Pixol.

Like a pixel, each "pixol" contains information on X and Y position and color values. Additionally, it contains information on depth (or Z position), orientation and material. ZBrush-related files store pixol information, but when these maps are exported (e.g., to JPEG or PNG formats) they are flattened and the pixol data is lost. This technique is similar in concept to a voxel, another kind of 3D pixel.

Features.

ZBrush comes with many features to aid in the sculpting of models and meshes.

3D Brushes.

The initial ZBrush download comes with thirty 3D sculpting brushes with more available for download. Each brush offers unique attributes as well as allowing general control over hardness, intensity, and size. Alphas, used to create a specific pattern or shape, and textures are also editable brush features.

Polypaint.

Polypainting allows users to paint on an object's surface without the need to first assign a texture map by adding color directly to the polygons.

Illustration.

ZBrush also gives the ability to sculpt in 2.5D, and comes with several brushes for that purpose. A pixol put down when sculpting or illustrating in 2.5D contains information on its own color, depth, material, position, and lighting information.

Transpose.

ZBrush also has a feature that is similar to skeletal animation in other 3D programs. The transpose feature allows a user to isolate a part of the model and pose it without the need of skeletal rigging.

ZSpheres.

A user can create a base mesh with uniform topology and then convert it into a sculptable model by starting out with a simple sphere and extracting more "ZSpheres", until the basic shape of the desired model is created.

GoZ.

Introduced in ZBrush 3.2 OS X, GoZ automates setting up shading networks for normal, displacement, and texture maps of the 3D models in GoZ-enabled applications. Upon sending the mesh back to ZBrush, GoZ will automatically remap the existing high-resolution details to the incoming mesh. GoZ will take care of operations such as correcting "points & polygons order". The updated mesh is immediately ready for further detailing, map extractions, and transferring to any other GoZ-enabled application.

Best Preview Render.

Also included is a full render suite known as Best Preview Render, which allows use of full 360° environment maps to light scenes using HDRI images. BPR includes a new light manipulation system called LightCaps. With it, one can not only adjust how the lights in the scene are placed around the model, but also generate environments based on it for HDRI rendering later on. It also allows for material adjustments in real-time. Material properties such as subsurface scattering are supported as are environmental and scan-line reflections. BPR also includes a set of built-in filters that can be used in realtime to create dramatic effects and corrections without even touching another photo-manipulation program.

DynaMesh.

This allows ZBrush to quickly generate a new model with uniform polygon distribution, to improve the topology of models and eliminate polygon stretching.

Fibermesh.

Fibermesh is a feature that allows users to grow polygon fibers out of their models or to make various botanical items. It is also a way to edit and manipulate large amounts of polygons at once with Groom brushes.

ZRemesher.

It is an automatic retopology system previously called QRemesher that creates new topology based on the original mesh. The new topology is generally more clean and uniform. This process can also be guided by the user to make the new topology follow curves in the model and retain more detail to specified areas.

Shadowbox.

Shadowbox allows the user to draw a rough silhouette of what they want to model, onto the inside of a virtual box. In real-time, any changes to the drawings are applied to a 3D model, upon which further details can be applied. The feature can best be utilized for hard surface modeling.

ZBrush is a digital sculpting tool that combines 3D/2.5D modeling, texturing and painting. It uses a proprietary "pixol" technology (see below) which stores lighting, color, material, orientation, and depth information for the points making up all objects on the screen. The main difference between ZBrush and more traditional modeling packages is that it is more akin to traditional sculpting.

Zbrush je profesionální grafický editor pro 3D a 2.5D modelování, texturování a malbu. Primární funkcí programu je vytváření highpoly modelů pro digitální animace, filmy a hry.


Background and releases.

Cale wrote "After Midnight" at a much slower tempo than Clapton's later fast-paced rendition. He recorded the song and then released it in 1966 as a single with its flipside track "Slow Motion". When Eric Clapton was working with Delaney & Bonnie Bramlett, Delaney Bramlett introduced Clapton to the music of J.J. Cale. "After Midnight" was the first of several Cale cover songs released by Clapton and appeared on his self-titled debut album. The performers on this version were Clapton on vocals and guitar, Bobby Whitlock on organ and vocals, Jim Gordon on drums, Delaney Bramlett on rhythm guitar, Carl Radle on bass, Leon Russell on piano, Jim Price on trumpet, and Bobby Keys on saxophone. It also appears on "Just One Night", a live album recorded in Japan in 1979.  In 1987, Clapton re-recorded the song for a Michelob beer commercial. The 1988 re-recording was released on the anthology box set Crossroads and as a single with different B-side tracks: "I Can't Stand It" for the seven-inch vinyl, "Whatcha Gonna Do" for the twelve-inch vinyl and the CD, and live recording "Sunshine of Your Love" as the CD's one of three tracks. Another live version was released on "Live from Madison Square Garden" with Steve Winwood on organ.  Clapton said in his 2014 interview with "The San Diego Union-Tribune":  The construction of "After Midnight" was great and it had everything[.] The thing that summed up J.J. for me is it had a little country, a little blues, it was rock and there was this guitar part that was baffling. That has always been the fascinating part; I still don’t think we got it right [on my version]. I’ve always been in awe of J.J.’s technique... He was a rhythm guitar player and a great lead guitar player, too. But when he played rhythm, it was very difficult to get it and know what he was doing.  When we [recorded] it, me and Delaney both did [the guitar part] it at same time, and it was a really difficult claw-hammer [picking] thing. I thought: "This is too hard," so we made a meal out of it. What got me is that it appeared to be a very complex track and I was just intrigued, and thought: "I've got to try and get this [right]." Cale was coming from this very soulful white music. It was at Delaney's insistence that I did ['After Midnight'], and that was probably one of the first songs we decided to record. And that began my association with J.J., really. Cale was unaware of Clapton's recording of the song until it became a radio hit in 1970. He recalled to "Mojo" magazine that when he heard Clapton's version playing on his radio, "I was dirt poor, not making enough to eat and I wasn’t a young man. I was in my thirties, so I was very happy. It was nice to make some money." Cale's friend and producer Audie Ashworth then encouraged him to capitalize on the song's success by recording a full album, "Naturally", released in 1972. Cale issued the re-recorded version as a single that same year with its B-side track, "Crying Eyes." The 1972 re-recorded version reached #42 on the Billboard Hot 100.  Cale told "The San Diego Union-Tribune" in his 1990 interview about Clapton's version:  I thought: 'Well, that won't go anywhere'. [...] A year later, they started playing it on every radio station, including in my hometown. The first time I heard it on my car radio I just drove off to the side of the road. Because I'd never heard anything of my own on the radio before...  All record companies want big-selling records, and my music is a little too raw for commercial success. People are familiar with my songs, especially through Eric Clapton. But I have a hard time drawing a crowd, because I have been a songwriter. I've never sold a lot of records; my music's gotten much more famous than me. Cale released a live version on the album "Live" in 2001.

Critical reception.

Thom Owens of "AllMusic" said in his review about Cale's 1972 album "Naturally", including Cale's re-recorded version of the song, that "Cale effortlessly capture a lazy, rolling boogie" opposite to the early 1970s mainstream "styles of boogie, blues, and country rock."

Album title.

There was also a DVD accompanied by two audio CDs (released in 2006) from a concert (featuring former Dire Straits frontman Mark Knopfler) filmed at the Shoreline Amphitheatre in Mountain View, California, on 21 September 1988, which contains 14 tracks that span Clapton's entire career including classic hits from his stint with Cream, Blind Faith, Derek & The Dominos, as well as his successful solo work.

Other cover versions.

In addition to Clapton, the song has been recorded by various artists, like Chet Atkins, Jerry Garcia Band, Pretty Lights, Phish, Maggie Bell, The Disco Biscuits, Marc Cohn, and Danny Elfman. Sérgio Mendes and his band Brasil '77 covered the song for their 1971 album "País Tropical". It was also recorded by the reggae band the Pioneers under the title "Let It All Hang Out" on the album "Yeah", from 1971, released by Trojan Records. Both, Furthur and Yonder Mountain String Band, performed the song live at All Good Music Festival in 2010. The modern bluegrass band Seldom Scene recorded the song as the title track of their 1981 album of the same name, and often featured an extended-jam version in their concerts. The John Mayer Trio performed a version of the song on "Late Night with Seth Meyers" on February 27, 2014.

"After Midnight" is a rock song by J. J. Cale, first released in 1966. Eric Clapton later covered it for his eponymous album, released in 1970. Clapton's rendition became a success, prompting Cale to re-record the song for Cale's 1972 album "Naturally". In 1987, Clapton later re-recorded the song for a Michelob beer commercial and then released the re-recording as a single. "After Midnight" has been considered one of Clapton's signature songs throughout his career. Other artists covered the song in later years.

„After Midnight“ je píseň amerického písničkáře JJ Calea. Dříve než Cale ji však nahrál anglický kytarista Eric Clapton a vydal ji v srpnu 1970 na svém prvním sólovém albu "Eric Clapton". Až poté, co se z písně stal hit, ji nahrál i Cale; a to na svém albu "Naturally" z roku 1972. Později píseň nahrála řada dalších hudebníků, mezi které patří například Maggie Bell, Tom Shaka nebo Chris Farlowe. Velšský hudebník John Cale byl s JJ Calem několikrát zaměněn a napsal o tom píseň „Autobiography“, ve které například zmiňuje, že není autorem písně „After Midnight“.


Etymology.

Lambic is first mentioned in 1794 as ""allambique"". The initial 'a' was dropped early on, so that in an 1811 advert it was called 'lambicq', though it was sometimes referred to as 'alambic' as late as 1829. The name therefore likely stems from the alembic, a still used for producing jenever. Probably the beer was considered to have characteristics akin to spirits (like its yellow colour, its clarity and above-average alcohol content). Because of the original form 'allambique' other explanations, such as that it was derived from Lembeek, a municipality near Halle, Belgium, seem less likely.

Brewing.

Lambic is generally brewed from a grist containing approximately 60–70% barley malt and 30–40% unmalted wheat. The wort is cooled overnight in a shallow, flat metal pan (generally copper or stainless steel) called a coolship where it is left exposed to the open air so more than 120 different types of microorganisms may inoculate the wort. This cooling process requires night-time temperatures between -8C (18F) and 8C (46F). While this cooling method of open air exposure is a critical feature of the style, the key yeasts and bacteria that perform the fermentation reside within the breweries' timber fermenting vessels. Over eighty microorganisms have been identified in lambic beer, the most significant being "Saccharomyces cerevisiae", "Saccharomyces pastorianus" and "Brettanomyces bruxellensis". The process is generally only possible between October and May as in the summer months there are too many unfavourable organisms in the air that could spoil the beer. In Brussels dialect, lambic produced after this traditional brewing season is referred to as "bezomerd", meaning that it has had "too much summer". Climate change is further shortening this limited brewing window: in the early 1900s, lambic brewers enjoyed roughly 165 days a year in the ideal temperature range, whereas by 2018 that number has shrunk to 140.  Since at least the 11th century, and probably earlier, hops have been used in beer for their natural preservative qualities as well as for the pleasant bitterness, flavour, and aroma they impart. Since the method of inoculation and long fermentation time of lambic beers increases the risk of spoilage, lambic brewers use large amounts of hops for their antibacterial properties. Lambic in the early 19th century was a highly hopped beer, using 8–9 g/l of the locally grown Aalst or Poperinge varieties. Modern lambic brewers, however, try to avoid making the beer extremely hop forward and utilise aged, dry hops which have lost much of their bitterness, aroma and flavour. Consequently, lambics often have a strong, cheese-like, "old hop" aroma, in contrast to the resiny, herbal, earthy hop bitterness found in other styles. The favourite hop used for lambic in the nineteenth century was a variety called Coigneau which was cultivated in the Aalst-Asse area in Belgium.  After the fermentation process starts, the lambic is siphoned into barrels, mostly old port wine or sherry barrels (of chestnut or oak) from Portugal or Spain. Some brewers prefer used wine barrels. The lambic is left to ferment and mature for one or several years. It forms a "velo de flor" of yeast that gives some protection from oxidation, in a similar way to vin jaune and sherry; the barrels are not topped up.

Types of lambic and derived beers.

Lambic is usually a blend of at least two different beers; many producers are blenders who buy beer from other brewers and blend them together to create the desired result. A gueuze may have occupied space in several different cellars over six years or more. While those outside Belgium are likely to find bottled gueuze and fruited versions, a wider variety of styles is available to local drinkers. Beers are often blended again or sweetened with sugar or flavoured syrups before drinking as some can be extremely tart. Most, if not all, of the varieties listed below have Traditional Speciality Guaranteed (TSG) status. This status does not specify that a product has a link to specific geographical area.

Unblended lambic.

Unblended lambic is a cloudy, uncarbonated, bracingly sour beverage that is rarely available on tap. Draught releases are generally regarded as either "jonge" (young) or "oude" (old), depending on age and discretion of the brewer. Bottled offerings from Cantillon and De Cam can be found outside Belgium.

Gueuze.

A mixture of young (one-year-old) and old (two- and three-year-old) lambics that have been bottled. Because the young lambics are not yet fully fermented, it undergoes secondary fermentation in the bottle and produces carbon dioxide. A gueuze will be given a year to carbonate in the bottle, but can be kept for 10–20 years.

Mars.

Mars traditionally referred to a weaker beer made from the second runnings of a lambic brewing. It is no longer commercially produced. In the 1990s, Boon Brewery made a modern Mars beer called Lembeek's 2% (the 2% referring to the alcohol content), but it now only produced for use of Tilquin as a component of their keg beers.

Faro.

Historically, a low-alcohol, sweetened beer made from a blend of lambic and a much lighter, freshly brewed beer to which brown sugar (or sometimes caramel or molasses) was added. The fresh beer was referred to as "meertsbier", and was not necessarily a lambic. Sometimes herbs were added as well. The use of meertsbier (or water) and of substandard lambic in the blend made this a cheap, light, sweet drink for everyday consumption. The 19th century French poet Charles Baudelaire commented on faro's disagreeable aftertaste, "It's beer that you drink twice", believing that the Faro in Brussels was brewed from the waters of a river (the Senne or Zenne) that was also used as a sewer.  The sugar was originally added shortly before serving, and therefore did not add carbonation or alcohol to the beverage, as the sugar did not have the time to ferment. Modern faro beer is still characterized by the use of brown sugar and lambic, but is not always a light beer. The use of meertsbier has disappeared, and modern faro is not viewed as cheap or light. Today, faro is bottled, sweetened, and pasteurized to prevent refermentation in the bottle. Examples are produced by Cantillon, Boon, Oud Beersel, Lindemans or Mort Subite.

Kriek.

Lambic refermented in the presence of sour cherries (usually the "morello" variety, or a bitter variety known as the Schaarbeek cherry) and with secondary fermentation in the bottle results in kriek. Traditional versions of kriek are dry and sour, just as traditional gueuze.

Fruit.

Lambic with the addition of raspberry (framboise), peach (pêche), blackcurrant (cassis), grape (druif), or strawberry (aardbei), as either whole fruit or syrup. Other, rarer fruit lambic flavorings include apple (pomme), banana (banane), pineapple (ananas), apricot (abricot), plum (prune), cloudberry (plaquebière), lemon (citron), and blueberry (myrtille). Fruit lambics are usually bottled with secondary fermentation. Although fruit lambics are among the most famous Belgian fruit beers, the use of names such as kriek, framboise or frambozen, cassis, etc. does not necessarily imply that the beer is made from lambic. The fruit beers produced by the Liefmans Brewery, for example, use an oud bruin, rather than a lambic as a base.  Many of the non-traditional fruit beers derived from lambic that were commercialized in the last decades are considered to be low quality products by many beer enthusiasts. These products are typically artificially sweetened, artificially carbonated, sterilized, and based on syrups instead of whole fruit.

Belgian producers.

Lambic beers are only produced near Brussels due to that region's natural microflora. The number of producers, which numbered more than 300 in 1900, has shrunk drastically throughout the 20th century. Lambic production is generally sanctioned and promoted by HORAL.

Lambic ('lɒmbiːk or 'læmbɪk) is a type of beer brewed in the Pajottenland region of Belgium southwest of Brussels and in Brussels itself. Types of lambic beers include gueuze, kriek lambic and framboise. Lambic differs from most other beers in that it is fermented through exposure to wild yeasts and bacteria native to the Zenne valley, as opposed to exposure to carefully cultivated strains of brewer's yeast. This process gives the beer its distinctive flavour: dry, vinous, and cidery, often with a tart aftertaste.

Lambik je typ piva tradičně vařeného v regionu Pajottenland v Belgii (jihozápadně od Bruselu) a v Bruselu samotném, v pivovaru Cantillon.


Biography.

She was named Akechi Tama or Tamako at birth; Garasha, the name by which she is known in history, is based upon her Catholic baptismal name, Gracia.  She married Hosokawa Tadaoki at the age of sixteen; the couple had five or six children. In the Sixth Month of 1582, her father Akechi Mitsuhide betrayed and killed his lord, Oda Nobunaga, making the teenage Tama a traitor's daughter. Not wishing to divorce her, Tadaoki sent her to the hamlet of Midono in the mountains of the Tango Peninsula (now in Kyoto Prefecture), where she remained hidden until 1584, until Toyotomi Hideyoshi requested that Tadaoki bring Tama to the Hosokawa mansion in Osaka, where she remained in confinement.  Tama's maid, Kiyohara Kayo, baptized Maria, was from a Catholic family, and her husband repeated to her conversations with his Christian friend Takayama Ukon. In the spring of 1587 Tama managed to secretly visit the Osaka church; a few months later, when she heard that Toyotomi Hideyoshi had issued a proclamation against Christianity, she was determined to be baptized immediately. As she could not leave the house, she was baptized by her maid and received the Christian name "Gracia". She is said to have studied both Latin and Portuguese and to have read and become fascinated with Thomas à Kempis' "The Imitation of Christ".  In 1595 Tadaoki's life was in danger because of his friendship with Toyotomi Hidetsugu, and he told Gracia that if he should die she must kill herself. When she wrote asking the priests about the plan, they informed her that suicide was a grave sin. However, the danger passed.  The death of Hideyoshi in 1598 left a power vacuum with two rival factions forming: Tokugawa Ieyasu in the east and Ishida Mitsunari in the west. When Ieyasu went to the east in 1600 leading a large army, including Tadaoki, his rival Ishida took over the impregnable castle in Osaka, the city where the families of many of Hideyoshi's generals resided. Ishida devised a plan to take the family members hostage, thus forcing the rival generals either to ally with him or at least not to attack him.  However, when Ishida attempted to take Gracia hostage, the family retainer Ogasawara Shōsai killed her; he and the rest of the household then committed seppuku and burned the mansion down. The outrage over her death was so great that Ishida was forced to abandon his plans. Most Japanese accounts state that it was Gracia's idea to order Ogasawara to kill her. But according to the Jesuit account written right after her death, whenever Tadaoki left the mansion he would tell his retainers that if his wife's honor were ever in danger, they should kill her and then themselves. They decided that this was such a situation; Gracia had anticipated her death and accepted it.  A Catholic priest, Gnecchi-Soldo Organtino, had Gracia's remains gathered from the Hosokawa mansion and buried them in a cemetery in Sakai. Later, her remains were moved to Sōzenji, a temple in Osaka. Gracia also shares a grave with Tadaoki at Kōtō-in, a sub-temple of Daitoku-ji.

Gracia in historical fiction.

Gracia frequently appears as a character in Japanese historical fiction, both novels and drama. One website lists her as a character in over 40 stage dramas, movies, TV dramas, etc., from 1887 to 2006. She is also frequently referred to in popular writing or talks on the history of the period. A work that has been translated into English is Ayako Miura's novel, "Hosokawa Garasha Fujin" (English title: "Lady Gracia: a Samurai Wife's Love, Strife and Faith"), which follows history fairly closely.  James Clavell used Gracia as the model for the character of Mariko Toda in his novel "Shōgun". Additionally Clavell gave the Japanese wife of Vasco Rodrigues (whose Japanese name was Nyan-nyan) the baptismal name Gracia. This book was later adapted for television as a miniseries in 1980 where Mariko was portrayed by Japanese actress Yoko Shimada, who had previously portrayed Gracia in the 1978 Japanese Taiga Drama series Ōgon no Hibi. Elements of Mariko's story follow Gracia's quite closely, although the manner of her death is different (Mariko threatens to commits suicide if she is not allowed to leave Osaka Castle and is then killed in a raid on her compound, thereby her death served the original purpose as her threatened suicide, enraging the other hostages) and the two characters do not fundamentally have anything in common.  Hosokawa Gracia is one of the main characters in the 1981 movie Samurai Reincarnation.

Modern references.

Gracia appears as a playable character in Koei's "Samurai Warriors" series starting on "Samurai Warriors 2 Xtreme Legends". She is also playable in "Warriors Orochi 3". She is a playable character in the post-credit story mode of "Pokémon Conquest" ("Pokémon + Nobunaga's Ambition" in Japan), with her partner Pokémon being Gothorita and Gothitelle. She is an ancestor of Japan's former Prime-minister Morihiro Hosokawa.

', usually referred to as ', (1563 – 25 August 1600) was a Japanese noble lady and aristocrat from the Sengoku period. She was the daughter of Akechi Mitsuhide, the wife of Hosokawa Tadaoki, and a Christian convert. Gracia is best known for her role in the Battle of Sekigahara, she was considered to be a political hostage to the Western army led by Ishida Mitsunari. She reneged on committing suicide (seppuku) because of their Christian faith, breaking the code of conduct imposed on women of the samurai class.

Tama Hosokawa (japonsky 細川玉 "Hosokawa Tama", obvykle uváděná jako Garaša Hosokawa, japonsky 細川ガラシャ "Hosokawa Garaša"; 1563 − 25. srpna 1600) byla japonská samurajka. Je známá jako dcera Micuhide Akečiho, manželka Tadaokiho Hosokawy a jako Japonka, která konvertovala ke křesťanství.


History.

In 1770, the wealthy planters in St James and St Ann succeeded in having sections of those parishes become the parish of Trelawny as they were too far from administrative centres. Trelawny was named after Sir William Trelawny, 6th Baronet, the then Governor of Jamaica, whose prominent family had originated at the manor of Trelawny in the parish of Pelynt in Cornwall, England. The first capital was Martha Brae, located inland from Rock Bay.  Trelawny is best known for its sugar estates and sugar cane mills. It had more sugar estates than any other parish, so there was need for a sea coast town to export it. Falmouth became a thriving seaport and social centre. The town had two of its own newspapers; "The Falmouth Post" and "The Falmouth Gazette".  Trelawny was also home to the largest group of Jamaican Maroons. A 1739 treaty between the Maroons and the English gave the Maroons freedom and land, which effectively put a stop to their raids on the plantations. However, a second Maroon uprising in 1795 led to about 600 Maroons being exiled to Nova Scotia, Canada, and later to Sierra Leone in Africa, in 1800.  In 2007, the opening ceremony for the ICC Cricket World Cup was held in Trelawny Parish.

Geography.

Trelawny is located at latitude 18°15'N, longitude 77°46'W. It has an area of 874 km2, making it the fifth largest parish on the island. It has a population of 75,558 as of 2012. Most of the parish is flat, with wide plains such as Queen of Spain's Valley, above sea level, and Windsor, above sea level. Most of southern Trelawny is around above sea level. The highest point in the parish is Mount Ayr which is above sea level.  The southern section of Trelawny is part of the Cockpit Country, and is uninhabitable. It is therefore a natural reserve for flora and fauna; most of Jamaica's 27 endemic bird species can be found there, along with yellow snakes, and the giant swallowtail butterfly, the largest butterfly in the western hemisphere.  Most of the parish has the typical limestone features of sinkholes, caves, and underground passages. There are about 48 caves, most with phosphate gatherings. These include the Windsor Cave and Carambi Cave (known for its beauty and phosphate deposits). There are several other caves which have Taino carvings on the walls. There are also several underground conduits, with the longest running for. The main rivers are the Martha Brae, Rio Bueno, Cane and Quashie Rivers.

Commerce.

Trelawny's sources of employment are based on agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism. Rum and sugar are Trelawny's principal products. Other crops include bananas, yams, strawberries, vegetables, pimento, coffee, ginger, papaya and coconut. Though the fishing industry is declining, Trelawny still produces a large amount of fish. There are ten beaches along the coast, with more than 30 boats each, as well as 27 fish ponds.  There are 25 factories in the parish. These produce sugar, rum, and apparel, among other things. Two of the eight remaining sugar factories in Jamaica are in Trelawny —Hampden Sugar Factory, and Trelawny Sugar, formerly Long Pond Sugar Factory.

Notable citizens.

Trelawny Parish is the birthplace of several track and field athletes: Usain Bolt, Veronica Campbell-Brown, Marvin Anderson, Ricardo Chambers, Omar Brown, Michael Frater, Lerone Clarke, Dane Hyatt, Rosemarie Whyte, Michael Greene, Inez Turner, Debbie-Ann Parris, Sanya Richards, Ben Johnson and Warren Weir.  The supercentenarian Violet Brown (1900-2017), who was at a time the oldest verified living person in the world, was born and resided in Trelawny.  It is also the birthplace of 2008 USA Today High School Basketball Player of the Year Samardo Samuels, previously of the Cleveland Cavaliers. Other notable citizens include DJ Kamau Preston, dancehall artist Charly Black, basketballer Milo Channing, Rex Nettleford, University of Connecticut basketball player Kentan Facey, and star safety for the Green Bay Packers and Maurice Haughton, Atari Bigby.

Trelawny (Jamaican Patois: "Trilaani" or "Chrilaani") is a parish in the county of Cornwall in northwest Jamaica. Its capital is Falmouth. It is bordered by the parishes of Saint Ann in the east, Saint James in the west, and Saint Elizabeth and Manchester in the south. Trelawny is known for producing several Olympic sprinters.

Trelawny Parish (v jamajském patois "Trilaani") je farnost v Cornwall County na severozápadě Jamajky, hlavním městem farnosti je Falmouth. Trelawny Parish hraničí na východně s farností Saint Ann, na západě s farností Saint James a na jihu s farnostmi Saint Elizabeth a Manchester. Farnost Trelawny má rozlohu 874 km2 a v roce 2001 v ní žilo 74 tisíc obyvatel.


Career.

The Never Ending was formed in 2013 and in December they released a cover video of "Santa Baby". Ryan began writing and developing songs for the band's debut album in January 2014, and the band was officially announced on February 4 with a video teaser on YouTube. It contained the message: "I want you to meet the people I tell stories with. To me, telling these stories with these people is the most important part of the process. We get to do something that will live on after us. we get to do something never ending".  Ryan announced and released the lyrics for the band's first song, "When the Dark Falls", on her website on the 21st of April, 2014. A video teaser for the band's second song, "Call Me Up", followed several days later. On May 7, the video teaser for the aforementioned "When The Darkness Falls" was released. Ryan announced the debut single, "Mulholland Drive", on June 1, 2014. On June 3 the song was released with a premiere in the Billboard website. The Never Ending's debut EP "One" was released on June 24, 2014, featuring album art from a circus-themed photoshoot they'd done in March 2014.  In an interview with Robert Herrera to Front How Live Entreteniment, Ryan said she was writing new songs and the band would record the album to 2015. Ryan confirmed the songs "Dollar Store Locket", "Follow", "Secondhand" and "It's Not Personal". On April 24, 2015, it was announced that Ryan and her band The Never Ending will accompany Natalie La Rose and Bea Miller as opening act's for the summer leg of Fifth Harmony's The Reflection Tour, which is set to begin on July 15 in Louisville, KY. In June 23 the band released "Secondhand" as the first single off their upcoming debut album. The music video for the song showed the band playing and singing the song in a dark room.

Influences.

In an interview to Christina Garibaldi of MTV, in 2013, Ryan commented that her musical style includes folk, indie pop and country. She cited as her biggest musical influences Christina Aguilera, Lady Antebellum, Grace Potter and the Nocturnals, The Lumineers, Mumford & Sons, April Smith and the Great Picture Show, Taylor Swift, Fall Out Boy, Twenty One Pilots and Tom Petty. In February, 2014, Ryan cited in Billboard Macklemore as a big influence.

The Never Ending (stylized as THΞ ΠΞvΞR ΞΠDIΠG) was an American indie rock and folk band from Los Angeles, California, formed in 2013. The Never Ending debuted as a 6-member band with Debby Ryan, Kyle Moore, Johnny Franco, Edwin Carranza, Carman Kubanda and Harry Alen. After the release of the EP 'One', Edwin Carranza, Carman Kubanda and Harry Alen left the band to pursue other personal projects. As of 2015, the band is a trio consisting of vocalist Debby Ryan, guitarist Kyle Moore and drummer Johnny Franco.

The Never Ending je americká country popová kapela z Los Angeles, Spojené státy americké založená v roce 2013. Kapela se skládá ze zpěvačky a producentky Debby Ryan, kytaristky a doprovodné zpěvačky Kyle C. Moore a Carmana Kubandy, klávesisty Harryho Allena a bubeníka Johnyho Franca.


Geography.

Kuchinoerabu-jima is located south of Kagoshima. The island is of volcanic origin, and has an area of approximately with a length of and width of. The highest elevations on the island are, with a height of and, with a height of above sea level. There are numerous hot springs on the island.  The island is an active volcano which has erupted several times during the modern period, including 24 December 1933, when several people were killed when lava masses buried several villages. In 1980, multiple explosion craters appeared along an north-south fissure on the slope east of Shindake. Shindake erupted again on 4 August 2014, generating a pyroclastic flow, but with no injuries or fatalities. The main crater erupted on the morning of 29 May 2015, prompting a level 5 alert level and the evacuation of the island.  The island’s climate is classified as subtropical, with a rainy season from May through September.

History.

During the Edo period, Kuchinoerabu-jima was ruled by the Shimazu clan of Satsuma Domain and was considered part of Ōsumi Province. Following the Meiji restoration, it was administered as Kuchinoerabujima Village, which encompassed part of Yakushima. It is now part of the city of Yakushima, Kagoshima.  Kuchinoerabu-jima is the last known location of missing American poet Craig Arnold, who was visiting the island in April 2009, doing research for a book on volcanos.

Volcanic eruptions of Mount Shindake.

On May 18, 2015 Japanese scientists detected increased seismic activity and steam rising from the Shindake's crater, and on May 29, 2015 an eruption sent an ash cloud an estimated 30,000 feet (9,100 meters) into the sky. No deaths and only one minor injury were reported by the Japanese government. The island’s 140 residents were evacuated by Japan’s coast guard. Previous eruptions occurred in August, 2014 and in 1980.  Shindake crater erupted on December 18, 2018, ejecting an ash cloud 2 kilometers into above cloud coverage. Thirty days later on January 17, 2019, Shindake erupted again, sending pyroclastic flows 1.5 kilometers to the southwest and northwest of the crater as well as an ash cloud 6 kilometers into the atmosphere.

, is one of the Satsunan Islands, usually classed with the Ōsumi Islands belonging to Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. The island, 38.04 km2 in area, has a population of 147. The island can only be reached by boat as it has no airport. There is regular ferry service with Yakushima, which is about 15 km to the east. Travel time is approximately 1 hour. The islanders are dependent mainly on fishing, agriculture and seasonal tourism. The entire island is within the borders of the Kirishima-Yaku National Park.

Kučinoerabu-džima nebo Kučinoerabudžima je ostrov nepravidelného tvaru (4 × 10 km), nacházející se v severní části japonského souostroví Rjúkjú, asi 15 km západně od ostrova Jakušima. Východní část ostrova je pokryta skupinou stratovulkánů "Furu-take", "Šin-take" a "Noike", seřazených paralelně s Rjúkjuským příkopem. Nejvyšší z nich je Furu-take (657 m), který je zároveň i nejvyšším bodem ostrova. Na severozápadním okraji Furu-take se nachází Šin-take - jediné vulkanické centrum aktivní v historické době. Od roku 1840 bylo zaznamenáno několik středně silných freatických erupcí, největší se odehrála na jaře v roce 1931.


Playing career.

Martin was born in Hinsdale, Illinois, and played tennis for two years at Northwestern University before turning professional in 1990. His parents lived in Lansing, Michigan, where Martin went to nearby East Lansing High School. At Northwestern, he was a member of the Delta Tau Delta fraternity. He won his first top-level singles title in 1993 at Coral Springs, Florida. Martin traveled with good friend David Helfer for much of the '92 season. Helfer went on to play at Kalamazoo College.  Coached by Robert Van't Hof, 1994 proved to be a breakout year for Martin. At the year's first Grand Slam tournament, he reached the men's singles final at the Australian Open, where he lost in straight sets to No. 1 Pete Sampras, 6–7, 4–6, 4–6. At Wimbledon, he made it to the semifinals, before falling to the eventual champion Sampras; the set that Martin took from Sampras in the match was the only set that Sampras lost during the entire tournament. Martin's third Grand Slam semifinal of 1994 came at the US Open, where he again fell to the eventual champion, this time Andre Agassi. He also captured singles titles at Queen's Club and the Regions Morgan Keegan Championships in Memphis, the latter of which was the first back-to-back titles.  Martin was a member of the US team that won the Davis Cup in 1995 (beating Russia 3–2 in the final). He also reached the final of the 1995 Grand Slam Cup, where he lost in straight sets to Goran Ivanišević, 6–7, 3–6, 4–6. He reached the Wimbledon semifinals again in 1996, but eventually lost 8–10 in the fifth set against MaliVai Washington, after holding a 5–1 lead in the final set and serving for the match twice. Martin would later reflect on the outcome and admit that he choked during the crucial moments of the match. He missed most of the 1997 season due to injury, but came back strongly in 1998 when he won two singles titles in Barcelona and Stockholm.  In 1999, Martin had a solid year, reaching the quarterfinals of both the Australian Open and Wimbledon, and reached his second Grand Slam final at the US Open. Along the way, Martin had a memorable battle with Greg Rusedski in the fourth round, in which Rusedski held numerous advantages, including a two sets to love lead, serving for the match in the third set, and a 4–1 advantage in the fifth. Yet, Martin was able to prevail, 5–7, 0–6, 7–6, 6–4, 6–4. Martin won 20 of the final 21 points of the match, despite playing with a heavily bandaged leg and dealing with dehydration (he needed intravenous fluids after the match). In the final, he faced Andre Agassi in a five-set contest, which Agassi eventually won, 6–4, 6–7, 6–7, 6–3, 6–2. Martin also won another singles title in Sydney that year, and reached his career-high singles ranking of No. 4.  In 2000, Martin again turned in a strong performance at the US Open, reaching the semifinals before falling to the eventual champion, Marat Safin, in straight sets, 3–6, 6–7, 6–7. As with the previous year's tournament, Martin made another grueling comeback from a two-set deficit in the fourth round, this time against Carlos Moyà, 6–7, 6–7, 6–1, 7–6, 6–2.  Martin was named the ATP's Most Improved Player in 1993, and won its Sportsmanship Award in 1993 and 1994. He was president of ATP Players Council for 1995–97 and 1998–99.  From 1994 to 1996, Martin was coached by Robert Van't Hof, from 1997 to 2002, he was coached by Dean Goldfine.  In his career, Martin won eight singles and five doubles titles. He retired from the professional tour in 2004. He is currently the CEO of the International Tennis Hall of Fame.

Singles performance timeline.

A = did not participate in the tournament

Post-playing.

Martin participates on the Outback Champions Series tennis event for the former members of the ATP tour. Martin finished 2006 ranked third and 2007 ranked first in the Outback Series.

Coaching.

Martin spent a brief time coaching Mardy Fish.  From late August 2009 until April 12, 2010, Martin was part of the coaching team of Novak Djokovic, at that time the number 3 player on the ATP list. The idea on Djokovic's part was for Martin to be the supplemental, part-time coach working alongside existing full-time coach Marián Vajda who continued in the role. Due to Djokovic's shoulder pain problems, the player wanted to try a different serve motion which was one of Martin's primary tasks. The results weren't satisfactory. Djokovic and Martin parted ways and Vajda went back to being the only coach.  Martin is also a contributor to ESPN.com.

Todd Martin (born July 8, 1970) is an American retired tennis player. He reached the men's singles final at the 1994 Australian Open and the 1999 US Open and achieved a career-high singles ranking of world No. 4.

Todd Martin (8. července 1970 Hinsdale, Illinois) je bývalý americký profesionální tenista. Ve své kariéře hrál dvakrát ve finále grandslamových turnajů ve dvouhře, na Australian Open roce 1994 a na US Open 1999. V žebříčku ATP dvouher byl nejvýš v září 1999 na 4. místě. Hrál celkem dvacetkrát ve finále turnajů ATP, a osm z nich vyhrál.


Geography.

It is located at the northern shore of lake, and the small settlement was initially called "Möckelns bodar". The name Karlskoga is derived from Charles ("Karl") IX, with "skog" meaning woods.

History.

The parish of Karlskoga was established in 1586 and a wooden church was soon built. In the 17th century fourteen small iron works and eight waterdriven hammers for bar iron were established. Most of these were still operating in the 1860s, but the dominating iron works was the one in nearby Bofors. In 1871, Bofors produced 6,124 metric tons of iron, more than any other plant in Sweden. In 1882, Karlskoga parish ("socken") had 11,184 inhabitants.  The town of Karlskoga has evolved around Bofors, which in late 19th century transformed from iron works to a manufacturer of cannon and in the 20th century a more diversified defense industry. The most famous owner of Bofors was Alfred Nobel who owned the company from 1894 until his death in December 1896. He had the key role in reshaping the iron manufacturer to a modern cannon manufacturer and chemical industry. During the summers of 1894–1896 he also lived in the manor house. Even though he died in his villa in Sanremo, Italy and had a home in Paris, France it was decided that his residence was at Björkborn in Karlskoga. Because of that it was here his famous testament that was written in Paris 1895 was legally registered, which eventually made it possible to establish the Nobel Prize.  In 1940 the town of Karlskoga and the surrounding area (the same territory as today's Karlskoga Municipality) got the formal title of a city ("stad"). Since 1971 this term has no legal meaning and only the built-up area is considered a "de facto" town.

International relations.

Twin towns – Sister cities.

Karlskoga is twinned with:

Sports.

The following sports clubs are located in Karlskoga:

Karlskoga () is a locality and the seat of Karlskoga Municipality in Örebro County, Sweden with 27,562 inhabitants in 2018.

Karlskoga je švédské město, druhé největší v provincii Örebro län. Městem prochází evropská mezinárodní silnice E18, na které se nachází mezi krajskými městy Örebro a Karlstad. Na jih od Karlskogy se rozkládá jezero Möckeln. Název města je složen ze jména Karl (konkrétně švédský král Karl IX.) a švédského slova skogar, což je výraz pro les v plurálu. Ve městě strávil poslední tři roky svého života Alfred Nobel a nyní se zde nachází muzeum, věnované této osobnosti.


Biography.

Adolf Engler was born on March 25, 1844, in Sagan, Silesia, now Żagań, in western Poland as Heinrich Gustav Adolf Engler, and died in Berlin, Germany, on October 10, 1930.  He studied and obtained a PhD from the University of Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland) in 1866. After some years of teaching, he became, in 1871, custodian of botanical collections of the "Botanische Institute der Ludwig Maximilian University München" (Botanical Institute of Munich), remaining there until 1878, when he accepted a professorship at the University of Kiel, where he stayed until 1884, teaching systematic botany. Also in 1878, Engler was elected into Leopoldina, German Academy of Natural History. He went back to Breslau in 1884, as director of the Botanical Garden, succeeding Goeppert, and appointed professor of botany at the University of Breslau. From 1889 to 1921, Engler was a professor at University of Berlin, and director of the Berlin-Dahlem Botanical Garden, transforming it into one of the greatest botanical gardens of the world.  He visited several regions of the world, enlarging the knowledge of floristic distribution, especially of Africa.

Works.

Plant taxonomy.

Besides his important work in general plant taxonomy, he was also an expert in some taxa, such as "Saxifraga", Araceae, Burseraceae, and others.  Adolf Engler collaborated with several other great botanists, including Alphonse de Candolle on the "Monographiae Phanerogamarum" ("Monographs of Flowering Plants"), and C.F.P. von Martius on the monumental work "Flora Brasiliensis" ("Flora of Brazil").  He founded the journal "Botanische Jahrbücher für Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie" ("Botanical Yearbook for Systematics, Plant Phylogeny and Phytogeography", ISSN 0006-8152), published in Leipzig, Germany, which has continued in publication from 1881 to the present. In 2010, this publication changed its name to "Plant Diversity and Evolution: Phylogeny, Biogeography, Structure and Function", ISSN 1869-6155.

Phytogeography.

He was one of the pioneers in this field of science, highlighting the importance of factors such as geology on biodiversity, and defined biogeographical regions in 1879.

Recognition.

He received the Linnean Medal in 1913. The International Association for Plant Taxonomy established the Engler Medal in his honour in 1986, to be awarded for outstanding contributions to plant taxonomy.  The journal "Englera" (ISSN 0170-4818) published by the Berlin-Dahlem Botanical Garden, Germany, is also named after him. Many genera (in various 'plant' groups) are named in his honour, such as "Englerastrum", "Englerella", "Engleria", "Englerina", "Englerocharis", "Englerodaphne", "Englerodendron" and "Englerophytum".  Engler is commemorated in the specific epithet "adolphi".

Heinrich Gustav Adolf Engler (25 March 1844 – 10 October 1930) was a German botanist. He is notable for his work on plant taxonomy and phytogeography, such as "Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien" ("The Natural Plant Families"), edited with Karl A. E. von Prantl.

Adolf Heinrich Gustav Engler (25. března 1844, Żagań, Polsko − 10. října 1930, Berlín, Německo) byl německý botanik. Přispěl k výzkumu systematizace rostlin a založil botanickou zahradu v Berlíně.


Origin and early years.

Aspasia was born in the Ionian Greek city of Miletus (in the modern province of Aydın, Turkey). Little is known about her family except that her father's name was Axiochus, although it is evident that she must have belonged to a wealthy family, for only the well-to-do could have afforded the excellent education that she received. Her name, which means "the desired one," was likely not her given name. Some ancient sources claim that she was a Carian prisoner-of-war turned slave; these statements are generally regarded as false.  It is not known under what circumstances she first traveled to Athens. The discovery of a 4th-century grave inscription that mentions the names of Axiochus and Aspasius has led historian Peter K. Bicknell to attempt a reconstruction of Aspasia's family background and Athenian connections. His theory connects her to Alcibiades II of Scambonidae (grandfather of the famous Alcibiades), who was ostracized from Athens in 460 BC and may have spent his exile in Miletus. Bicknell conjectures that, following his exile, the elder Alcibiades went to Miletus, where he married the daughter of a certain Axiochus. Alcibiades apparently returned to Athens with his new wife and her younger sister, Aspasia. Bicknell argues that the first child of this marriage was named Axiochus (uncle of the famous Alcibiades) and the second Aspasios. He also maintains that Pericles met Aspasia through his close connections with Alcibiades's household. While in Athens, Aspasia may have also had affairs with the philosopher Anaxagoras and the general Jason of Lira.

Life in Athens.

According to the disputed statements of the ancient writers and some modern scholars, in Athens Aspasia became a hetaera and ran a brothel. Hetaerae were professional high-class entertainers, as well as courtesans. Besides displaying physical beauty, they differed from most Athenian women in being educated (often to a high standard, as Aspasia evidently was), having independence, and paying taxes. They were the nearest thing perhaps to liberated women; and Aspasia, who became a vivid figure in Athenian society, was probably an obvious example. According to Plutarch, Aspasia was compared to the famous Thargelia, another renowned Ionian hetaera of ancient times.  As a non-Athenian woman, Aspasia was less bound by the traditional restraints that largely confined Athenian wives to their homes, and appears to have taken the opportunity to participate in the public life of the city. She became the companion of the statesman Pericles around 445 BC. After he divorced his first wife (perhaps c. 450 BC), Aspasia began to live with him, although her marital status is disputed. Their son, Pericles the Younger, must have been born by 440 BC. Aspasia would have to have been quite young, if she were able to bear a child to Lysicles c. 428 BC.  In social circles, Aspasia was noted for her ability as a conversationalist and adviser rather than merely an object of physical beauty. Plutarch writes that despite her immoral life, friends of Socrates brought their wives to hear her converse.

Personal and judicial attacks.

Though they were influential, Pericles, Aspasia and their friends were not immune from attack, as preeminence in democratic Athens was not equivalent to absolute rule. Her relationship with Pericles and her subsequent political influence aroused many reactions. Donald Kagan, a Yale historian, believes that Aspasia was particularly unpopular in the years immediately following the Samian War. In 440 BC, Samos was at war with Miletus over Priene, an ancient city of Ionia in the foothills of Mycale. Worsted in the war, the Milesians came to Athens to plead their case against the Samians. When the Athenians ordered the two sides to stop fighting and submit the case to arbitration at Athens, the Samians refused. In response, Pericles passed a decree dispatching an expedition to Samos. The campaign proved to be difficult and the Athenians had to endure heavy casualties before Samos was defeated. According to Plutarch, it was thought that Aspasia, who came from Miletus, was responsible for the Samian War, and that Pericles had decided against and attacked Samos to gratify her.  According to some later accounts, before the eruption of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), Pericles, some of his closest associates (including the philosopher Anaxagoras and sculptor Phidias) and Aspasia faced a series of personal and legal attacks. Aspasia, in particular, was accused in comedy of corrupting the women of Athens in order to satisfy Pericles' perversions. According to Plutarch, she was put on trial for impiety, with the comic poet Hermippus as prosecutor. The historical nature of the accounts about these events is disputed; it is unlikely that a non-Athenian woman could be subject to legal charges of this kind (though her protector or "kurios", in this case Pericles, might be), and no harm came to her as a result.  In "The Acharnians", Aristophanes blames Aspasia for the Peloponnesian War. He claims that the Megarian decree of Pericles, which excluded Megara from trade with Athens or its allies, was retaliation for prostitutes being kidnapped from the house of Aspasia by Megarians. Aristophanes' portrayal of Aspasia as responsible, from personal motives, for the outbreak of the war with Sparta may reflect memory of the earlier episode involving Miletus and Samos. Plutarch reports also the taunting comments of other comic poets, such as Eupolis and Cratinus. According to Podlecki, Douris appears to have propounded the view that Aspasia instigated both the Samian and Peloponnesian Wars.  Aspasia was labeled the "New Omphale", "Deianira", "Hera" and "Helen". Further attacks on Pericles' relationship with Aspasia are reported by Athenaeus. Even Pericles' own son, Xanthippus, who had political ambitions, readily criticised his father about his domestic affairs.

Later years and death.

In 429 BC during the Plague of Athens, Pericles witnessed the death of his sister and of both his legitimate sons, Paralus and Xanthippus, from his first wife. With his morale undermined, he burst into tears, and not even Aspasia's companionship could console him. Just before his death, the Athenians allowed a change in the citizenship law of 451 BC that made his half-Athenian son with Aspasia, Pericles the Younger, a citizen and legitimate heir, a decision all the more striking in considering that Pericles himself had proposed the law confining citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides. Pericles died of the plague in the autumn of 429 BC.  Plutarch cites Aeschines Socraticus, who wrote a dialogue on Aspasia (now lost), to the effect that after Pericles's death, Aspasia lived with Lysicles, an Athenian strategos (general) and democratic leader, with whom she had another son; and that she made him the first man at Athens. Lysicles was killed in action on an expedition to levy subsidies from allies in 428 BC. With Lysicles' death the contemporaneous record ends. It is unknown if she was alive when her son, Pericles, was elected general or when he was executed after the Battle of Arginusae. The time of her death that most historians give (c. 401–400 BC) is based on the assessment that Aspasia died before the execution of Socrates in 399 BC, a chronology which is implied in the structure of Aeschines' "Aspasia".

References in philosophical works.

Ancient philosophical works.

Aspasia appears in the philosophical writings of Plato, Xenophon, Aeschines Socraticus and Antisthenes. Some scholars argue that Plato was impressed by her intelligence and wit and based his character Diotima in the "Symposium" on her, while others suggest that Diotima was in fact a historical figure. According to Charles Kahn, Professor of Philosophy at the University of Pennsylvania, Diotima is in many respects Plato's response to Aeschines' Aspasia.  In "Menexenus", Plato satirizes Aspasia's relationship with Pericles, and quotes Socrates as claiming ironically that she was a trainer of many orators and that since Pericles was educated by Aspasia, he would be superior in rhetoric to someone educated by Antiphon. He also attributes authorship of the Funeral Oration to Aspasia and attacks his contemporaries' veneration of Pericles. Kahn maintains that Plato has taken from Aeschines the motif of Aspasia as teacher of rhetoric for Pericles and Socrates. Plato's Aspasia and Aristophanes' Lysistrata are two apparent exceptions to the rule of women's incapacity as orators, though these fictional characters tell us nothing about the actual status of women in Athens. As Martha L. Rose, Professor of History at Truman State University, explains, "only in comedy do dogs litigate, birds govern, or women declaim".  Xenophon mentions Aspasia twice in his Socratic writings: in "Memorabilia" and in "Oeconomicus". In both cases her advice is recommended to Critobulus by Socrates. In "Memorabilia" Socrates quotes Aspasia as saying that the matchmaker should report truthfully on the good characteristics of the man. In "Oeconomicus" Socrates defers to Aspasia as more knowledgeable about household management and the economic partnership between husband and wife. Aeschines Socraticus and Antisthenes each named a Socratic dialogue after Aspasia (though neither survives except in fragments). Our major sources for Aeschines Socraticus' "Aspasia" are Athenaeus, Plutarch, and Cicero. In the dialogue, Socrates recommends that Callias send his son Hipponicus to Aspasia for instructions. When Callias recoils at the notion of a female teacher, Socrates notes that Aspasia had favorably influenced Pericles and, after his death, Lysicles. In a section of the dialogue, preserved in Latin by Cicero, Aspasia figures as a "female Socrates", counseling first Xenophon's wife and then Xenophon himself (the Xenophon in question is not the famous historian) about acquiring virtue through self-knowledge. Aeschines presents Aspasia as a teacher and inspirer of excellence, connecting these virtues with her status as hetaira. According to Kahn, every single episode in Aeschines' Aspasia is not only fictitious but incredible.  Of Antisthenes' "Aspasia" only two or three quotations are extant. This dialogue contains much slander, but also anecdotes pertaining to Pericles' biography. Antisthenes appears to have attacked not only Aspasia, but the entire family of Pericles, including his sons. The philosopher believes that the great statesman chose the life of pleasure over virtue. Thus, Aspasia is presented as the personification of the life of sexual indulgence.

Modern literature.

Aspasia appears in several significant works of modern literature. Her romantic attachment with Pericles has inspired some of the most famous novelists and poets of the last centuries. In particular the romanticists of the 19th century and the historical novelists of the 20th century found in their story an inexhaustible source of inspiration. In 1835 Lydia Maria Child, an American abolitionist, novelist, and journalist, published "Philothea", a classical romance set in the days of Pericles and Aspasia. This book is regarded as "the most elaborate and successful of the author's productions", in which the female characters, including Aspasia, "are portrayed with great beauty and delicacy."  Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poem (1836) is one of her series, Subjects for Pictures.  In 1836, Walter Savage Landor, an English writer and poet, published "Pericles and Aspasia", one of his most famous books. "Pericles and Aspasia" is a rendering of classical Athens through a series of imaginary letters, which contain numerous poems. The letters are frequently unfaithful to actual history but attempt to capture the spirit of the Age of Pericles. Robert Hamerling is another novelist and poet who was inspired by Aspasia's personality. In 1876 he published his novel "Aspasia", a book about the manners and morals of the Age of Pericles and a work of cultural and historical interest. Giacomo Leopardi, an Italian poet influenced by the movement of romanticism, published a group of five poems known as the "circle of Aspasia". These Leopardi poems were inspired by his painful experience of desperate and unrequited love for a woman named Fanny Targioni Tozzetti. Leopardi called this person Aspasia, after the companion of Pericles.  In 1918, novelist and playwright George Cram Cook produced his first full-length play, "The Athenian Women" (an adaption of "Lysistrata"), which portrays Aspasia leading a strike for peace. Cook combined an anti-war theme with a Greek setting. American writer Gertrude Atherton in "The Immortal Marriage" (1927) treats the story of Pericles and Aspasia and illustrates the period of the Samian War, the Peloponnesian War and the Plague of Athens. Taylor Caldwell's "Glory and the Lightning" (1974) is another novel that portrays the historical relationship of Aspasia and Pericles.

Fame and assessments.

Aspasia's name is closely connected with Pericles' glory and fame. Plutarch accepts her as a significant figure both politically and intellectually and expresses his admiration for a woman who "managed as she pleased the foremost men of the state, and afforded the philosophers occasion to discuss her in exalted terms and at great length". The biographer says that Aspasia became so renowned that even Cyrus the Younger, who went to war with the King Artaxerxes II of Persia, gave her name to one of his concubines, who before was called Milto. After Cyrus had fallen in battle, this woman was carried captive to the King and acquired a great influence with him. Lucian calls Aspasia a "model of wisdom", "the admired of the admirable Olympian" and lauds "her political knowledge and insight, her shrewdness and penetration". A Syriac text, according to which Aspasia composed a speech and instructed a man to read it for her in the courts, confirms Aspasia's rhetorical fame. Aspasia is said by the "Suda", a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia, to have been "clever with regards to words," a sophist, and to have taught rhetoric. On the basis of such assessments, researchers such as Cheryl Glenn, Professor at the Pennsylvania State University, argue that Aspasia seems to have been the only woman in classical Greece to have distinguished herself in the public sphere and must have influenced Pericles in the composition of his speeches. Some scholars believe that Aspasia opened an academy for young women of good families or even invented the Socratic method. However, Robert W. Wallace, Professor of classics at Northwestern University, underscores that "we cannot accept as historical the joke that Aspasia taught Pericles how to speak and hence was a master rhetorician or philosopher". According to Wallace, the intellectual role Aspasia was given by Plato may have derived from comedy. Kagan describes Aspasia as "a beautiful, independent, brilliantly witty young woman capable of holding her own in conversation with the best minds in Greece and of discussing and illuminating any kind of question with her husband". Roger Just, a classicist and Professor of social anthropology at the University of Kent, believes that Aspasia was an exceptional figure, but her example alone is enough to underline the fact that any woman who was to become the intellectual and social equal of a man would have to be a hetaera. According to Sr. Prudence Allen, a philosopher and seminary professor, Aspasia moved the potential of women to become philosophers one step forward from the poetic inspirations of Sappho.

In art.

The 1979 installation artwork "The Dinner Party" by feminist Judy Chicago has a place setting for Aspasia among the 39 figured.  Aspasia is a character of Assassin's Creed Odyssey who is portrayed as the lover and partner of the Athenian statesman Pericles.  Aspasia is the protagonist in Taylor Caldwell's novel Glory and the Lightning, 1974, Doubleday & Company.

Accuracy of historical sources.

The main problem remains, as Jona Lendering points out, that most of the things we know about Aspasia are based on mere hypothesis. Thucydides does not mention her; our only sources are the untrustworthy representations and speculations recorded by men in literature and philosophy, who did not care at all about Aspasia as a historical character. Therefore, in the figure of Aspasia, we get a range of contradictory portrayals; she is either a good wife like Theano or some combination of courtesan and prostitute like Thargelia. This is the reason modern scholars express their scepticism about the historicity of Aspasia's life.  According to Wallace, "for us Aspasia herself possesses and can possess almost no historical reality". Hence, Madeleine M. Henry, Professor of Classics at Iowa State University, maintains that "biographical anecdotes that arose in antiquity about Aspasia are wildly colorful, almost completely unverifiable, and still alive and well in the twentieth century". She finally concludes that "it is possible to map only the barest possibilities for [Aspasia's] life". According to Charles W. Fornara and Loren J. Samons II, Professors of Classics and history, "it may well be, for all we know, that the real Aspasia was more than a match for her fictional counterpart".

Aspasia (; ; c. 470–c. 400 BC) was an influential immigrant to Classical-era Athens who was the lover and partner of the statesman Pericles. The couple had a son, Pericles the Younger, but the full details of the couple's marital status are unknown. According to Plutarch, her house became an intellectual centre in Athens, attracting the most prominent writers and thinkers, including the philosopher Socrates. Aspasia is mentioned in the writings of Plato, Aristophanes, Xenophon and others.

Aspasia, řecky Ἀσπασία (asi 470 př. n. l. – asi 400 př. n. l.) byla pravděpodobně manželka řeckého politika a vojevůdce Perikla. Měla pocházet z Mílétu. Byla snad i prostitutkou a filozofkou. O jejím skutečném životě není mnoho známo, existuje však řada legend a Aspasia se stala patrně jakýmsi symbolem ženství ve starém Řecku. Někteří moderní autoři (např. Madeleine Henryová) zpochybnili její reálnou existenci, neboť ji nezaznamenali žádní starořečtí historici (např. Thúkydidés), jen filozofové či literáti. Ve svých filozofických dílech jí zmiňuje Platón či Xenofón, stala se také objektem ztvárnění umělců – ve starém Řecku dramatika Aristofana (divadelní hra "Acharňané"), v moderní éře např. Lydie Marie Childové (román "Philothea"), Waltera Savage Landora (román "Pericles and Aspasia"), Roberta Hamerlinga (román "Aspasia"), Giacomo Leopardiho (báseň "Aspasia"), Gertrude Athertonové (román "The Immortal Marriage") či Taylora Caldwella (román "Glory and the Lightning").


Early life.

Ramis was born on November 21, 1944, in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Ruth (née Cokee) and Nathan Ramis, who owned the Ace Food & Liquor Mart on the city's far North Side. Ramis had a Jewish upbringing. In his adult life, he did not practice any religion. He graduated from Stephen K. Hayt Elementary School in June 1958 and Nicholas Senn High School in 1962, both Chicago public schools, and in 1966 from Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, where he was a member of the Alpha Xi chapter of Zeta Beta Tau fraternity.  Afterward, Ramis worked in a mental institution in St. Louis for seven months. He later said of his time working there that it:

Career.

Early years.

Ramis began writing parodic plays in college, saying years later, "In my heart, I felt I was a combination of Groucho and Harpo Marx, of Groucho using his wit as a weapon against the upper classes, and of Harpo's antic charm and the fact that he was oddly sexy—he grabs women, pulls their skirts off, and gets away with it." He avoided the Vietnam War military draft by taking methamphetamine to fail his draft physical.  Following his work in St. Louis, Ramis returned to Chicago, where by 1968, he was a substitute teacher at schools serving the inner-city Robert Taylor Homes. He also became associated with the guerrilla television collective TVTV, headed by his college friend Michael Shamberg, and wrote freelance for the "Chicago Daily News". "Michael Shamberg, right out of college, had started freelancing for newspapers and got on as a stringer for a local paper, and I thought, 'Well, if Michael can do that, I can do that.' I wrote a spec piece and submitted it to the "Chicago Daily News," the Arts & Leisure section, and they started giving me assignments [for] entertainment features." Additionally, Ramis had begun studying and performing with Chicago's Second City improvisational comedy troupe.  Ramis's newspaper writing led to him becoming joke editor at "Playboy" magazine. "I called...just cold and said I had written several pieces freelance and did they have any openings. And they happened to have their entry-level job, party jokes editor, open. He liked my stuff and he gave me a stack of jokes that readers had sent in and asked me to rewrite them. I had been in Second City in the workshops already and Michael Shamberg and I had written comedy shows in college." Ramis was eventually promoted to associate editor.

National Lampoon, "SCTV", and "The Top".

After leaving Second City for a time and returning in 1972, having been replaced in the main cast by John Belushi, Ramis worked his way back as Belushi's deadpan foil. In 1974, Belushi brought Ramis and other Second City performers, including Ramis' frequent future collaborator Bill Murray, to New York City to work on "The National Lampoon Radio Hour".  During this time, Ramis, Belushi, Murray, Joe Flaherty, Christopher Guest, and Gilda Radner starred in the revue "The National Lampoon Show", the successor to "National Lampoon's Lemmings". Later, Ramis became a performer on, and head writer of, the late-night sketch-comedy television series "SCTV" during its first three years (1976–79). He was soon offered work as a writer at "Saturday Night Live" but chose to continue with "SCTV". Characterizations by Ramis on "SCTV" include corrupt "Dialing for Dollars" host/SCTV station manager Maurice "Moe" Green, amiable cop Officer Friendly, exercise guru Swami Bananananda, board chairman Allan "Crazy Legs" Hirschman and home dentist Mort Finkel. His celebrity impressions on "SCTV" included Kenneth Clark and Leonard Nimoy.  In 1984, Ramis executive produced a music/comedy/variety television show called "The Top". The producer was Paul Flattery and the director was David Jove. Ramis got involved after the mysterious death of his friend Peter Ivers who had hosted Jove's underground show "New Wave Theater." He called Jove and offered to help. Flattery and Jove pitched him the idea for "The Top", and Ramis was instrumental in getting it on the air.  The show was a mixture of live music, videos, and humor. Performers on the show included Cyndi Lauper, who performed "Girls Just Want to Have Fun" and "True Colors"; the Hollies, who performed "Stop in the Name of Love"; and the Romantics, who performed their two hits at the time, "Talking in Your Sleep" and "What I Like About You."  Guest stars included Rodney Dangerfield, Bill Murray, and Dan Aykroyd. Ramis got Chevy Chase to host but, because "Ghostbusters" filming ran late, he did not make it to the taping. Chase came out dressed as a "punk" of the time and somehow got into a physical altercation with an audience member (also a punk) during the opening monologue. He immediately left the taping. Flattery and Jove carried on with the show.  Ramis then got Andy Kaufman to fill in for Chase and recorded the host segments at a separate, later, session. It was to be the last professional appearance by Andy Kaufman before his death.  "The Top" aired on Friday, January 27, 1984, at 7 p.m. It scored a 7.7% rating and a 14% share. This represented a 28% rating increase and a 27% share increase over KTLA's regularly scheduled "Happy Days"/"Laverne and Shirley".

Film career.

Ramis left "SCTV" to pursue a film career and wrote a script with "National Lampoon" magazine's Douglas Kenney, which eventually became "National Lampoon's Animal House". They were later joined by a third collaborator, Chris Miller. The 1978 film followed the struggle between a rowdy college fraternity house and the college dean. The film's humor was raunchy for its time. "Animal House" "broke all box-office records for comedies" and earned $141 million.  Ramis next co-wrote the comedy "Meatballs", starring Bill Murray. The movie was a commercial success and became the first of six film collaborations between Murray and Ramis. His third film and his directorial debut was "Caddyshack", which he wrote with Kenney and Brian Doyle-Murray. It starred Chevy Chase, Rodney Dangerfield, Ted Knight, and Bill Murray. Like Ramis's previous two films, "Caddyshack" was a commercial success.  In 1982, Ramis was attached to direct the film adaptation of the Pulitzer Prize-winning book "A Confederacy of Dunces" by John Kennedy Toole. The film was to star John Belushi and Richard Pryor, but the project was aborted. In 1984, Ramis collaborated with Dan Aykroyd on the screenplay for "Ghostbusters", which became one of the biggest comedy hits of all time, in which he also starred as Dr. Egon Spengler, a role he reprised for the 1989 sequel, "Ghostbusters II" (which he also co-wrote with Aykroyd). His later film "Groundhog Day" has been called his "masterpiece."  His films have been noted for attacking "the smugness of institutional life...with an impish good [will] that is unmistakably American." They are also noted for "Ramis's signature tongue-in-cheek pep talks." Sloppiness and improv were also important aspects of his work. Ramis frequently depicted the qualities of "anger, curiosity, laziness, and woolly idealism" in "a hyper-articulate voice."  Ramis also occasionally acted in supporting roles in acclaimed films that he did not write or direct, such as James L. Brooks's Academy Award-winning "As Good as It Gets" (1997) and Judd Apatow's hit comedy "Knocked Up" (2007).  In 2004, Ramis turned down the opportunity to direct the Bernie Mac-Ashton Kutcher film "Guess Who", then under the working title "The Dinner Party," because he considered it poorly written. That same year, he began filming the low-budget "The Ice Harvest", "his first attempt to make a comic film noir." Ramis spent six weeks trying to get the film greenlit because he had difficulty reaching an agreement about stars John Cusack's and Billy Bob Thornton's salaries. The film received mixed reviews. In 2004, Ramis's typical directing fee was $5 million.  In an interview in the documentary "American Storytellers", Ramis said he hoped to make a film about Emma Goldman (even pitching Disney with the idea of having Bette Midler star) but that none of the movie studios were interested and that it would have been difficult to raise the funding.  Ramis said in 2009 that he planned to make a third "Ghostbusters" film for release either in mid-2011 or for Christmas 2012. The film was eventually made and released in 2016, although directed and co-written by Paul Feig, not Ramis. In this film, a bronze bust can be seen of Ramis when Erin Gilbert leaves her office at Columbia University.

Personal life.

Ramis was married twice and fathered four children. On July 2, 1967, he married San Francisco artist Anne Plotkin, with whom he had a daughter, Violet Ramis Stiel. Actor and "Ghostbusters" co-star Bill Murray is Violet's godfather. Ramis and Plotkin separated in 1984 and later divorced. In 1985, Ramis had daughter Mollie Heckerling with director Amy Heckerling. In 1989, Ramis married Erica Mann, daughter of director Daniel Mann and actress Mary Kathleen Williams. Together they had two sons, Julian Arthur and Daniel Hayes in 1990 and 1994. Although Ramis maintained Humanist beliefs, Erica's Buddhist upbringing was a huge influence on his philosophies for the rest of his life, and he became friends with the Dalai Lama.  Ramis was a Chicago Cubs fan and attended games every year to conduct the seventh-inning stretch at Wrigley Field. His pastimes included fencing, ritual drumming, acoustic guitar, and making hats from felted fleece; additionally, he taught himself to ski by watching skiers on television.

Illness and death.

In May 2010, Ramis contracted an infection that resulted in complications from autoimmune inflammatory vasculitis and lost the ability to walk. After relearning to walk he suffered a relapse of the disease in late 2011.  He died of complications of the disease on February 24, 2014, at his home on Chicago's North Shore, at age 69. A private funeral was held for him two days later with family, friends, and several collaborators in attendance, including Dan Aykroyd, Chevy Chase, Eugene Levy, Dave Thomas, David Pasquesi, Andrew Alexander, and the widows of John Belushi and Bernard Sahlins. He is buried at Shalom Memorial Park in Arlington Heights.  Upon Ramis's death, President Barack Obama released a statement, saying: "When we watched his movies—from "Animal House" and "Caddyshack" to "Ghostbusters" and "Groundhog Day"—we didn't just laugh until it hurt. We questioned authority. We identified with the outsider. We rooted for the underdog. And through it all, we never lost our faith in happy endings." He ended his statement by saying he hoped Ramis "received total consciousness," in reference to a line from "Caddyshack".  Ramis and longtime collaborator Bill Murray had a falling out during the filming of "Groundhog Day", which Ramis attributed to problems that Murray had in his own life at the time. They did not speak for more than 20 years. Shortly before Ramis's death, Murray, encouraged by his brother Brian Doyle-Murray, visited him to make amends with a box of donuts and a police escort, according to Ramis's daughter Violet. At that point, Ramis had lost most of his ability to speak, so Murray did most of the talking over several hours. Murray gave a tribute to Ramis at the 86th Academy Awards.  Stephen Colbert paid tribute to Ramis on an episode of his show "The Colbert Report". Colbert said that "as a young, bookish man with glasses looking for a role model, I might have picked Harold Ramis." He ended the show by thanking him.

Awards and honors.

In 2004, Ramis was inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame. In 2005, he received the Austin Film Festival's Distinguished Screenwriter Award. In 2010, he received a lifetime achievement award from the Chicago Improv Festival. In 2015, the Writers Guild of America posthumously honored him with their lifetime achievement award, the Laurel Award for Screenwriting Achievement.  In 2016, two years after his death, The Second City founded the Harold Ramis Film School, the first film school to focus solely on film comedy, in his honor.  The 2016 film "Ghostbusters", a reboot of the series Ramis co-created and starred in, was posthumously dedicated to him. A bust of his head appears in the film.

Collaborations.

Ramis frequently collaborated with Ivan Reitman. He co-wrote "National Lampoon's Animal House", which Reitman produced, then co-wrote the Reitman-directed comedy "Meatballs"; he co-wrote and appeared in the Reitman-directed films "Stripes", "Ghostbusters", and "Ghostbusters II".

Harold Allen Ramis (; November 21, 1944 – February 24, 2014) was an American actor, comedian, director and writer. His best-known film acting roles were as Egon Spengler in "Ghostbusters" (1984) and "Ghostbusters II" (1989) and as Russell Ziskey in "Stripes" (1981); he also co-wrote those films. As a director, his films include the comedies "Caddyshack" (1980), "National Lampoon's Vacation" (1983), "Groundhog Day" (1993), and "Analyze This" (1999). Ramis was the original head writer of the television series "SCTV", on which he also performed, as well as a co-writer of "Groundhog Day" and "National Lampoon's Animal House" (1978). The final film that he wrote, produced, directed, and acted in was "Year One" (2009).

Harold Ramis (21. listopadu 1944, Chicago – 24. února 2014, Chicago) byl americký scenárista, režisér, producent, herec a komik. Jeho nejznámější rolí byl dr. Egon Spengler v obou dílech komedie Krotitelé duchů, k těmto filmům napsal i scénář.


Provisions.

The Bobbio Scholiast describes the first provision: "The Caecilian and Didian law decreed that the period of "trinundium" be observed for promulgating laws." The "lex Caecilia Didia", then, determined how much time had to be allowed between the publication of a law and its vote in the assembly. The period of time designated by "trinundium" has been taken to mean either three Roman eight-day weeks (that is, 24 days) or "tertiae nundinae", on the third market-day (17 days).  The second provision of the "lex Caecilia Didia" forbade "leges saturae", "stuffed" laws, which were statutes dealing with heterogeneous subject matters. This meant that in a single Roman bill, there could not be a collection of unrelated measures — what might in modern terms be called omnibus bills. Cicero gave an interpretation of the law in his "Oratio de domo sua" ("Speech concerning His House") after his return from exile: "What other force, what other meaning, I should like to know, has the Caecilian and Didian law, except this; that the people are not to be forced in consequence of many different things being joined in one complicated bill."  It did not take long for the "lex Caecilia Didia" to be put into action. Most significantly, in 91 BC the consul Lucius Marcius Philippus, in his capacity as an augur, managed to have the laws of the tribune Marcus Livius Drusus the Younger abrogated on the grounds that they contravened the second provision of the "lex Caecilia Didia". This act is often seen as a major contributory factor in the outbreak of the Social War (91–88 BC).

Political background.

The "lex Caecilia Didia" was a direct response to the events of 100 BCE and an attempt to reduce hasty legislation passed in the "comitia". In that year, Gaius Marius gained his sixth term as consul. Under Marius, the popularist tribune Saturninus and the praetor Glaucia proposed and passed liberal land laws assigning land in the province of Africa to Marius’s veterans. However, the radical nature of these bills and the forcible methods Saturninus and Glaucia used in ensuring their passage alienated a large part of the Roman people and eventually even Marius. As a result Saturninus’s laws were repealed, and the "lex Caecilia Didia" was introduced. The goal was to curb the passage of radical bills, with the assumption that the period of "trinundium" would give the citizens time to understand the proposed law or to be persuaded to vote against it.

The lex Caecilia Didia was a law put into effect by the consuls Q. Caecilius Metellus Nepos and Titus Didius in the year 98 BCE. This law had two provisions. The first was a minimum period between proposing a Roman law and voting on it, and the second was a ban of miscellaneous provisions in a single Roman law. This law was reinforced by the "lex Junia Licinia" in 62 BC, an umbrella law introduced by Lucius Licinius Murena and Decimus Junius Silanus.

Lex Caecilia Didia, česky Caeciliův a Didiův zákon, byl římský zákon přijatý roku 98 př. n. l., jehož "rogatory" (navrhovateli) byli konzulové Qunitus Caecilius Metellus a Titus Didius. Tento zákon zakotvoval zásadu "„ne quid per saturam ferretur“" – v jednom návrhu zákona nemají být ustanovení, která spolu nesouvisejí, zákon má být monotematický.


History.

Founding.

When Gaius Julius Caesar arrived as Governor in the province of Baetica or Hispania Ulterior (modern Andalusia), as it was in 61 BC, he immediately decided to subdue the west and northwest areas (modern day Portugal). He already had two legions based in the province, the 8th and 9th Legions, which had been enlisted by Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great) in 65 BC. Caesar needed a third legion for his planned campaign and so he immediately enlisted a new legion, the 10th Legion. Enlisted in March, the legion took as its emblem the bull, an emblem which proved popular with other legions such as Legio V "Alaudae" ("Larks"), Legio XI, Legio XII "Victrix", and Legio XIII "Gemina".  The campaign in the summer of 61 BC was very successful and the 10th Legion showed itself to be brave and loyal to Julius Caesar.

Gallic Wars and the invasion of Britain.

The Tenth played a crucial part in the Gallic Wars, fighting under Caesar in virtually every battle.  At the beginning of the Gallic campaign, Caesar brought the 10th legion from Spain (with the 7th, 8th, and 9th legions). Almost immediately, in the summer of 58 BC, the legion fought in two major actions, the battles of Arar and Bibracte. They played a central part in Caesar's defeat of the Helvetii tribes, preventing their migration from present day Switzerland to western France.  Following the defeat of the Helvetii, the leaders of the Gallic tribes petitioned Caesar for his aid against Ariovistus, king of the German Suebi tribe. Prior to battle, Ariovistus suggested a peace conference but insisted that each side should only be accompanied by mounted troops. Ariovistus made this a condition knowing that Caesar's cavalry was composed mainly of Aedian horsemen whose loyalty to Caesar was questionable. Caesar ordered a group of his Gallic auxiliaries to dismount and had legionaries from the 10th ride in their place to accompany him to the peace conference. This incident earned the legion its nickname "Equestris" (mounted). One of the legionaries jokingly said that Caesar was better than his word: he had promised to make them foot guards, but now they appeared as equestrians.  Legio X saved the day in the Battle against the Nervians in 57 BC. Together with the IXth, the Xth defeated the Atrebates, moved against the Belgae on the other side of the river and captured the enemy camp. From that position, the Tenth could see how desperate the situation was for the XII "Victrix" and the VII, so it quickly charged downhill, crossed the river, and attacked the Nervii from the rear, trapping them so that there was little hope of survival.  In 55 BC Legio X was one of the two legions (together with the VII) which took part in Caesar's first invasion of Britain. It is probable that it also participated in the second invasion in 54 BC.

Caesar's Civil War.

At the Battle of Dyrrhachium, Caesar feared Legio X would be outflanked by reinforcements led by Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and ordered them to retreat. The rest of Caesar's army, seeing Legio X retreating for the first time, broke and fled to their camps. Legio X, seeing the army rout, fled too. After the defeat, Legio X demanded to be decimated for cowardice but Caesar was reluctant and demoted Legio X's standard bearers instead.  Legio X only had one more battle to restore their reputation before they returned to Rome and mutinied for being unpaid.

End of the legion.

In 45 BC the legion was disbanded, and the veterans obtained lands in Narbonne, southern Gaul.  During the civil war that followed Caesar's assassination, the Legio X was reconstituted by Lepidus (winter 44/43), and fought for the triumvirs until the final Battle of Philippi. The veterans obtained lands near Cremona, and an inscription reports that the name of the legion at the time was Veneria, "devoted to Venus", the mythical mother of gens Julia.  The Tenth later followed Mark Antony in Armenia, during his disastrous Parthian campaign. During Antony's civil war, the legion fought for Mark Antony until the defeat in the Battle of Actium, after which the legion moved into Octavian's army. The veterans settled in Patras. When the legion rebelled under Augustus, it was disbanded, stripped of its "Equestris" title, and, being populated with soldiers from other legions, renamed X "Gemina".

Legio X "Equestris" (Latin: Tenth Legion "Mounted"), a Roman legion, was levied by Julius Caesar in 61 BC when he was the Governor of Hispania Ulterior. The Tenth was the first legion levied personally by Caesar and was consistently his most trusted. The name "Equestris" was applied after Caesar mounted legionaries from the Tenth on horses as a ruse in a parley with the German King Ariovistus in 58 BC because he did not trust his Gallic cavalry auxiliaries from the Aedui tribe. Legio X was famous in its day and throughout history, because of its portrayal in Caesar's Commentaries and the prominent role the Tenth played in his Gallic campaigns. Its soldiers were discharged in 45 BC. Its remnants were reconstituted, fought for Mark Antony and Octavian, disbanded, and later merged into X "Gemina".

Legio X Equestris byla římská jízdní legie. Založil ji Julius Caesar, když byl propraetorem v provincii "Hispania Ulterior" v roce 61 př. Kr. Desátá byla první legie založená osobně Caesarem a dá se říci, že jí nejvíce důvěřoval. Legie hrála velmi významnou roli během Galských válek. Účastnila se jak bitvy u Gergovie, tak u Alesie a mnoha dalších.


History.

General Jose de Villamil founded the town in the 1830s or 1840s, but it takes its name from Alfredo Baquerizo (1859–1951), the first president to visit during his presidency, in 1916. The Governor of Galápagos resides in the city. The Governor's residence is a prominent grey stone edifice which also houses the Naval headquarters, and is west-northwest of the church.  Puerto Baquerizo Moreno is the oldest settlement in the Galápagos Islands. The El Progreso agricultural centre, located about from the town, was established in 1879 as a Hacienda Progreso. It had a large sugar refinery which was operated under harsh conditions, and two assassinations occurred there. Other manufacturing included leather and oil products.  The Albatross Foundation USA or Fundación Ecológica Albatros is a NGO established in 1993 at the initiative of the people of the town with the objective of educating the young people of the country in the importance of preserving and conserving the island's environment and ecosystems.  According to the 2010 census, the town had a population of 6,672 inhabitants, next to that of Puerto Ayora.

Geography.

Puerto Baquerizo Moreno is the capital and administrative centre of Ecuador's Galápagos Province. It is located on the southwestern coast of San Cristóbal, and the town is also nicknamed Cristóbal by the local people, after the island. Its average elevation is. The central part of the town, including the road to El Progreso, has paved roads. The headquarters of the navy and the national police are located in the town. It has a post office, police station and hospital. A branch campus of Universidad San Francisco de Quito is situated in the town.  There is a small beach in the town which is exclusively reserved for the sea lions that inhabit the area and are revered by the local people. There are two more beaches to the north of the town, the Playa Mann and Playa Carola, which are open to the public. The sea lions can be seen lounging on the decks of the anchored boats and have taken over park benches.  The town is situated at the foot of the Cerro San Joaquin mountain, which has an elevation of making it the highest mountain on San Cristóbal. Cerro de las Tijeretas (Frigatebird Hill) is located southeast of the town. The walk to it passes through a thickly-vegetated area consisting of aromatic "palo santo trees". The hill is well known for the two species of black frigatebirds, which often visit. The summit provides views of the shipping vessels in Bahía Naufragio (Shipwreck Bay). Tongo Reef is located to the west of the town. It is popular for surfing from December to February, during the warm-wet season. There is a well-protected cove known as Puerto Grande on the northwestern part of the town which has a white sandy beach where swimming is permitted. Tijeretas Cove, which is approached along a trail, is popular for snorkelling.

Climate.

Puerto Baquerizo Moreno has a steppe or hot semi-arid climate (Köppen: "BSh").  Despite being an Equatorial region, the temperatures in the town and the surrounding area never reach the heights expected for such an equatorial location. Temperatures remain similar year-round, fluctuating only several degrees from January means to July means. However, two seasons predominate: the warm dry climate from January to March, and the cooler, dry season that lasts from June to November and brings continuous fog-like rain known as "garúa", mild to warm temperatures, and mainly overcast skies. There are also constant winds that increase the chill factor.  As San Cristóbal and other islands of the archipelago fall under the dry zone of the equatorial Pacific, they experience lesser rainfall compared to area in the northern and southern regions. On an average. The entire archipelago receives less than of rainfall per year. and the annual rainfall also varies substantially from year to year. At Puerto Baquerizo Moreno, records indicate that while rainfall in 1950 was only for the year, during the El Niño year of 1953 it received a total rainfall of. The wet season lasts roughly from December to March, and brings an abundance of bright sunshine along with sporadically brief, yet often intense, tropical thunderstorms. Annual average precipitation amounts to approximately, 86% of which falls in the five-month wet season period spanning December till May. Precipitation falls on an average of 107 days a year (precipitation ≥ 0.004" / 0.1 mm).  All of these characteristics are because of the presence of the cold Humboldt Current that flows north from Peru and Chile. Under the effects of this current the ocean waters of the islands remain cold. The Humboldt Current is succeeded by the warm El Niño current, which is a phenomenon that is reported to influence climatic condition in the whole of South Pacific, and sometimes globally.  The mean monthly temperature is and the average monthly variation is. The daily average maximum temperature is from February to April. The daily average minimum temperature is in September. There are 2343 sunshine hours in an average year.

Flora and fauna.

Lava fields and desert plants are profuse in the environs of the town. The invasive species of plants which grow profusely around the highlands at the periphery of the town are quinine tree, Cuban cedar and tall elephant grass.

Economy.

Fishing is a major economic activity of the town. As of 2014, some 520 fishermen operate from the port with 212 fishing vessels of varying sizes. Agriculture is practised marginally as there is little water on the island and the community feels that plying their boats for tourism is more economical. Drinking water supply to the town is piped from a lake near El Progreso, which also provides irrigation to lands in its vicinity. The electricity supply is continuous.  Tourism is now on the rise on the coast of the town, and has brought its related infrastructure such as hotels, restaurants, souvenir shops, and tourists offices.

Landmarks.

There are several important landmarks in the town such as the Centro de Interpretación of the Galápagos National Park, the La Inmaculada cathedral, and a museum. A Charles Darwin Research substation was established in the town in 1998 and includes five administrative units dealing with marine biology, entomology, environmental education, communication and agriculture. Cine Naval, located within the naval station but open to the public, is the only cinema in the town, and every year, in July, holds a cinema festival of Ecuadorian and Latin American films under the auspices of the Spanish government.

Centro de Interpretación.

The Centro de Interpretación (national park visitor centre) is a branch of the Galápagos National Park. It was established in 1988 in the northern part of the town. It contains exhibits related to the biodiversity and anthropology of the islands. Educational presentations are interactive audio and video, which pertain to ecology and are presented in English and Spanish. The exhibits deal with the well-recorded history of the archipelago, its ecology, flora and fauna. The main hall also features rotating exhibitions, in addition to cultural events and workshops on dance and painting. There are many cacti and local flora on the land surrounding the centre, which can be viewed along the board walks. The centre also has a unique display of a rebuilt ship’s hold filled with upturned giant tortoises, which represents the way in which they were transported by pirates and whalers.

Catedral La Inmaculada.

The Immaculate Conception Cathedral, Puerto Baquerizo Moreno is a Roman Catholic church. at the head of bay. It features murals which depict stories from the New Testament in a setting with indigenous animals and plants.

Natural History Museum.

The small Natural History Museum (Museo de Ciencias Naturales) has a statue of Charles Darwin at the entrance. It is located in the heart of the town to the east of the Parque la Carolina, next to the Franciscan mission. It contains exhibits of many animals, plants and minerals of the Galápagos. Of note is a giant tortoise, which is said to be more than 80 years old; an exhibit of a predecessor species of iguana; the flightless cormorant; and the Galapagos tortoise – three drawings for each of these fauna are on display.

Transportation.

San Cristóbal Airport is the local airport and connects to the mainland. An Airbus A319 jet operates daily from Guayaquil on the mainland, and currently there are additional flights operating. The port is situated in Bahía Naufragio (Shipwreck Bay) to the southwest of the town. Boat companies conduct tours for tourists. Buses and taxis operate in the town.

Puerto Baquerizo Moreno () is the capital of Galápagos Province, Ecuador. It is located on the southwestern coast of San Cristóbal, the easternmost island in the archipelago, and is the capital of San Cristóbal Canton. It was founded by General Villamil Playas in the mid-19th century, and takes its name from President Alfredo Baquerizo (1859–1951). Today, fishing is the main activity of the locals, but tourism is on the increase along the waterfront with numerous hotels and shops.

Puerto Baquerizo Moreno je hlavní město provincie Galapágy, v Ekvádoru. Nachází se na jihozápadním pobřeží ostrova San Cristóbal, nejvýchodnějšího z ostrovů souostroví Galapágy.