Early life.

Childhood.

Isabella was born in Lisbon, Portugal on 24 October 1503 and named after her maternal grandmother and aunt, who had been her father's first wife. She was the second child and first daughter of King Manuel I of Portugal and his second wife, Maria of Aragon. Isabella was second-in-line to the throne until the birth of her brother Luis in 1506.  During her childhood, Isabella seemed to be close with her siblings. Their mother punished them "when they deserved it, without pardoning any of them." The Queen inculcated ambition and religious piety in Isabella and her sisters. At the age of 14, Isabella lost her mother and inherited her properties plus the income from Viseu and Torres Vedras.  Isabella was educated under the supervision of her governess Elvira de Mendoza. Her studies presumably included politics, mathematics, the languages of Latin, Spanish and French besides her native Portuguese, Renaissance classics, and the Christian doctrine. She had access to a vast library composed of works for prayer and more mundane works which were of her taste, especially on cavalry. The Infanta progressively became an intelligent young woman of regal dignity and strong character.

Engagement.

As the oldest daughter of Manuel I of Portugal, Isabella was a rather attractive candidate for marriage. Her mother left in her will and in a clear message to her husband, the desire that Isabella and her sisters should marry only a king or the legitimate son of kings. If not, they should become nuns. Isabella herself was determined to marry only the greatest king of Christian Europe.  The ideal candidate for Isabella's husband was her first cousin Charles, son of Maria's sister, Joanna of Castile, and Philip I of Castile. A marriage would bring a strong alliance between the kingdoms of Spain and Portugal in accordance with the wishes of their grandparents Isabella and Ferdinand: It would facilitate to continue the exploration of the oceans without incurring clashes, as Portugal was the only naval power that could question Spain's supremacy in the Atlantic ocean. As Charles was sovereign of multiple kingdoms, Spain needed allies and it was necessary that Portugal (Christendom's richest kingdom) fall under its orbit and not of France, which had happened in the War of Castilian Succession. Moreover, because Charles had been raised in Burgundy, the nobles and his Spanish subjects insisted that he marry someone from the Iberian peninsula, just like Isabella.  However, the 18-year-old King was in no hurry to marry and ignored the nobles' advice, instead sending his sister Eleanor to marry Isabella's widowed father in 1518. Charles's Flemish advisors, especially William de Croÿ, later convinced him to relegate the Portuguese alliance to the background and replace it with an alliance with England. In 1521, Charles became engaged to his other first cousin Mary Tudor, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, who was sixteen years younger than Charles and still a child. Their engagement sought to undo an alliance between England and France, articulated by the ambitious Cardinal Thomas Wolsey. Many in Portugal took the Infanta's rejection as an offence, but Isabella remained determined and hopeful that she would marry her powerful cousin. The choice was that she would marry only Charles or she would enter a convent.  By 1525, Charles was no longer interested in an alliance with England and could wait no longer for Mary Tudor to get older because he was determined to have legitimate children. His engagement was called off, the alliance with England was abandoned, and he finally sought to marry Isabella. There were many more advantages - she was closer to him in age (she was only three years his junior), fluent in Spanish, and offered a dowry of 900,000 Portuguese cruzados or Castilian folds, which was more than enough to solve many of his economic and financial problems brought on by the Italian War of 1521-26. The only further delay in the engagement stemmed from the size of the dowry that the groom demanded, but the King of Portugal agreed to provide 900,000 ducats. Charles wasted no time in securing a papal dispensation for first cousins and the marriage contract for an alliance with Portugal were made - Isabella would marry him and her brother, King John III of Portugal, would marry his youngest sister, Catherine of Austria. The young Emperor intended to wed and then leave his future wife as regent to govern Spain while he went to Central Europe to deal with political and religious troubles there.

Marriage.

In January 1526, Isabella travelled to Spain. Upon her arrival, she was met by the Duke of Calabria, the Archbishop of Toledo and the Duke of Béjar at the Spanish-Portuguese border. They escorted her to Seville, where she was to wait for Charles for a week. At the end, their wedding took place the very next day just after midnight on 11 March in the Palace of Alcázar of Seville.  Although their marriage was originally a political arrangement, Isabella captivated her husband, who tarried with her longer than anticipated. They honeymooned for several months at the Alhambra in Granada. Charles ordered the seeds of a Persian flower that had never been seen before in Spain to be planted in the gardens of the Alhambra. The seeds eventually grew into the red carnation and Isabella was so delighted by the new flower that her husband ordered thousands more to be planted in her honour. The red carnation later became Spain's floral emblem. Charles didn't leave Spain until July 1529.  Despite the mutual affection the royal couple shared, their marriage wasn't easy. Charles's first absence lasted from 1529 to April 1533. For two years, he remained in Spain, only to depart again in December 1536. Although he came back briefly in 1538, he left almost immediately, returning in November 1539. Isabella wrote to her husband regularly but often spent months without receiving letters. When she heard that her husband was about to return, she sent receptions with large parties.

Regency.

As Charles had planned, he appointed Isabella regent and governor of Spain during his absence from the peninsula to lead his military campaigns or attend the administration of his other kingdoms. She attended meetings of the governing councils and consulted with the ministers. As time passed, the Empress took a more active role in the policy-making process, suggesting her own solutions rather than merely accepting the advisors' recommendations. The Emperor considered her deliberations "very prudent and well thought out."

Economy.

Isabella was a profound connoisseur of the problems of the peninsular kingdoms, defending intransigently the good common to particular interests. At the external level, her sensible actions were decisive in the defence of the coasts of the peninsula and of North Africa, those infested by piracy. This allowed the flow of precious metals. Spain became one of the chief sources of the Imperial treasury.  Through her regencies, Isabella ensured that Spain remained independent of imperial policies and thus relatively prosperous during her lifetime. However, Castile became integrated into Charles's empire and suffered from high inflation after her death. The enormous budget deficit accumulated during her husband's reign, along with the inflation that affected the kingdom, resulted in declaring bankruptcy during the reign of Philip II.

Internal conflict.

During her time as regent, Isabella effectively defended the royal power and the monarch's supreme authority, something essential because of the previous rebellions against her the Emperor. She traveled regularly in the autumn between Toledo, Valladolid, Seville, Barcelona and Majorca. To deal with important matters of the empire, the royal couple wrote to each other more regularly.

Foreign policy.

Isabella actively participated in the negotiations of marital alliances between the French and Spanish royal families, concerned that her own young children wouldn't be forced to wed the much older offspring of King Francis I.

Health and death.

During several years, Isabella and the court traveled from city to city, moving in part to avoid exposure to epidemics. There is speculation that she may have suffered from consumption and its debilitating effects. A contemporary described Isabella not long before her death: "The Empress is the greatest pity in the world; she is so thin as to not resemble a person."  In 1539, Isabella became pregnant for the seventh time, but contracted another fever in the third month that caused antenatal complications and gave birth to a stillborn son. She died two weeks later on 1 May 1539 at the age of 35, without her husband present. The Emperor was left so devastated that he couldn't bring himself to accompany her body to the Royal Chapel of Granada, the burial place of the Catholic Monarchs. He instead instructed their son Philip to accompany his mother's body with Francis Borgia, 4th Duke of Gandía. Decomposition had so disfigured it, however, that Gandía couldn't recognize the Empress. He was allegedly so horrified at what death had done to her beauty that he later became a Jesuit, gaining fame as San Francisco de Borja. In 1574, the body of Empress Isabella was transferred by her son Philip II to the Royal Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, where she was originally interred into a small vault along with her husband directly underneath the altar of the Royal Chapel. This was done in accordance with Charles's last will and testament, in which he left a codicil asking for the establishment of a new religious foundation in which he and Isabella would be reburied together side by side, "half-body under the altar and half under the priest's feet". They remained in the Royal Chapel while the famous Basilica of the Monastery and the Royal Crypt were still under construction.  In 1654, after the Basilica and Royal Crypt were finally completed during the reign of their great-grandson Philip IV, the remains of Isabella and Charles were moved into the Royal Pantheon of Kings, which lies directly under the Basilica. On one side of the Basilica are bronze effigies of Charles and Isabella, with effigies of their daughter Maria of Austria and Charles's sisters, Eleanor of Austria and Maria of Hungary, behind them. Exactly adjacent to them on the opposite side of the Basilica are effigies of their son Philip with three of his wives and their ill-fated grandson, Carlos, Prince of Asturias.

Post-mortem influence.

In memory of Isabella, Charles commissioned several tributes through art and music, beginning in 1540 when he commissioned the Flemish composer Thomas Crecquillon to compose new music in honour of the Empress. Crecquillon composed his "Missa Mort m'a privé" as a memorial to Isabella, which expresses the Emperor's grief and great wish for a heavenly reunion with his wife. Another musical tribute to Isabella is "Carole cur defles Isabellam" that was composed in 1545 by the Franco-Flemish composer Nicolas Payen.  In 1543, Charles commissioned his favourite painter Titian to paint posthumous portraits of Isabella by using earlier ones of her as his model. Titian painted several portraits of the Empress, which included his "Portrait of The Empress Isabel of Portugal" and "La Gloria". He also painted a double portrait of the royal couple together, of which there is a copy by Peter Paul Rubens. Charles kept these portraits with him whenever he travelled and after he retired to the Monastery of Yuste in 1555.

Issue.

As agreed by the nobles, the children were raised in Spain. Isabella supervised their educations, especially that of her son, and personally taught them Portuguese.  As a grandson of Manuel I of Portugal through his mother, her son Phillip was in the line of succession to the throne of Portugal and claimed it after the death of Henry, the Cardinal-King in 1580, thus establishing the Iberian Union.

Cultural depictions.

Isabella of Portugal is portrayed by Blanca Suárez in the TVE series "Carlos, Rey Emperador".

Bibliography.

Isabella of Portugal (1503–1539)

Isabella of Portugal (24 October 1503 – 1 May 1539), also known as the "Empress of the Carnation", was Holy Roman Empress, Queen consort of Spain, Germany, and Italy, and Lady of the Netherlands by her marriage to her first cousin Emperor Charles V. She was regent of Spain during the years 1529-1533, 1537, and 1538-1539.

Isabela Portugalská (24. října 1503 Lisabon – 1. května 1539 Toledo) byla rodem portugalská infantka a sňatkem se španělským králem Karlem I. (známým spíše jako Karel V., císař Svaté říše římské) španělská královna a císařovna Svaté říše římské.


History.

The was formed in 1928, by the merger of the (the operator of the city's buses), the (the operator of the U-Bahn) and the (the operator of the city's trams). On 1 January 1938, the company was renamed, but the acronym BVG was retained.  From 1 August 1949, the BVG networks in West Berlin and East Berlin were operated separately. The two operators were originally known as and, but from 1 January 1969 the eastern operator was renamed as the or BVB. After the reunification of Berlin, the two operators were recombined into the on 1 January 1992.  Prior to the division of Berlin, tram lines existed throughout the city, but abandoned all the tram lines in its part of the city, replacing them all by buses by 1967. However retained its tram lines, and on the reunification of Berlin the BVG inherited a considerable network of routes in the eastern half of Berlin.  On 9 January 1984, took over the responsibility for operation of the services in West Berlin. This urban rail network had previously been operated in both halves of Berlin by the, the state rail operator of East Germany, but had been subject to a boycott in the west after the building of the Berlin Wall. With the reunification of Berlin, responsibility for the reverted to (DBAG), the state rail operator of Germany. The is currently managed by the, a subsidiary company of DBAG.  The BVG launched the on 12 December 2004 which remodeled the tram and bus network to create 24 tram and bus lines (with M prefix) covering parts of the city that weren't served by or.  In September 2019, BVG launched first in the world large scale Mobility as a service project “Jelbi” together with a Lithuanian mobility startup Trafi.

Operations.

BVG operates the, an urban rapid transit rail system. The now comprises nine lines with 173 stations and a total length of. Trains run every two to five minutes during peak hours, every five minutes for the rest of the day and every ten minutes in the evening and on Sunday.

Trams.

BVG operates a tram network comprising 22 tram lines with 377 stops and measuring in length. Of these, nine are designated as part of the, which provide a high frequency service in areas poorly served by the and. These tram lines are recognisable by an M prefix to their route number, and are the only tram routes to operate 24 hours a day.  Tram service is provided by 391 carriages, of which 154 are modern low floor carriages and 237 are older carriages. Virtually all of the remaining network is within the confines of the former East Berlin, as all the routes in the former West Berlin were abandoned during the period of the city's partition. However, there have been some extensions of routes across the former border since reunification, most remarkably to the city's new main railway station (lines M5, M8 and M10).

Buses.

BVG operates a network of 149 daytime bus routes serving 2634 stops and a total route length of, together with a night bus network of 63 bus routes serving 1508 stops and a total route length of. Seventeen of BVG's bus routes are designated as part of the, which provides a high frequency service in areas poorly served by the and. Like the tram routes, these routes can be recognised by an M prefix to their route number. A further 13 BVG-operated bus routes are express routes with an X prefix to their route number.  BVG bus service is provided by a fleet of 1349 buses, of which no fewer than 407 are double-decker buses. Whilst such buses are common in Ireland and the United Kingdom, their use elsewhere in Europe is extremely uncommon.  Route 218 is partially operated by ex-BVG vintage vehicles now in preservation but used in revenue-earning service. The services depart from every two hours from 11:15 to 19:15 and return from from 10:00 to 20:00.

Ferries.

Berlin has an extensive network of waterways within its city boundaries, including the Havel, Spree and Dahme rivers, and many linked lakes and canals. These are crossed by six passenger ferry routes that are operated by the BVG.

Fares.

The BVG is a member of the (VBB), the transport association run by public transport providers in the German states of Berlin and Brandenburg. This body provides a common fare structure that allows travel on various operators in and around Berlin.  All BVG services form part of the VBB's common public transport fare structure. This covers the city of Berlin and approximately beyond the city boundaries. The area is split into three zones. Zone A is the central parts of the city (inside the ), and zone B is the outer parts of Berlin City. Zone C covers an area beyond the city boundaries. Ticket fares have a slight price difference between these three zones. For instance in June 2010, a one-day ticket for zone A+B was priced at €6.10, a zone B+C one-day travel ticket was €6.30, and for all three zones A+B+C, the price was €6.50.

Media.

The is a monthly published overview of planned line deviations and changes due to construction measures or events. In addition, it offers alternatives to avoid them and informs about line and timetable adjustments. It is enclosed with the "PLUS" magazine. The first edition was published in August 2013.

PLUS.

"PLUS" is the monthly customer magazine of the BVG. The 40-page booklet is available in buses, trams and subway stations, among other places.

Subsidiaries.

& Co. KG.

& Co. KG (BBH) as the managing holding company has the task of managing the investment companies administratively and strategically and to provide commercial services for the affiliated companies as well as to carry out the investment management for the BVG. On the basis of BBH offers services in the areas of human resources, finance, accounting, controlling, IT and insurance. In addition, their 100% participations include cash pooling and profit transfer agreements. These include the "BT", "URBANIS" and "IOB".

BT Berlin Transport.

Berlin Transport (BT)'s core business is to provide bus and subway services for the BVG. In addition, the company provides occasional travel services for both — the BVG and third parties.

URBANIS.

The core business of URBANIS is the development and rental of commercial usable areas, especially in the area of Berlin subway stations.  The IOB (IOB) operates the (ZOB) in Berlin on behalf of the BVG. The core business of the IOB consists in the control of the remote bus procedures as well as the economic use of the real estate on the ZOB.

The (German: "Berlin Transport Company") is the main public transport company of Berlin, the capital city of Germany. It manages the city's underground railway, tram, bus, replacement services ("Ersatzverkehr", EV) and ferry networks, but not the urban rail system.

Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe (což by bylo možné do češtiny přeložit jako "Berlínská dopravní společnost") je hlavním provozovatelem dopravy na území Berlína. Označován bývá zkratkou BVG. Zajišťuje provoz metra, tramvají, S-Bahnu a městské autobusové dopravy. Též provozuje i nemnoho lodních linek.


History.

Track spikes had become popular in England by the 1860s, but the concept of spikes in shoes to give running traction has been around much longer. As written in the 1852 publication of "Calmet's Dictionary of the Holy Bible" regarding military arms at the time of Paul the Apostle (c. 5 – c. 67):  For pioneering the use of spikes, J.W. Foster and Sons's revolutionary running pumps appear in the book, "Golden Kicks: The Shoes that changed Sport". The company began distributing shoes across the United Kingdom and were worn by British athletes. They were made famous by 100m Olympic champion Harold Abrahams (who would be immortalized in the Oscar winning film "Chariots of Fire") in the 1924 Summer Olympics held in Paris.  In 1934, American football player and coach Pop Warner recommended them for running events in his widely distributed book, ""Pop" Warner's book for boys."  Additionally, Adolf Dassler, the founder of Adidas, assisted in the development of track spikes for multiple events. In an effort to enhance the quality of spiked athletic footwear, he transitioned from a previous model of heavy metal spikes to attempting to utilize canvas and rubber.<red></ref> He carved them by hand and were eventually worn during the 1936 Olympics by Jesse Owens. People began to take notice, and Owens inherently helped popularize Dassler's design. Track spikes continued to gain notable recognition when Emil Zatopek, a distance runner from Czech Republic, wore them during the 1952 Olympics in Helesinki.

Design.

The front of the sole features a rigid or semi-rigid spike plate containing between 3 and 9 threaded holes called spike wells. Spikes can be screwed into each well using a spike wrench. Recently, some individuals have attempted to add a "through hole" at the bottom of the spike to make them easier to tighten, remove, and install.  Some shoes have permanent or "fixed" spikes which are not meant to be removed. Spikes may break during competition.  Track shoes are exceptionally light, some shoes weighing less than five ounces (142 grams) each, half the weight of many standard running shoes.  In most track shoes, the toe region bends up to allow space for protruding spikes and to encourage athletes to run on their toes. This upward angle, known as "taper," varies widely depending on the intended use of the shoe, and the taper angle can be rigid or flexible. Shoes with a large taper are said to be "aggressive."  This shoe design may cause harm to the athlete if worn for extended periods of time outside of competition. Injury may occur when walking in a leisurely fashion, as the athlete is not on his or her toes, which is the manner in which the shoes were meant to be worn.

Types of shoes.

There is considerable variation among track shoes depending on their intended use within the sport of track and field.  Sprint spikes generally have a very stiff spike plate with the greatest number of spike wells. The taper is highest and most rigid in sprint spikes, maximizing the efficiency of energy transfer with each stride. Very little heel support is needed because sprinters spend most or all of their time on their toes. Sprint spikes may have a zip-up cover instead of or in addition to laces to improve aerodynamics. Sprint spikes should fit tightly but they should not be too tight to the point that the runners toes are cramping and they should not be too loose that will result in the runner losing power and speed. They should fit tighter than regular athletic shoes yet still comfortable enough to perform in.  Distance shoes have a more flexible spike plate with less taper and fewer spikes. Because of the longer race distances, support through the mid-foot and heel is as important as efficiency with distance spikes. This means that distance spikes generally have a softer, more durable sole, particularly through the heel region. Although still "glove-like," the fit for distance spikes is generally slightly looser than for sprint spikes, given the longer race duration.  Middle distance spikes are a hybrid of a sprint shoe and a distance shoe, featuring an intermediate level of taper, spike plate rigidity, cushioning and support. Certain middle distance spikes are also popular among hurdlers because they have a relatively steep taper for sprinting and a cushioned heel for landings.  Cross country spikes usually have no more than six spike points and are similar to distance spikes in many respects. However, given the wide range of terrain encountered off-track, cross country spikes have a more durable rubber sole and supportive mid-foot to provide a level of cushioning and stabilization not required on a track. Depending on race length, surface types and personal preference, cross country spikes may be abandoned in favor of racing flats.  Shoes for field events and specialty events vary widely depending upon the specific requirements of each event. For example, long jump shoes are most similar to sprint spikes to provide good top speed, high jump shoes have flat bottoms and heel spikes to allow energy transfer through the entire foot, and steeplechase shoes are predominantly a water-resistant mesh for exceptional ventilation. While shoes for shot put, discus and hammer throw have flat rubber soles with no spikes, they may still occasionally be referred to as "track spikes."  Notable spike manufacturers include Adidas, Asics, Brooks, Mizuno, New Balance, Nike, Puma AG, Reebok and Saucony.

Types of spikes.

While most spikes are between 3/16 inch (5 mm) and 1/2 inch (12 mm) long, the most common is 1/4 inch (6 mm). Additionally, there are various specialty lengths, as well as minimal "blank" spikes (also called studs) used to cover a spike well. Spikes are generally metal or ceramic and come in three main types: the pyramid, the needle (pin), and the compression tier (Christmas tree). Pyramids are conical spikes that taper to a sharp point. They normally have a maximum diameter nearly equal to the diameter of the threads of the spike. Needles also have a sharp point, but a thinner cone diameter. Track spikes create traction by penetrating the track surface. Some tracks do not allow pin spikes and limit the length of pyramid spikes to minimize damage to the track. A variation for synthetic tracks is the Christmas Tree spike. It uses a terraced cone shape with a flat end designed to compress rather than penetrate the track below it. However, the notion that the compression spikes have less track penetration is not supported by scientific studies. Since it does not penetrate the track surface as much as a pyramid spike, it may reduce wear on the track. Since the end is flat rather than pointed, it is less harmful to other runners in the event of being "spiked." Lastly, there are Tartan spikes that are dull that are most commonly used for rubber tracks.

Track spikes, or just spikes, are racing shoes used by athletes when racing on the track. Some spikes are designed for longer-term training on tracks, but generally the shoes are used for racing. The term "spikes" can also refer to track shoes featuring such protrusions, though these are technically called pins. Spikes are similar to studs, which are used for team sports, although generally smaller and with a sharp point.

Běžecké tretry jsou speciální sportovní obuv, kterou používají atleti soutěžící na tartanu (a jiných umělých závodních površích) v lehké atletice. Podle typu jejich použití (skokanské, sprinterské, vrhačské atd.) se liší rozmístění, počet a velikost hřebů připevněných na podrážce každé boty.


Early life.

William Patrick Corgan, Jr. was born at Columbus Hospital in the Lincoln Park neighborhood of Chicago on March 17, 1967, the oldest son of guitarist William Corgan Sr. and his wife Martha Louise Maes Corgan Lutz. He was raised Catholic and is of Irish descent. His parents had one more son, Ricky, before divorcing in 1970. His father was remarried to a flight attendant, and Corgan and his brother went to live with them in Glendale Heights, Illinois. Corgan alleges that his stepmother was abusive to him, both physically and emotionally. He developed a protective bond with his younger paternal half-brother, who had special needs as a child. When Corgan's father and stepmother separated, all three boys lived alone with their stepmother, and both of his birth parents lived separately within an hour's drive.  Corgan, who grew much faster than his fellow students, was a strong athlete in elementary school. In addition to being a member of his baseball team at Marquardt Middle School, he amassed over 10,000 baseball cards and listened to every Chicago Cubs game on the radio. However, by the time he began attending Glenbard North High School, his athletic prowess had greatly diminished. He decided to start playing guitar after seeing a Flying V when he went over to a friend's house. Corgan gave his savings to his father, who bought him a used Les Paul knock-off. His father encouraged him to listen to Jeff Beck and Jimi Hendrix, but offered little other support, so he taught himself to play the instrument. His musical interests in his formative years included hard rock like "Guts"-era John Cale, heavy metal pioneers Black Sabbath, and mainstream rock like Queen, Boston, ELO, Rush, and Cheap Trick. In high school, Corgan discovered alternative rock through Bauhaus and The Cure. He performed in a string of bands in high school and graduated as an honor student. Despite grant and scholarship offers from a number of schools, and a tuition fund left by his grandmother, Corgan decided to pursue music full-time.

Music career.

1985–1987: Early career.

Not finding the Chicago music scene to his liking, Corgan moved to St. Petersburg, Florida in 1985 with his first major band, The Marked (so named for the conspicuous birthmarks of both Corgan and drummer Ron Roesing). Not finding success in St. Petersburg, the band dissolved; Corgan moved back to Chicago to live with his father. From 1987 to 1988, he played guitar in Chicago band Deep Blue Dream, which also featured future Static-X frontman Wayne Static. He left the band to focus on The Smashing Pumpkins.

1988–2000: The Smashing Pumpkins.

Upon his return to Chicago, Corgan had already devised his next project – a band that would be called The Smashing Pumpkins. Corgan met guitarist James Iha while working in a record store, and the two began recording demos, which Corgan describes as "gloomy little goth-pop records". He met bassist D'arcy Wretzky after a local show, arguing with her about a band that had just played, The Dan Reed Network. Soon after, the Smashing Pumpkins were formed. The trio began to play together at local clubs with a drum machine for percussion. To secure a show at the Metro in Chicago, the band recruited drummer Jimmy Chamberlin, and played for the first time as a quartet on October 5, 1988. The addition of Chamberlin drove the band in a heavier direction almost immediately. On the band's debut album, "Gish" (1991), the band integrated psychedelic rock and heavy metal into their sound. "Gish" fared better than expected, but the follow-up, "Siamese Dream", released on Virgin Records in 1993, became a multi-platinum hit. The band became known for internal drama during this period, with Corgan frequently characterized in the music press as a "control freak" due to rumors that Corgan played all the guitar and bass parts on "Siamese Dream" (a rumor that Corgan later confirmed as true). Despite this, the album was well received by critics, and the songs "Today", "Cherub Rock", and "Disarm" became hits.  The band's 1995 follow-up effort, the double album "Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness", was more successful, spawning a string of hit singles. According to Jon Pareles from "The New York Times", Corgan wanted to "lose himself and find himself..." in this album. The album was nominated for seven Grammy awards that year, and would eventually be certified ten times platinum in the United States. The song "1979" was Corgan's biggest hit to date, reaching No. 1 on "Billboard"'s modern rock and mainstream rock charts. Their appearance on "Saturday Night Live" on November 11, 1995, to promote this material (their second appearance on the show overall) was also the television debut appearance of Corgan's shaved head, which he has maintained consistently since.  On July 12, 1996, touring keyboardist Jonathan Melvoin died in a Manhattan hotel room of a heroin overdose after he and Chamberlin used the drug together. Chamberlin was later arrested on a misdemeanor drug possession charge. The Smashing Pumpkins made the decision to fire Chamberlin and continue as a trio. This shakeup, coupled with Corgan going through a divorce and the death of his mother, influenced the somber mood of the band's next album, 1998's "Adore". Featuring a darker, more subdued and heavily electronic sound at a time when alternative rock was declining in mainstream cachet, "Adore" divided both critics and fans, resulting in a significant decrease in album sales (it sold 1.3 million discs in the US). Chamberlin was reunited with the band in 1999. In 2000, they released "Machina/The Machines of God", a concept album on which the band deliberately played to their public image. Critics were again divided, and sales were lower than before; "Machina" is the second lowest-selling commercially released Smashing Pumpkins album to date, with U.S. sales of 583,000 units up to 2005. During the recording for "Machina", Wretzky quit the band and was replaced for the upcoming tour by former Hole bassist Melissa Auf der Maur. In 2000 the band announced they would break up at the end of the year, and soon after released "Machina II/The Friends & Enemies of Modern Music" free over the Internet. The Smashing Pumpkins played their last show on December 2, 2000, at the Cabaret Metro.

2001–2005: Zwan and solo career.

Following a brief stint touring with New Order in the summer, Corgan reunited with Chamberlin to form the band Zwan with Corgan's old friend Matt Sweeney in late 2001. According to Neil Strauss of New York Times, during his few live performances with the band, Corgan says "is still a work in progress". The lineup was completed with guitarist David Pajo and bassist Paz Lenchantin. The band had two distinct incarnations, the primary approach being an upbeat rock band with a three-guitar-driven sound, the second, a folk and gospel inspired acoustic side with live strings. The quintet performed throughout 2002, and their debut album, "Mary Star of the Sea", was released in early 2003 to generally positive reviews. In the midst of their supporting tour for the album, mounting conflict between Corgan and Chamberlin, and the other band members led to the cancellation of the rest of the tour as the band entered an apparent hiatus, formally announcing a breakup in September 2003.  In 2004, Corgan began writing revealing autobiographical posts on his website and his MySpace page, blaming Iha for the breakup of the Smashing Pumpkins, calling Wretzky "a mean spirited drug addict," and criticizing his former Zwan bandmates' fixation with "indie cred" and calling them "filthy", opportunistic, and selfish.  On September 17, 2003, Billy presented his poetry at the Art Institute of Chicago's Rubloff Auditorium. In late 2004, Corgan published "Blinking with Fists", a book of poetry. Despite mixed reviews, the book debuted on the New York Times Best Seller list. Around this time, he began posting autobiographical writings online under the title "The Confessions of Billy Corgan".  Also in 2004, he began a solo music career, landing on an electronic/shoegaze/alternative rock sound for his first solo album, "TheFutureEmbrace", co-produced and arranged by Bon Harris of Nitzer Ebb. Released on June 21, 2005, through Reprise Records, it garnered mixed reviews from the press and only sold 69,000 copies. Corgan toured behind his solo album with a touring band that included Linda Strawberry, Brian Liesegang and Matt Walker in 2005. This tour was not as extensive as previous Smashing Pumpkins or Zwan tours. Prior to recording "TheFutureEmbrace", Corgan had recorded some 72 songs inspired by Chicago history for the largely acoustic "ChicagoSongs" project, which have yet to be released.

2005–present: The Smashing Pumpkins revival.

In 2005, Corgan took out a full-page ad in Chicago's two major newspapers ("The Chicago Tribune" and "The Chicago Sun-Times") revealing his desire to re-form the Smashing Pumpkins. Several days later, Jimmy Chamberlin accepted Corgan's offer for a reunion.  On April 20, 2006, the band's official website confirmed that the group was indeed reuniting. The re-formed Smashing Pumpkins went into studio for much of 2006 and early 2007, and performed its first show in seven years on May 22, 2007, with new members Ginger Pooley (bass) and Jeff Schroeder (guitar) replacing Wretzky and Iha. The new album, titled "Zeitgeist," was released in the United States on July 10, 2007, and debuted at No. 2 on the "Billboard" charts. Corgan and the rest of the Pumpkins toured extensively throughout 2007 and 2008, also releasing the EP "American Gothic" and the singles "G.L.O.W." and "Superchrist". Chamberlin left the band in March 2009, and Corgan elected to continue under the name.  In summer 2009 Corgan formed the band Spirits in the Sky to play a tribute concert to the late Sky Saxon of the Seeds. He toured with the band, composed of ex-Catherine member and "Superchrist" producer Kerry Brown, the Electric Prunes bassist Mark Tulin, Strawberry Alarm Clock keyboardist Mark Weitz, frequent Corgan collaborator Linda Strawberry, flautist Kevin Dippold, "Superchrist" violinist Ysanne Spevack, saxist Justin Norman, new Pumpkins drummer Mike Byrne, and Jane's Addiction guitarist Dave Navarro, playing covers and new Pumpkins material at several clubs in California. At the end of the tour, Corgan, Byrne, Tulin, and Brown headed back to Chicago to begin work on the new Smashing Pumpkins album, "Teargarden by Kaleidyscope". The lineup at the time which included new bassist Nicole Fiorentino, toured through much of 2010, then spent 2011 recording the "album-within-an-album" "Oceania" and mounting tours of the United States and Europe. However, Byrne and Fiorentino would later leave the band in 2014.  In April Corgan announced a new solo record of "experimental" recordings he made in 2007, via the Smashing Pumpkins' website. The album, which he titled "AEGEA," was released exclusively on vinyl, with 250 copies being made. Most of those copies were sold online, and a few copies were sold at Madame Zuzu's teahouse in Chicago. The album was released on May 15.  On July 25, 2014, Corgan announced that the tapes from his "Siddhartha" show from March 2014 were being transferred for sale, much in the vein of "AEGEA." The set was expected to contain between 5 and 6 discs.  During the summer 2014, Corgan recorded The Smashing Pumpkins's tenth studio album, "Monuments to an Elegy," with Tommy Lee and Jeff Schroeder. The album was released in early December 2014.  In September 2015, Corgan started a blog of vintage photographs that he himself curated, and which he called "People and Their Cars". The website also included an email listing for the blog, titled "The Red Border Club". This list was to be used for information on upcoming People and Their Cars and "Hexestential" books and merchandise, along with access to additional images.  On September 8, 2016, Corgan announced, in a Facebook live video, that he had recorded a new solo album with producer Rick Rubin, and it would consist of 12 or 13 tracks. He described work on the album as being near completion, though a release date was not given.  On August 22, 2017, he announced the solo album, giving its title as "Ogilala."  On February 16, 2018, Corgan announced a reunion tour for The Smashing Pumpkins. The lineup consists of himself, James Iha, Jimmy Chamberlin, and Jeff Schroeder. It is rumored that former bassist D'arcy Wretzky was not a part of the lineup due to unresolved tension between her and Corgan. However, she has stated that after offering her a contract, Corgan retracted it, saying that "we also have to balance the forces at play... there is no room for error." After Wretzky released text messages between her and Corgan, a feud ensued, with each party attacking each other with biting remarks.  On November 22, 2019, Corgan released his third solo album "Cotillions", which he called "a labor of love". He also said, "This is absolutely an album from my heart."

Professional wrestling career.

Resistance Pro Wrestling (2011–2014).

In 2011 Corgan formed a Chicago-based independent wrestling promotion called Resistance Pro. Two years later, in 2013, he starred in a commercial for Walter E. Smithe Furniture, using the platform to promote his wrestling company.  In March 2014 it was reported that Corgan was in discussions with American television channel AMC to develop an unscripted reality series about Resistance Pro. The premise being a behind-the-scenes look at the promotion as Corgan "takes over creative direction for the independent wrestling company". The show was given the green light by AMC, under the working title of "Untitled Billy Corgan Wrestling Project," the same month.

Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2015–2016).

In April 2015 Corgan was announced as the new Senior Producer of Creative and Talent Development for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA), where his role was to "develop characters and create story lines", which he has called "a dream come true". In August 2016, Corgan took over as the promotion's new president.  In November 2016 Corgan had left TNA after disputes about not being paid on time, and subsequently, Anthem Sports & Entertainment Corp and Impact Ventures, parent company of TNA Impact Wrestling, announced that Anthem has provided a credit facility to TNA to fund operations.  On November 11, Corgan signed a settlement with Anthem – TNA and Anthem announced that they would be repaying TNA's loan from Corgan.  Newly appointed TNA/Impact Wrestling President Ed Nordholm credits the invention of and the vision behind the Matt Hardy "Broken" gimmick to Jeremy Borash, David Lagana and Billy Corgan. While Borash specifically had the most input into the gimmick of the three aside from Matt, the Hardy family deny that Borash was the sole person behind the gimmick.

National Wrestling Alliance (2017–present).

On May 1, 2017, it was reported that Corgan had agreed to purchase the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA), including its name, rights, trademarks and championship belts. The purchase was confirmed by NWA president Bruce Tharpe later that same day. Corgan's ownership took effect on October 1, 2017.

Personal life.

For much of his life, Corgan has struggled with anxiety, depression, panic attacks, self-harm, OCD, and suicidal ideation. He attributes these problems to the abuse he endured as a child at the hands of his stepmother, as well as personal troubles and other issues. He has since become an advocate for abuse support networks. His mother Martha died in December 1996. The song "For Martha", from "Adore", was written in her memory. In the early 2000s Corgan named his label Martha's Music after her as well. A picture of Martha as a little girl sitting on a fake moon at Riverview Park is featured on the flipside of the "Siamese Dream" booklet.  Corgan is a keen supporter of the Chicago Cubs, and an occasional commentator on the team for WXRT DJ Lin Brehmer. He has appeared at many Cubs games, occasionally throwing the ceremonial first pitch or singing "Take Me Out to the Ballgame". He is also a fan of the Chicago Bulls and Chicago Blackhawks, and became personal friends with Dennis Rodman and Chris Chelios. He is an avid professional wrestling fan, and appeared at an ECW event wielding an acoustic guitar as a weapon. In 2008, the Pumpkins song "Doomsday Clock" was used by ROH for promotional videos. On April 26, 2010, Corgan appeared on the SIRIUS Satellite Radio program "Right After Wrestling" with Arda Ocal to discuss his love for wrestling and the importance of unique theme songs for characters. On August 26, 2010, he took part in a storyline with AAA during a concert for MTV World Stage. As far as other entertainment, Corgan once commented that all he watches on TV are "sports and the Three Stooges". In March 2008, he was spotted in the crowd at the final day of the cricket test match between New Zealand and England.  Corgan accepts some parts of Catholicism. In 2009, he launched Everything From Here to There, an interfaith website that is devoted to "Mind-Body-Soul" integration. He mentions praying each morning and night to be able to see through Jesus Christ's eyes and feel with His heart. An analysis of the symbolism of Corgan's lyrics considered the blend of beliefs he has cited in various interviews, which include ideas about religion, multiple dimensions, and psychic phenomena. He has claimed to have had multiple encounters with people who have the ability to shapeshift.  In 1993, Corgan married art conservator and artist Chris Fabian, his longtime on-again, off-again girlfriend. They were married at a small ceremony at his house in Wrigleyville. Corgan and Fabian separated in late 1995, and divorced in 1997. He refused to discuss the subject in interviews, saying, "There is not and will not be any public record on my marriage – that's one thing I have to draw lines around." He nevertheless described the circumstances of his marriage in his online "Confessions" LiveJournal post in 2005. In late 1995, Corgan started dating Ukrainian photographer Yelena Yemchuk, who later contributed to several Smashing Pumpkins videos and album art. He continued to date Yemchuk until around 2004. According to Corgan, his breakup with her contributed to the themes of his 2005 solo release "TheFutureEmbrace". In 2008, he blamed his dedication to music for what he called "a bad marriage and seven bad girlfriends in a row".  In 2005, Corgan dated musician Emilie Autumn for a number of months. The pair collaborated on multiple occasions during this time, with Autumn providing vocals and violin on his solo album and costume for a supporting music video. In early 2006, Corgan moved in with Courtney Love and her daughter. According to Love, he had his own wing in her Hollywood Hills mansion. Two years later, Love criticized him publicly over his alleged refusal to attend her daughter's sweet 16 party. After they parted ways, Corgan stated in a March 2010 interview, "I have no interest in supporting [Love] in any way, shape or form. You can't throw enough things down the abyss with a person like that." Shortly after, when her band's album "Nobody's Daughter" was released, Corgan used Twitter to post anger-filled rants against her in reference to two songs he had written, "Samantha" and "How Dirty Girls Get Clean", which ended up on the album without his permission. Love then wrote an apology to him on her Facebook account, but the feud continued. Corgan took to Twitter to rant against her again. She responded to him on Twitter, saying, "All i am is nice about you so if you wanna be mean be mean i don't feel anything. i have too much to feel dear."  Corgan said after the 2008 U.S. presidential election, "I'm very proud of my country right now for doing the right thing." He has since said that he was disappointed with Barack Obama's presidency, and that he lacks faith in both major political parties. In 2009, he posted a transcript of a webcast by political activist Lyndon LaRouche to the official Smashing Pumpkins forum. In 2016, he called progressive political campaigners "social justice warriors"; compared them to Maoists, cult members, and the KKK; and said they were a threat to freedom of speech. In 2018, he called himself a "free-market libertarian capitalist" and added that he has not voted since 1992, when he voted for Bill Clinton. On March 10, 2009, Corgan testified in front of Congress on behalf of the musicFIRST Coalition. He spoke in favor of H.R. 848, the Performance Rights Act, which gives musicians and artists their share of compensation when their music is played on radio stations.  In 2009, Corgan was linked with pop star Jessica Simpson. He started dating Australian singer Jessica Origliasso in 2010, and remained in a relationship with her until early June 2012. Origliasso blamed their split on their careers forcing them to spend too much time apart. He began dating Chloe Mendel in 2013. She gave birth to a son named Augustus Juppiter Corgan on November 16, 2015. Their second child, a daughter named Philomena Clementine Corgan, was born on October 2, 2018.  Corgan adopted a pescetarian diet in 2013, and stated in 2017 that he had begun following a vegan and gluten-free diet. In 2012, he opened a tea house in his native Highland Park called Madame Zuzu's Tea House.

Collaborations.

In addition to performing, Corgan has produced albums for Ric Ocasek, The Frogs, and Catherine. He shared songwriting credit on several songs on Hole's 1998 album "Celebrity Skin"; the title track became Corgan's second No. 1 modern rock hit. He also acted as a consultant for Marilyn Manson during the recording of the album "Mechanical Animals". He has produced three soundtracks for the movies "Ransom" (1996), "Stigmata" (1999) and "Spun" (2002) in which he appeared as a doctor.  Corgan appeared at the 1996 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ceremonies. He inducted one of his biggest musical influences, Pink Floyd. He played acoustic guitar during the ceremony with Pink Floyd, when they performed their song "Wish You Were Here".  In particular, Corgan guided and collaborated with three bands in the 2000s—Breaking Benjamin (during sessions for 2004's "We Are Not Alone"), Taproot (for "Blue-Sky Research", 2005), and Sky Saxon.  In 2010, Corgan claimed co-writing credit (with ex-girlfriend Courtney Love) on at least two of the songs on Hole's final album "Nobody's Daughter" and tried to assert a right of approval before the album could be released. Corgan had helped develop the album during its early stages. The album was released without the writing controversy ever being litigated or publicly resolved.  Corgan appeared as a guest vocalist on the song "Loki Cat" on Jimmy Chamberlin's first solo album, "Life Begins Again", and Chamberlin played drums for the song "DIA" on Corgan's solo debut, where Robert Smith from The Cure teamed up with Corgan to do a cover of the Bee Gees' "To Love Somebody". In 2007, Corgan provided vocals on the Scorpions' song "The Cross", on their album "". In 2010 Corgan featured on Ray Davies' album See My Friends on the album's closer, a mash-up of the Kinks songs "All Day and All of the Night" and "Destroyer". He also contributed his guitar work on "Did You Miss Me" by The Veronicas. Corgan has also collaborated with Tony Iommi, Blindside, David Bowie (singing "All the Young Dudes" with Bowie at Bowie's 50th birthday party), New Order and Marianne Faithfull.

Musical style and influences.

When asked in a 1994 "Rolling Stone" interview about his influences, Corgan replied:  Corgan wrote six articles for "Guitar World" in 1995, and his solos for "Cherub Rock" and "Geek U.S.A." were included on their list of the top guitar solos of all time. AllMusic said "Starla" "proves that Corgan was one of the finest (and most underrated) rock guitarists of the '90s", while "Rolling Stone" called him and his Smashing Pumpkins bandmates "ruthless virtuosos". His solo for "Soma" was No. 24 on "Rolling Stone"'s list of the top guitar solos. He is a fan of Eddie Van Halen and interviewed him in 1996 for "Guitar World". Other guitarists Corgan rates highly include Uli Jon Roth, Tony Iommi, Ritchie Blackmore, Leslie West, Dimebag Darrell and Robin Trower.  His bass playing, which has featured on nearly every Smashing Pumpkins album, was influenced by post-punk figures like Peter Hook and Simon Gallup.  Corgan has praised Radiohead, saying "if they're not the best band in the world, then they're one of the best". He is also a fan of Pantera and appeared briefly in their home video 3 Watch It Go. Other favorites include Depeche Mode, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Rush, Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin, The Cure, Metallica, Queen, Electric Light Orchestra, Dinosaur Jr., My Bloody Valentine, and Spiritualized. Corgan stated in 1997 that upon hearing the U2 song "New Year's Day", at 16, "[U2] quickly became the most important band in the world to me." Corgan particularly went out of his way to praise Rush in his interview for "", a documentary on the band, where he criticized mainstream reviewers for consciously marginalizing the band and their influence, and highlighted the fact that many of his musical peers were influenced by Rush.  He has listed his artistic influences as William S. Burroughs, Pablo Picasso, Jimi Hendrix, Jack Kerouac, and Philip K. Dick.

Instruments.

Corgan played (during the "Gish"-"Siamese Dream" era) a customized '57 Reissue Fender Stratocaster equipped with three Fender Lace Sensor pickups (the Lace Sensor Blue in the neck position, the Lace Sensor Silver in the middle position, and the Lace Sensor Red at the bridge position). It also has a five-position pickup selector switch which he installed himself. This battered Strat became his number one guitar by default. He owned a '74 Strat that was stolen shortly after "Gish" was completed. Corgan was reunited with this guitar in early 2019.  Corgan also used a wide variety of guitars on "Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness". On "Where Boys Fear to Tread", Corgan used a Les Paul Junior Reissue, and on "Tonight Tonight" he used a '72 Gibson ES-335. He is also known to use a '74 Strat which has since been painted baby blue. That guitar was used on the recordings for "Bullet with Butterfly Wings" and also "Muzzle", because the heavier wood gave it the basic Strat sound with a bit more bottom.  During the recording and tour of the album "Zeitgeist", Corgan used a Schecter C-1 EX baritone, finished in black with Tony Iommi signature pickups. Corgan also endorsed Reverend Guitars in his "Zwan" era, most notably playing a Reverend Slingshot.  In 2008 Corgan released to the market his own Fender Stratocaster. This new guitar was made to Corgan's exact specs to create his famous mid-'90s buzzsaw tone; the instrument features three DiMarzio pickups (two custom for this instrument), a string-through hardtail bridge and a satin nitrocellulose lacquer finish. When playing live, he uses both his signature Strats as well as two other Fender Strats, one in red with a white pick guard and one in silver-grey with a black pick guard; a Gibson Tony Iommi signature SG; and his Schecter C-1 (only used on the "Zeitgeist" song "United States").  A video called 'Stompland' on the official Smashing Pumpkins YouTube channel is informative on Corgan's choice of effects pedals. In the video he reveals an extensive collection of pedals used throughout his career with the Smashing Pumpkins. Corgan's tone is often characterized by his use of fuzz pedals, particularly vintage versions of the Electro-Harmonix Big Muff  In 2016 Reverend Guitars released the BC-1 Billy Corgan signature guitar featuring Railhammer Billy Corgan signature pickups.  The Reverend Billy Corgan Signature Terz was launched at the 2018 NAMM show—an electric version of a 19th-century instrument that is played as if the guitar is capoed at the third fret, and tuned G-g standard. Corgan often uses the capo at the third fret and asked for a higher-register guitar.  Corgan is noted for having used Marshall and Diezel amps. He has also used modular preamps based on many different amps in conjunction with Mesa Boogie poweramps. The preamps were built custom built by Salvation Mods.  In August 2017, Corgan sold a large collection of instruments and gear used throughout his career via music gear website Reverb.  Savior")

William Patrick Corgan Jr. (born March 17, 1967) is an American musician, singer, songwriter, and professional wrestling promoter. He is best known as the lead singer, primary songwriter, guitarist, and only permanent member of the rock band the Smashing Pumpkins. He is currently the owner and promoter of the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) promotion.

William Patrick „Billy" Corgan, jr. (* 17. března 1967 v Elk Grove Village, stát Illinois, USA) je americký zpěvák, kytarista, skladatel a textař, který se proslavil zejména svým působením v kapele The Smashing Pumpkins. Na kytaru začínal hrát už v patnácti letech, mezi jeho vzory patřily kapely jako Black Sabbath, Judas Priest nebo Beatles. Odešel z vysoké školy bez diplomu protože ho ničila tamní přetvářka a nebyl moc populární. V té době zakládá se svými kamarády kapelu The Marked a odjíždí hledat štěstí na Floridu, po turné se však zklamaně vrací do Chicaga. Poté se už spřátelí s James Iha a zakládá The Smashing Pumpkins. Po téměř 14 letech se však po vnitřních problémech v kapele rozcházejí. Na to nastupuje jako hostující kytarista do New Order. Zanedlouho už zakládá další kapelu i s bývalým bubeníkem Smashing Pumpkins Jimmy Chamberlin nazvanou Zwan. S ní vydává roku 2003 první i poslední album Mary Star of the Sea a po světovém turné se opět rozcházejí. O dva roky později (2005) už vydává své sólové album TheFutureEmbrance- značně depresivní a zcela elektronické. Zároveň s vydáním sólové desky vychází v Chicago Tribute jeho výzva k reunionu The Smashing Pumpkins. Výzva se setká s úspěchem, a tak jedna z nejzásadnějších kapel devadesátých let vydá v červenci 2007 nové album Zeitgeist.


Family and early life.

Born in 1396 in Dijon, Philip was the son of John the Fearless and Margaret of Bavaria. His father succeeded Philip's grandfather Philip the Bold as Duke of Burgundy in 1404. On 28 January 1405, Philip was named Count of Charolais in appanage of the duke and probably became engaged on the same day, at the age of 8, to Michelle of Valois, a daughter of King Charles VI of France and Isabeau of Bavaria. They were married in June 1409.  After Michelle's death in 1422, Philip married Bonne of Artois, a daughter of Philip of Artois, Count of Eu, and also the widow of his uncle, Philip II, Count of Nevers, in Moulins-les-Engelbert on 30 November 1424. Bonne of Artois is sometimes confused with Philip's biological aunt, also named Bonne (a sister of John the Fearless who lived from 1379 to 1399), in part due to the papal dispensation required for the marriage, which made no distinction between a marital aunt and a biological aunt. Bonne of Artois lived only a year after Philip married her.  Philip was married for a third time to Isabella of Portugal, a daughter of John I of Portugal and Philippa of Lancaster, in Bruges on 7 January 1430, after a proxy marriage the year before. This marriage produced three sons:  Philip also had at least eighteen illegitimate children by various of his 24 documented mistresses, of whom these are the best known: Corneille and Anthony were his favorite bastard sons and successively bore the title "Grand bâtard de Bourgogne" (first Corneille and after his death, Anthony).

Early rule and alliance with England.

Philip became duke of Burgundy and count of Flanders, Artois and Franche-Comté upon the assassination of John the Fearless, his father, in 1419. Philip accused Charles, the Dauphin of France and Philip's brother-in-law, of planning the murder, which took place during a meeting between John and Charles at Montereau. Because of this, he continued to prosecute the Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War, which in turn became entangled in the larger Hundred Years' War. In 1420, Philip allied himself with Henry V of England under the Treaty of Troyes. In 1423, the marriage of Philip's sister Anne to John, Duke of Bedford, regent for Henry VI of England (and also his uncle), strengthened the English alliance.  On 23 May 1430, Philip's troops under the Count of Ligny captured Joan of Arc at Compiègne and later sold her to the English, who orchestrated a heresy trial against her conducted by pro-Burgundian clerics. Despite this action against Joan of Arc, Philip's alliance with England was broken in 1435 when he signed the Treaty of Arras, which completely revoked the Treaty of Troyes and recognised Charles VII as king of France. Philip signed the treaty for a variety of reasons, one of which may have been a desire to be recognised as the preeminent duke in France.  This action would prove a poor decision in the long term; Charles VII and his successors saw the Burgundian State as a serious impediment to the expansion of royal authority in France, and for this reason they would permanently try to undermine Burgundy, subordinating it to French sovereignty. Philip's defection to the French would prove not only catastrophic to the dual monarchy of England and France, but to his own domains as well, subordinating them to a powerful centralised Valois monarchy.  He then attacked Calais, a possession of the English, but the alliance with Charles was broken in 1439. Philip supported the revolt of the French nobles the following year (an event known as the Praguerie) and offered shelter to the Dauphin Louis, who had rebelled against his father Charles VII.

Geographic expansion.

Philip was generally preoccupied with matters in his own territories and was seldom involved directly in the Hundred Years' War between England and France, although he did play a role during a number of periods, such as the campaign against Compiègne during which his troops captured Joan of Arc. He incorporated Namur into Burgundian territory in 1429 (by purchase from John III, Marquis of Namur) and Hainault and Holland, Friesland and Zeeland in 1432 with the defeat of Jacqueline, Countess of Hainault, in the last episode of the Hook and Cod wars. He inherited the Duchies of Brabant and Limburg and the Margraviate of Antwerp in 1430 on the death of his cousin Philip of Saint-Pol and purchased Luxembourg in 1443 from Elisabeth of Bohemia, Duchess of Luxembourg. In 1456, Philip also managed to ensure his illegitimate son David was elected Bishop of Utrecht and his nephew Louis of Bourbon elected Prince-Bishop of Liège.<br> It is not surprising that in 1435 Philip began to style himself the "Grand Duke of the West".  In 1463, Philip gave up some of his territory to King Louis XI of France. That year he also created an Estates-General for the Netherlands based on the French model. The first meeting of the Estates-General was to obtain a loan for a war against France and to ensure support for the succession of his son Charles I to his dominions. In 1465 and 1467, Philip crushed two rebellions in Liège.  Philip died in Bruges in 1467.

Court life and patron of the arts.

Philip's court can only be described as extravagant. Despite the flourishing bourgeois culture of Burgundy, with which the court kept in close touch, he and the aristocrats who formed most of his inner circle retained a world-view dominated by knightly chivalry. He declined membership in the English Order of the Garter in 1422, which could have been considered an act of treason against the king of France, his feudal overlord. Instead, he created his own Order of the Golden Fleece, based on the Knights of the Round Table and the myth of Jason, in 1430.  Philip had no fixed capital and moved the court between various palaces, the main urban ones being Brussels, Bruges, and Lille. He held grand feasts and other festivities, and the knights of his Order frequently travelled throughout his territory to participate in tournaments. In 1454, Philip planned a crusade against the Ottoman Empire, launching it at the Feast of the Pheasant, but this plan never materialized. In a period from 1444 to 1446, he is estimated to have spent a sum equivalent to 2% of Burgundy's main tax income in the "recette génerale", with a single Italian supplier of silk and cloth of gold, Giovanni di Arrigo Arnolfini.  Philip's court was regarded as the most splendid in Europe, and it became the accepted leader of taste and fashion, which probably helped the Burgundian economy considerably, as Burgundian (usually Flemish) luxury products became sought by the elites of other parts of Europe. During his reign, for example, the richest English commissioners of illuminated manuscripts moved away from English and Parisian products to those of the Netherlands, as did other foreign buyers. Philip himself is estimated to have added six hundred manuscripts to the ducal collection, making him by a considerable margin the most important patron of the period. Jean Miélot was one of his secretaries, translating into French such works as Giovanni Bocaccio's "Genealogia Deorum Gentilium".  Philip was also a considerable patron of other arts. He commissioned many tapestries (which he tended to prefer over paintings), pieces from goldsmiths, jewellery, and other works of art. It was during his reign that the Burgundian chapel became the musical center of Europe, with the activity of the Burgundian School of composers and singers. Gilles Binchois, Robert Morton, and later Guillaume Dufay, one of the most prominent composers of the 15th century, were all part of Philip's court chapel.  In 1428, Jan van Eyck traveled to Portugal to paint a portrait of the daughter of King John I, the Infanta Isabella, for Philip in advance of their marriage. With help from more experienced Portuguese shipbuilders, Philip established a shipyard in Bruges.  Rogier van der Weyden painted his portrait twice on panel, of which only copies survive, wearing the collar of the Order of the Golden Fleece. The only original van der Weyden of Philip to survive is a superb miniature from a manuscript (above left). The painter Hugo van der Goes of the Early Netherlandish school is credited with creating paintings for the church where Philip's funeral was held.

Philip the Good (; ; 31 July 1396 – 15 June 1467) was Duke of Burgundy from 1419 until his death. He was a member of a cadet line of the Valois dynasty, to which all the 15th-century kings of France belonged. During his reign, the Burgundian State reached the apex of its prosperity and prestige and became a leading center of the arts. Philip is known in history for his administrative reforms, his patronage of Flemish artists such as Jan van Eyck and Franco-Flemish composers such as Gilles Binchois, and the capture of Joan of Arc. In political affairs, he alternated between alliances with the English and the French in an attempt to improve his dynasty's position. As ruler of Flanders, Brabant, Limburg, Artois, Hainaut, Holland, Luxembourg, Zeeland, Friesland and Namur, he played an important role in the history of the Low Countries.

Filip III. Dobrý (31. července 1396, Dijon – 15. června 1467, Bruggy) byl burgundským, brabantským a lucemburským vévodou, hrabětem flanderským, burgundským, holandským i zeelandským a zakladatelem Řádu zlatého rouna. Pocházel z mladší větve rodu Valois.


Early life.

Buchwald was born in New York City in 1925, to an Austrian-Hungarian Jewish immigrant family. He was the son of Joseph Buchwald, a curtain manufacturer, and Helen (Klineberger). His mother suffered from depression and was later committed to a mental hospital, where she lived for 35 years. Buchwald was the youngest of four children, with three older sisters: Alice, Edith, and Doris. When the family business failed at the start of the Great Depression, Buchwald's father put the boy in the Hebrew Orphan Asylum in New York City, as he could not care for him. Buchwald was soon placed in foster homes, and lived in several, including a Queens boarding house for sick children (he had rickets because of poor nutrition). It was operated by Seventh-day Adventists. He stayed in the foster home until he was 5.  Buchwald was eventually reunited with his father and sisters; the family settled in Hollis, a residential community in Queens. Buchwald did not graduate from Forest Hills High School, and ran away from home at age 17.  He wanted to join the United States Marine Corps during World War II but was too young to join without parental or legal guardian consent. He bribed a drunk with half a pint of whiskey to sign as his legal guardian. From October 1942 to October 1945, Buchwald served with the Marines as part of the 4th Marine Aircraft Wing. He spent two years in the Pacific Theater and was discharged from the service as a sergeant. He said of his time in the Marines, "In the Marines, they don't have much use for humorists, they beat my brains in."

Journalism.

On his return, Buchwald enrolled at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles on the G.I. Bill, despite not having graduated from high school. At USC he became managing editor of the campus magazine "Wampus"; he also wrote a column for the college newspaper, the "Daily Trojan". The university permitted him to continue his studies after learning he had not graduated from high school, but deemed him ineligible for a degree. After establishing his national reputation and winning the Pulitzer Prize, he was invited as a commencement speaker in 1993 and received an honorary doctorate from the university.  In 1949 Buchwald left USC and bought a one-way ticket to Paris. He got a job as a correspondent for "Variety" in Paris. In January 1950, he took a sample column to the offices of the European edition of "The New York Herald Tribune". Titled "Paris After Dark", it was filled with scraps of offbeat information about Parisian nightlife. Buchwald was hired and joined the editorial staff as a restaurant and nightclub reviewer. His column caught on quickly, and in 1951 Buchwald started another column, "Mostly About People". They were fused into one under the title "Europe's Lighter Side". Buchwald's columns soon began to attract readers on both sides of the Atlantic.  In postwar Paris, Buchwald met many American expatriate writers, going about with Janet Flanner, E.B. White, Allen Ginsberg, Gregory Corso, and Thornton Wilder. He also had brief encounters with the artist Pablo Picasso, writer Ernest Hemingway, directors Orson Welles and Mike Todd, actress Audrey Hepburn, and attorney Roy Cohn.  In November 1952, Buchwald wrote a column in which he attempted to explain the Thanksgiving holiday to the French, using garbled French translations such as "Kilometres Deboutish" for Miles Standish; Buchwald considered it his favorite column. He published it every Thanksgiving during his lifetime.  Buchwald enjoyed the notoriety he received when U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower's press secretary, Jim Hagerty, took seriously a spoof press conference report claiming that reporters asked questions about the president's breakfast habits. After Hagerty called his own conference to denounce the article as "unadulterated rot," Buchwald famously retorted, "Hagerty is wrong. I write "adulterated" rot." On August 24, 1959, "TIME" magazine, in reviewing the history of the European edition of "The Herald Tribune", reported that Buchwald's column had achieved an "institutional quality."  While in Paris, Buchwald became the only correspondent to substantively interview famous American singer Elvis Presley, who had entered the US Army. They met at the Prince de Galles Hotel, where the soon-to-be Sgt. Presley was staying during a week-end off from his army stint in Germany. Presley's impromptu performances at the piano at Le Lido nightclub, as well as his singing for the showgirls after most of the customers had left, became legendary after Buchwald included it in his memoir, "I'll Always Have Paris" (1995).  Buchwald returned to the United States in 1962. He wrote as a columnist for the "Washington Post", frequently commenting on the political scene. When once asked where he got his ideas, he said simply that he read the newspaper every day. He could not make up the absurd situations that were reported. His column was syndicated by Tribune Media Services. His column appeared in more than 550 newspapers at its height. He also wrote memoirs and other books, a total of more than 30 in his lifetime. He also contributed fumetti to Marvel Comics' "Crazy Magazine," which tore apart statistics regarding 1970s campus life.

Marriage and family.

During his time in Paris, Buchwald met Ann McGarry, and they married. She was an Irish-American apprentice couturier from Pennsylvania. After returning to the United States, they later adopted three children. They lived in Washington, D.C., where he wrote for "The Washington Post." They spent most summers at their house in Vineyard Haven on Martha's Vineyard. After 40 years of marriage, the couple was separated, and then decided to get a divorce. However before the divorce proceedings could start, Ann was diagnosed with lung cancer, and passed away in 1994.

Film.

Buchwald had a cameo in Alfred Hitchcock's "To Catch a Thief" (1955). Near the beginning of the movie, an issue of the "Paris Herald Tribune" is shown in close-up to highlight a column, bylined by Buchwald, about jewel thefts on the French Riviera, which sets up the plot.  He contributed to the English dialogue of Jacques Tati's "Playtime". Buchwald also had a cameo role in a 1972 episode, "Moving Target," of the TV series "Mannix". He is shown in Frederick Wiseman's 1983 film "The Store" delivering a tribute to Stanley Marcus, the store's owner.  In 1988 Buchwald and partner Alain Bernheim filed suit against Paramount Pictures in a controversy over the Eddie Murphy film "Coming to America". In the "Buchwald v. Paramount" lawsuit, Buchwald claimed Paramount had stolen his script treatment. He won, was awarded damages, and accepted a settlement from Paramount. The case was the subject of a 1992 book, "Fatal Subtraction: The Inside Story of Buchwald v. Paramount".

Criticism.

In Buchwald's later years, his detractors characterized the column as hackneyed, tiresome and not funny. Political analyst Norman Ornstein in 1991 said he thought Buchwald's column was more popular "outside the Beltway"; others disagreed.  Roy Bode, editor of the "Dallas Times Herald," said that when his paper canceled Buchwald's column in 1989, the editors did not receive a single letter of protest. By contrast, when the paper cancelled the comic strip "Zippy the Pinhead", so many readers complained that the editors were compelled to bring it back.  In September 2005, Timothy Noah wrote in Slate.com, "Yes, Buchwald still writes his column. No, it hasn't been funny for some time."

Illness and death.

Buchwald underwent hospitalization twice for mental disorders: once in 1963 for severe depression. In 1987 he was hospitalized for what was then diagnosed as an extreme episode of bipolar disorder, which he had probably had for years. He publicly recounted these experiences in 1999.  In 2000, at age 74, Buchwald suffered a stroke. He was hospitalized for more than two months. On February 16, 2006, the Associated Press reported that Buchwald had had a leg amputated below the knee and was staying at Washington Home and Hospice. The amputation was reportedly necessary because of poor circulation in the leg, resulting from diabetes.  Buchwald invited radio talk show presenter Diane Rehm to interview him. During the show, which aired on February 24, 2006, he revealed his decision to discontinue hemodialysis, which had previously been initiated to treat renal failure, another result of his having diabetes mellitus. He described his decision as his "last hurrah," stating that, "If you have to go, the way you go is a big deal." He reported that he was "very happy with his choices" and was eating at McDonald's on a regular basis.  Buchwald was later interviewed by Miles O'Brien of CNN, in a segment aired on March 31, 2006. Buchwald discussed his living will, which documented his wishes not to be revived if he fell into a coma. As of the date of that interview, Buchwald was still writing a periodic column. In the interview, he described a dream in which he was waiting to take his "final plane ride."  Buchwald was interviewed by Fox News' Chris Wallace for a segment on May 14, 2006's edition of "Fox News Sunday".  In June 2006, Buchwald left the hospice. He was again interviewed by Diane Rehm and reported that his kidney was working. He said that he "blesses him every morning. Some people bless their hearts, I bless my kidney." He reported that he was looking forward to getting a new leg and visiting Martha's Vineyard. In July 2006, Buchwald returned to his summer home in Tisbury on Martha's Vineyard. While there, he completed a book titled "Too Soon to Say Goodbye", about the five months he spent in the hospice. Eulogies that were prepared by his friends, colleagues, and family members and were never delivered (or not delivered until later) are included in the book.  On November 3, 2006, television news reporter Kyra Phillips interviewed Buchwald for CNN. Phillips had known Buchwald since 1989, when she had first interviewed him. On November 22, 2006, Buchwald was again featured on Rehm's show. He described himself as a "poster boy for hospices – because I lived."  In December 2006, in his final interview, he told nurse/writer Terry Ratner that he was also a poster boy for nurses. The article, "The 'Art' of Saying Goodbye", appeared in the January 2007 issues of "Nursing Spectrum" and "NurseWeek," national nursing publications.  Buchwald died of kidney failure on January 17, 2007, at his son Joel's home in Washington, D.C. The next day the website of "The New York Times" posted a video obituary in which Buchwald said: "Hi. I'm Art Buchwald, and I just died."

Books.

Buchwald published numerous anthologies and collections of his columns, as well as memoirs.

Arthur Buchwald (October 20, 1925 – January 17, 2007) was an American humorist best known for his column in "The Washington Post." At the height of his popularity, it was published nationwide as a syndicated column in more than 500 newspapers. His column focused on political satire and commentary.

Arthur „Art“ Buchwald (20. října 1925, Mount Vernon – 17. ledna 2007, Washington D.C.) byl americký novinář, spisovatel a humorista židovského původu.


Packaging.

The album sleeve photo session was made up of two parts, the first being the original design for the front cover, a naked baby boy (supplied by their press officer Smash at Island Records) lying on his back, which was shot in photographer Andy Earl's new studio on Shad Thames in London, and the band seated in a yellow room. At the last minute, at Dolores O'Riordan's request, the two were swapped and the yellow room became the front cover.  The yellow room was designed to be an echo of the previous two album sleeves. It was built in London and transported to the Lake District and erected in a forest near Loughrigg Holme. Snow fell on the erection day and the band spent as little time as possible on the shoot clad, as they were, in new purple Dolce & Gabbana outfits.  A new logo and typeface were decided upon signifying the band's desire to move on from the strict repetition of the previous album sleeves. Incidental studio photos were included, taken by Cally in the band's studio in Vancouver, Canada. Cally added: "I attended the surreal Brit Awards where Jarvis Cocker invaded Michael Jackson's stage and left soon after to drive through horizontal snow to get to the Lake District in readiness for the photo shoot the next day. On waking in the Ambleside Hotel I saw Jarvis on the front cover of every paper, being released from jail with Nigel, The Cranberries A&R man beside him. Things only became more surreal when we realised that later we were shooting the band bravely clad in thin purple suits under snowfall in a yellow room in a forest in the Lake District".

Television performances.

To promote "To the Faithful Departed", The Cranberries appeared on different television shows (1995–1996).

Free to Decide World Tour.

In 1996, The Cranberries toured in Asia, Oceania and North America to promote their third studio album "To the Faithful Departed". Though the band originally planned for a European Leg, Dolores O'Riordan re-injured her knee during a concert in Cairns and had to cancel a few shows on the Oceania, North America and the European leg. They played songs from their previous albums as well as their current album at the time.

Track listing.

1996 European version 1996 US version 2002 re-release  The album was re-released in 2002, under the title "To the Faithful Departed (The Complete Sessions 1996–1997)". This version of the album featured bonus tracks as well as B-sides from the singles from the album.

Certifications.

!scope="row"|Worldwide (IFPI)

To the Faithful Departed is the third studio album by Irish alternative rock band The Cranberries, released on 30 April 1996. The album was made in memory of Denny Cordell who signed the band to Island Records and Joe (vocalist Dolores O'Riordan's grandfather), who had both died that year.

To the Faithful Departed ("česky "Věrným zesnulým"") je album, které vydala irská kapela The Cranberries a bylo věnováno památce "Dannyho Cordella", který byl přítelem členů skupiny a Joeovi, dědečkovi zpěvačky Dolores O'Riordan.


Etymology.

The name "Athabasca" comes from the Woods Cree word, which means "[where] there are plants one after another", likely a reference to the spotty vegetation along the river.

Course.

The Athabasca River originates in Jasper National Park, in an unnamed lake at the toe of the Columbia Glacier within the Columbia Icefield, between Mount Columbia, Snow Dome, and the Winston Churchill Range, at an elevation of approximately. It travels before draining into the Peace-Athabasca Delta near Lake Athabasca south of Fort Chipewyan. From there, its waters flow north as Rivière des Rochers, then join the Peace River to form the Slave River, which empties into the Great Slave Lake and discharges through the Mackenzie River system into the Arctic Ocean. The cumulative drainage area is. The river flows along icefields and through gorges, offering wildlife habitat on its shores and in adjacent marshes. Throughout its course, it flows through or adjacent to numerous national and provincial parks, including Jasper National Park, Fort Assiniboine Sandhills Wildland Provincial Park, Hubert Lake Wildland Provincial Park, La Biche River Wildland Provincial Park, Grand Rapids Wildland Provincial Park, Richardson River Dunes Wildland Provincial Park, and Wood Buffalo National Park. Its course is marked by rapids, impeding navigation southwest of Fort McMurray.  Numerous communities are located on the banks of the Athabasca River, including Jasper, Brule, Entrance, Hinton, Whitecourt, Fort Assiniboine, Smith, Athabasca, Fort McMurray, and Fort McKay.

History.

Sekani, Shuswap, Kootenay, Salish, Stoney, and Cree tribes hunted and fished along the river prior to European colonization in the 18th century. From about 1778, the Athabasca River, the Clearwater River, which enters the Athabasca River from the east at Fort McMurray, and the Methye Portage were part of a primary fur trade route from the Mackenzie River to the Great Lakes (see Canadian Canoe Routes (early)). David Thompson and Thomas the Iroquois traveled through Athabasca Pass in 1811. In 1862, the Athabasca Springs area was crossed during the Cariboo Goldrush by the Overlander Party.  The northern segment of the Athabasca River became part of a major shipping network in 1921 when the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway reached Waterways near Fort McMurray, making it the northernmost point on the North American railroad grid at that time. Cargo for destinations farther north was shipped to Waterways and transferred to barges, after which fleets of tugboats took them up the river to destinations in the Athabasca and Mackenzie River watersheds. Barge traffic declined after 1964 when Hay River, on the Great Slave Lake in the Northwest Territories, became the northern terminus of the rail grid.

Environmental concerns.

Owing to its proximity to the Athabasca Oil Sands, the river has seen significant amounts of energy infrastructure constructed along its course. On June 6, 1970, a pipeline operated by Great Canadian Oil Sands, the precursor to Suncor and the earliest commercial extraction operation, ruptured near the banks of the river. The total spill volume was estimated by Great Canadian Oil Sands at approximately 1,190 barrels of oil.  An independent study has concluded that the Athabasca River contains elevated levels of pollution downstream of the Athabasca oil sands. Testing has shown this portion of the river contains mercury, lead, and 11 other toxic elements.

Coal mine spill.

On October31, 2013, one of the Obed Mountain coal mine pits failed, and from between 600 million to a billion liters of slurry poured into the Plante and Apetowun Creeks. The plume of waste products then joined the Athabasca River, travelling downstream for a month before settling in Lake Athabasca near Fort Chipewyan, over away.

Heritage.

The river was designated a Canadian Heritage River for its importance to the fur trade and the construction of railways and roads opening up the Canadian West, as well as for its natural heritage. The Canadian Heraldic Authority named the position of Athabaska Herald after the river.

The Athabasca River (French: "Rivière Athabasca") is a river in Alberta, Canada, which originates at the Columbia Icefield in Jasper National Park and flows more than before emptying into Lake Athabasca. Much of the land along its banks is protected in national and provincial parks, and the river is designated a Canadian Heritage River for its historical and cultural importance. The impressive and scenic Athabasca Falls is located about upstream from the Jasper townsite.

Athabasca () je řeka na západě Kanady v provincii Alberta v povodí řeky Mackenzie. Je 1 231 km dlouhá. Povodí má rozlohu 153 000 km2.


Themes.

Mann's presentation of the Ancient Orient and the origins of Judaism is influenced by Alfred Jeremias' 1904 "Das Alte Testament im Lichte des Alten Orients", emphasizing Babylonian influence in the editing of Genesis, and by the work of Dmitry Merezhkovsky.  Mann sets the story in the 14th century BC and makes Akhenaten the pharaoh who appoints Joseph his vice-regent. Joseph is aged 28 at the ascension of Akhenaten, which would mean he was born about 1380 BC in standard Egyptian chronology, and Jacob in the mid-1420s BC. Other contemporary rulers mentioned include Tushratta and Suppiluliuma.  A dominant topic of the novel is Mann's exploration of the status of mythology and his presentation of the Late Bronze Age mindset with regard to mythical truths and the emergence of monotheism. Events of the story of Genesis are frequently associated and identified with other mythic topics.  Central is the notion of underworld and the mythical descent to the underworld. Jacob's sojourn in Mesopotamia (hiding from the wrath of Esau) is paralleled with Joseph's life in Egypt (exiled by the jealousy of his brothers), and on a smaller scale his captivity in the well; they are further identified with the "hellraid" of Inanna-Ishtar-Demeter, the Mesopotamian Tammuz myth, the Jewish Babylonian captivity as well as the Harrowing of Hell of Jesus Christ.  Abraham is repeatedly presented as the man who "discovered God" (a Hanif, or discoverer of monotheism). Jacob as Abraham's heir is charged with further elaborating this discovery. Joseph is surprised to find Akhenaten on the same path (although Akhenaten is not the "right person" for the path), and Joseph's success with the pharaoh is largely due to the latter's sympathy for "Abrahamic" theology. Such a connection of (proto-)Judaism and Atenism had been suggested before Mann, most notably by Sigmund Freud in his "Moses and Monotheism", which had appeared in 1939, just before Mann began work on the tetralogy's fourth part—although in the last installment of Mann's work, Akhenaten is postulated as the Pharaoh of the Exodus contemporary of Moses, while Mann in his novella "Das Gesetz" (1944) casts Ramesses II in that role.  As Joseph is saved from the well and sold to Egypt, he adopts a new name, Osarseph, replacing the Yo- element with a reference to Osiris to indicate that he is now in the underworld. This change of name to account for changing circumstances encourages Amenhotep to change his own name to Akhenaten.  The tetralogy closes with a detailed account of Jacob's famous Blessing of his sons and their tribes, his death and the funeral. The characters of the individual brothers are determined by epithets taken from the text of the Blessing of Jacob throughout the details; thus Reuben is "turbulent as the waters" (and associated with Aquarius by Jacob). Simeon and Levi are known as the "twins" (and associated with Gemini), even though they are a year apart, and portrayed as violent bullies. Juda is a lion (Leo), and inherits Abraham's blessing since Jacob disrobes his elder brothers of their birthright. Zebulun shows predilection for Phoenicians and seafaring. Jacob calls "bony" Issachar a donkey to evoke "Asellus", γ and δ of Cancer. Dan is sharp-witted and "suited as a judge" (Libra). Asher is fond of dainties. Joseph is blessed by Jacob in his dual aspect of male (Dumuzi, god of seed and harvest), with reference to Taurus, and female (since for Jacob, his beloved Rachel lives on in Joseph, and in his affinity with the nourishing Earth), with reference to Virgo. As Jacob comes to Benjamin, his strength is almost gone, and with his last breath he rather incoherently compares his youngest son with a wolf, partly because of Lupus in Scorpio.

Joseph and His Brothers ("Joseph und seine Brüder") is a four-part novel by Thomas Mann, written over the course of 16 years. Mann retells the familiar stories of Genesis, from Jacob to Joseph (chapters 27–50), setting it in the historical context of the Amarna Period. Mann considered it his greatest work.

Josef a bratří jeho (1933–1943, "Joseph und seine Brüder") je rozsáhlá románová tetralogie německého spisovatele Thomase Manna, nositele Nobelovy ceny za literaturu za rok 1929, která se skládá z těchto dílů:


Unit cell.

Brookite belongs to the orthorhombic dipyramidal crystal class 2/m 2/m 2/m (also designated mmm). The space group is Pcab and the unit cell parameters are a = 5.4558 Å, b = 9.1819 Å and c = 5.1429 Å. The formula is TiO, with 8 formula units per unit cell ).

Structure.

The brookite structure is built up of distorted octahedra with a titanium ion at the center and oxygen ions at each of the six vertices. Each octahedron shares three edges with adjoining octahedra, forming an orthorhombic structure.

Appearance.

Crystals typically tabular, elongated and striated parallel to their length. They may also be pyramidal, pseudo-hexagonal or prismatic. Brookite and rutile may grow together in an epitaxial relationship.  Brookite is usually brown in color, or sometimes yellowish or reddish brown, or even black. Beautiful, deep red crystals (seen above-right) similar to pyrope and almandite garnet are also known. Brookite displays a submetallic luster. It is opaque to translucent, transparent in thin fragments and yellowish brown to dark brown in transmitted light.

Optical properties.

Brookite is doubly refracting, as are all orthorhombic minerals, and it is biaxial (+). Refractive indices are very high, above 2.5, which is even higher than diamond at 2.42. For comparison, ordinary window glass has a refractive index of about 1.5.  Brookite exhibits very weak pleochroism, yellowish, reddish and orange to brown. It is neither fluorescent nor radioactive.

Physical properties.

Brookite is a brittle mineral, with a subconchoidal to irregular fracture and poor cleavage in one direction parallel to the c crystal axis and traces of cleavage in a direction perpendicular to both the a and the b crystal axes. Twinning is uncertain. The mineral has a Mohs hardness of to 6, between apatite and feldspar. This is the same hardness as anatase and a little less than that of rutile (6 to ). The specific gravity is 4.08 to 4.18, between that of anatase at 3.9 and rutile at 4.2.

Occurrence and associations.

Brookite is an accessory mineral in alpine veins in gneiss and schist; it is also a common detrital mineral. Associated minerals include its polymorphs anatase and rutile, and also titanite, orthoclase, quartz, hematite, calcite, chlorite and muscovite.  The type locality is Twll Maen Grisial, Fron Olau, Prenteg, Gwynedd, Wales, UK, and in 2004 fine brookite crystals were found at Kharan, in Balochistan, Pakistan, together with brookite and rutile inclusions in quartz.

Brookite is the orthorhombic variant of titanium dioxide, TiO, which occurs in many natural polymorphic forms (minerals with the same composition but different structure). The International Mineralogical Association (IMA) recognizes four forms; the others are akaogiite (monoclinic), anatase (tetragonal) and rutile (tetragonal). Brookite is rare compared to anatase and rutile and, like these forms, it exhibits photocatalytic activity. Brookite has a larger cell volume than either anatase or rutile, with 8 TiO groups per unit cell, compared with 4 for anatase and 2 for rutile. Iron Fe, tantalum Ta and niobium Nb are common impurities.

Brookit (Lévy, 1825), chemický vzorec TiO (oxid titaničitý), je kosočtverečný minerál. Je to jedna ze tří v přírodě se vyskytujících modifikací oxidu titaničitého. Další dvě jsou: anatas a rutil. Pojmenován podle: Henry James Brooke (1771–1857), anglický krystalograf a mineralog.