Life and career.

Grosz was born Georg Ehrenfried Groß in Berlin, Germany, the third child of a pub owner. His parents were devoutly Lutheran. Grosz grew up in the Pomeranian town of Stolp (now Słupsk, Poland). After his father's death in 1900, he moved to the Wedding district of Berlin with his mother and sisters. At the urging of his cousin, the young Grosz began attending a weekly drawing class taught by a local painter named Grot. Grosz developed his skills further by drawing meticulous copies of the drinking scenes of Eduard von Grützner, and by drawing imaginary battle scenes. He was expelled from school in 1908 for insubordination. From 1909 to 1911, he studied at the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts, where his teachers were Richard Müller, Robert Sterl, Raphael Wehle, and Osmar Schindler. His first published drawing was in the satirical magazine "Ulk" in 1910. From 1912 until 1917 he studied at the Berlin College of Arts and Crafts under Emil Orlik. He began painting in oils in 1912.  In November 1914 Grosz volunteered for military service, in the hope that by thus preempting conscription he would avoid being sent to the front. He was given a discharge after hospitalization for sinusitis in 1915. In 1916 he changed the spelling of his name to "de-Germanise" and internationalise his name – thus Georg became "George" (an English spelling), while in his surname he replaced the German "ß" with its phonetic equivalent "sz". He did this as a protest against German nationalism and out of a romantic enthusiasm for America – a legacy of his early reading of the books of James Fenimore Cooper, Bret Harte and Karl May – that he retained for the rest of his life. His artist friend and collaborator Helmut Herzfeld likewise changed his name to John Heartfield at the same time.  In January 1917 Grosz was drafted for service, but in May he was discharged as permanently unfit.  In the last months of 1918, Grosz joined the Spartacist League, which was renamed the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) in December 1918. He was arrested during the Spartakus uprising in January 1919, but escaped using fake identification documents. In 1920 he married Eva Peters. In the same year he published a collection of his drawings, titled "Gott mit uns" ("God with us"), a satire on German society. Grosz was accused of insulting the army, which resulted in a 300 German Mark fine and the confiscation of the plates used to print the album. In 1928 he was prosecuted for blasphemy after publishing anticlerical drawings, such as one depicting prisoners under assault from a minister who vomits grenades and weapons onto them, and another showing Christ coerced into military service. According to historian David Nash, Grosz "publicly stated that he was neither Christian nor pacifist, but was actively motivated by an inner need to create these pictures", and was finally acquitted after two appeals. By contrast, in 1942 "Time" magazine identified Grosz as a pacifist.  In 1922 Grosz traveled to Russia with the writer Martin Andersen Nexø. Upon their arrival in Murmansk they were briefly arrested as spies; after their credentials were approved, they were allowed to meet with Grigory Zinoviev, Anatoly Lunacharsky, and Vladimir Lenin. Grosz's six-month stay in the Soviet Union left him unimpressed by what he had seen. He ended his membership in the KPD in 1923, although his political positions were little changed.  According to Grosz's son Martin Grosz, during the 1920s Nazi officers visited Grosz's studio looking for him, but because he was wearing a working man's apron Grosz was able to pass himself off as a handyman and avoid being taken into custody.  Bitterly anti-Nazi, Grosz left Germany shortly before Hitler came to power. In June 1932, he accepted an invitation to teach the summer semester at the Art Students League of New York. In October 1932, Grosz returned to Germany, but on January 12, 1933, he and his family emigrated to the United States. Grosz became a naturalized citizen of the U.S. in 1938, and made his home in Bayside, New York. In the 1930s he taught at the Art Students League, where one of his students was Romare Bearden, who was influenced by his style of collage. He taught at the Art Students League intermittently until 1955.  In America, Grosz determined to make a clean break with his past, and changed his style and subject matter. He continued to exhibit regularly, and in 1946 he published his autobiography, "A Little Yes and a Big No". In the 1950s he opened a private art school at his home and also worked as Artist in Residence at the Des Moines Art Center. Grosz was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate Academician in 1950. In 1954 he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. Though he had U.S. citizenship, he resolved to return to Berlin, and relocated there in May 1959. He died there on July 6, 1959, from the effects of falling down a flight of stairs after a night of drinking.

Works.

Although Grosz made his first oil paintings in 1912 while still a student, his earliest oils that can be identified today date from 1916. By 1914, Grosz worked in a style influenced by Expressionism and Futurism, as well as by popular illustration, graffiti, and children's drawings. Sharply outlined forms are often treated as if transparent. "The City" (1916–17) was the first of his many paintings of the modern urban scene. Other examples include the apocalyptic "Explosion" (1917), "Metropolis" (1917), and "The Funeral", a 1918 painting depicting a mad funeral procession. He settled in Berlin in 1918 and was a founder of the Berlin Dada movement, using his satirical drawings to attack bourgeois supporters of the Weimar Republic.  His drawings, usually in pen and ink which he sometimes developed further with watercolor, frequently included images of Berlin and the Weimar Republic in the 1920s. Corpulent businessmen, wounded soldiers, prostitutes, sex crimes and orgies were his great subjects (for example, see Fit for Active Service). His draftsmanship was excellent although the works for which he is best known adopt a deliberately crude form of caricature in the style of "Jugend". His "oeuvre" includes a few absurdist works, such as "Remember Uncle August the Unhappy Inventor" which has buttons sewn on it, and also includes a number of erotic artworks.  After his emigration to the USA in 1933, Grosz "sharply rejected [his] previous work, and caricature in general." In place of his earlier corrosive vision of the city, he now painted conventional nudes and many landscape watercolors. More acerbic works, such as "Cain, or Hitler in Hell" (1944), were the exception. In his autobiography, he wrote: "A great deal that had become frozen within me in Germany melted here in America and I rediscovered my old yearning for painting. I carefully and deliberately destroyed a part of my past." Although a softening of his style had been apparent since the late 1920s, Grosz's work assumed a more sentimental tone in America, a change generally seen as a decline. His late work never achieved the critical success of his Berlin years.  From 1947 to 1959, George Grosz lived in Huntington, New York, where he taught painting at the Huntington Township Art League. It is said by locals that he used what was to become his most famous painting, "Eclipse of the Sun", to pay for a car repair bill, in his relative penury. The painting was later acquired by house painter Tom Constantine to settle a debt of $104.00. The Heckscher Museum of Art in Huntington purchased the painting in 1968 for $15,000.00, raising the money by public subscription. As "Eclipse of the Sun" portrays the warmongering of arms manufacturers, this painting became a destination of protesters of the Vietnam War in Heckscher Park (where the museum is sited) in the late 1960s and early 70s.  In 2006, the Heckscher proposed selling "Eclipse of the Sun" at its then-current appraisal of approximately $19,000,000.00 to pay for repairs and renovations to the building. There was such public outcry that the museum decided not to sell, and announced plans to create a dedicated space for display of the painting in the renovated museum.

Legacy and estate.

Grosz's art influenced other New Objectivity artists such as Heinrich Maria Davringhausen, Anton Räderscheidt, and Georg Scholz. In the United States, the artists influenced by his work included the social realists Ben Shahn and William Gropper.  In 1960, Grosz was the subject of the Oscar-nominated short film "George Grosz' Interregnum". He is fictionalized as "Fritz Falke" in Arthur R.G. Solmssen's novel "A Princess in Berlin" (1980). In 2002, actor Kevin McKidd portrayed Grosz in a supporting role as an eager artist seeking exposure in "Max", regarding Adolf Hitler's youth.  The Grosz estate filed a lawsuit in 1995 against the Manhattan art dealer Serge Sabarsky, arguing that Sabarsky had deprived the estate of appropriate compensation for the sale of hundreds of Grosz works he had acquired. In the suit, filed in State Supreme Court in Manhattan, the Grosz estate claims that Sabarsky secretly acquired 440 Grosz works for himself, primarily drawings and watercolors produced in Germany in the 1910s and 20s. The lawsuit was settled in summer in 2006.  In 2003 the Grosz family initiated a legal battle against the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, asking that three paintings be returned. According to documents, the paintings were sold to the Nazis after Grosz fled the country in 1933. The museum never settled the claim, arguing that a three-year statute of limitations in bringing such a claim had expired. It is well documented that the Nazis stole thousands of paintings during World War II and many heirs of German painters continue to fight powerful museums to reclaim such works.  George Grosz's younger son is jazz guitarist Marty Grosz.

References.

Notes

George Grosz (; born Georg Ehrenfried Groß; July 26, 1893 – July 6, 1959) was a German artist known especially for his caricatural drawings and paintings of Berlin life in the 1920s. He was a prominent member of the Berlin Dada and New Objectivity group during the Weimar Republic. He immigrated to the United States in 1933, and became a naturalized citizen in 1938. Abandoning the style and subject matter of his earlier work, he exhibited regularly and taught for many years at the Art Students League of New York. In 1959 he returned to Berlin where he died.

George Grosz, narozený jako Georg Ehrenfried Groß (26. července 1893 Berlín – 6. července 1959 Berlín), byl německoamerický malíř, grafik a karikaturista. Jeho styl postupně ovlivnil expresionismus, futurismus a dadaismus, stal se členem uskupení Nová věcnost. Proslul kritikou společnosti Výmarské republiky. Zdůrazňoval negativní stránky života velkoměsta a sociální rozdíly. Naproti Otto Dixovi, dalšímu hlasitému kritikovi německé společnosti, je Grosz agresivnější a více politický. Okruhy, kterými se zabýval, byly především ekonomika, politika, vojenství a duchovenstvo.


Topography and geology.

The Tisa Rocks are located at a height of about 600 m above sea level. They form a line of rock outcrops drawn up in an arc on the westernmost edge of the sandstone beds of the Elbe Sandstone Mountains from the Ore Mountain escarpment on Czech soil. About a kilometre west of them on the outskirts of Tisa stands the coarse- and medium-grained muscovite-biotite-orthogneiss of the Eastern Ore Mountain region. This also strikes eastwards on the hillside south of the village.  The rocks are frequently vertically dissected; in many places the fissures being as deep as the rock pillars are high. Horizontal weathering is found in the upper layers and have created several bizarre shapes, such as the rock called the "Steinpilz" ("boletus edulis" - a type of edible mushroom) which is easily accessible. The "Great Tisa Rocks" begin near the official entrance by a restaurant. These consist of a northern and southern array of crags along an otherwise compact plateau. The crags to the west running off at an angle to the northwest are known as the "Little Tisa Rocks". They are more heavily dissected.  The crags of the Tisa Rocks comprise mainly of medium-grained sandstone of the Lower to Middle Turonian of the Cretaceous. They belong lithostratigraphically to the Weissenberg Formation ("Bělohorské souvrství") in the Bohemian Cretaceous System. The nearby area surrounding the Tisa Rocks to the north and south is covered by diluvial sediments of loam, sand and boulder-containing scree.  In the sandstone are heavy concentrations of ferrous minerals on closely spaced strata, that can be identified from their yellow to red stripes of colour and predominantly horizontal. A striking feature in many places where the lower strata are visible are small and large cavities as well as occasional tunnels with an oval cross-section, whose walls are often covered with calcareous sinter deposits. These are relics of very old solution processes in the sandstone. In zones of strong weathering, the marked stratification over short distances is clearly visible. Features associated with cross-bedding occur relatively frequently.

The Tisa Rocks or Tisa Walls (; ) are a well-known group of rocks in the western Bohemian Switzerland not far from its topographical boundary with the Ore Mountains. The region, with its rock pillars up to 30 m high, is one of the major tourist attractions of Bohemian Switzerland. The Tisa Rocks and their neighbouring Burschlicke Rocks ("Bürschlické stěny") are protected as a national nature reserve.

Tiské stěny jsou pískovcové skalní město a přírodní památka poblíž obce Tisé v okrese Ústí nad Labem. Jsou ojedinělé svou rozlohou i rozličností skalních útvarů. Obec Tisá se nalézá blízko hraničního přechodu Petrovice na česko-saské hranici. Dopravně jde o lehce dostupnou lokalitu, protože poblíž vede dálniční koridor Praha–Drážďany. Oběma částmi skalního města je vedena naučná stezka Tiské stěny.


History.

The fountain was commissioned as part of the decoration of the city to commemorate the solemn royal entry of King Henry II into Paris in 1549. Artists were commissioned to construct elaborate monuments, mostly temporary, along his route, from the Port Saint-Denis to the Palais de la Cité, passing by le Châtelet, the Pont Notre-Dame and the Cathedral. The fountain was placed on the site of an earlier fountain dating to the reign of Philip II of France, against the wall of the Saints Innocents Cemetery, at the corner of rue Saint Denis (where the King's procession passed) and rue aux Fers (today's rue Berger), with two façades on one street, one façade on the other. It was to serve as a fountain as well as a grand reviewing stand for local notables; it resembled the walls of a large residence, with water taps along the street at the street level, and a stairway to the loggia on the upper level, where officials stood on the balcony to greet the King. Its original name was the Fountain of the Nymphs.  Once the procession had passed, the structure became a simple water fountain for the neighborhood, with taps, ornamented with lion heads, permanently trickling water. The upper floor of the fountain was eventually turned into a residence, with windows and a chimney.  In 1787, for sanitary reasons, the cemeteries of Paris were moved outside the city walls, and the former cemetery of the Church of the Saints-Innocents, against whose wall the fountain stood, was transformed into a market square, le Marché des Innocents. The fountain was scheduled for destruction. It was saved largely by the efforts of writer Quatremère de Quincy, who wrote a letter to the "Journal de Paris" urging the preservation of "A masterpiece of French sculpture." The fountain was moved to the middle of a large basin in the market, raised on a stone pedestal decorated with four lions and four basins. The sculptor Augustin Pajou was commissioned to create a fourth façade for the fountain, in the same style as the other three, so that it could be free-standing.  Because of the poor water supply system of Paris, the fountain produced only a small flow of water. Under Napoleon Bonaparte, a new aqueduct was constructed from the River Ourcq, and finally the fountain gushed water, in such abundance that it threatened the sculptural decoration. The smaller bas-reliefs at the base of the fountain were removed in 1810 and placed in the Musée du Louvre in 1824.  In 1858, during the Second French Empire of Louis Napoleon, the fountain was again moved, to its present location on a modest pedestal in the middle of the square; and six basins of pouring water, one above the other, were added on each façade.

Architecture.

Pierre Lescot (1510–1578), the architect of the fountain, was responsible for introducing classical models and French Renaissance architecture into Paris. Francis I named him chief architect of the Palais du Louvre, and over the following years he transformed the building from a medieval castle into a Renaissance palace. He worked with Jean Goujon on the decoration of two façades of the Cour Carrée of the Louvre.  The fountain's architecture was inspired by the nymphaeum of ancient Rome, a building or monument decorated with statuary of nymphs, tritons and other water deities, and usually used to protect a fountain or spring.

Sculptural decoration.

In 1547, Jean Goujon (1510–1572) became the court sculptor for Henry II, and this fountain was one of his first important commissions. In the same year he made illustrations for the French translation of the book of architecture by Vitruvius, a major classical source of the architecture of the Italian Renaissance and the French Renaissance. Later he worked again with Pierre Lescot on the bas-reliefs for the Cour Carrée of the Louvre Palace.  Though he was the court sculptor of Henry II, Goujon was a Protestant, and he fled to Italy during the French Wars of Religion, when Henry II began serious persecution of French Protestants.  Goujon was one of the first French sculptors to draw inspiration from the sculpture of ancient Rome, particularly the bas-relief sculptures on Roman sarcophagi. The nymph and triton on one of the fountain panels (see illustration) resembled a Roman sarcophagus in Grottaferrata, which was on display when Goujon was in Rome, and which had been the subject of several 16th century artists. The Triton’s hair resembled that in an ancient statue of The River Tiber, which had been discovered in Rome in 1512.  Goujon’s work on the fountain was also inspired by the Italian artists who had come to work for Francis I at the Château de Fontainebleau, Rosso Fiorentino (1495-1540) and Francesco Primaticcio (1504-1570). The nymph and sea dragon on the fountain had the same pose as the nymph of Fontainebleau, by Rosso, in the Galerie François I of the chateau, and the female forms of the nymphs, with their elongated bodies, narrow shoulders, and small, high breasts, resembled the idealized female figures of Primaticcio.  Goujon’s personal contribution was a decorative swirling movement in the sculptures, with undulating drapery and curling scrolls made of sea shells and the tails of sea creatures.

Popular culture references.

The fountain can be seen in the movie "National Lampoon's European Vacation" during the Paris scene when a stranger steals their video camera.

The Fontaine des Innocents is a monumental public fountain located on the place Joachim-du-Bellay in the Les Halles district in the 1st arrondissement of Paris, France. Originally called the Fountain of the Nymphs, it was constructed between 1547 and 1550 by architect Pierre Lescot and sculptor Jean Goujon in the new style of the French Renaissance. It is the oldest monumental fountain in Paris.

Fontána Neviňátek (francouzsky "Fontaine des Innocents") je renesanční fontána v Paříži v 1. obvodu na náměstí "Place Joachim-du-Bellay". Jedná se o nejstarší dochovanou kašnu v Paříži a je zanesena v seznamu historických památek.


Background.

The paper was the first London newspaper to be published in direct competition with the "Evening Standard" since 1987 and Robert Maxwell's short-lived "London Daily News". It was also the first newspaper to be launched by News International (the publisher's other titles were bought many years after initial publication).  The week before "The London Paper" was first published, Associated Newspapers, the publisher of the "Evening Standard", re-branded their existing free lunchtime newspaper "Standard Lite" to "London Lite" and changed the publishing time to include the evening rush-hour, a move that was widely seen as a'spoiler' to protect against the launch of "thelondonpaper".

Format.

The paper, edited by Stefano Hatfield, was targeted towards young readers, with emphasis on celebrity and more light hearted news, there was little analysis of news stories and the paper used many images and much colour. As a consequence of the launch of "The London Paper" as well as Associated Newspaper's own "London Lite", the "Evening Standard" attempted to go more upmarket, emphasising the difference between the free newspapers and itself by adding the tagline "The Quality Newspaper" across the top of the front page, this changed on 12 October 2009 when, after a long history of paid circulation, the "Evening Standard" became a free sheet, replacing the "London Lite". "The London Paper" was also the home of "Em", the popular cartoon strip later featured in "The Sun", and the City Girl column, written by novelist Alexandra Brown.

Distribution.

It held the contract for evening free distribution in London National Rail stations, meaning it could be picked up at the same locations as "Metro" in the mornings. It was also believed to be bidding for the larger contract to distribute free newspapers at London Underground stations on weekday afternoons. However Transport for London later announced that the contract had been withdrawn after no acceptable bids were received.

Criticism.

The paper was criticised for containing too much pointless celebrity news in the guise of serious news articles, such as a new Murdoch-backed music website and "The Simpsons Movie". Its television listings also included Sky One alongside the five terrestrial channels.  Like the other free London dailies, "The London Paper" was generally discarded by its readers as soon as they had finished. The use of resources to print something with such a short lifespan was criticised on environmental grounds. Westminster City Council estimated that free newspapers made up a quarter of all rubbish in the West End, much of which went un-recycled, although some stations have positioned recycling bins at entrances and exits specifically for the purpose of recycling free papers.

Closure.

On 20 August 2009, it was announced that "The London Paper" would cease publication due to consistent losses. On 18 September 2009, News International took the decision to cease publication of the newspaper, having its final print-run after it recorded pre-tax losses of £12.9m in its second year.  On 13 August 2010, Rupert Murdoch announced that News Corp would distribute a similar digital newspaper as paid content for the iPad, mobile phones, and other digital devices.

The London Paper (stylised as thelondonpaper) was a free daily newspaper, published by NI Free Newspapers Ltd, a subsidiary of News International (who also own the companies that publish "The Sun" and "The Times"). It was available from Monday to Friday each week in Central London from 4 September 2006 until 18 September 2009 (its final print-run before closure).

The London Paper (obecně známé také jako thelondonpaper) byly britské, zadarmo šířené noviny. Byly vydávány společností NI Free Newspapers Ltd, což je pobočka nadnárodní společnosti News International, která vlastní a vydává mimo jiné i noviny The Sun a The Times. Byly vydávány od pondělí do pátku c centrálním Londýně od 4. září 2006 do 18. září 2009, kdy bylo vytištěno poslední vydání.


Biography.

Early life.

Peter Minuit was born at Tournai between 1580 and 1585 into a Calvinist family that had moved from the city of Tournai (presently part of Wallonia, Belgium) in the Southern Netherlands, to Wesel in Germany, in order to avoid Spanish Catholic colonials, who were not favorably disposed toward Protestants. His surname means "midnight" in French.  His father, Johann, died in 1609 and Peter took over management of the household and his father's business. Peter had a good reputation in Wesel, attested by the fact that he was several times appointed a guardian. He also assisted the poor during the Spanish occupation of 1614–1619.  Minuit married Gertrude Raedts on August 20, 1613. Gertrude was from a wealthy family and she probably helped Peter Minuit establish himself as a broker. A will drawn up in 1615 in the Dutch city of Utrecht, mentions "Peter Minnewit" as a diamond cutter. Whether he traded in other items is unknown.  By 1624, the city was in an economic decline and in 1625, he had left Wesel and like others, went to Holland. At first, Gertrude went to stay with her relatives in Cleve.

As director of New Netherland.

Minuit joined the Dutch West India Company, probably in the mid-1620s, and was sent with his family to New Netherland in 1625 to search for tradable goods other than the animal pelts that then were the major product coming from New Netherland. He returned in the same year, and in 1626 was appointed the new director of New Netherland, taking over from Willem Verhulst. He sailed to North America and arrived in the colony on May 4, 1626.  Minuit is credited with purchasing the island of Manhattan from the Native Americans in exchange for traded goods valued at 60 guilders. According to the writer Nathaniel Benchley, Minuit conducted the transaction with Seyseys, chief of the Canarsees, who were only too happy to accept valuable merchandise in exchange for an island that was mostly controlled by the Weckquaesgeeks.  The figure of 60 guilders comes from a letter by a representative of the Dutch States-General and member of the board of the Dutch West India Company, Pieter Janszoon Schagen, to the States-General in November 1626. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 (or 60 guilders) to US$23. The popular account rounds this off to $24. By 2006 sixty guilders in 1626 was worth approximately $1,000 in current dollars, according to the Institute for Social History of Amsterdam.  According to researchers at the National Library of the Netherlands, "The original inhabitants of the area were unfamiliar with the European notions and definitions of ownership rights. For the Indians, water, air and land could not be traded. Such exchanges would also be difficult in practical terms because many groups migrated between their summer and winter quarters. It can be concluded that both parties probably went home with totally different interpretations of the sales agreement."  A contemporary purchase of rights in nearby Staten Island, to which Minuit also was party, involved duffel cloth, iron kettles, axe heads, hoes, wampum, drilling awls, "Jew's harps", and "diverse other wares". "If similar trade goods were involved in the Manhattan arrangement", Burrows and Wallace surmise, "then the Dutch were engaged in high-end technology transfer, handing over equipment of enormous usefulness in tasks ranging from clearing land to drilling wampum."  Minuit conducted politics in a measure of democracy in the colony during his time in New Netherland. He was highest judge in the colony, but in both civil and criminal affairs he was assisted by a council of five colonists. This advisory body would advise the director and jointly with him would develop, administer, and adjudicate a body of laws to help govern the colony. In addition there was a schout-fiscal, half-sheriff, half-attorney-general, and the customs officer. During Minuit's administration, several mills were built, trade grew exponentially, and the population grew to almost 300.  In 1631, the Dutch West India Company (WIC) suspended Minuit from his post for reasons that are unclear, but probably for (perhaps unintentionally) abetting the landowning patroons who were engaging in illegal fur trade and otherwise enriching themselves against the interests and orders of the West India Company. He arrived back in Europe in August 1632 to explain his actions, but was dismissed and was succeeded as director by Wouter van Twiller. It is possible that Minuit had become the victim of the internal disputes over the rights that the board of directors had given to the patroons.

Establishing the New Sweden colony.

After having lived in Cleves, Germany for several years, Minuit made arrangements with Samuel Blommaert and the Swedish government in 1636 or 1637 to create the first Swedish colony in the New World. Located on the lower Delaware River within territory earlier claimed by the Dutch, it was called New Sweden. Minuit and his company arrived on the "Fogel Grip" and "Kalmar Nyckel" at Swedes' Landing (now Wilmington, Delaware), in the spring of 1638. They constructed Fort Christina later that year, then returned to Stockholm for a second load of colonists, and made a side trip to the Caribbean on the return to pick up a shipment of tobacco for resale in Europe to make the voyage profitable. During this voyage, Minuit drowned when the ship he was visiting (at the invitation of its Dutch captain, a friend of Minuit), "The Flying Deer", was lost with all hands during a hurricane at St. Christopher (today's St. Kitts) in the Caribbean. The losses suffered, such as goods, colonists, and Minuit, caused irreversible damage to Sweden's colonization attempts. Two years later, Swedish Lt. Måns Nilsson Kling, whose rank was raised to captain, replaced him as governor. Nine expeditions to the colony were carried out before the Dutch captured it in 1655.

Peter Minuit (between 1580 and 1585 – August 5, 1638) was a Walloon from Tournai, in present-day Belgium. He was the 3rd Director of the Dutch North American colony of New Netherland from 1626 until 1631, and 3rd Governor of New Netherland. He founded the Swedish colony of New Sweden on the Delaware Peninsula in 1638.

Peter Minnewitt či Minuit (1580 Wesel, Klévské vévodství – 5. srpna 1638 Svatý Kryštof) byl guvernér Nového Holandska. Během výkonu své funkce odkoupil (4. května 1626) od indiánů ostrov Manhattan za 24 $, na kterém mělo být budováno město Nový Amsterdam (dnes New York).


Biography.

Jorgensen was born in Portland, Oregon. He attended the University of Oregon and Reed College, graduating in 1936. He married Betty Price on June 17, 1935.  After college, he joined the staff of "The Oregonian", working his way up from copy boy to night city editor. During his time at the newspaper, he became interested in photography and by the advent of World War II he was becoming a respected photographer.  In 1942, Jorgensen enlisted in the Navy and was one of six initial photographers recruited by Edward Steichen to join the Naval Aviation Photographic Unit during the war. He served aboard aircraft carriers USS "Lexington" in the Gilbert Islands (fall 1943); the USS "Monterey" in the Mariana Islands (1944); destroyer USS "Albert W. Grant" and shore duty in Borneo and the Philippines during Douglas MacArthur's return in 1944; and the hospital ship USS "Solace" off Okinawa, spring 1945.  While aboard the USS "Monterey", he captured Navy pilots in the forward elevator well of the ship playing basketball during June 1944. One of the subjects, the jumper of the left, is Gerald Ford, who later became the president of the United States upon the resignation of Richard Nixon.  On V J Day, 1945, both Jorgensen and Eisenstaedt captured the image of a U.S. sailor grabbing a nurse for an impromptu kiss in the midst of Times Square celebrations. In a 2010 article, "The New York Times" described it as "a defining image of the American century, one that expressed the joy of a nation at its moment of greatest triumph."  In the post-war decade, Jorgensen and his wife traveled the world as a photographer researcher team, contributing to magazines including "Fortune", "Saturday Evening Post", "Collier's, "Life", and "Ladies Home Journal. Jorgensen served as president of the American Society of Media Photographers, working to establish minimum pay scales and fair practices for the photography industry.

Later life.

After he left the Navy, Jorgensen settled in Maryland. He took over "Chesapeake Skipper" magazine, renaming it "The Skipper" and boosted its subscriptions from 1,500 to 50,000 by 1968. He and his wife moved to Portland at that time and started a boaters' consumer report newsletter. Jorgensen died of cancer in 1994 and was survived by his wife; two daughters; and two sisters.

Victor Jorgensen (July 8, 1913 – June 14, 1994) was a former Navy photo journalist who probably is most notable for taking an instantly iconic photograph of an impromptu scene in Manhattan on August 14, 1945, but from a different angle and in a less dramatic exposure than that of a photograph taken by Alfred Eisenstaedt. Both photographs were of the same V-J Day embrace of a woman in a white dress by a sailor. Eisenstaedt's better known photograph, "V-J Day in Times Square," was published in "Life".

Victor Jorgensen byl americký fotograf, který během druhé světové války pracoval pro Fotografický útvar letectva vojenských námořních sil (Naval Aviation Photographic Unit), který vedl Edward Steichen.


Biography.

1976–97: Early life and career beginnings.

Giles was born on February 4, 1976 and raised in East Harlem. He was raised by his mother, Fredericka Giles. He went to school at the Manhattan Center for Science and Mathematics, where he met his longtime friends Mase and Jim Jones. He was a promising basketball player alongside Mase, however, he was unable to take advantage of scholarship offers due to his poor academic standing. Instead, he enrolled in a college in Texas, without even graduating from high school, but soon dropped out and returned to Harlem where he began selling drugs before starting his rap career. Giles was eventually introduced to The Notorious B.I.G. through his childhood friend Mase. BIG introduced Giles to Lance Rivera, who signed him to his label, Untertainment.  He began his musical career in the mid-1990s, rapping alongside Big L, Mase, and his cousin Bloodshed, in a group called Children Of The Corn. After Bloodshed's death in a car accident on March 2, 1997, the group disbanded and the remaining members pursued solo careers.

1998–2002: "Confessions of Fire", "S.D.E." and "Come Home with Me".

Two years before Big L's murder in 1999, Cam'ron was introduced to The Notorious B.I.G. by Mase who was signed to Bad Boy Records at the time. Biggie was so impressed by Cam'ron that he introduced him to his partner Lance "Un" Rivera who signed Cam'ron to his Untertainment label, distributed by Epic Records. His debut album, "Confessions of Fire", was released a year later in July 1998 and included singles such as "3-5-7" (which was also featured in the movie Woo), and "Horse and Carriage" featuring Mase, which reached the R&B Top Ten. The album achieved gold status and made the Top 10 of both the pop and R&B charts.  In 2000, Cam'ron was working with music executive Tommy Mottola and released his second album "S.D.E. (Sports Drugs & Entertainment)" on Sony/Epic Records. With features from Destiny's Child, Juelz Santana, Jim Jones, N.O.R.E., and producer Digga, it included the relatively successful singles, "Let Me Know" and "What Means The World To You". The album reached Number 2 on the R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, and Number 14 on the Billboard 200.  After demanding a release from Sony/Epic Records, Cam'ron signed with his childhood friend and new manager Damon Dash to Roc-A-Fella Records in 2001, alongside artists such as Jay-Z, Beanie Sigel, Freeway and Memphis Bleek. A reported $4.5 million record deal was agreed upon with and Damon Dash and his Roc-A-Fella partners Kareem Biggs and Jay-Z in the form of a record advance. His third and most successful album "Come Home with Me" was released in 2002 featuring guests such as Jay-Z, Beanie Sigel, and Memphis Bleek, and production from Just Blaze, Kanye West and The Heatmakerz. It included the hit singles "Oh Boy" and "Hey Ma", which both featured The Diplomats newest member Juelz Santana. The album achieved platinum status and served as a stepping stone for Cam'ron's group The Diplomats to sign with Roc-A-Fella.  In 2002, Cam'ron went on to appear in the Damon Dash produced film, "Paid in Full", in which he played one of three main characters alongside Mekhi Phifer and Wood Harris. In 2006 he started shooting his movie for his album titled "Killa Season"; the film would mark both Cam'ron's screenwriting and directorial debuts, as well as his return to acting. Killa Season was released to DVD on April 25, 2006, after a special two-day theatrical release.

2003–09: "Purple Haze", "Killa Season" and "Crime Pays".

In 2003 Cam'ron teamed up with his fellow Diplomats Members Jim Jones, Juelz Santana, and Freekey Zeeky to release the Diplomats' debut double disc album, "Diplomatic Immunity", in 2003 under Roc-A-Fella/Diplomat Records, which was quickly certified gold by the RIAA. The album featured the lead single "Dipset Anthem", a remix to Cam'rons hit "Hey Ma" and the (street anthem) single "I Really Mean It", as well as featuring production from Kanye West, Just Blaze, and The Heatmakerz. A year later, the Diplomats released their second album, "Diplomatic Immunity 2". Although not as successful as their debut, it still was boosted to gold status. Around this time in the height of his mainstream fame, Cam'ron was known for popularizing the color pink. During this period, Cam'ron was always seen wearing pink clothing and even bought an all-pink Range Rover, which can be seen in his video for "Killa Cam". Cam'ron's fourth studio album, "Purple Haze", was released on December 7, 2004 on Def Jam/Roc-A-Fella Records. It featured collaborations with Kanye West, Jaheim, Twista, Juelz Santana, and various other artists and ultimately reached gold status. The album was also a critical success, being ranked 114th on Pitchfork Media's Top 200 Albums of the first decade of the 21st century List, and 10th on Rhapsody's Hip Hop's Best Albums Of The Decade List. However, after feeling that the album was poorly promoted and that his projects were not receiving enough attention, Cam'ron requested his release from Roc-A-Fella Records.  On April 28, 2005, Cam'Ron officially joined the Warner Music Group under the Asylum Records imprint. He began work on what would be his first project for the new label. Cam'ron's fifth studio album, titled "Killa Season", was released on May 16, 2006, featuring production from long-term collaborators The Heatmakerz, Charlmagne and Ty Fyffe, as well as others such as Alchemist and I.N.F.O.. Along with the album, Cam'ron released his first film, in which he wrote, directed and starred in, also titled "Killa Season". Despite selling 112,000 units in the first week and debuting at number 2 on the charts, "Killa Season" failed to have the same sales strength as his two previous releases, but "Killa Season" became certified gold.  After the release of "Killa Season" and his feud with 50 Cent in 2007, Cam'ron took a three-year hiatus from music after his mother suffered three strokes which left her paralyzed on her left side. He moved to Florida with her to set up her rehabilitation and therapy, and stayed there until she had fully recovered. Cam'ron's 2009 album, "Crime Pays" was released on Asylum/Diplomat Records, featuring the majority of the production handled by Skitzo and AraabMuzik. Although none of the singles from the album managed to chart, the album still reached number 3 on the Billboard 200 but only sold 150,000 units, making it the lowest selling album of his career. In 2009 Cam'ron formed a new label, Dipset West and new group the U.N..

2010–present: Mixtapes, EPs, and collaborations.

In late 2009–early 2010, Cam'ron released a series of mixtapes hosted by DJ Drama called "Boss of All Boses" which featured his new upcoming artist Vado. Cam'ron also released a collaboration album with his new group the U.N. (group) which included himself and fellow Harlem rapper Vado titled "Heat in Here Vol. 1"; the first single off the album was "Speaking Tongues" which peaked at No. 82 on the U.S. R&B charts. Cam'ron announced that he would be releasing a joint album with rapper Vado called "Gunz n' Butta"; on April 19, 2011, the album was released on E1 Music. In 2013, Vado signed with We the Best Music Group after his personal friendship with Cam'ron eroded, although Vado maintained at the time that they still worked on a business level and had no animosity towards him. After three years Cam'ron and Jim Jones decided to mend their differences and start working together again for the third installment of the "Diplomatic Immunity" album along with fellow Diplomat members Juelz Santana and Freekey Zekey. Cam'ron announced that The Diplomat album's release would take place around Christmas 2010. The first promotional single featuring the reunited Diplomat members was titled "Salute"; it was produced by upcoming Diplomat producer AraabMuzik, though the track would later appear on Jim Jones album "Capo".  In 2012 Cam'ron was featured on rapper/singer Wiz Khalifa's second studio album "O.N.I.F.C." on a song titled "The Bluff". Also In 2012 Cam'ron would be featured on rapper/singer Nicki Minaj's second studio album "" on a song titled "I Am Your Leader" along with rapper Rick Ross.  In 2013 during an interview Cam'ron discussed his seventh upcoming studio album "Killa Season 2" stating that it will feature guest appearances from Dipset, T.I., Nicki Minaj, and Wiz Khalifa. On October 1, 2013, Cam'ron released his promotional mixtape for the album titled "Ghetto Heaven Vol 1".  In January 2014, according to "Complex Magazine", Cam'ron and A-Trak were to team up for a collaborative EP to be titled "Federal Reserve" which would be executive-produced by Dame Dash and have featured appearances by Juelz Santana and Jim Jones. In May, they put out the first single from the album, titled "Dipsh*ts", featuring commentary from Dame Dash and Juelz Santana on the hook and an accompanying official video. On February 11, 2014, Cam'ron along with fashion designer Mark McNairy revealed their "Cape line" during New York fashion week. On October 20, 2014, via his Instagram Cam'ron revealed and released his "Ebola mask" stating on the caption "Ebola is no joking matter, so if u have to be safe, be fashionable". Cam'ron also has a fashion clothing line titled "Dipset USA" which is branded off his former label Diplomat Records. On July 1, 2014, Cam'ron released his "1st of the Month, Vol. 1" EP. On August 1, 2014 Cam'ron released his "1st of the Month, Vol. 2" EP, it included the single "So Bad" featuring Nicki Minaj. On September 1, 2014 Cam'ron released his "1st of the Month, Vol. 3" EP. On October 1, 2014, Cam'ron released his "1st of the Month, Vol. 4" EP. On November 1, 2014, Cam'ron released his "1st of the Month, Vol. 5" EP. On December 1, 2014 Cam'ron released his "1st of the Month, Vol. 6" EP. On December 11, 2014 Cam'ron announced that his next studio album will not be a sequel to his fifth album Killa Season but will be a sequel to his critically acclaimed fourth studio album "Purple Haze" titled "Purple Haze 2"; Cam'ron would also announced that this would be his final album. On December 16, 2014 Cam'ron would release his compilation "1st of the Month: Box Set (Deluxe Edition)".  On January 1, 2015 well known DJ Funkmaster Flex announced via his Instagram that he had spoken to fellow Diplomat members Cam'ron, Jim Jones and Juelz Santana about an upcoming Diplomat's mixtape which included fellow member Freekey Zeekey. He also confirmed and stated that he will be hosting the mixtape along with DJ's/Rappers/Producers DJ Khaled, Swizz Beatz and DJ Mustard.  In July 2016, he announced that he will release an album called Killa Pink and he promoted his line of signature the Reebok Flea 2's, and announced that the shoe will be released in combination with the album.

Other ventures.

Directing and acting career.

In 2002, Cam'ron went on to appear in the Damon Dash produced film, "Paid in Full", in which he played one of three main characters alongside Mekhi Phifer and Wood Harris. In 2006, started shooting his movie for his album titled "Killa Season", the film would mark both Cam'ron's screenwriting and directorial debuts, as well as his return to acting. "Killa Season" was released to DVD on April 25, 2006, after a special two-day theatrical release.

Fashion designing.

On February 11, 2014, Cam'ron, along with fashion designer Mark McNairy, revealed their "Cape line" during the New York fashion week. On October 20, 2014, via his Instagram, Cam'ron revealed and released his "Ebola mask", stating on the caption: "Ebola is no joking matter, so if u have to be safe, be fashionable". Cam'ron also has a fashion clothing line titled "Dipset USA" which is branded off his former label Diplomat Records.

Controversies.

Jay-Z.

Although there had been rumors of a feud between the two emcees, Cam'ron went public first with a track on "Killa Season" called "You Gotta Love It (Jay-Z Diss)" featuring ex-Dipset member Max B. In the song, Cam'ron takes jabs at Jay-Z's age, his alleged "biting" (stealing) of lyrics, and his current girlfriend. He references Jay-Z using The Notorious B.I.G.'s rhymes, rapping "You ain't the only one with big wallets got it my shit's brolick but ya publishing should go to Miss Wallace." He then released another song "Swagger Jacker (Biter Not a Writer)" to highlight the many songs Jay-Z has borrowed lines from. In the next issue of XXL, Cam'ron explained the beef originated when Jay-Z became CEO and President of Roc-A-Fella Records. In 2010, Cam'ron stated he does not have any issues with Jay-Z anymore.  In 2013, on "Pound Cake", a song by Drake, Jay-Z mentioned Cam'ron again by rapping (in the middle of a verse): Cam replied briefly on "Come and Talk to Me" off of "Ghetto Heaven Vol. 1":

50 Cent.

On February 1, 2007, Cam'ron and 50 Cent had a live argument on "The Angie Martinez Show" on Hot 97 radio. 50 Cent commented that he felt Koch Entertainment was a "graveyard", meaning major record labels would not work with their artists. Cam'ron then ridiculed the record sales of G-Unit members Lloyd Banks and Mobb Deep by pointing out that Dipset member Jim Jones outsold both of their albums despite not being signed to a major label, and also went on to clarify that his group, The Diplomats, had a distribution deal from several labels. Both rappers released diss songs with videos on YouTube. 50 Cent released "Funeral Music", and suggested in the song that Cam'ron is no longer able to lead The Diplomats and that Jim Jones should take his place. Cam'ron responded with "Curtis" and "Curtis Pt. II", in which he makes fun of 50 Cent's appearance, calling him "a gorilla, with rabbit teeth". 50 Cent responded by releasing "Hold On" with Young Buck. Since 2009, the feud slowly died down, and they eventually reconciled in 2016.

Jim Jones.

Cam'ron revealed in 2007 that he was no longer speaking to his fellow Diplomat members Juelz Santana and Jim Jones, leading to speculation that the group had officially broken up. However, despite admitting that he did not want to contact Jim Jones, he said that he had no hard feelings towards him. In an interview with Miss Info, Cam'ron said: "I still haven't spoken to Jim. But Jim ran with me for over 10 years, he worked hard, and I wish him the best of luck. Everybody thinks I'm mad at Jim. Why am I mad? I told people for years that Jimmy was gonna be a star. So it's better on my resume. I wish him the best." After three years of not speaking, Cam'ron and Jim Jones mended their differences in April 2010. In late 2011, both appeared together on Wolfgang Gartner's album Weekend in America, on the track "Circus Freaks".

Stop Snitchin'.

On April 22, 2007, Cam'ron was interviewed on "60 Minutes" as part of a piece on the Stop Snitchin' movement. He also stated that he would "not help the police" try to locate the shooter saying he is "not a snitch" and helping the police would probably hurt his record sales. He stated in the interview, "Because with the type of business I'm in, it would definitely hurt my business. And the way that I was raised, I just don't do that. I was raised differently, not to tell... It's about business but it's still also a code of ethics" When asked by Anderson Cooper if he would tell the police if a serial killer was living next to him, Cam'ron replied "I would probably move" but would not inform the police.  Cam'ron later issued an apology for his comments, calling them an "error in judgement": "Where I come from, once word gets out that you've cooperated with the police that only makes you a bigger target of criminal violence. That is a dark reality in so many neighborhoods like mine across America. I'm not saying its right, but its reality. And it's not unfounded. There's a harsh reality around violence and criminal justice in our inner cities." Cam'ron has had contact with the police in the past. According to The Smoking Gun, New York Police Department records indicate that Giles filed a report with police after he was assaulted at a park in Harlem in 1999.

Kanye West.

Both Cam'ron and Jim Jones took out their frustrations on former label-mate Kanye West in defense of former CEO Dame Dash (due to their longtime friendship dating back to growing up in Harlem) by releasing a song titled "Toast" rhyming over Kanye West's song "Runaway". The feud eventually ended, evidenced by Cam'ron, Jim Jones, and Kanye West collaborating on a song called "Christmas in Harlem".

Personal life.

On October 23, 2005, Cam'ron was leaving a nightclub in Washington D.C., having performed the day before at Howard University. While stopped at a traffic light at the intersection of New York and New Jersey Avenue shortly after midnight, a passenger of a nearby car threatened Cam'ron to "give up" his 2006 Lamborghini. Cam'ron resisted, and the man then shot him. Cam'ron was struck at least once as he was holding the steering wheel, but he was able to drive, going the wrong way on streets and flashing his lights, until a fan drove him to Howard University Hospital. The gunman and passenger drove off, crashed into a parked car, and fled the scene. D.C. Metro Police recovered a cell phone from the scene of the crash, which they tried to use to trace the suspects. He stated that he does not know who shot him.

Cameron Ezike Giles (born February 4, 1976), better known by his stage name Cam'ron, is an American rapper, record executive, and actor from East Harlem, New York. Beginning his career in the mid-1990s as Killa Cam, Giles signed to Lance "Un" Rivera's Untertainment under the aegis of Epic and released his first two studio albums Confessions of Fire and S.D.E. (Sports Drugs & Entertainment) in 1998 and 2000 respectively; the former achieved Gold status by the RIAA. After demanding his release from Epic, Giles signed to Roc-A-Fella Records in 2001 and released his third studio album "Come Home with Me" the following year; it achieved Platinum status by the RIAA, and also contained Cam'ron's highest-charting singles to date; "Oh Boy" and "Hey Ma", which peaked at #4 and #3 on the Billboard Hot 100, respectively. His fourth studio album and final release on Roc-A-Fella, "Purple Haze" was released in 2004 to critical acclaim and commercial success, being certified gold by the RIAA.

Cameron Giles více známý jako Cam'ron nebo Killa Cam je americký rapper, spoluzakladatel skupiny The Diplomats a herec. V dětství účinkoval ve skupině "Children of the Corn". Cam'rona si všiml slavný The Notorious B.I.G. a ještě před svou smrtí ho představil svému manažerovi. V roce 2007 vedl spor s rapperem 50 Centem, který vedl k rozkolu uvnitř skupiny The Diplomats, po tříletých napjatých vztazích se však skupina dala znovu dohromady.


Description.

The "Ohio"-class submarine was designed for extended strategic deterrent patrols. Each submarine is assigned two complete crews, called the Blue crew and the Gold crew, each typically serving 70-to-90-day deterrent patrols. To decrease the time in port for crew turnover and replenishment, three large logistics hatches have been installed to provide large-diameter resupply and repair access. These hatches allow rapid transfer of supply pallets, equipment replacement modules, and machinery components, speeding up replenishment and maintenance of the submarines. Moreover, the "stealth" ability of the submarines was significantly improved over all previous ballistic-missile subs. " Ohio" was virtually undetectable in her sea trials in 1982, giving the U.S. Navy extremely advanced flexibility. The class's design allows the boat to operate for about 15 years between major overhauls. These submarines are reported to be as quiet at their cruising speed of or more than the previous s at, although exact information remains classified. Fire control for their Mark 48 torpedoes is carried out by Mark 118 Mod 2 system, while the Missile Fire Control system is a Mark 98.  The "Ohio"-class submarines were constructed from sections of hull, with each four-deck section being in diameter. The sections were produced at the General Dynamics Electric Boat facility, Quonset Point, Rhode Island, and then assembled at its shipyard at Groton, Connecticut.  The US Navy has a total of 18 "Ohio"-class submarines which consist of 14 ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs), and four cruise missile submarines (SSGNs). The SSBN submarines provide the sea-based leg of the U.S. nuclear triad. Each SSBN submarine is armed with up to 24 Trident II submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBM). Each SSGN is capable of carrying 154 Tomahawk cruise missiles, plus a complement of Harpoon missiles to be fired through their torpedo tubes.  As part of the New START treaty, four tubes on each SSBN will be deactivated, leaving each ship with only 20 available for war loads.

History.

The "Ohio" class was designed in the 1970s to carry the concurrently designed Trident submarine-launched ballistic missile. The first eight "Ohio"-class submarines were armed at first with 24 Trident I C4 SLBMs. Beginning with the ninth Trident submarine,, the remaining boats were equipped with the larger, three-stage Trident II D5 missile. The Trident I missile carries eight multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles, while the Trident II missile carries 12, in total delivering more destructive power than the Trident I missile and with greater accuracy. Starting with in 2000, the Navy began converting its remaining ballistic missile submarines armed with C4 missiles to carry D5 missiles. This task was completed in mid-2008. The first eight submarines had their home ports at Bangor, Washington, to replace the submarines carrying Polaris A3 missiles that were then being decommissioned. The remaining 10 submarines originally had their home ports at Kings Bay, Georgia, replacing the Poseidon and Trident Backfit submarines of the Atlantic Fleet.

SSBN/SSGN conversions.

In 1994, the Nuclear Posture Review study determined that, of the 18 "Ohio" SSBNs the U.S. Navy would be operating in total, 14 would be sufficient for the strategic needs of the U.S. The decision was made to convert four "Ohio"-class boats into SSGNs capable of conducting conventional land attack and special operations. As a result, the four oldest boats of the class—"Ohio", "Michigan", "Florida", and "Georgia"—progressively entered the conversion process in late 2002 and were returned to active service by 2008. The boats could thereafter carry 154 Tomahawk cruise missiles and 66 special operations personnel, among other capabilities and upgrades. The cost to refit the four boats was around US$1 billion (2008 dollars) per vessel. During the conversion of the first four submarines to SSGNs (see below), five of the submarines,,,,, and, were transferred from Kings Bay to Bangor. Further transfers occur as the strategic weapons goals of the United States change. In 2011, "Ohio"-class submarines carried out 28 deterrent patrols. Each patrol lasts around 70 days. Four boats are on station ("hard alert") in designated patrol areas at any given time. From January to June 2014, "Pennsylvania" carried out a 140-day-long patrol, the longest to date.  The conversion modified 22 of the 24 diameter Trident missile tubes to contain large vertical launch systems, one configuration of which may be a cluster of seven Tomahawk cruise missiles. In this configuration, the number of cruise missiles carried could be a maximum of 154, the equivalent of what is typically deployed in a surface battle group. Other payload possibilities include new generations of supersonic and hypersonic cruise missiles, and Submarine Launched Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles, unmanned aerial vehicles, the ADM-160 MALD, sensors for antisubmarine warfare or intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance missions, counter mine warfare payloads such as the AN/BLQ-11 Long Term Mine Reconnaissance System, and the broaching universal buoyant launcher and stealthy affordable capsule system specialized payload canisters. The missile tubes also have room for stowage canisters that can extend the forward deployment time for special forces. The other two Trident tubes are converted to swimmer lockout chambers. For special operations, the Advanced SEAL Delivery System and the dry deck shelter can be mounted on the lockout chamber and the boat will be able to host up to 66 special-operations sailors or Marines, such as Navy SEALs, or USMC MARSOC teams. Improved communications equipment installed during the upgrade allows the SSGNs to serve as a forward-deployed, clandestine Small Combatant Joint Command Center.  On 26 September 2002, the Navy awarded General Dynamics Electric Boat a US$442.9 million contract to begin the first phase of the SSGN submarine conversion program. Those funds covered only the initial phase of conversion for the first two boats on the schedule. Advanced procurement was funded at $355 million in fiscal year 2002, $825 million in the FY 2003 budget and, through the five-year defense budget plan, at $936 million in FY 2004, $505 million in FY 2005, and $170 million in FY 2006. Thus, the total cost to refit the four boats is just under $700 million per vessel.  In November 2002, "Ohio" entered a dry-dock, beginning her 36-month refueling and missile-conversion overhaul. Electric Boat announced on 9 January 2006 that the conversion had been completed. The converted "Ohio" rejoined the fleet in February 2006, followed by "Florida" in April 2006. The converted "Michigan" was delivered in November 2006. The converted "Ohio" went to sea for the first time in October 2007. "Georgia" returned to the fleet in March 2008 at Kings Bay. These four SSGNs are expected to remain in service until about 2023–2026. At that point, their capabilities will be replaced with Virginia Payload Module-equipped.

List of boats.

Note: Boats based at Naval Base Kitsap, Washington are operated by the U.S. Pacific Fleet, while boats based at Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, Georgia are operated by U.S. Fleet Forces Command, (formerly the U.S. Atlantic Fleet).

Replacement.

The U.S. Department of Defense anticipates a continued need for a sea-based strategic nuclear force. The first of the current "Ohio" SSBNs is expected to be retired by 2029. So the replacement submarine must be seaworthy by that time. A replacement may cost over $4 billion per unit compared to "Ohio"s $2 billion. The U.S. Navy is exploring two options. The first is a variant of the nuclear-powered attack submarines. The second is a dedicated SSBN, either with a new hull or based on an overhaul of the current "Ohio".  With the cooperation of both Electric Boat and Newport News Shipbuilding, in 2007, the U.S. Navy began a cost-control study. Then in December 2008, the U.S. Navy awarded Electric Boat a contract for the missile compartment design of the "Ohio"-class replacement, worth up to $592 million. Newport News is expected to receive close to 4% of that project. The U.S. Navy has yet to confirm an "Ohio"-class replacement program. In April 2009, U.S. Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates stated that the U.S. Navy was expected to begin such a program in 2010. The new vessel was scheduled to enter the design phase by 2014. If a new hull design is used, the program needed to be initiated by 2016 to meet the 2029 deadline.

In popular culture.

As ballistic-missile submarines, the "Ohio" class has occasionally been portrayed in fiction books and films.

The "Ohio" class of nuclear-powered submarines includes the United States Navy's 14 ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) and its four cruise missile submarines (SSGNs). Each displacing 18,750 tons submerged, the "Ohio"-class boats are the largest submarines ever built for the U.S. Navy. They are the world's third-largest submarines, behind the Russian Navy's Soviet-designed 48,000-ton and 24,000-ton. The "Ohios" carry more missiles than either: 24 Trident II missiles apiece, versus 16 by the Borei class (20 by the Borei II) and 20 by the "Typhoon" class.

Třída Ohio je třída amerických balistických ponorek s jaderným pohonem z doby studené války. V letech 1976–1997 bylo postaveno celkem 18 ponorek této třídy, přičemž všechny jsou stále v aktivní službě. Existují dvě varianty třídy "Ohio". Hlavní je balistická ponorka, označená SSBN, nesoucí 24 mezikontinentálních raket Trident II. Ta ve službě nahradila všechny dosavadní třídy amerických raketonosných ponorek. Čtyři jednotky této třídy, označené SSGN, byly přestavěny na nosiče 154 střel s plochou dráhou letu Tomahawk.


Temperature.

The highest temperature ever recorded on Antarctica was at Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station on 9 February 2020, beating the previous record of at Esperanza Base, on the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, on 6 February 2020.  A higher temperature of recorded at Signy Research Station on 30 January 1982 was the record for the Antarctic region encompassing all land and ice south of 60° S. The lowest air temperature record, the lowest reliably measured temperature on Antarctica was set on 21 July 1983, when was observed at Vostok Station. For comparison, this is colder than subliming dry ice (at sea level pressure). The altitude of the location is.  Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures, with having been observed at the cloud-free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010.  The lowest recorded temperature of any location on Earth's surface at was revised with new data in 2018 in nearly 100 locations, ranging from to. This unnamed part of the Antarctic plateau, between Dome A and Dome F, was measured on 10 August 2010, and the temperature was deduced from radiance measured by the Landsat 8 and other satellites. It was discovered during a National Snow and Ice Data Center review of stored data in December 2013 but revised by researchers on 25 June 2018. This temperature is not directly comparable to the –89.2 °C reading quoted above, since it is a skin temperature deduced from satellite-measured upwelling radiance, rather than a thermometer-measured temperature of the air above the ground surface.  The mean annual temperature of the interior is. The coast is warmer; on the coast Antarctic average temperatures are around (in the warmest parts of Antarctica) and in the elevated inland they average about in Vostok. Monthly means at McMurdo Station range from in August to in January. At the South Pole, the highest temperature ever recorded was on 25 December 2011. Along the Antarctic Peninsula, temperatures as high as have been recorded, though the summer temperature is below most of the time. Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean. East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation. The Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate. Higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing.

Precipitation.

The total precipitation on Antarctica, averaged over the entire continent, is about per year (Vaughan et al., J Climate, 1999). The actual rates vary widely, from high values over the Peninsula (15 to 25 inches a year) to very low values (as little as in the high interior (Bromwich, Reviews of Geophysics, 1988). Areas that receive less than of precipitation per year are classified as deserts. Almost all Antarctic precipitation falls as snow. Rainfall is rare and mainly occurs during the summer in coastal areas and surrounding islands. Note that the quoted precipitation is a measure of its equivalence to water, rather than being the actual depth of snow. The air in Antarctica is also very dry. The low temperatures result in a very low absolute humidity, which means that dry skin and cracked lips are a continual problem for scientists and expeditioners working on the continent.

Weather condition classification.

The weather in Antarctica can be highly variable, and the weather conditions can often change dramatically in short periods of time. There are various classifications for describing weather conditions in Antarctica; restrictions given to workers during the different conditions vary by station and nation.

Ice cover.

Nearly all of Antarctica is covered by a sheet of ice that is, on average, a mile thick or more (1.6 km). Antarctica contains 90% of the world's ice and more than 70% of its fresh water. If all the land-ice covering Antarctica were to melt — around of ice — the seas would rise by over. This is, however, very unlikely within the next few centuries. The Antarctic is so cold that even with increases of a few degrees, temperatures would generally remain below the melting point of ice. Higher temperatures are expected to lead to more precipitation, which takes the form of snow. This would increase the amount of ice in Antarctica, offsetting approximately one third of the expected sea level rise from thermal expansion of the oceans. During a recent decade, East Antarctica thickened at an average rate of about per year while West Antarctica showed an overall thinning of per year. For the contribution of Antarctica to present and future sea level change, see sea level rise. Because ice flows, albeit slowly, the ice within the ice sheet is younger than the age of the sheet itself.

Ice shelves.

About 75% of the coastline of Antarctica is shelf ice. The majority of shelf ice consists of floating ice, and a lesser amount consists of glaciers that move slowly from the land mass into the sea. Ice shelves lose mass through breakup of glacial ice (calving), or basal melting due to warm ocean water under the ice.  Melting or breakup of floating shelf ice does not directly affect global sea levels; however, ice shelves have a buttressing effect on the ice flow behind them. If ice shelves break up, the ice flow behind them may accelerate, resulting in increasing melt of the Antarctic ice sheet and an increasing contribution to sea level.  Known changes in coastline ice:  The George VI Ice Shelf, which may be on the brink of instability, has probably existed for approximately 8,000 years, after melting 1,500 years earlier. Warm ocean currents may have been the cause of the melting. Not only the ice sheets are losing mass, but they are losing mass at an accelerating rate.

Global warming.

The continent-wide average surface temperature trend of Antarctica is positive – that is, the temperature is increasing – and significant at more than per decade since 1957. The West Antarctic ice sheet has warmed by more than per decade in the last 50 years, and is strongest in winter and spring. Although this is partly offset by fall cooling in East Antarctica, this effect is restricted to the 1980s and 1990s.  Research published in 2009 found that overall the continent had become warmer since the 1950s, a finding consistent with the influence of man-made climate change. "We can't pin it down, but it certainly is consistent with the influence of greenhouse gases from fossil fuels", said NASA scientist Drew Shindell, one of the study's authors. Some of the effects could be due to natural variability, he added.  The British Antarctic Survey, which has undertaken the majority of Britain's scientific research in the area, stated in 2009: The area of strongest cooling appears at the South Pole, and the region of strongest warming lies along the Antarctic Peninsula. A possible explanation is that loss of UV-absorbing ozone may have cooled the stratosphere and strengthened the polar vortex, a pattern of spinning winds around the South Pole. The vortex acts like an atmospheric barrier, preventing warmer, coastal air from moving into the continent's interior. A stronger polar vortex might explain the cooling trend in the interior of Antarctica.  In their latest study (20 September 2007) NASA researchers have confirmed that Antarctic snow is melting farther inland from the coast over time, melting at higher altitudes than ever and increasingly melting on Antarctica's largest ice shelf.  There is also evidence for widespread glacier retreat around the Antarctic Peninsula.  Researchers reported on 21 December 2012 in "Nature Geoscience" that from 1958 to 2010, the average temperature at the mile-high Byrd Station rose by, with warming fastest in its winter and spring. The spot, which is located in the heart of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, is one of the fastest-warming places on Earth. In 2015, the temperature showed changes but in a stable manner and the only months that have drastic change in that year are August and September. It also did show that the temperature was very stable throughout the year.

References.

Notes Sources

The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth. The continent is also extremely dry (it is technically a desert), averaging of precipitation per year. Snow rarely melts on most parts of the continent, and, after being compressed, becomes the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet. Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, because of the katabatic winds. Most of Antarctica has an ice-cap climate (Köppen classification "EF") with very cold, generally extremely dry weather.

Přírodní podmínky Antarktidy jsou unikátní, ale velmi drsné. Antarktida je země sněhu a ledu, kde se střídá šest měsíců trvající polární den a šest měsíců dlouhá polární noc.


San Antonio-class amphibious transport dock

Design.

The "San Antonio" class was designed to provide the Navy and U.S. Marine Corps with modern, sea-based platforms that are networked, survivable, and built to operate with 21st century transformational platforms, such as the MV-22 Osprey, the (since canceled) Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle (EFV), air-cushioned landing craft (LCACs), and future means by which marines are delivered ashore. The ship is more than 45 percent larger than the "Austin" class, displacing more than 25,000 tons at full load. It carries fewer troops, but has twice as much space for vehicles, landing craft, and aircraft.  The project embraced a "Design for Ownership" philosophy; a concurrent engineering approach that injects operator, maintainer, and trainer input into the design development process. The goal was to ensure that operational realities are considered throughout the total ship design, integration, construction, test and life cycle support of the new ships and their systems. This process was intended to improve combat readiness, enhance quality of life, and reduce Total Ownership Costs, and resulted in numerous changes during the project.  The "San Antonio" class has significant survivability features and computer technology. In addition to Rolling Airframe Missile (RAM) protection from air threats, the class was designed to minimize radar signature. Techniques that reduce radar cross-section (RCS) make the ships more difficult to locate and target. Enhanced survivability features include improved nuclear blast and fragmentation protection and a shock-hardened structure. The fiber-optic shipboard-wide area network (SWAN) connects onboard-integrated systems. The network will allow "plug in and fight" configuration, updating and replacing hardware more easily when newer technology becomes available. Moreover, the class has extensive communications, command, control, and intelligence systems to support current and projected expeditionary warfare missions of the 21st century.  The class is fitted with the integrated Ship Self-Defense System (SSDS). The system fuses the radars and other sensors and controls the weapons systems for an automated fast reaction capability against air threats.  The Advanced Enclosed Mast/Sensors (AEM/S) System mast, a 93-foot-high octagonal structure 35 feet in diameter, is constructed of a multi-layer frequency-selective composite material. It is designed to permit the ship's own sensor frequencies with very low loss while reflecting other frequencies. The tapered octagonal shape of the AEM/S is designed to reduce the radar cross section, and enclosing the antennas provides improved performance and greatly reduces maintenance costs.  The "San Antonio"-class also incorporates the latest quality of life standards for the embarked Marines and sailors, including sit-up berths, a ship services mall, a learning resource center, and a fitness center. Medical facilities include two operating rooms and 124 beds. Additionally, they are the first USN ships designed to accommodate sailors and Marines of both sexes as part of the crew and embarked troops.  By mid-2016, the Navy and Marine Corps were studying installing a vertical launch system (VLS) into "San Antonio"-class ships so they could field larger offensive missiles. The original ship concept included two 8-cell Mk 41 VLS in the bow, which is being reexamined to add Tomahawk cruise missiles to support Marines ashore with little modification to the combat system.

History.

Following the extended problems and incidents experienced by, the U.S. Department of Defense's Director, Operational Test and Evaluation (DOT&E), stated in 2010 that the ships are "capable of operating 'in a benign environment', but not effective, suitable and not survivable in a combat situation". The DOT&E found in 2011 that the first ship of the class, USS "San Antonio", had several deficiencies which rendered it "not operationally effective, suitable, or survivable in a hostile environment". In April 2015, the USN proposed adding a 12th ship to the class, which will be built at Ingalls in exchange for a destroyer to be named later. On 4 December 2015, the 12th ship was ordered.

Derivatives.

U.S. senator Kay Hagan has asked if the LPD-17 construction line should be extended to a 12th ship as a bridge to building the LX(R) (formerly LSD(X)) on the same hull, but the USN has indicated that the requirements of the LX(R) have not yet been settled and that the LPD-17 hull might be too large for such a mission. However, Commandant James F. Amos had also endorsed dropping LSD in favor of continued LPD production. In October 2014, Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus signed an internal memo recommending that the LX(R) warship be based on the existing "San Antonio"-class design. The LPD-17 design was selected over a foreign variant and an entirely new design to meet required capability, capacity, and cost parameters. Official selection of basing the LX(R) off the LPD-17 design still has to come with Milestone A approval. The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2015 included partial funding for a twelfth "San Antonio"-class ship (LPD-28). In early 2014, Huntington Ingalls Industries (HII) displayed its Flight IIA version of the LPD-17 hull for the Navy's LX(R) amphibious ship. The design is further modified by removing some of the higher-end capabilities of the "San Antonio" class to create an "amphibious truck" to replace the and landing ship docks. The Flight IIA has improved command and control (C2) features over the LSDs, half the medical spaces of the LDP-17 and a smaller hangar for stowing two MV-22s, no composite masts, two unspecified main propulsion diesel engines (MPDE), two spots for LCACs or one LCU, a reduced troop capacity (500) and a crew of about 400 sailors. In January 2015, the Navy and Marine Corps decided to go with the modified LPD-17 hull for the LX(R) program.  Chief of Naval Operations Greenert considered using some of the extra space in the "San Antonio" class to mount modular equipment in the same fashion as the littoral combat ships. As part of their bid to offer "Flight II" LPD-17s for the dock landing ship replacement contract, HII has suggested fitting out the ships to carry the Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System. Although there is no formal requirement for the BMD variant, HII report unofficial support for it within the U.S. Navy, such that it will be modeled in wargame scenarios in 2016 and 2017. It could accommodate up to 288 Mk41 VLS missile tubes and a radar with 1000 times the sensitivity of the SPY-1D radar of the Burke destroyers.

Ships of the class.

Flight II.

On 2 August 2018, the U.S. Navy and Huntington Ingalls signed a contract for long lead items for LPD-30, the first of the 13-ship more affordable Flight II class. The contract was for US$165.5M. The cost goal is for US$1.64B for the first ship, and $1.4B for subsequent ships. LPD-30 will be fitted with a Raytheon Enterprise Air Surveillance Radar, an upgrade over the AN/SPS-48 currently in LPD-17s. Huntington Ingalls will build the new flight exclusively. On 26 March 2019, Huntington Ingalls announced the award of a US$1.47 billion, fixed-price incentive contract for LPD 30 (14th ship and first of Flight II). On 10 October 2019, the name of the ship was announced as USS "Harrisburg" for Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, the state's capital. On 3 April 2020, Huntington Ingalls announced that it was awarded a $1.5 billion contract modification for the construction of LPD-31.

The "San Antonio" class is a class of amphibious transport docks, also called a "landing platform, dock" (LPD), used by the United States Navy. These warships replace the LPDs (including "Cleveland" and "Trenton" sub-classes), as well as the tank landing ships, and the amphibious cargo ships that have already been retired.

Třída San Antonio je třída válečných lodí amerického námořnictva řazená do kategorie amphibious transport dock. Plavidla jsou určena pro rychlé výsadkové operace a podporu americké námořní pěchoty. Jsou vybavena nejmodernější technikou, elektronikou a v jejich konstrukci jsou využity prvky technologií stealth. Slouží též jako sekundární operační platformy pro letecké operace výsadkových svazů. Třída je důležitým prvkem modernizovaných amerických výsadkových sil.


History of the theory.

The theory that proton–proton reactions are the basic principle by which the Sun and other stars burn was advocated by Arthur Eddington in the 1920s. At the time, the temperature of the Sun was considered to be too low to overcome the Coulomb barrier. After the development of quantum mechanics, it was discovered that tunneling of the wavefunctions of the protons through the repulsive barrier allows for fusion at a lower temperature than the classical prediction.  In 1939, Hans Bethe attempted to calculate the rates of various reactions in stars. Starting with two protons combining to give deuterium and a positron he found what we now call Branch II of the proton-proton chain reaction. But he did not consider the reaction of two nuclei (Branch I) which we now now to be important. This was part of the body of work in stellar nucleosynthesis for which Bethe won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1967.

The proton–proton chain reaction.

The first step in all the branches is the fusion of two protons into deuterium. As the protons fuse, one of them undergoes beta plus decay, converting into a neutron by emitting a positron and an electron neutrino.  The positron will probably annihilate with an electron from the environment into two gamma rays. Including this annihilation and the energy of the neutrino, the whole reaction has a "Q" value (released energy) of 1.442 MeV. The relative amounts of energy going to the neutrino and to the other products is variable.  This reaction is extremely slow due to it being initiated by the weak nuclear force. The average proton in the core of the Sun waits 9 billion years before it successfully fuses with another proton. It has not been possible to measure the cross-section of this reaction experimentally because of these long time scales.  After it is formed, the deuterium produced in the first stage can fuse with another proton to produce the light isotope of helium, :  This process, mediated by the strong nuclear force rather than the weak force, is extremely fast by comparison to the first step. It is estimated that, under the conditions in the Sun's core, each newly created deuterium nucleus exists for only about four seconds before it is converted to helium-3.  In the Sun, each helium-3 nucleus produced in these reactions exists for only about 400 years before it is converted into helium-4. Once the helium-3 has been produced, there are four possible paths to generate. In p–p I, helium-4 is produced by fusing two helium-3 nuclei; the p–p II and p–p III branches fuse with pre-existing to form beryllium-7, which undergoes further reactions to produce two helium-4 nuclei.  In the Sun, synthesis via branch p–p I occurs with a frequency of 83.30 percent, p–p II with 16.68 percent, and p–p III with 0.02 percent.  There is also the extremely rare p–p IV branch. Other even rarer reactions may occur. The rate of these reactions is very low due to very small cross-sections, or because the number of reacting particles is so low that any reactions that might happen are statistically insignificant. This is partly why no mass-5 or mass-8 elements are seen. While the reactions that would produce them, such as a proton + helium-4 producing lithium-5, or two helium-4 nuclei coming together to form beryllium-8, may "actually" happen, these elements are not detected because there are no stable (or even particle-bound) isotopes of atomic masses 5 or 8; the resulting products immediately decay into their initial reactants.  The overall reaction is:  releasing 26.73 MeV of energy, some of which is lost to the neutrinos.

The p–p I branch.

The complete p–p I chain reaction releases a net energy of. Two percent of this energy is lost to the neutrinos that are produced. The p–p I branch is dominant at temperatures of 10 to. Below, the p–p chain does not produce much.

The p–p II branch.

The p–p II branch is dominant at temperatures of 14 to.  Note that the energies in the second reaction above are the energies of the neutrinos that are produced by the reaction. 90 percent of the neutrinos produced in the reaction of to carry an energy of, while the remaining 10 percent carry. The difference is whether the lithium-7 produced is in the ground state or an excited (metastable) state, respectively. The total energy released going from to stable is about 0.862 MeV, almost all of which is lost to the neutrino if the decay goes directly to the stable lithium.

The p–p III branch.

The last three stages of this chain contribute a total of 18.21 MeV.  The p–p III chain is dominant if the temperature exceeds.  The p–p III chain is not a major source of energy in the Sun (only 0.11 percent), but it was very important in the solar neutrino problem because it generates very high energy neutrinos (up to ).

The p–p IV (Hep) branch.

This reaction is predicted theoretically, but it has never been observed due to its rarity (about in the Sun). In this reaction, helium-3 captures a proton directly to give helium-4, with an even higher possible neutrino energy (up to 18.8 MeV).  The mass-energy relationship gives 19.795 MeV for the energy released by this reaction, some of which is lost to the neutrino.

Energy release.

Comparing the mass of the final helium-4 atom with the masses of the four protons reveals that 0.7 percent of the mass of the original protons has been lost. This mass has been converted into energy, in the form of gamma rays and neutrinos released during each of the individual reactions. The total energy yield of one whole chain is.  Energy released as gamma rays will interact with electrons and protons and heat the interior of the Sun. Also kinetic energy of fusion products (e.g. of the two protons and the from the p–p I reaction) increases the temperature of plasma in the Sun. This heating supports the Sun and prevents it from collapsing under its own weight.  Neutrinos do not interact significantly with matter and therefore do not help support the Sun against gravitational collapse. Their energy is lost: the neutrinos in the p–p I, p–p II, and p–p III chains carry away 2.0%, 4.0%, and 28.3% of the energy in those reactions, respectively.

The PEP reaction.

Deuterium can also be produced by the rare pep (proton–electron–proton) reaction (electron capture):  In the Sun, the frequency ratio of the pep reaction versus the p–p reaction is 1:400. However, the neutrinos released by the pep reaction are far more energetic: while neutrinos produced in the first step of the p–p reaction range in energy up to, the pep reaction produces sharp-energy-line neutrinos of. Detection of solar neutrinos from this reaction were reported by the Borexino collaboration in 2012.  Both the pep and p–p reactions can be seen as two different Feynman representations of the same basic interaction, where the electron passes to the right side of the reaction as a positron. This is represented in the figure of proton–proton and electron-capture chain reactions in a star, available at the NDM'06 web site.

The proton–proton chain reaction is one of two known sets of nuclear fusion reactions by which stars convert hydrogen to helium. It dominates in stars with masses less than or equal to that of the Sun, whereas the CNO cycle, the other known reaction, is suggested by theoretical models to dominate in stars with masses greater than about 1.3 times that of the Sun.

Proton-protonový cyklus (proton-protonová reakce, p-p cyklus, p-p reakce, pp reakce, p-p řetězec apod.) je cyklus jaderných reakcí, při kterých se v konečném důsledku přemění jádra vodíku H na jádra hélia He. Proton-protonový cyklus je základním zdrojem zářivé energie ve hvězdách hlavní posloupnosti, jejichž hmotnost příliš nepřesahuje hmotnost Slunce.


Causes.

Acid rain.

Rainfall is naturally acidic due to carbonic acid forming from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This compound causes rainfall pH to be around 5.0-5.5. When rainfall has a lower pH than natural levels, it can cause rapid acidification of soil. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are precursors of stronger acids that can lead to acid rain production when they react with water in the atmosphere. These gases may be present in the atmosphere due to natural sources such as lightning and volcanic eruptions, or from anthropogenic emissions. Basic cations like calcium are leached from the soil as acidic rainfall flows, which allows aluminum and proton levels to increase.

Biological weathering.

Plant roots acidify soil by releasing protons and organic acids so as to chemically weather soil minerals. Decaying remains of dead plants on soil may also form organic acids which contribute to soil acidification. Acidification from leaf litter on soil is more pronounced under coniferous trees such as pine, spruce and fir, which return fewer base cations to the soil,rather than under deciduous trees.

Parent materials.

Certain parent materials also contribute to soil acidification. Granites and their allied igneous rocks are called "acidic" because they have a lot of free quartz, which produces silicic acid on weathering. Also, they have relatively low amounts of calcium and magnesium. Some sedimentary rocks such as shale and coal are rich in sulfides, which, when hydrated and oxidized, produce sulfuric acid which is much stronger than silicic acid. Many coal soils are too acidic to support vigorous plant growth, and coal gives off strong precursors to acid rain when it is burned. Marine clays are also sulfide-rich in many cases, and such clays become very acidic if they are drained to an oxidizing state.

Soil amendments.

Soil amendments such as fertilizers and manures can cause soil acidification. Sulfur based fertilizers can be highly acidifying, examples include elemental sulfur and iron sulfate while others like potassium sulfate have no significant effect on soil pH. While most nitrogen fertilizers have an acidifying effect, ammonium-based nitrogen fertilizers are more acidifying than other nitrogen sources. Ammonia-based nitrogen fertilizers include ammonium sulfate, diammonium phosphate, monoammonium phosphate, and ammonium nitrate. Organic nitrogen sources, such as urea and compost, are less acidifying. Nitrate sources which have little or no ammonium, such as calcium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, potassium nitrate, and sodium nitrate, are not acidifying.

Pollution.

Acidification may also occur from nitrogen emissions into the air, as the nitrogen may end up deposited into the soil. Animal livestock is responsible for nearly 65 percent of man-made ammonia emissions.  Anthropogenic sources of sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides play a major role in increase of acid rain production. The use of fossil fuels and motor exhaust are the largest anthropogenic contributors to sulfuric gases and nitrogen oxides, respectively.

Effects.

Soil acidification can cause damage to plants and organisms in the soil. In plants, soil acidification results in smaller, less durable roots. Acidic soils sometimes damage the root tips reducing further growth. Plant height is impaired and seed germination also decreases. Soil acidification impacts plant health, resulting in reduced cover and lower plant density.Overall,stunted growth is seen in plants. Soil acidification is directly linked to a decline in endangered species of plants.  In the soil, acidification reduces microbial and macrofaunal diversity. This can reduce soil structure decline which makes it more sensitive to erosion. There are less nutrients available in the soil, larger impact of toxic elements to plants, and consequences to soil biological functions (such as nitrogen fixation).  At a larger scale, soil acidification is linked to losses in agricultural productivity due to these effects.  Impacts of acidic water and Soil acidification on plants could be minor or in most cases major. In minor cases which do not result in fatality of plant life include; less-sensitive plants to acidic conditions and or less potent acid rain. Also in minor cases the plant will eventually die due to the acidic water lowering the plants natural pH. Acidic water enters the plant and causes important plant minerals to dissolve and get carried away; which ultimately causes the plant to die of lack of minerals for nutrition. In major cases which are more extreme; the same process of damage occurs as in minor cases, which is removal of essential minerals, but at a much quicker rate. Likewise, acid rain that falls on soil and on plant leaves causes drying of the waxy leaf cuticle; which ultimately causes rapid water loss from the plant to the outside atmosphere and results in death of the plant. To see if a plant is being affected by soil acidification, one can closely observe the plant leaves. If the leaves are green and look healthy, the soil pH is normal and acceptable for plant life. But if the plant leaves have yellowing between the veins on their leaves, that means the plant is suffering from acidification and is unhealthy. Moreover, a plant suffering from soil acidification cannot photosynthesize. Drying out of the plant due to acidic water destroy chloroplast organelles. Without being able to photosynthesize a plant cannot create nutrients for its own survival or oxygen for the survival of aerobic organisms; which affects most species of Earth and ultimately end the purpose of the plants existence.

Prevention and management.

Soil acidification is a common issue in long-term crop production which can be reduced by lime application. In soybean and corn crops grown in acidic soils, lime application resulted in nutrient restoration, increase in soil pH, increase in root biomass, and better plant health.  Different management strategies may also be applied to prevent further acidification: using less acidifying fertilizers, considering fertilizer amount and application timing to reduce nitrate-nitrogen leaching, good irrigation management with acid-neutralizing water, and considering the ratio of basic nutrients to nitrogen in harvested crops. Sulfur fertilizers should only be used in responsive crops, with a high rate of crop recovery.  Through reduction of anthropogenic sources of sulfur dioxides, nitrogen oxides, and with air-pollution control measures, let us try to reduce acid rain and soil acidification all over the world.

Soil acidification is the buildup of hydrogen cations, which reduces the soil pH. Chemically, this happens when a proton donor gets added to the soil. The donor can be an acid, such as nitric acid, sulfuric acid, or carbonic acid. It can also be a compound such as aluminium sulfate, which reacts in the soil to release protons. Acidification also occurs when base cations such as calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium are leached from the soil.

Acidifikace je proces, při kterém dochází k okyselování půdního, nebo vodního prostředí, kvůli zvýšení koncentrace vodíkových iontů, jež se do prostředí dostaly atmosférickou depozicí zejména plynných emisí. Kyselá atmosférická depozice může být: