Club career.

Rennes.

Born in Vitry-sur-Seine, Briand began his career at US Ivry, before joining CSF Brétigny. Thereafter, he was selected to attend the INF Clairefontaine. After finishing his stint at the INF Clairefontaine, Briand joined the youth academy of Ligue 1 club Rennes.  While in Rennes' youth system, Briand won the Coupe Gambardella in 2003. He made his first team debut on 20 May 2003 during the 2002–03 Ligue 1 season, at the age of 17, in a Ligue 1 match against Paris Saint-Germain, coming on as a substitute and playing 25 minutes. The match finished 0–0. Over the next two seasons, his play was limited to appearing in only 17 Ligue 1 matches and scoring just one Ligue 1 goal (his first ever), against Montpellier in a 4–0 victory.  Briand finally broke into the first team for the 2005–06 season, appearing in 29 Ligue 1 matches and scoring three Ligue 1 goals to help Rennes finish in 7th position in the 2005-06 Ligue 1; they just missed qualifying for the 2006 UEFA Intertoto Cup by one spot. Over the next two years, he appeared in all but four of the club's Ligue 1 matches, due to his consistently good performances in competitive matches and his not sustaining injuries. Despite being linked to clubs outside France, Briand decided to stay with Rennes for the 2008–09 season, during which he scored a club-high eight Ligue 1 goals. On 26 March 2009, Briand ruptured his anterior cruciate ligament in his left knee, while training with the French national team. The injury required six months to heal. As a result, Briand only made his 2009–10 Ligue 1 season debut for Rennes on 29 October, in a Ligue 1 match against Monaco. He finished the 2009-10 season with 23 appearances, scoring five goals.

Lyon.

On 14 June 2010, Olympique Lyonnais president and chairman Jean-Michel Aulas announced that the club had signed Briand to a four-year contract effective on 1 July. The transfer fee was priced at €7.4 million. He was assigned the number 7 shirt. On 7 August 2010, he made his competitive debut for the club in a 0–0 home draw against Monaco, playing every minute of the match. On 18 February 2011, Briand scored an overhead bicycle kick goal in a 4–0 home win over Nancy.

Hannover 96.

Bundesliga club Hannover 96 confirmed the signing of Briand on 22 August 2014. He was handed the number 21 shirt.

Guingamp.

On 3 August 2015, Briand joined French Ligue 1 club EA Guingamp on a two-year contract. On 17 May 2017, Briand extended his contract by two years, keeping him with the club until 30 June 2019.  On 11 May 2018, Briand scored a goal from the penalty spot, his fifth goal in his last six Ligue 1 matches, in the 3–3 Ligue 1 home draw against Olympique de Marseille; it was also his 30th career Ligue 1 goal for Guingamp since joining them in August 2015.

Bordeaux.

On 10 August 2018, Briand joined EA Guingamp's Ligue 1 rivals, Girondins de Bordeaux, on a two-year contract. He was released by Guingamp just three weeks before joining Bordeaux, with one year left on his contract with Guingamp. He had a "moral agreement" that he would not join another Ligue 1 club. Briand had secured a tentative deal to join Major League Soccer club Montreal Impact, but it fell through on 26 July 2018.  On 31 August 2019, Briand scored the equalizer for Bordeaux, in an 1–1 away draw against Olympique Lyonnais, to become only the second player to score in 15 different Ligue 1 seasons in the 21st century, following in the footsteps of Souleymane Camara.

International career.

Briand played for the under-21 team from 2004 to 2006, scoring 9 goals in 25 appearances. He was a member of the French squad that participated in the 2006 UEFA U-21 Championship helping France reach the semi-finals before losing to the Netherlands.  Briand received his first call-up to the senior side in May 2007 for France's Euro 2008 qualification matches against Ukraine and Georgia. He would not make his debut in those matches. On 11 October 2008, Briand made his international debut, coming on as a substitute for Franck Ribéry in the 90th minute, against Romania, in a 2010 World Cup away qualifying match that ended in a 2–2 draw.

Honours.

Club.

Lyon

Jimmy Julien Briand (; born 2 August 1985) is a French professional footballer who plays for Ligue 1 side Girondins de Bordeaux. He started his career as a striker, but now he is usually deployed on the wings. Briand is a graduate of Clairefontaine academy and was a France youth international. He made five appearances for the France senior team from 2008 to 2012, making his debut on 11 October 2008 against Romania.

Jimmy Briand (* 2. srpna 1985, Vitry-sur-Seine, Francie) je francouzský fotbalový útočník a bývalý reprezentant, který hraje za francouzský klub EA Guingamp.


Dietary habits.

"Chaos" species are versatile heterotrophs, able to feed on bacteria, algae, other protists, and even small multicellular invertebrates. Like all Amoebozoa, they take in food by phagocytosis, encircling food particles with its pseudopodia, then enclosing them within a food ball, or vacuole, where they are broken down by enzymes. The cell does not have a mouth or cytostome, nor is there any fixed site on the cell membrane at which phagocytosis normally occurs.

Movement.

The cell's membrane, or plasmalemma, is extremely flexible, allowing the organism to change shape from one moment to the next. The cytoplasm within the membrane is conventionally described as having two parts: the internal fluid, or endoplasm, which contains loose granules and food vacuoles, as well as organelles such as nuclei and mitochondria; and a more viscous ectoplasm around the perimeter of the cell, which is relatively clear and contains no conspicuous granules. Like other lobose amoebae, "Chaos" move by extending pseudopodia. As a new pseudopod is extended, a variable zone of ectoplasm forms at the leading edge and a fountaining stream of endoplasm circulates within. The effort of describing these motions, and explaining how they result in the cell's forward movement, has generated a large body of scientific literature.

Early history and naming controversy.

The genus "Chaos" has had a long and often confusing history. In 1755, Rösel von Rosenhof saw and depicted an amoeboid he named ""der kleine Proteus"" ("the little Proteus"). Three years later, Linnaeus gave Rösel's creature the name "Volvox chaos". However, because the name "Volvox" had already been applied to a genus of flagellate algae, he later changed it to "Chaos chaos". In subsequent decades, as new names and species proliferated, accounts of "Chaos", under a variety of synonyms, became so thoroughly entangled with descriptions of similar organisms, that it is virtually impossible to differentiate one historic amoeboid from another. In 1879, Joseph Leidy suggested collapsing all the "common" large, freshwater amoebae into one species, which he proposed to call "Amoeba proteus". A dozen species, including several that had been identified as belonging to "Chaos", were to be regarded as synonyms of "Amoeba proteus". However, in the description he gives of this organism, it is clearly defined as a uninucleate amoeba, unlike the modern "Chaos".  In 1900, the biologist H. V. Wilson, at the University of North Carolina, discovered and isolated a giant amoeba that resembled "Amoeba proteus" but had cellular nuclei numbering in the hundreds. Since there existed already a genus of giant multinucleate amoebae, "Pelomyxa", Wilson placed his organism in that taxon, naming it "Pelomyxa carolinensis." This amoeba was easily cultivated and became a widely distributed and studied laboratory organism.  In 1926, Asa A. Schaeffer argued that "Pelomyxa carolinensis" was, in fact, identical to the amoeba that had been seen by Rösel in 1755, the "little Proteus" which Linnaeus had named "Chaos chaos". Therefore, he urged that, in keeping with the principle of priority governing biological nomenclature, the name of the organism should be "Chaos chaos". Several investigators argued vigorously against the validity of that name, but others adopted it. A third faction accepted the validity of the genus "Chaos" for Wilson's amoeba, but retained the second half of the binomial, referring to the organism as "Chaos carolinensis". By the early 1970s, all three names were in use concurrently, by various investigators. However, studies of the fine structure and physiology of the amoeba made it increasingly clear that there were profound differences between it and the other "Pelomyxa" (including the complete absence, in true "Pelomyxa", of mitochondria). Since then, a nomenclatural consensus has emerged, and today the organism is generally known as "Chaos carolinensis," as first proposed by Robert L. King and Theodore L. Jahn in 1948.

Recent phylogeny.

Until quite recently, the genus "Chaos" was included, along with all other protists that extend lobose pseudopods or move about by protoplasmic flow, in the phylum Sarcodina. Molecular phylogenies based on the examination of ribosomal DNA, have shown that Sarcodina is a polyphyletic grouping: that some amoeboids shared a more recent common ancestor with members of other phyla than with other Sarcodina. Consequently, the amoeboids of Sarcodina have been distributed among two newly created supergroups, Rhizaria and Amoebozoa. "Chaos" and its close relative, "Amoeba", are now placed in the latter, within the order Tubulinida: naked amoebas (lacking a test, or shell), either monopodial or possessing somewhat cylindrical pseudopods, with non-adhesive uroid (a region at the posterior of the cell which has a crumpled appearance).  While the monophyly of Amoebozoa has yet to be established, current information confirms the status of "Chaos" and "Amoeba" as closely related taxa within the group. However, the same research raises questions about the monophyly of the genus "Chaos", since "Chaos nobile" may be basal to a group containing "Chaos carolinensis" and at least two species of "Amoeba", as illustrated below, following Pawlowski and Burki (2009):

Chaos is a genus of amoebae, in the family Amoebidae. The largest and best-known species, the so-called "giant amoeba" ("Chaos carolinense"), can reach lengths of 5 mm, although most specimens fall between 1 and 3 mm.

Chaos je rod velkých améb z třídy Tubulinea, řádu Tubulinida. Je blízce příbuzný rodu "Amoeba". Měňavka rodu "Chaos" byla poprvé popsána Carlem Linném v roce 1767. Použitý název napovídá, že si s nimi nevěděl rady a také proto do rodu "Chaos" zařadil většinu tehdy známých prvoků. Až později byla klasifikace rozpracována lépe. Měňavka rodu "Chaos" byla izolována poprvé až v 50. letech v Illinois, USA pod názvem "Chaos illinoisense".


Compatibility.

The cameras that can use the EF-S mount are:  By design, it is physically impossible to mount EF-S lenses on EF-only cameras. This is because the increased proximity of the lens to the sensor means that on full-frame sensor or 35mm film EF cameras the lens itself would obstruct the mirror's movement and cause damage to the lens and/or camera. While it is possible to modify the lens such that the physical obstruction is removed, allowing for mounting to EF mount cameras, the rear of the lens would still obstruct the mirror. An additional reason is that the lenses produce a smaller image circle of even illumination (circle of no vignetting). An EF-S lens alignment mark is indicated by a small white rectangle, whereas the EF employs a small red dot. The lens will insert into the body when the alignment marks on each are matched, and the lens can then be rotated and locked into the operating position. EF-S camera bodies have both EF-S and EF alignment marks, while EF bodies have only EF marks. Some have reported success attaching EF-S lenses to full-frame bodies with the use of an extension tube; however, this does not eliminate the vignetting problem, and also removes the lens's ability to achieve infinity focus. Also, attachment of EF-S lenses on EF bodies can often be accomplished by removing the small plastic ring seen in the photo above. Although vignetting is still an issue, photos can be taken, and infinity focus achieved. This modification comes with caveats, one being that on some lenses, like the EF-S 10-22mm, at the 10mm setting, the element protrudes too far back toward EF mount camera bodies.  The 10D, D60, and earlier cameras share the EF-only mount with the full frame EOS camera bodies, and also with the APS-H size EOS camera bodies (1D series prior to the 1D X), despite having a smaller sensor and therefore a smaller mirror.

List of EF-S lenses.

The EF-S lens mount is a relatively new offering from Canon, so the selection of available lenses is limited compared to the full EF range, but it is backward compatible with the EF mount, and can therefore still accept all EF lenses. The variety of EF-S prime lenses is very limited in comparison to EF-S zoom lenses, with three primes to nine zooms. EF-S lenses are very popular due to their lower cost and zoom lenses are preferred by amateur photographers., no EF-S lens has been produced with the "L" designation or with diffractive optics, and only three EF-S prime lenses have been produced.

The Canon EF-S lens mount is a derivative of the EF lens mount created for a subset of Canon digital single-lens reflex cameras with APS-C sized image sensors. It was released in 2003. Cameras with the EF-S mount are backward compatible with the EF lenses and, as such, have a flange focal distance of 44.0 mm. Such cameras, however, have more clearance, allowing lens elements to be closer to the sensor than in the EF mount. Only Canon cameras released after 2003 with APS-C sized sensors support the EF-S mount.

Gustav Leutelt (21. září 1860 Josefův Důl – 17. února 1947 Seebergen) byl německý spisovatel. Silně prožíval ztrátu svého syna za druhé světové války, který v roce 1941 padl u Charkova, a také nucený odsun z Československa ve vagónu číslo 21 v roce 1946.


Rallying.

2005.

In 2005, Block began his National rallying career with the Vermont SportsCar team. Vermont SportsCar prepared a 2005 Subaru WRX STi for Block to compete. His first event of the rallying season was Sno*Drift, where he ended up finishing seventh overall and fifth in the Group N class. During the 2005 season, Block had five top five finishes and placed third overall in the Group A class and fourth overall in the Rally America National Championship. At the end of his first rallying year, Ken Block had won the Rally America Rookie of the Year award.

2006.

In 2006, Block along with his DC rally teammate Travis Pastrana signed a new sponsorship deal with Subaru. Through this deal with Subaru, the teammates became known as "Subaru Rally Team USA." With the new rally season, Block also got a brand new Vermont SportsCar prepped 2006 Subaru WRX STi. He competed in the first ever X Games rally event at X Games XII. In the competition, Block ended up finishing third to take the bronze. He went on to compete in the 2006 Rally America National Championship, where he finished second overall.

2007.

In 2007, Block competed in the X Games XIII rally event, where he placed second overall and won a silver medal. In the 2007 Rally America National Championship, Block finished third overall. During this season, Block also entered in a few rounds of the World Rally Championship; Rally Mexico and Rally New Zealand. In Rally New Zealand, Block recorded two top-five stage times in the Group N class. At the end of 2007, Block had achieved 19 podiums and 8 overall victories in rally events.

2008.

In 2008, Block was provided with a brand new rally prepped 2008 Subaru WRX STi to compete. Block decided to compete in the Rallye Baie-des Chaleurs of the Canadian Rally Championship to gain some experience with his new 2008 rally car and prepare for the World Rally Championships later in the year. Block gained his first Canadian rally win at the event. This was only the second event for the new car. Block and his co-driver were unable to get any championship points at the event due to not having a Canadian competition license. Block competed in the Rally New York USA competition and finished in first place. In the X Games XIV rally competition, Block finished tied for third place with Dave Mirra. This occurrence was due to both competitors having issues with their car. Block, who made it to the semi-finals of the event, had a radiator problem after landing the car awkwardly on a jump. With both bronze place competitors in damaged cars unable to compete, the medals were awarded to both of them.  Block competed in the 2008 Rally America National championship, which concluded on October 17, 2008. In the event, he finished second overall with a strong victory in the last event. In the Lake Superior Performance Rally stage, Block finished over one minute ahead of his next closest competitor and secured the second overall position. Next up for Block this rally season is three World Rally Championship events.

2009.

Block appeared in a segment of motoring show "Top Gear". Block filmed the hit YouTube video "Gymkhana 2", making the most viral video of 2009, as well as selling more DC shoes with this "informercial".

2010.

For 2010, Block ended his partnership with Subaru and joined Ford. Also, sponsors BFGoodrich and Motul were replaced by Pirelli and Castrol.  On January 6 2010, Block drove selected rounds of the World Rally Championship for Monster World Rally Team, in which he campaigned a Ford Focus RS WRC 08 run by M-Sport, who also prepare the official Ford WRC cars. Also, he ran his sixth season of the Rally America Championship in an open class Ford Fiesta, as well as his fifth X Games. Block was the first ever American driver to campaign for the World Rally Championship. On February 27, Block won the Rally in the 100 Acre Wood (Rally America) for the 5th consecutive time. This broke the record held by John Buffum. Block is currently being trained by former Ford factory driver Markko Märtin. At the Rally Spain, he won his first 2 points in World Rally Championship.

2011.

On March 23, Block and his co-driver Alex Gelsomino were taken to hospital, having rolled their Ford Fiesta RS WRC during the shakedown stage of the 2011 Rally de Portugal in Faro, Portugal. A representative of the Monster World Rally team later stated that both men were fine.

2013.

On his first race of 2013 season, Block scored well, entering top-ten in the Mexican rally, thus receiving his first six points for the championship and score a best-ever 7th overall finish.

2014.

Castrol returned as Block's sponsor. He participated in the WRC located in Catalunya, Spain. He was in 10th place until the last stage where he suffered a tire puncture and lost a significant amount of time. He finished in 12th.

2015.

Block continued to compete in the Global RallyCross Championship. He also put more time into managing the Hoonigan company. He announced that he would not put any time into the World Rally Championship, a first since 2009.

2016.

Block will be competing full-time in the World Rallycross Championship for the 2016 season.  At Hockenheimring, Germany, Block finished third in the Supercar Final and achieved his second podium in the series.

Racing record.

Complete FIA World Rallycross Championship results.

Supercar.

Five championship points deducted for receiving three reprimands in a season.

Other motorsport activities.

In 2005, Block along with his DC Shoes associates participated in the Gumball 3000 Rally. For the event they sent out three modified 2004 Subaru WRX STi's sponsored by DC Shoes.  In 2006, Block competed in the One Lap of America competition along with Brian Scotto. They were teamed up in a 2006 Subaru WRX STi and finished forty-fifth overall.  In 2006, for the Discovery Channel show "Stunt Junkies", Block jumped his Subaru WRX STi rally car and a max height of. The whole episode was dedicated to Block attempting this stunt.  In 2007, Block joined the DC Shoes Snowboarding team at New Zealand's Snow Park. Block did massive jumps and assisted in snowboarding tricks while driving his rally car on the mountain alongside the snowboarders. A crash after landing a large jump cracked one of the vertebrae in his spine, he was flown to the hospital. The session made the cover of the December 2007 issue of "Snowboarder Magazine" and closed out the "MTN.LAB 1.5" DVD.  In 2009, for the BBC show "Top Gear", Block took James May out for Gymkhana-style driving at Block's stunt course at Inyokern Airport, an operational California airport, also starring Ricky Carmichael. In 2010 Block took the feature car from the previous episode (a Reliant Robin) for a lap of the Top Gear test track. He rolled the car and was unable to complete a lap but was unhurt.  On October 15, 2009, it was reported that Block was close to a deal to join the World Rally Championship in a new Ford team. Long time co-driver Alex Gelsomino was also reportedly involved in the deal. Former Subaru WRC driver Chris Atkinson has been reported to be lined up as Block's teammate in the all-new Monster Energy Drink Ford World Rally Team.  On January 6, 2010, the announcement is made as Block joins up with Ford and begins his WRC career driving both a Ford Fiesta and Focus RS WRC.  On August 24, 2010, Block released the first of a three part Gymkhana 3 video release featuring his new Ford Fiesta.  On September 14, 2010, Block's third Gymkhana video, featuring a Ford Fiesta, was released on YouTube. The video got more than seven million views in its first week. This vehicle is now on display on the Petersen Automotive Museum.  On August 16, 2011, the fourth Gymkhana video, "The Hollywood Megamercial" was released on YouTube, featuring Block driving around the Universal Studios backlot.  On July 1, 2012, Block took the Silver Medal for Rallycross at X Games XVIII behind Sébastien Loeb.  On July 9, 2012, Block released his fifth Gymkhana video on YouTube, featuring Block driving his Ford Fiesta in San Francisco and Travis Pastrana on a dirtbike. After 24 hours, the video was viewed 5.1 million times, making it the top-viewed video of the previous week.  In late 2014, Block battled through to the Spanish finals of Gymkhana GRID, eventually beating Jake Archer to take the win. He donated the €10,000 prize fund to the Keep A Breast Foundation charity.  Block also holds the world record for the world's fastest snowcat, a modified Ford Raptor called a Trax STI.  Block appears in the 2015 "Need for Speed" video game as the style icon.

Involvement in "Colin McRae: Dirt 2", "Dirt 3", and "Dirt: Showdown".

Block is featured as a driver in Codemasters "", along with his Subaru Rally Team USA Impreza. In "Dirt 3" he is seen as a driver and Gymkhana teacher, his Monster World Rally Team vehicles are available in the game, including the Ford Fiesta GYM 3, and the Ken Block Ford Focus WRC. Ken's Ford Fiesta and his Hoonigan/Monster livery appear extensively in "" another Codemasters racing game with a more arcade feeling and demolition derby style "Knockout" and "8-Ball" crossover racing events. His trademark gymkhana style of driving dominates the "Head-to-Head" and "Trick Rush" race modes as well as the "Freestyle" section.

Kenneth Block (born November 21, 1967) is a professional rally driver with the Hoonigan Racing Division, formerly known as the Monster World Rally Team. Block is also one of the co-founders of DC Shoes. Over the years, he has also competed in many action sports events including skateboarding, snowboarding, and motocross. Since selling his ownership of DC Shoes, Block has shifted his business focus to Hoonigan Industries, an apparel brand for auto enthusiasts. He is currently the co-owner and "Head Hoonigan In Charge" (HHIC) at the company.

Kenneth Block (* 21. listopadu 1967 v Long Beach, Kalifornie, USA) je jeden ze spoluzakladatelů DC Shoes. Zúčastnil se mnoha sportovních událostí zahrnujících skateboarding, snowboarding, motokros, rallycross a zejména Rally.


History.

The main influence on Helvetica was Akzidenz-Grotesk from Berthold; Hoffman's scrapbook of proofs of the design shows careful comparison of test proofs with snippets of Akzidenz-Grotesk. Its 'R' with a curved tail resembles Schelter-Grotesk, another turn-of-the-century sans-serif sold by Haas. Wolfgang Homola comments that in Helvetica "the weight of the stems of the capitals and the lower case is better balanced" than in its influences.  Attracting considerable attention on its release as "Neue Haas Grotesk" ("Nouvelle Antique Haas" in French-speaking countries), Stempel and Linotype adopted Neue Haas Grotesk for release in hot metal composition, the standard typesetting method at the time for body text, and on the international market.  In 1960, its name was changed by Haas' German parent company Stempel to "Helvetica" in order to make it more marketable internationally; it comes from the Latin name for the pre-Roman tribes of what became Switzerland. Intending to match the success of Univers, Arthur Ritzel of Stempel redesigned Neue Haas Grotesk into a larger family. The design was popular: Paul Shaw suggests that Helvetica "began to muscle out" Akzidenz-Grotesk in New York City from around summer 1965, when Amsterdam Continental, which imported European typefaces, stopped pushing Akzidenz-Grotesk in its marketing and began to focus on Helvetica instead. It was also made available for phototypesetting systems, as well as in other formats such as Letraset dry transfers and plastic letters, and many phototypesetting imitations and knock-offs were rapidly created by competing phototypesetting companies.  In the late 1970s and 1980s, Linotype licensed Helvetica to Xerox, Adobe and Apple, guaranteeing its importance in digital printing by making it one of the core fonts of the PostScript page description language. This has led to a version being included on Macintosh computers and a metrically-compatible clone, Arial, on Windows computers. The rights to Helvetica are now held by Monotype Imaging, which acquired Linotype; the Neue Haas Grotesk digitisation (discussed below) was co-released with Font Bureau.  Like many neo-grotesque designs, Helvetica has narrow apertures, which limits its legibility onscreen and at small print sizes. It also has no visible difference between upper-case 'i' and lower-case 'L', although the number 1 is quite identifiable with its flag at top left. Its tight, display-oriented spacing may also pose problems for legibility. Other fonts intended for legibility at small sizes such as Verdana, Meta, Trebuchet, or a monospace font such as Courier, which makes all letters quite wide, may be more appropriate than Helvetica.

Usage examples.

Helvetica is among the most widely used sans-serif typefaces. Versions exist for Latin, Cyrillic, Hebrew, Greek, Japanese, Korean, Hindi, Urdu, Khmer, and Vietnamese alphabets. Chinese faces have been developed to complement Helvetica.  Helvetica is a common choice for commercial wordmarks, including those for 3M (including Scotch Tape), Adult Swim, American Apparel, BASF, Behance, Blaupunkt, BMW, Diaspora, ECM, Funimation, General Motors, J. C. Penney, Jeep, Kaiser Permanente, Kawasaki, Knoll, Kroger, Lufthansa, Motorola, Nestlé, Oath Inc., Panasonic, Parmalat, Philippine Airlines, Sears, Seiko Epson, Skype, Target, Texaco, Tupperware, Viceland, and Verizon. Apple used Helvetica as the system typeface of iOS until 2015.  Helvetica has been widely used by the U.S. government; for example, federal income tax forms are set in Helvetica, and NASA used the type on the Space Shuttle orbiter. Helvetica is also used in the United States television rating system. The Canadian government also uses Helvetica as its identifying typeface, with three variants being used in its corporate identity program, and encourages its use in all federal agencies and websites. In the European Union, Helvetica is legally required to be used for health warnings on tobacco products such as cigarettes.  Helvetica is commonly used in transportation settings. New York City's Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) adopted Helvetica for use in signage in 1989. From 1970 to 1989, the standard font was Standard Medium, an American release of Akzidenz-Grotesk, as defined by Unimark's New York City Transit Authority Graphic Standards Manual. The MTA system is still rife with a proliferation of Helvetica-like fonts, including Arial, in addition to some old signs in Medium Standard, and a few anomalous signs in Helvetica Narrow. Helvetica is also used in the Washington Metro, the Chicago 'L', Philadelphia's SEPTA, and the Madrid Metro. Amtrak used the typeface on the "pointless arrow" logo, and it was adopted by Danish railway company DSB for a time period. In addition, the former state-owned operator of the British railway system developed its own Helvetica-based Rail Alphabet font, which was also adopted by the National Health Service and the British Airports Authority. The Helvetica 77 variation is used in street and house signage in Riga and other municipalities in Latvia, although common road signage in the country uses a version of DIN 1451.  The typeface was displaced from some uses in the 1990s to the increased availability of other fonts on digital desktop publishing systems, and criticism from type designers including Erik Spiekermann and Martin Majoor, both of whom have criticised the design for its omnipresence and overuse. Majoor has described Helvetica as 'rather cheap' for its failure to move on from the model of Akzidenz-Grotesk.  Road signs in Japan and South Korea formerly used Helvetica.  IBM used Helvetica Neue as its corporate typeface until 2017, spending over $1m annually on licensing fees. It switched in 2017 to the custom IBM Plex family, concluding that a custom open-source typeface would be more distinctive and practical, as it could be freely distributed and installed without rights issues.

Media coverage.

An early essay on Helvetica's public image as a font used by business and government was written in 1976 by Leslie Savan, a writer on advertising at the "Village Voice". It was later republished in her book "The Sponsored Life".  In 2007, Linotype GmbH held the Helvetica NOW Poster Contest to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the typeface. Winners were announced in the January 2008 issue of the LinoLetter.  In 2007, director Gary Hustwit released a documentary film, "Helvetica" (Plexifilm, DVD), to coincide with the fiftieth anniversary of the typeface. In the film, graphic designer Wim Crouwel said, "Helvetica was a real step from the 19th century typeface... We were impressed by that because it was more neutral, and neutralism was a word that we loved. It should be neutral. It shouldn't have a meaning in itself. The meaning is in the content of the text and not in the typeface." The documentary also presented other designers who associated Helvetica with authority and corporate dominance, and whose rebellion from Helvetica's ubiquity created new styles.  From April 2007 to March 2008, the Museum of Modern Art in New York City displayed an exhibit called "50 Years of Helvetica". In 2011 the Disseny Hub Barcelona displayed an exhibit called "Helvetica. A New Typeface?". The exhibition included a timeline of Helvetica over the last fifty years, its antecedents and its subsequent influence, including in the local area.  In 2011, one of Google's April Fools' Day jokes centered on the use of Helvetica. If a user attempted to search for the term "Helvetica" using the search engine, the results would be displayed in the font Comic Sans.

Variants.

A large number of variants of Helvetica were rapidly released to expand on its popularity, including new weights and languages. Linotype confessed by the time of a 1976 advertorial that things had become somewhat confused: "the series was not planned as a whole from its conception...the series is not as uniform as Univers".

Helvetica Light.

Helvetica Light was designed by Stempel's artistic director Erich Schultz-Anker, in conjunction with Arthur Ritzel.

Helvetica Inserat.

Helvetica Inserat (German for "advertisement") is a version designed primarily for use in the advertising industry: this is a narrow variant that is tighter than Helvetica Black Condensed. It gives the glyphs an even larger x-height and a more squared appearance, similar to Schmalfette Grotesk. Adobe's release notes date it to 1966 and state that it originated with Stempel.

Helvetica Compressed (1966).

Designed by Matthew Carter and Hans-Jürg Hunziker for cold type. It shares some design elements with Helvetica Inserat, but uses a curved tail in Q, downward pointing branch in r, and tilde bottom £. Carter has said that in practice it was designed to be similar to Schmalfette Grotesk and to compete in this role with British designs Impact and Compacta, as this style was popular at the time. Carter, who also later designed Helvetica Greek had designed a modernised version of Akzidenz-Grotesk for signage at Heathrow in 1961, and commented later "if we'd known about [Helvetica] I'm sure we would have used it, since it's a much better typeface than the one I drew. But the typesetting trade was very conservative then, and new type designs traveled slowly." The family consists of Helvetica Compressed, Helvetica Extra Compressed and Helvetica Ultra Compressed fonts. It has been digitised, for instance in the Adobe Helvetica release.

Helvetica Rounded (1978).

Helvetica Rounded is a version containing rounded stroke terminators, released for bold weights. Linotype's release notes date it to 1978.

Helvetica Narrow.

Helvetica Narrow is a version where its width is between Helvetica Compressed and Helvetica Condensed. The font was developed when printer ROM space was very scarce, so it was created by mathematically squashing Helvetica to 82% of the original width, resulting in distorted letterforms, with vertical strokes narrowed but horizontals unchanged. Because of the distortion problems, Adobe dropped Helvetica Narrow in its release of Helvetica in OpenType format, recommending users choose Helvetica Condensed instead.

Helvetica Textbook.

Helvetica Textbook is an alternate design of the typeface, which uses'schoolbook' stylistic alternates to increase distinguishability: a seriffed capital 'i' and 'j' to increase distinguishability, a 'q' with a flick upwards and other differences. The 'a', 't' and 'u' are replaced with designs similar to those in geometric sans-serifs such as those found in Futura and Akzidenz-Grotesk Schulbuch. FontShop's FF Schulbuch is similar.

Language variants.

Matthew Carter designed a Helvetica Greek (1971). The Cyrillic version was designed in-house in the 1970s at D Stempel AG, then critiqued and redesigned in 1992 under the advice of Jovica Veljović, although a pirated version had already been created in 1963 by Russian designers Maxim Zhukov and Yuri Kurbatov.

Neue Helvetica (1983).

Helvetica Neue () is a reworking of the typeface with a more structurally unified set of heights and widths. Other changes include improved legibility, heavier punctuation marks, and increased spacing in the numbers.  Neue Helvetica uses a numerical design classification scheme, like Univers. The font family is made up of 51 fonts including nine weights in three widths (8 in normal width, 9 in condensed, and 8 in extended width variants) as well as an outline font based on Helvetica 75 Bold Outline (no Textbook or rounded fonts are available). Linotype distributes Neue Helvetica on CD. Helvetica Neue also comes in variants for Central European and Cyrillic text.  It was developed at D. Stempel AG, a Linotype subsidiary. The studio manager was Wolfgang Schimpf, and his assistant was Reinhard Haus; the manager of the project was René Kerfante. Erik Spiekermann was the design consultant and designed the literature for the launch in 1983. Figures were widened and some condensed weights changed from having nearly flat-sided verticals to a more continuous curve throughout the entire height.  Designer Christian Schwartz, who would later release his own digitisation of the original Helvetica designs (see below), expressed disappointment with this and other digital releases of Helvetica: "digital Helvetica has always been one-size-fits-all, which leads to unfortunate compromises...the spacing has ended up much looser than Miedinger's wonderfully tight original at display sizes but much too tight for comfortable reading at text sizes."  iOS used first Helvetica then Helvetica Neue as its system font. All releases of macOS prior to OS X Yosemite used Lucida Grande as the system font. The version of Helvetica Neue used as the system font in OS X 10.10 is specially optimised; Apple's intention is to provide a consistent experience for people who use both iOS and OS X. Apple replaced Helvetica Neue with San Francisco in iOS 9 and OS X El Capitan.

Neue Helvetica Georgian (2015).

It is a version with Georgian script support. Designed by Akaki Razmadze at Monotype Bad homburg.  Only OpenType CFF and TTF font formats were released.  The family includes eight fonts in eight weights and one width, without italics (25, 35, 45, 55, 65, 75, 85, 95).

Helvetica World.

Helvetica World supports Arabic, Cyrillic, Greek, Hebrew, and Vietnamese scripts.  The family consists of four fonts in two weights and one width, with complementary italics.  The Arabic glyphs were based on a redesigned Yakout font family from Linotype. Latin kerning and spacing were redesigned to have consistent spacing. John Hudson of Tiro Typeworks designed the Hebrew glyphs for the font family, as well as the Cyrillic, and Greek letters.

Neue Helvetica W1G (2009).

It is a version with Latin Extended, Greek, Cyrillic scripts support. Only OpenType CFF font format was released.  The family includes the fonts from the older Neue Helvetica counterparts, except Neue Helvetica 75 Bold Outline. Additional OpenType features include subscript/superscript.

Neue Helvetica Arabic (2009).

Designed by Lebanese designer Nadine Chahine, it is a version with Arabic script support. Only OpenType TTF font format was released.  The family includes three fonts in three weights and one width, without italics (45, 55, 65).

(Neue) Helvetica Thai (2012).

Thai font designer Anuthin Wongsunkakon of Cadson Demak Co. created Thai versions of Helvetica and Neue Helvetica fonts. The design uses loopless terminals in Thai glyphs, which had also been used by Wongsunkakon's previous design, Manop Mai (New Manop).

Neue Helvetica World (2017).

Designed by Nadine Chahine, Linotype Design Studio, Monotype Design Studio and Edik Ghabuzyan, it is a version of Neue Helvetica with support of Latin, Cyrillic, Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, Thai, Armenian, Georgian and Vietnamese scripts for total 181 languages, and complete support of Unicode block u+0400. Published in November 2017 by Linotype, it was released in Truetype and OpenType CFF formats.

Neue Helvetica eText (2011).

It is a version of Neue Helvetica optimised for on-screen use, designed by Akira Kobayashi of Monotype Imaging. Changes from Neue Helvetica include more open spacing. Unlike Helvetica, the capitals are reduced in size so the lower-case ascenders rise above them, a common feature associated with text typefaces.  The family includes eight fonts in four weights and one width, with complementary italics (45, 46, 55, 56, 65, 66, 75, 76). OpenType features include numerators/denominators, fractions, ligatures, scientific inferiors, subscript/superscript.

Neue Haas Grotesk (2010).

Christian Schwartz's digitisation for Font Bureau is based on the original Helvetica drawings and uses the typeface's original name. It was released with an article on the history of Helvetica by Professor Indra Kupferschmid.  Unlike earlier digitisations, Schwartz created two different optical sizes for body text and display sizes, which have different spacing metrics giving tighter spacing at display size and looser spacing to increase legibility in text. The release includes a number of features not present on digitisations branded as Helvetica, stylistic alternates such as separate punctuation sets for upper- and lower-case text, "modernist" cedilla designs styled to match the comma and reduced-height numbers to blend into extended text. Three weights of the text optical size are bundled with Windows 10 in the user-downloadable "Pan-European Supplemental Fonts" package.  Writing for "Typographica", Matthew Butterick described the release as better than any previous digital release of Helvetica:  Users include Bloomberg Businessweek and the Whitney Museum. It originated from an abandoned redesign plan for the "Guardian" newspaper. The release does not include condensed weights or support for Greek and Cyrillic scripts.

Helvetica Now (2019).

In April 2019, Monotype announced an update of Neue Helvetica called "Helvetica Now", designed by Jan Hendrik Weber and Charles Nix of Monotype Imaging. The family has one width in three optical sizes, Text, Micro and Display in 8, 6, and 10 weights respectively. Features include circled figures and redesigned arrow and @ glyphs. It also includes a number of alternate characters including curled lower-case L rounded G, a straight-legged R (found in Neue Haas Grotesk), single-story a (found in Helvetica Textbook) and lowercase u without a spur.

Helvetica clones.

Derivative designs based on Helvetica were rapidly developed, taking advantage of the lack of copyright protection in the phototypesetting font market of the 1960s onward. Some of these were straight clones, simply intended to be direct substitutes. Many of these are almost indistinguishable from Helvetica, while some add subtle differences.  Substitute Helvetica designs that have survived into or originated during the digital period have included Monotype's Arial, Compugraphic's CG Triumvirate, ParaType's Pragmatica, Bitstream's Swiss 721, URW++'s Nimbus Sans and Scangraphic's Europa Grotesk. Berthold itself responded to Helvetica's popularity with Akzidenz-Grotesk Buch, effectively a Helvetica clone. Besides Helvetica imitations, Helvetica was available in custom derivatives with unusual special-order characters for many years, notably a straight-legged 'R' and round-topped 'A'. CNN uses a custom derivative, "CNN Sans", which has a '1' with a base.

Nimbus Sans.

URW (later URW++) under the leadership of Peter Karow produced a modification of Helvetica called Nimbus Sans. This is an extremely large font family with optical sizes spaced for different sizes of text and other variants such as stencil styles. Florian Hardwig has described its display-oriented styles, with tight spacing, as more reminiscent of Helvetica as used in the 1970s from cold type than any official Helvetica digitisation.

Arial and MS Sans Serif.

Monotype's Arial, created for IBM and also used by Microsoft, is indistinguishable by most non-specialists. Matthew Carter, who was a consultant for IBM during its design process, describes it as "a Helvetica clone, based ostensibly on their Grots 215 and 216" (Monotype's old 1920s sans-serif family, popular in British trade printing in the metal type period, and itself based on the Bauer Venus-Grotesk family). Differences include: The design was created to substitute for Helvetica: Arial (and many other clones of the period) are metrically identical to the PostScript version of Helvetica, so that a document designed in Helvetica could be displayed and printed correctly without IBM having to pay Linotype for a Helvetica license on its printers.  Microsoft's "Helv" design, later known as "MS Sans Serif", is a sans-serif typeface that shares many key characteristics to Helvetica, including the horizontally and vertically aligned stroke terminators and more-uniform stroke widths within a glyph.

Free Helvetica substitute fonts.

Nimbus Sans L, a version of URW's Nimbus Sans spaced to match the standard Linotype/PostScript version of Helvetica, was released under the GNU General Public License in 1996, and donated to the Ghostscript project to create a free PostScript alternative. It (or a derivative) is used by much open-source software such as R as a system font. A derivative of this family known as "TeX Gyre Heros" has been prepared for use in the TeX scientific document preparation software.  FreeSans, a free font descending from URW++ Nimbus Sans L, which in turn descends from Helvetica. It is one of free (GPL) fonts developed in GNU FreeFont project, first published in 2002.  Liberation Sans is a metrically equivalent font to Arial developed by Steve Matteson at Ascender and published by Red Hat under the SIL Open Font License. It is used in some GNU/Linux distributions as default font replacement for Arial. Oracle funded the additional development of Liberation Sans Narrow in 2010. Google commissioned a variation named Arimo for Chrome OS.  Much more loosely, Roboto was developed by Christian Robertson of Google as the system font for its Android operating system; this has a more condensed design with the influence of straight-sided geometric designs like DIN 1451.

Derivative designs.

Some fonts based on Helvetica are intended for different purposes and have clearly different designs. Digital-period font designer Ray Larabie has commented that in the 1970s "everyone was modifying Helvetica with funky curls, mixed-case and effects". Indeed, in one 1973 competition to design new fonts, three of the 20 winners were decorative designs inspired by Helvetica.

Sowjetische Haas Grotesk.

Designed in 1963, Sowjetische Haas Grotesk (Soviet Helvetica) was one of the first attempts to adapt Helvetica to the Cyrillic script. It was designed by two students at the Moscow Print Institute, one of whom, Maxim Zhukov, would become one of the Soviet Union's most prominent typographers. Zhukov and his partner Yuri Kurbatov used upright cursive forms for several of the lowercase letters, which allowed for several of the Helvetica forms to be transferred more directly into Cyrillic.  Sowjetische Haas Grotesk received widespread use in phototypesetting, especially among other students at the Moscow Print Institute, despite never being commercially released. Zhukov and Kurbatov attempted to publish the typeface in 1964 but were rejected due to the font’s being too closely associated with capitalism; this was one of the major factors as to why an official Cyrillic Helvetica, "Pragmatica", would not be released in the Soviet bloc until perestroika in 1989.

Forma (1968).

Created by Aldo Novarese at the Italian type foundry Nebiolo, Forma was a geometric-influenced derivative of Helvetica with a'single-storey' 'a' and extremely tight spacing in the style of the period. It was offered with'request' stylistic alternates imitating Helvetica more closely. Forma has been digitised by SoftMaker as "Formula" and (in a much more complete version with optical sizes) as Forma DJR by David Jonathan Ross at Font Bureau for "Tatler" magazine.

Helvetica Flair and others.

Designed by Phil Martin at Alphabet Innovations, Helvetica Flair is an unauthorised phototype-period redesign of Helvetica adding swashes and unicase-inspired capitals with a lower-case design. Considered a hallmark of 1970s design, it has never been issued digitally. It is considered to be a highly conflicted design, as Helvetica is seen as a spare and rational typeface and swashes are ostentatious: font designer Mark Simonson described it as "almost sacrilegious". Martin would later claim to have been accused of "typographic incest" by one German writer for creating it.  Helvetica Flair was one of several derivative fonts created by Martin in the 1970s (and a particularly legally questionable one, since it was directly named 'Helvetica'). Martin also drew 'Heldustry', a fusion of Helvetica with Eurostile, and 'Helserif', a redesign of Helvetica with serifs, and these have both been digitised.

Shatter LET (1973).

Designed by Vic Carless, Shatter assembles together slices of Helvetica to make a typeface that seems to be in motion, or broken and in pieces. It was published by Letraset after jointly winning their 1973 competition to design new fonts.  Writing in 2014, Tim Spencer praised the design for its ominous effect, writing that it offered "glitch-like mechanical aggression [and] cold, machine-induced paranoia. It attacked the Establishment’s preferred information typography style with a sharp edge and recomposed it in a jarring manner that still makes your eyes skitter and your brain tick trying to recompose it. Shatter literally sliced up Swiss modernist authority."

Unica.

Unica by "Team ’77" (André Gürtler, Christian Mengelt and Erich Gschwind) is as a hybrid of Helvetica, Univers and Akzidenz-Grotesk. It was developed in the 1970s for electronic on-screen phototypesetting and released in 1980. As phototypesetting was soon replaced by desktop publishing and because of a legal dispute, the typeface rapidly disappeared from the market. In 2012 the Swiss foundry Lineto released a digital edition with input from Christian Mengelt.

Chalet.

House Industries’ Chalet family is a series of fonts based on Helvetica, inspired by its many derivatives and adaptations in post-war design, and organised by “date” to '1960' (conventional), '1970' and '1980' (both more radically altered and “science fiction” in feel). House Industries, who are known for outlandish font marketing methods, promoted Chalet through presenting it as inspired by the branding and career progression of a fictitious Swiss "haute couture" designer, “Renè Chalet” ("Chalet" being French for 'House').

Coolvetica.

In the digital period, Canadian type designer Ray Larabie has released several digital fonts based upon Helvetica. The most widely known and distributed of these is Coolvetica, which Larabie introduced in 1999; Larabie stated he was inspired by Helvetica Flair, Chalet, and similar variants in creating some of Coolvetica's distinguishing glyphs (most strikingly a swash on capital 'G', lowercase 'y' based on the letterforms of 'g' and 'u,' and a fully curled lowercase 't'), and chose to set a tight default spacing optimised for use in display type. Larabie's company Typodermic offers Coolvetica in a wide variety of weights as a commercial release, with the semi-bold as freeware taster. As of 2017, the semi-bold remains Larabie's most popular font. Larabie has also taken inspiration from Helvetica in some of his other designs, including Movatif and GGX88.

Helvetica or Neue Haas Grotesk is a widely used sans-serif typeface developed in 1957 by Swiss typeface designer Max Miedinger with input from Eduard Hoffmann.

Helvetica je hojně používaná rodina bezpatkového písma (Sans-serif), které v roce 1957 vytvořili švýcarští designéři Max Miedinger a Eduard Hoffmann z písmolijny Haas’sche Schriftgiesserei AG. Helvetica byla navržena jako univerzální bezpatkové písmo na základě grotesků z konce 19. století. Původně byla pojmenována Neue Haas Grotesk, později však byl název změněn.


Structure.

There are 24 clubs in League Two. Each club plays each of the other clubs twice (once at home, once away) and is awarded three points for a win, one for a draw and no points for a loss. From these points a league table is constructed.  At the end of each season the top three teams, together with the winner of the play-offs between the teams which finished in the fourth to seventh positions, are promoted to EFL League One and are replaced by the four teams that finished at the bottom of that division.  Similarly, the two teams that finished at the bottom of League Two are relegated to the National League and are replaced by the team that finished first and the team that won the second through seventh place play-off in that division. Technically a team can be reprieved from relegation if the team replacing them does not have a ground suitable for League football, but in practice this is a non-factor because every team currently in the National League has a ground that meets the League criteria (and even if they did not, a ground-sharing arrangement with another team could be made until their stadium was upgraded). The other way that a team can be spared relegation is if another team either resigns or is expelled from the EFL.  Final league position is determined, in order, by points obtained, goal difference, goals scored, a mini-league of the results between two or more teams ranked using the previous three criteria, and finally a series of one or more play-off matches.  There is a mandatory wage cap in this division that limits spending on players' wages to 100% of club turnover.

Current members.

The following 24 clubs are competing in League Two during the 2019–20 season.

Broadcasting rights.

Sky have broadcasting rights for EFL football league including League Two, Quest shows highlights. In Spain, DAZN broadcasts live matches from League Two. ESPN+ broadcast the playoff semifinals and final in the United States.

The English Football League Two (often referred to as League Two for short or Sky Bet League Two for sponsorship reasons) is the third and lowest division of the English Football League (EFL) and fourth-highest division overall in the English football league system.

English Football League Two (známá také jako League Two, oficiálním názvem dle sponzora Sky Bet League 2) je čtvrtá nejvyšší fotbalová soutěž v Anglii. Tento název má od roku 2004. V roce 1958 se liga jmenovala Division Four a od roku 1992 Division Three.


Life and reign.

Henry was the second son of Duke Welf I of Bavaria (died 1101) from his marriage with Judith, daughter of Count Baldwin IV of Flanders. As a young man, he administered the family's Este property south of the Alps.  Through his marriage to Wulfhilde, daughter of Duke Magnus of Saxony, about 1095, he acquired part of the Billung estates around Lüneburg (the nucleus of the later Welf duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg). He aspired to succeed his father-in-law as Saxon duke when Magnus died without male heirs in 1106, but was denied as the new king Henry V enfeoffed his follower Count Lothair of Supplinburg.  Duke Henry nevertheless upheld close relations with the ruling Salian dynasty. In 1116, he joined Emperor Henry V's second Italian campaign to seize the estates of late Margravine Matilda of Tuscany. He succeeded his elder brother Welf II as Bavarian duke, when the latter died childless in 1120. Henry was also instrumental in bringing about the 1122 Concordat of Worms, ending the long-lasting Investiture Controversy between Pope and Emperor.  Upon the emperor's death, Duke Henry played a vital role in the royal election of 1125: first supporting his son-in-law, the Hohenstaufen duke Frederick II of Swabia, he switched his allegiance to his old rival Duke Lothair of Saxony—probably after Lothair promised that Gertrude, his only daughter and heir, would marry Henry's son Henry the Proud. The marriage was concluded in May 1127. The estrangement between the Welf and Hohenstaufen dynasties ("Guelphs and Ghibellines") lasted until the 13th century.  After Lothair won the tumultuous election, he imposed an Imperial ban on Frederick II, however, the king's forces were not able to conquer the Hohenstaufen territories in Swabia. In 1126 Henry abdicated as Bavarian duke in favour of his second son Henry the Proud and retired to the family foundation of Weingarten Abbey in Upper Swabia, possibly to not be obliged to participate in the prosecution of his son-in-law.  Henry died shortly thereafter and was buried in Weingarten. His wife Wulfhilde outlived him by only 16 days. Henry's epithet "the Black" has not been recorded before the 13th century. Both Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and his bitter rival Henry the Lion were his grandsons.

Issue.

Henry and Wulfhilde had the following children:

Henry IX (107513 December 1126), called the Black, a member of the House of Welf, was Duke of Bavaria from 1120 to 1126.

Jindřich IX. Bavorský jinak též Jindřich Černý (něm. "Heinrich der Schwarze"; asi 1075 – 13. prosince 1126 Ravensburg) byl bavorský vévoda z rodu Welfů.


Introduction.

Over 100 countries around the world have implemented some form of freedom of information legislation. Sweden's Freedom of the Press Act of 1766 is the oldest in the world.  Most freedom of information laws exclude the private sector from their jurisdiction thus information held by the private sector cannot be accessed as a legal right. This limitation has serious implications because the private sector performs many functions which were previously the domain of the public sector. As a result, information that was previously public is now within the private sector, and the private contractors cannot be forced to disclose information.  Other countries are working towards introducing such laws, and many regions of countries with national legislation have local laws. For example, all U.S. states have laws governing

Legislation by country.

Albania.

In Albania, the constitution of 1998 guarantees the right of access to information; the legislation for supporting this is Law no. 119/2014 "On the right to information" (Ligji nr. 119/2014 "Për të drejtën e informimit"). The law regulates the right of access to information being produced or held by public sector. The rules contained

Argentina.

In Argentina, the Access to public

Armenia.

The Law on Freedom of Information was unanimously approved

Australia.

In Australia, the was passed at the federal level in 1982, applying to all "ministers, departments and public authorities" of the Commonwealth.

Azerbaijan.

In Azerbaijan, a Law on Access to Information was approved in 2005. It has gone into effect. Previously

Bangladesh.

On October 21, 2008, the Caretaker Government of Bangladesh issued in the Bangladesh Gazette the Right to Information Ordinance (No. 50 of 2008), based loosely on the Indian Right to Information Act,

Belgium.

Article 32 of the Constitution was amended in

Belize.

In Belize, the was passed in 1998 was amended in 2000 and

Bhutan.

The National Assembly of Bhutan passed an RTI Bill in February

Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) was the first country in the Balkan region to adopt a Freedom of Information Act. or FOIA - was adopted by the Parliament Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 17 November 2000. Both federal entities - the Republika Srpska

Brazil.

In Brazil, the Article 5, XXXIII, of the Constitution sets that "everyone shall have the right to receive information of his own interest or of public interest from public entities, which shall be given within the time prescribed

Bulgaria.

In Bulgaria, the was passed in 2000, following

Canada.

In Canada, the allows citizens to demand records from federal bodies. The act came into force in 1983, under the Pierre Trudeau government, permitting Canadians to retrieve information from government files, establishing what information could be accessed, mandating timelines for response. This is enforced by the Information Commissioner of Canada.  There is also a complementary that was introduced in 1983. The purpose of the "Privacy Act" is to extend the present laws of Canada that protect the privacy of individuals with respect to personal information about themselves held by a federal government institution and that provide individuals with a right of access to that information. It is a Crown copyright. Complaints for possible violations of the Act

Cayman Islands.

The Freedom of Information Law was passed

Chile.

In Chile, article 8 of the Constitution provides for the freedom of information. A

China.

In April 2007, the State Council of the People's Republic of China promulgated the

Colombia.

The Colombian constitution grants the right of access to public information through "Law 57 of 1985" which thereby mandates the publishing of acts and official documents. This is implemented and applies to documents that belong to official facilities (offices or the like). Additionally there is the anti corruption statement of "Law 190 of 1955" also known as "anti corruption act" which in its 51st article mandates public offices to list in visible area all the contracts and purchases made by month. The latter taking place slowly. A more modern law,

Cook Islands.

Access to official information is governed by the Official

Croatia.

In Croatia, the ("Act on the Right

Cyprus.

The right of access to information in Cyprus is guaranteed in constitutional provisions on freedom of expression. The No. 184(I)/2017 law on access to information in the southern part of the Republic of Cyprus of the country has been published on 22 December 2017. A law that falls below Council of Europe standards in the Northern occupied part of Cyprus. The right to access to public information is provided in different ways in the

Czech Republic.

In the Czech Republic, the ("Act No. 106/1999 Coll. on Free Access to Information") covers the "state agencies, territorial self-administration

Denmark.

Access to Public Administration Files Act of 1985 is a Danish act passed by the Folketing concerning public access to governmental records. The Act came into force in 1987 and repealed the Public Records Act of 1970. New version of the Act came into force on 1 January 2014. Denmark is considered to be a historic pioneer in the field of FOI along with Sweden, Finland and Norway. There is no constitutional basis in the Constitution of Denmark for the right of the public to information. Denmark scores 64 points in Global Right to Information Rating.

Scope.

According to the Act of 1985, Section 4 Part 1 “any person may ask to see documents received or issued by an administrative authority.” Information concerning

Procedure.

Reasons do not have to be given while making a request; however, the authorities can ask for additional information regarding document. The requests are supposed to be handled as

Exceptions.

Access to information is limited by “the obligation to maintain secrecy.” Considerations of State security, defence, foreign policy, external economic interests as well as public financial interests can limit the granting of access to the information. Registers and

Appeals.

Decision to grant or not to grant access can be appealed. Decisions can also be appealed externally to Folketingets Ombudsman. Ombudsman

Revisions.

The exemption regarding EU documents was taken out of the Act in 1991. Amendments were also made in 2000; they concerned data on the employees of the Government. In January 2014 new Public Records Act was enforced. The new act was highly debated since it was considered to limit transparency in the Government and legislative proceedings; Denmark received one point less in the category of Political Environment when compared with the Freedom of the Press report of 2015. The new legislation caused demonstrations and protests. It can be regarded as a response to the

Dominican Republic.

Hipólito Mejía approved ("Law number 200-04 - Law on Access to Information") on 28 July 2004, which allows public access

Ecuador.

In Ecuador, the of 2004 declares that

El Salvador.

In El Salvador, the was given assent

Estonia.

In Estonia, the of 2000 seeks to "ensure that the public and every person has the opportunity to access information intended for public use, based on the principles of a democratic and social rule of law

Europe.

In matters concerning the local, national and transboundary environment, the Aarhus convention grants the public rights regarding access to information, public participation and access to justice in governmental decision-making processes. It focuses on interactions between the public and public authorities.

Council of Europe.

The recognition of the right to access to public information under Article 10 (including "freedom (..) to receive (..) information") of the European Convention on Human Rights was one of subjects in "Guerra v. Italy" case before the European Court of Human Rights in 1998. The majority considered Article 10 was not applicable to the complaint. However, the court found that in the specific case, which included living

European Union.

Finland.

In Finland, the ("Act on the Openness of Public Documents" of 1951) established the openness of all records and documents in the possession of officials of the state, municipalities, and registered religious communities. Exceptions to the basic principle could only be made by law, or by an executive order for specific enumerated reasons such as national security. The openness of unsigned draft documents was not mandated, but up to the consideration of the public official. This weakness of the law was removed when the law was revised in the 1990s. The

France.

In France, the accountability of public servants is a constitutional right, according to the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen".  The implementing legislation is the ("Act No. 78-753 of 17 July 1978. On various

Georgia.

In Georgia, the General

Germany.

In Germany, the federal government passed a freedom of information law on September 5, 2005; it was last updated on August 7, 2013. The law grants each person an

Greece.

In Greece, the 1975 Greek Constitution guaranteed the right of access to administrative documents and the right of citizens to obtain information. However it was not until 1986 that the first law was passed to provide for access to information.  Article 16 (Right to Access Administrative Documents—Δικαίωμα γνώσης διοικητικών εγγράφων) of Law 1599/1986 (State-citizenry Relationship—Σχέσεις Κράτους-πολίτη) introduced the right of all citizens to read most administrative documents. This right is now codified as article 5 (Access to documents—Πρόσβαση σε έγγραφα) of the Administrative Procedural Code (Κώδικας Διοικητικής Διαδικασίας), Law 2690/1999. Under this article, citizens have a right to know the content of administrative documents. Administrative documents are defined as those produced by public sector entities,

Guyana.

Guyana has a freedom of information act,which came into force in 2013, but it has relatively weak provisions.A commission tasked

Hong Kong.

In Hong Kong there are no laws specifically enacted to guarantee the freedom of information.  Since March 1995, the Government of Hong Kong has promulgated a "Code on Access to Information" to serve a similar purpose. This code, like

Hungary.

In Hungary, the of 1992 extends a right of access to all data of public interest, defined as any information processed by a body performing a governmental function. Complaints and contested applications

Iceland.

In Iceland the Information Act (Upplysingalög)

India.

The Right to Information Act (RTI Act) was passed by Parliament on 11 May 2005 and was published in the gazette of India on 15 June 2005. It came into effect on 12 October 2005 replacing the erstwhile Freedom of information Act, 2002. The Supreme Court of India had, in several Judgments prior to enactment of both Acts, interpreted Indian Constitution to read Right to Information as the Fundamental Right as embodied in Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression and also in Right to Life. RTI Act laid down a procedure to guarantee this right. Under this law all Government Bodies or Government funded agencies have to designate a Public Information Officer (PIO). The PIO's responsibility is to ensure that information requested is disclosed to the petitioner within 30 days or within 48 hours in case of information concerning the life or liberty of a person. The law was inspired by previous legislation from select states (among them Tamil Nadu (1997), Goa (1997),

Iran.

The Law on Dissemination of and Free Access to Information was approved by Iranian Parliament in

Ireland.

In Ireland the Freedom of Information Act 1997 came into effect in April, 1998. This provided for members of the public to access information specifically about themselves, amend incorrect information, and request an explanation behind administrative decisions concerning themselves, as well as allowing any person to access records generated by a list of specified public bodies. The Act is seen as having led to a sea-change in the relationship between the citizen, journalists, government departments and public bodies. Disclosure is the default assumption of the Act; bodies can withhold information only by citing exemptions specified in the legislation. Decisions of public bodies in relation to requests for information may be reviewed by the Information Commissioner.  The Act was subsequently amended by the Freedom of Information (Amendment) Act 2003. The amendments introduced fees for non-personal requests and restricted the kinds of material which could be accessed.

Israel.

In Israel, the Freedom of Information Law, 5758-1998, supported by the Freedom of Information Regulations, 5759-1999, controls freedom of information. It defines the bodies subject to the legislation by a set of listed categories - essentially, most public bodies - and provides for the government to publish a list of all affected bodies. However, this list does not seem to have been made publicly available, if indeed it was ever compiled. Many public bodies are not obliged to follow the law, which limits the potential for use by the public.  The Israeli Freedom of Information Law has, in some cases, actually achieved the opposite intended result. some Government agencies now take the position that a citizen may only request information via FOIL—i.e., an official letter designated as such and including the 95 shekel fee. Thus an Israeli citizen in many

Italy.

Chapter V of Law No. 241 of 7 August 1990 provides for access to administrative documents. However, the right to access is limited. The law states that those requesting information must have a legal interest. The 1992 regulations require "a personal concrete

Jamaica.

In Jamaica, the

Japan.

In Japan, the "Law Concerning Access to Information Held by Administrative Organs" (行政機関の保有する情報の公開に関する法律) was promulgated in 1999. The law was enforced in 2001.  Small town governments, rather than the federal government, were the first

Latvia.

The Constitution of Latvia states: "Article 100. Everyone has the right to freedom of expression, which includes the right to freely receive, keep and distribute information and to express his or her views. Censorship is prohibited." The right to access state held information has been repeatedly recognised by the Constitutional Court of Latvia, most notably

Malta.

On the 1st of September 2012, Legal Notice 156 of 2012 brought the Freedom of Information Act (Chapter 496 of the Laws of Malta) fully into force, allowing the public (resident citizens of Malta, the EU and the EEA) to

Liberia.

President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf signed the Freedom of Information Act of 2010 into law in October 2010. Liberia became only the fourth country in

North Macedonia.

Article 16 of the Constitution of North Macedonia guarantees "access to information and the freedom of reception and transmission of information".  The Law on Free Access to Information of Public Character was adopted on 25

Malaysia.

The state of Selangor passed the Freedom of Information Enactment (Selangor) 2010 on 1 April 2011, allowing the Malaysian public an access to the state documents including that of

Maldives.

The Maldives passed the Right

Mexico.

The Constitution was amended in 1977 to include a right of freedom of information. Article 6 says in part, "the right of information shall be guaranteed by the state." The

Moldova.

Article 34 of the Constitution provides for a right of access to information.  The Law of the Republic of Moldova on Access to Information was approved by Parliament

Montenegro.

A freedom of information law was passed

Nepal.

Nepal Government passed a draft of information act on September, 2007 on behalf of freedom. Based on that draft, the government enacted a specific

Netherlands.

Article 110 of the Constitution states: "In the exercise of their duties government bodies shall observe the principle of transparency in accordance with the rules to be prescribed by Act of Parliament."  The Dutch act on public access to government information entered into force in 1980 and is updated several times later. Under

New Zealand.

In New Zealand, the relevant legislation is the Official Information Act

Nigeria.

Former President Goodluck Jonathan signed into law the Freedom of Information (FoI) Bill, awaited for 12 years by media proprietors and practitioners alike, during which the Villa got knocks for filibustering and lawmakers complained of bombardment by campaigners.  The House of Representatives passed the Bill on February 24, 2011 and the Senate dialled up integrity on March 16 as it delivered

Norway.

The current freedom of information legislation was enacted May 19. 2006, and superseded the previous law of 1970 by January 1, 2009. Article 100

Pakistan.

President Pervez Musharraf promulgated the Freedom of Information Ordinance 2002 in October 2002. The law allows any citizen access to public records held by a public body of the federal government including ministries, departments, boards, councils, courts and tribunals. It does not apply to government owned corporations or provincial governments.

Paraguay.

The National Constitution of Paraguay enacted in 1992, guarantees the right to be informed and to receive true, responsible, and equitable information (Art. 28). The same article states that public sources of information are free, and that a law will regulate the modalities, time periods, and sanctions “in order to make this right effective”. In practice, this last provision delayed the recognition of the right due to the absence of a law making it “effective”. Congress, government agencies and Courts were reluctant to enforce the right to access public sources of information until 2013.

Philippines.

On July 23, 2016, Philippine president Rodrigo Duterte signed the executive order

Pitcairn Islands.

Section 13(4) of the Constitution of the Pitcairn Islands provides that "Freedom of information in Pitcairn shall be provided by

Poland.

Article 61 of the Constitution provides for the right to information and mandates that Parliament enact a law setting out this right.  The Law on Access to Public Information was approved in September

Romania.

Since 2001 there is one law on Freedom of

Rwanda.

The law Relating to Access to Information was passed on the 08/02/2013. It puts forth

Serbia.

In Serbia, the gives

Seychelles.

The President of the Republic, Mr Danny Faure assented to the Access to Information Act on July 2018. The Access to Information Bill 2018 was published in the Official Gazette on the 24th of March 2017. The Right of Access to Information is guaranteed under Article 28 of the Constitution of the Republic of Seychelles. This Act gives the public with the constitutional

Slovakia.

Slovakia passed the Freedom of Information Act in May 2000 (Num. law: 211/2000 Z. z.).

Slovenia.

Slovenia passed the Access to Public Information Act in March 2003. The Act governs the procedure which ensures everyone

South Africa.

Section 32 of the Constitution of South Africa guarantees "the right of access to any information held by the state; and any information that is held by another person and that is required

South Korea.

The Constitutional Court ruled in 1989 that there is a constitutional right to information "as an aspect of the right of freedom of expression and specific implementing legislation to

Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka's Right to Information Act No 12 of 2016 was certified on 4 August 2016. After much debate and many amendments to the draft Bill, the final Act comprising 44 Sections was certified in early August 2016. The implementation of the Act is expected to take time due

Sweden.

In Sweden, the Freedom of the Press Act grants public access to official documents and is included in the Constitution of Sweden. Dating back to 1766, it is the first freedom of information legislation in the modern sense. In modern times the right has become known as the Principle of Public Access (Swedish: "offentlighetsprincipen").  The Principle of Public Access means that

Switzerland.

Switzerland is a federal state. Access to federal documents is governed by the Swiss Federal Act on the Principle of Freedom of Information in Public Administration, and supervised by the Federal

Taiwan.

The "Freedom of Government Information Law" (政府資訊公開法), enacted by the Legislative Yuan of the ROC government in Taiwan, has been in force since 28 December 2005.  In back 1949,All 中華民國 government came to Taiwan,but in back 27 February 1947 to 16 May 1947.ROC government

Tanzania.

Tanzania's was

Thailand.

In Thailand, the

Trinidad and Tobago.

In Trinidad and Tobago,

Tunisia.

Tunisia adopted a freedom of information law after the revolution, in 2016. However the

Turkey.

In Turkey, the (Bilgi Edinme Hakkı Kanunu) was signed on

Uganda.

In Uganda, the (ATI) was approved in 2005 but its regulations were not passed until 2011. The laws states that citizen and especially journalists can demand accountability from a government official. The Hub for Investigative Media

Ukraine.

The 1996 Constitution does not include a specific general right of access to information but contains a general right of freedom of collect and disseminate information and rights of access to personal and environmental information.  The Art. 5 of The Law on Information of 1992 (revised in 2011) provides

United Kingdom.

The Freedom of Information Act 2000 (2000 c. 36) is the implementation of freedom of information legislation in the United Kingdom on a national level, with the exception of Scottish bodies, which are covered by the Freedom

United States.

In the United States the Freedom of Information Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 4, 1966 and went into effect the following year. Ralph Nader has been credited with the impetus for creating this act, among others. The Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments were signed by President Bill Clinton on October 2, 1996.  The Act

Uruguay.

The Act was enacted in 2008 under

Zimbabwe.

In Zimbabwe, the Access to Information and Privacy

References.

Send RTI Portal

External links.

International:  Europe:  Brazil:  India:  Turkey:  United States:  Nepal  Open Meetings: South Korea:

Freedom of information laws allow access by the general public to data held by national governments. The emergence of freedom of information legislation was a response to increasing dissatisfaction with the secrecy surrounding government policy development and decision making. They establish a "right-to-know" legal process by which requests may be made for government-held information, to be received freely or at minimal cost, barring standard exceptions. Also variously referred to as open records, or sunshine laws (in the United States), governments are typically bound by a duty to publish and promote openness. In many countries there are constitutional guarantees for the right of access to information, but these are usually unused if specific support legislation does not exist.

Zákon o svobodném přístupu k informacím je legislativní nařízení, které garantuje přístup k informacím držených státem. Ustanovují proces, ve kterém mohou být vznášeny požadavky na vládou držené informace. Všechny tyto požadavky pak musejí být přijaty a za minimální náklady, kromě standardních výjimek. Vláda je typicky vázána povinností vydat a podpořit otevřenost k takto vyžádaným informacím (tato skutečnost získala různé přezdívky, např. ve Spojených státech „sunshine law“ – doslova "zákon slunečního světla"). V mnoha zemích jsou ústavní záruky na právo na přístup k informacím, ale většinou jsou nevyužity pokud neexistuje specifická legislativa.


Etymology.

The kibbutz is named after a biblical city in the territory of the Tribe of Judah called Hatzor (Joshua 15:23). The extended name "Hatzor Ashdod" is to distinguish between this kibbutz and the Galilean town of Hatzor HaGlilit, although the kibbutz is best known as simply ""Hatzor"".

History.

Before the establishment of the kibbutz.

The gar'in of the kibbutz was founded by a group of Hashomer Hatzair graduates from Mandatory Palestine who gathered at Mishmar HaEmek in 1936. It was named as "Kibbutz Eretz Israeli Gimel" (Gimel is the third letter of the Hebrew Alphabet). In 1937 the members left Mishmar HaEmek and moved to Rishon LeZion and settled in a camp used by another gar'in that left to establish the kibbutz of Sha'ar HaGolan. At Rishon LeZion the members were occupied in manual work at orchards, factories, road paving (for the Solel Boneh company) and established a carpentry shop and a Laundrette. In 1938, some of the members were sent for agricultural training in Beit Gan. In 1941 the gari'n absorbed a group of pioneers from Bulgaria, graduates of Hashomer Hatzair and in the years 1945 and 1946 two groups from the United States and Canada, graduates of the movement as well. In 13 May 1943, a group of the gar'in members founded Gvulot, one of the three lookouts, the first Jewish settlements in the Negev. The members settled in Gvulot for three years where they worked the lands of the Jewish National Fund and asked to remain there as a permanent settlement. In 1946 Jewish establishments decided to give the land to members of kibbutz Nirim and in return the members of "Kibbutz Eretz Israeli Gimel" were given lands near Yasur.

After the establishment of the kibbutz.

On 17 June 1946 some of the members arrived at the point and established the kibbutz, which is when they renamed themselves as "Hatzor". The location chosen for the kibbutz was a naked hill, with four Arab villages surrounding it and a British airbase. Initially, the residents lived in tents and built two sheds that were used as a dining room and a barrack. In January 1947 the residents began building permanent buildings and the rest of the members of the gar'in gradually arrived at the kibbutz from Rishon LeZion until all of them arrived in November 1947. During the 1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine transportation was limited and was only carried out with armored vehicles and field work was done under guards. Following the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 14 May 1948, the army of Egypt invaded the former territory of Mandatory Palestine and advanced along the coast line until it reached Ad Halom bridge. From the end of May till October 1948, the kibbutz was near the front lines of the Egyptian Army and was repeatedly shelled by artillery fire. Many of members of the kibbutz were recruited to the Israeli Defense Forces and participated in the Battles of Negba. The children, as well as livestock, were evacuated to Holon, while the members who stayed in the kibbutz hid in trenches and shelters. Following Operation Yoav in October the Egyptians withdrew and the kibbutz returned to routine life.  The surrounding Arab villages were depopulated and their residents became refugees in the Gaza Strip. Their land was confiscated by the state of Israel and part of it was leased to the kibbutz. In the 1950s, another group of Hashomer Hatzair members from France and Switzerland also joined the kibbutz.  Like other kibbutzim founded by Hashomer Hatzair members, Hatzor was affiliated with the Kibbutz Artzi movement, which in the 1990s merged into the Kibbutz Movement.  Since the 1990s the Kibbutz has undergone changes towards privatization and abandoned many of its original collective habits. The latest step was the switch to "Safety Net" model in 2006, which in principle means every member is responsible to earn his own living, with a method of slightly reducing the difference between the "richer" and "poorer". As a result of that, more than 100 new members were admitted within 7 years. A new neighborhood of 44 families, populated by those new members, has been completed in spring 2014.

Hatzor (), officially Hatzor Ashdod, is a kibbutz in southern Israel. Located near Ashdod, it falls under the jurisdiction of Be'er Tuvia Regional Council. In it had a population of.

Chacor též Chacor Ašdod ( חָצוֹר, v oficiálním přepisu do angličtiny Hazor Ashdod, přepisováno též Hatzor) je vesnice typu kibuc v Izraeli, v Jižním distriktu, v Oblastní radě Be'er Tuvja.


Early life.

Ngô Bảo Châu was born in 1972, the only son of an intellectual family in Hanoi, North Vietnam. His father, professor, is full professor of physics at the Vietnam National Institute of Mechanics. His mother, Trần Lưu Vân Hiền, is a physician and associate professor at an herbal medicine hospital in Hanoi.  The beginning of Châu's schooling was at an experimental elementary school that had been founded by the revolutionary pedagogue Hồ Ngọc Đại, but when his father returned from the Soviet Union with his doctoral degree, he decided that Châu would learn more in traditional schools and enrolled him in the "chuyên toán" (special classes for gifted students in mathematics) at the Trưng Vương Middle School. At age 15, Châu entered the special mathematics class at the High School for Gifted Students, Hanoi University of Science (Khối chuyên Tổng Hợp – Đại học Khoa Học Tự Nhiên Hà Nội), formerly known as the A0-class. In grades 11 and 12, Châu participated in the 29th and 30th International Mathematical Olympiads (IMO) and became the first Vietnamese student to win two IMO gold medals, of which the first one was won with a perfect score (42/42).  After high school, Châu expected to study in Budapest, but in the aftermath of the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, the new Hungarian government halted scholarships to students from Vietnam. After visiting Châu's father, Paul Germain, secretary of the French Academy of Sciences, arranged for Châu to study in France. He was offered a scholarship by the French government for undergraduate study at the Paris VI University, then in 1992, he entered the École Normale Supérieure. He obtained a PhD in 1997 from the Universite Paris-Sud under the supervision of Gérard Laumon. He became a member of CNRS at Paris 13 University from 1998 to 2005, and defended his habilitation degree there in 2003. He holds both Vietnamese and French citizenship.

Career.

Châu became a professor at Paris-Sud 11 University in 2005. In 2005, at age 33, Chau received the title of professor in Vietnam, becoming the country's youngest-ever professor. Since 2007, Châu has worked at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New Jersey, as well as the Hanoi Institute of Mathematics. He joined the mathematics faculty at the University of Chicago on September 1, 2010. In addition, since 2011 he has been Scientific Director of the newly founded Vietnam Institute for Advanced Study in Mathematics (VIASM). In 2016 Châu was Co-General Chair of Asiacrypt the first time that the Asian cryptography conference was held in Vietnam.

Work.

Châu first came to prominence by proving, in joint work with Gérard Laumon, the fundamental lemma for unitary groups. Their general strategy was to understand the local orbital integrals appearing in the fundamental lemma in terms of affine Springer fibers arising in the Hitchin fibration. This allowed them to employ the tools of geometric representation theory, namely the theory of perverse sheaves, to study what was initially a combinatorial problem of a number-theoretic nature. Chau eventually succeeded in formulating the proof for the fundamental lemma for Lie algebras in 2008. Together with results from Jean-Loup Waldspurger, who had earlier deduced stronger forms of the fundamental lemma from this result, this completed the proof of the fundamental lemma in all cases. As a result, Châu was awarded a Fields Medal in 2010.  Ngo Bao Chau was the co-author of the Vietnamese children book "Ai and Ky in the land of the invisible numbers".

Honors.

In 2004, Chau and Laumon were awarded the Clay Research Award for their achievement in solving the fundamental lemma proposed by Robert Langlands for the case of unitary groups. Chau's proof of the general case was selected by "Time" as one of the Top Ten Scientific Discoveries of 2009. In 2010, he received the Fields Medal and in 2011, he received the Legion of Honour. In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society.

Ngô Bảo Châu (, born June 28, 1972) is a Vietnamese-French mathematician at the University of Chicago, best known for proving the fundamental lemma for automorphic forms proposed by Robert Langlands and Diana Shelstad. He is the first Vietnamese national to have received the Fields Medal.

Ngo Bao Chau (* 28. června 1972) je vietnamský matematik (nyní má francouzskou národnost). Narodil se ve Vietnamu. Absolvoval univerzitu v Hanoji, Vietnam. Studoval ve Francii a v současnosti pracuje v institutu pro rozšířené vzdělání v Princetonu v New Jersey. Ngo Bao Chauovi byla v roce 2010 udělena Fieldsova medaile, na setkání v indickém Hajdarábádu.