects S2-S5, making them technically a signal which is just incapable of displaying a S1 (stop) aspect.  Their posts are painted grey and equipped with a distant-only signal sign.

Repeater signals.

When a signal aspect is not visible from the proper distance (because of track curves for instance), a repeater signal is installed to aid drivers. Up to three repeaters may be installed if needed. A repeater signal is not a substitute for a distant-only signal. Their posts are painted grey and equipped with plates with Roman numerals: III, II, I where the "I" stands closest to the main signal. Their colour language is identical to warning shields, except the fact they also have a continuously glowing white light, which informs that this is not a main signal but a repeater. The following table presents as an example, a station-entry signal designated "B" displaying the aspect S13 (speed limit 40 km/h, stop at the next signal) preceded with distant-only signal and three repeaters:

Level crossing warning.

Level crossing warning is placed in a braking distance before an automatic level crossing. The signal tells the driver whether automobile drivers are warned about an approaching train (blinking red lights, barriers). Normally, level crossing warning signals display no aspect (i.e. are unlit). They light up in the front of an approaching train which is the first clue that the system is working correctly.  Level crossing warning signals are unrelated to other signals, therefore in case of "Osp1" signal a train must proceed at 20 km/h regardless the higher speed allowed by last signal.  Their posts are painted black and white strips.

Shunting signals.

Shunting signal (Pol. "tarcza manewrowa" literally "manoeuver shield") is used exclusively at stations. A consist shunting on such signals must not leave the station. Shunting signals are either stand-alone or incorporated into semi-automatic signals, which bear letter "m" on such occasions.  Stand-alone shunting signals have their posts painted gray, except in the case it is a part of the semi-automatic signal, which is painted white-red stripes.

Old colour light signals.

The colour light signals installed between 1959 and 1969 differ from the contemporary system. They are still in use on several stations. As a matter of fact they can also be used with ETCS Level 1, only the LEU unit must be reprogrammed to understand certain combinations of lights differently.

The Polish railway signalling system provides a complex outlook of traffic situations, yet is quite easy to understand. Signals can be divided into following categories:

Polská návěstní soustava dává strojvedoucímu celkový přehled o dopravní situaci. Jedná se o rychlostní návěstní soustavu, podobnou soustavě používané v České republice na tratích Správy železnic. Návěstidla se dělí do těchto kategorií:


Plot.

The Slaters of Wolverhampton are plagued with Mrs. Slater's chronic debilitating asthma and her cooking limited to what comes in canned goods that she can heat in boiling water. Mr. Alan Slater is sick with worry and has a cantankerous personality. Nigel longs for a life that is more than a succession of canned-food dinners made from what can be heated in boiling water. When dinner is burnt, the standard substitute of toast is always served. He loves toast, with the crunchy outside giving way to buttery softness inside. Despite her infrequent forays into cooking meals from scratch, his mother's attempts to improve her cooking change nothing before or after her death. His father continues in widowhood with the same cooking style and frequent dinners of toast. The experience brings Nigel to conclude that he is not liked. Nigel learns from a friend that the way in which he could attempt a better relationship with his father is to cook a meal for him.  His cooking efforts are thwarted by the new housekeeper, the married and "common" Mrs. Joan Potter, who seduces Alan with her apple pie and array of gourmet meals. The two start to spend time together: at one point, she exiting her council house through an upstairs window so as not to be found out by her husband. Without announcement, the Slaters move to the Herefordshire countryside along with Mrs. Potter. Nigel co-exists with her but never accepts her. She makes a competition of cooking when the teenaged Nigel's shows an emerging interest in developing his skills at school home economics class cookery lessons. Mrs. Potter's lemon meringue pie becomes Nigel's quest to learn the secret recipe.  Alan's cantankerous nature returns with the endless eating that must be done with Mrs. Potter's excessive cooking, although he intends to marry her. The second Mrs. Slater makes every attempt to thwart Nigel's efforts at cooking by having him quit a Saturday job at a pub restaurant. His departing employment is not without benefit when a friendly walk with the pub owner's son, training at ballet school, stirs Nigel's sexual awareness with a kiss and encouragement to take a chance at the world despite being on his own.  Nigel finds his father has died while he was at the pub, resolves to make off for London and bewilders Mrs. Potter when he declares that she has won and he wants her out of his life. At The Savoy Hotel, he is interviewed for a kitchen job by a toast snacking chef and hired, much to his disbelief. Nigel is reassured by the chef that he will make it, has him put on a chef's jacket embroidered with "Savoy London" and Nigel cracks a smile.

Production.

The chief filming location was in Birmingham and Worcestershire with the Black Country Living Museum transformed into 1960's Wolverhampton, and in Walton Pool House in Clent. Principal sets were constructed in a disused bank on Broad St. The only inclement weather encountered during filming was at Penarth which resulted in script changes to reflect the cold wet conditions. Filming lasted from 21 June to 24 July 2010.

Toast is a British biographical comedy-drama film written and directed by S. J. Clarkson, it is based on the autobiographical novel of the same name by the cookery writer Nigel Slater. The cast includes Freddie Highmore, Helena Bonham Carter, Ken Stott and Oscar Kennedy. It received a gala at the 2011 Berlin Film Festival. As a television film it was first broadcast on BBC One on 30 December 2010 and was given a theatrical release in cinemas on 11 August 2011.

Toast je britský televizní film z roku 2010, který režíroval S. J. Clarkson. Film byl natočen podle autobiografického románu britského kuchaře Nigela Slatera z roku 2004. Slater sám si ve filmu zahrál epizodní roli šéfkuchaře hotelu Savoy.


Geography.

Bloomingdale is located along the northwestern border of Chatham County at (32.124122, -81.307211). It is bordered to the northeast by Port Wentworth, to the east by Pooler, to the south by a western portion of Savannah, and to the northwest by Effingham County. U.S. Route 80 runs east–west through the center of Bloomingdale, and Interstate 16 runs parallel to it through the southern part of the city, with access from Exit 152. Both highways lead east to downtown Savannah.  According to the United States Census Bureau, Bloomingdale has a total area of, of which is land and, or 8.90%, is water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2010, there were 2,713 people, 1,001 households, and 752 families residing in the city. The population density was 193.6 people per square mile (74.7/km). There were 1,141 housing units at an average density of 81.4 per square mile (31.43/km). The racial makeup of the city was 89.0% White, 8.0% African American, 1.5% Asian, 1.0% Native American, 1.7% from other races, and 1.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.7% of the population.  There were 1,141 households, out of which 30.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.8% were married couples living together, 12.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.8% were non-families. 22.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.05.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 23.8% under the age of 18, 8.3% from 18 to 24, 27.4% from 25 to 44, 27.9% from 45 to 64, and 12.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37.4 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.1 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $51,510, and the median income for a family was $55,950. Males had a median income of $37,404 versus $22,409 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,030. About 3.8% of families and 8.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.0% of those under age 18 and 21.2% of those age 65 or over.

Bloomingdale is a city in Chatham County, Georgia, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 2,713. It is part of the Savannah Metropolitan Statistical Area.

Bloomingdale je město v Chatham County, v Georgii, ve Spojených státech amerických. V roce 2011 žilo ve městě 2715 obyvatel.


History.

The land for Lee, Muscogee, Troup, Coweta and Carroll counties was ceded by the Creek people in the 1825 Treaty of Indian Springs. The counties' boundaries were created by the Georgia General Assembly on June 9, 1826, but they were not named until December 14, 1826. Coweta County was named for the Koweta Indians (a sub-group of the Creek people), who had several towns in and around the present-day county.  In the city of Newnan, on April 23, 1899, a notorious lynching occurred after an African-American man by the name of Sam Hose (born Tom Wilkes) was accused of killing his boss, Alfred Cranford. Hose was tortured and burned alive by a lynch mob of approximately 2,000 citizens of Coweta County.  On August 9, 1882, Aleck Brown was lynched.

Government and politics.

The legislative body of is the Coweta County Commission, which consists of five members elected from numbered districts. The chairmanship rotates among the members. Coweta County is the only county in Georgia that operates with a rotating chairmanship.  In the General Assembly, it is currently divided between State House district 70, 71, 72 and 132, and is within State Senate district 28 (currently held by Matt Brass). In Congress, it is in the 3rd congressional district, currently represented by Drew Ferguson.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (1.1%) is water. The county is located in the Piedmont region of the state.  The eastern half of Coweta County, from Palmetto southwest to Newnan, then south to Luthersville, is in the Upper Flint River sub-basin of the ACF River Basin (Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint River Basin). The western half is in the Middle Chattahoochee River-Lake Harding sub-basin of the same ACF River Basin.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 89,215 people, 31,442 households, and 24,713 families living in the county. The population density was 202 people per square mile (78/km2). There were 33,182 housing units at an average density of 75 per square mile (29/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 78.86% White, 17.97% Black or African American, 0.23% Native American, 0.68% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 1.22% from other races, and 1.02% from two or more races. 3.14% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 31,442 households out of which 39.90% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.50% were married couples living together, 12.20% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.40% were non-families. Of all households 17.60% were made up of individuals and 5.70% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.81 and the average family size was 3.17.  In the county, the population was spread out with 28.70% under the age of 18, 7.60% from 18 to 24, 33.40% from 25 to 44, 21.80% from 45 to 64, and 8.50% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.40 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $52,706, and the median income for a family was $58,750. Males had a median income of $41,369 versus $27,322 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,949. About 6.10% of families and 7.80% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.60% of those under age 18 and 10.50% of those age 65 or over.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 127,317 people, 45,673 households, and 34,737 families living in the county. The population density was. There were 50,171 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 75.9% white, 17.3% black or African American, 1.5% Asian, 0.3% American Indian, 0.1% Pacific islander, 2.9% from other races, and 2.1% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 6.7% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 22.2% were American, 10.4% were German, 10.4% were Irish, and 9.9% were English.  Of the 45,673 households, 41.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.5% were married couples living together, 13.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 23.9% were non-families, and 19.6% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.18. The median age was 36.6 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $61,550 and the median income for a family was $68,469. Males had a median income of $51,658 versus $36,535 for females. The per capita income for the county was $26,161. About 7.7% of families and 10.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.4% of those under age 18 and 7.9% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

The Coweta County School System holds pre-school to grade 12, and consists of nineteen elementary schools, six middle schools and three high schools. The system has 1,164 full-time teachers and more than 18,389 students. Private schools in the county include The Heritage School and Trinity Christian School.  Mercer University has a Regional Academic Center in Newnan. The center, opened in 2010, offers programs through the university's College of Continuing and Professional Studies. The University of West Georgia has a campus near downtown Newnan on the site of the old Newnan Hospital. This campus offers two undergraduate programs - bachelor of science in nursing and early childhood education.  Newnan is also home to a campus of West Georgia Technical College.

Coweta County is a county located in the west central portion of the U.S. state of Georgia. It is part of Metro Atlanta. As of the 2010 census, the population was 127,317. The county seat is Newnan.

Coweta County je okres ve státě Georgie ve Spojených státech amerických. K roku 2010 zde žilo 127 317 obyvatel. Správním městem okresu je Newnan. Celková rozloha okresu činí 1 155 km2. Vznikl v roce 1826.


History.

On December 13, 1858, the Georgia General Assembly passed a bill establishing Echols County from a south-eastern section of Lowndes County and a south-western section Clinch County. The original borders of the county were a line from the mouth of the Suwanoochee Creek directly south to the state line, then along the state line, then north to the junction of Grand Bay Creek and Mud Swamp, then up the course of Grand Bay Creek to Carter's Ford, then a direct line to where Cow's Creek enters the Alapaha River, then up the creek to Griffins' Mill, then a direct line to Jack's Fort on Suwanoochee Creek, and then down Suwanoochee Creek to its mouth. With the exception of some minor adjustments of the border Echols shares with Lowndes and the loss of a thin strip to Florida following "Florida v. Georgia", the borders of Echols County has changed little since its establishment. Statenville was declared the county seat in 1859.  At the time of the 1860 census, Echols County had a white population of 1,177, with 314 slaves, and no free people of color.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (1.4%) is water. The county contains a notable swamp, Whitehead Bay.  The western half of Echols County is located in the Alapaha River sub-basin of the Suwannee River basin. The eastern half of the county, from well east of Statenville to just west of Fargo, is located in the Upper Suwannee River sub-basin of the same Suwannee River basin.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 3,754 people, 1,264 households, and 936 families living in the county. The population density was 9 people per square mile (4/km2). There were 1,482 housing units at an average density of 4 per square mile (1/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 77.14% White, 6.93% Black or African American, 1.15% Native American, 0.08% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 13.69% from other races, and 0.99% from two or more races. 19.69% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 1,264 households out of which 38.10% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.60% were married couples living together, 10.80% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.90% were non-families. 18.70% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.97 and the average family size was 3.26.  In the county, the population was spread out with 29.30% under the age of 18, 12.50% from 18 to 24, 30.80% from 25 to 44, 18.30% from 45 to 64, and 9.10% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females there were 116.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 114.60 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $25,851, and the median income for a family was $27,700. Males had a median income of $24,650 versus $17,297 for females. The per capita income for the county was $15,727. 28.70% of the population and 22.30% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 33.10% are under the age of 18 and 29.80% are 65 or older.

2005 Estimates.

In 2005 63.1% of the county population was non-Hispanic whites, 27.3% Hispanics, 8.8% African-Americans and 1.0% Native Americans.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 4,034 people, 1,329 households, and 1,029 families living in the county. The population density was. There were 1,558 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 74.9% white, 4.2% black or African American, 1.8% American Indian, 0.3% Asian, 15.8% from other races, and 2.8% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 29.3% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 11.8% were German, 8.6% were Irish, 5.8% were American, and 5.3% were English.  Of the 1,329 households, 43.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.8% were married couples living together, 14.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 22.6% were non-families, and 16.7% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 3.04 and the average family size was 3.33. The median age was 31.4 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $32,390 and the median income for a family was $33,664. Males had a median income of $28,613 versus $20,208 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,201. About 21.4% of families and 32.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 41.8% of those under age 18 and 6.1% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

Echols County School District operates public schools.

Echols County is a county located in the southeastern part of the U.S. state of Georgia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 4,034. The county seat is Statenville. Statenville is a disincorporated municipality. Echols and Webster counties are the only two counties in Georgia to currently have no incorporated municipalities. The county was established in 1858 and named in honor of Robert Milner Echols (1798–1847).

Echols County je okres ve státě Georgie ve Spojených státech amerických. K roku 2010 zde žilo 4 034 obyvatel. Správním městem okresu je Statenville. Celková rozloha okresu činí 1 090 km2. Vznikl v roce 1858.