Name and coat of arms.

The toponym is first attested in 590 in Latin as "Belitio" or "Bilitio" (in the accusative, "Bilitionem"), by Gregory of Tours. The name is Lepontic in origin, possibly from "belitio" ("juniper") or "belitione" ("juniper bushes").  During the medieval period, the name is found as "Berinzona" (721, 762, 803, 1002), "Birrinzona" (1004), "Birizona" (1168), "Beliciona" (901, 977) and "Belinzona" (1055). The German name of the town is "Bellenz". A local folk etymology derives the name "Bellinzona" from "zona bellica" "war zone", making a connection to the Italian Wars.  The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is an erect serpent in silver on a red field. The fabulous animal is called in Italian "Biscione". This animal, which can also be found on the arms of the Alfa Romeo car company, is linked with the Visconti family, who were feudal lords of Bellinzona in the 14th and 15th centuries.

History.

Pre-History and Roman era.

Bellinzona has always occupied an important geographic location in the Alps. To the south, the Po Valley is accessible by a lowland route down the valley of the river Ticino and by Lake Maggiore. To the north, the valley of the Ticino leads to the high alpine passes of Nufenen, St. Gotthard, Lukmanier and San Bernardino. Although now little used, the San Jorio Pass to the east was also important in Bellinzona's past.  While the region has been occupied since the early Neolithic age it wasn't until the late 1st century BC that a fort was built in the area during the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus. While the fort fell into disrepair in the following centuries, it was rebuilt and greatly expanded in the 4th century AD. During the reign of Diocletian and Constantin a chain of castles and watchtowers were built to protect northern Italy from invasion. Bellinzona's location was recognized as a key point in the defenses and a large castle was built to protect the walls. The town that grew up around the fortifications was known as "Bilitio".  Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire the successor states, which included the Ostrogoths around 500 AD, the eastern Byzantine Empire towards the middle of the 6th century, and the Longobards from 568/70, all took control of Bellinzona and used the castle to assert control of the surrounding passes. Under the Longobards, Bellinzona became the site of a permanent garrison to protect the region from raids by the neighboring Frankish and Alemannic tribes. From Bellinzona the Longobards controlled the traffic on the important trade route from Varese over Ponte Tresa, the Monte Ceneri Pass, Biasca and finally over the Lukmanier Pass into Chur. Some researchers believe that Bellinzona may have been the capital of a county that included most of the valleys in Ticino.

Early Middle Ages.

At around 774 the Frankish Kingdom (that would become the Carolingian Empire) gained control of the Ticino valley including Bellinzona.  About two centuries later the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III, seeking to restore the power of glory of ancient Rome and expand into Italy, opened the Lukmanier and St. Bernard passes. Control of Bellinzona was a key part of this expansion. The town was taken from Milan and given as a gift to the Bishop of Como, who supported the Ottonian dynasty. In 1002, following the death of Otto III, Marquis Arduino of Ivrea declared himself King of Italy and ratified the bishop's ownership of the "Castelgrande" and the town. Two years later, after Arduino had been defeated by Henry II the King of Germany, Henry II's man Enrico II reratified the gift of the "Castlegrande" on the Bishop of Como. The town is mentioned in medieval sources in 1218 as "Bilizione".

Conflicts between the Pope and the Emperor.

During the Investiture Controversy of the late 11th century the town of Bellinzona with its castle came under the control of the Hohenstaufens of Swabia. However, in 1180, Frederick I (Barbarossa) placed the town under the jurisdiction of the town of Como. In the following years Como tended to support the Pope in his conflicts with the Holy Roman Emperor. However, in 1239, Como sided with the Emperor Frederick II who quickly moved forces into Bellinzona and strengthened the "Castelgrande". In 1242 Milan sent Guelph (or pro-papacy) forces under the command of Simone di Orello to take Bellinzona. The town and castle were taken which weakened the Emperor south of the Alps. However the town was back under the jurisdiction of Como in 1249. Conflicts in northern Italy continued, the "Castelgrande" was besieged several times in 1284, 1292 and 1303. During this time the Rusca family in Como, a Ghibelline or pro-Imperial family, fought the growing power of Milan under the pro-papacy House of Visconti with limited success. Around the end of the 13th century the Rusca family built another castle, "Montebello", in Bellinzona, which they controlled. This was fortunate because by 1335 the Rusca family had been driven out of Como and had to retreat to Bellinzona. Five years later, in 1340, Milan besieged Bellinzona. Following a lengthy siege, the town fell to Milan but the Ruscas were allowed to keep "Montebello". Pro-papacy Milan would dominate Bellinzona for the next one and a half centuries, though the pro-Imperial Rusca would also occupy part of the town.

Expansion of Bellinzona under Milan.

Under the control of the Visconti, trade flourished and Bellinzona grew. When an alternative route over the Alps, the Schöllenen bridge opened, traffic in the St. Gotthard increased to the highest levels ever. During the second half of the 14th century a long wall, the "Murata", was built across the Tessin valley, allowing Milan to protect and tax the trade route over the St. Gotthard Pass. While the town was controlled by Milan through the Visconti after 1340, the Visconti did not have a formal title and feudal rights until 1396 when they were granted by King Wenceslaus. However, the orderly growth of Bellinzona was threatened in 1402 when Duke Gian Galeazzo Visconti died. In 1403 Bellinzona came under the control of Alberto di Sacco of Val Mesolcina, who held it until 1419 before it was taken over by Uri and Obwalden, which expanded into the Leventina Valley. Milan attacked the town three years later in 1422 after an offer to buy the town was rejected by the Swiss Confederation. The troops from Uri and Obwalden were quickly driven from the town and later defeated at the Battle of Arbedo on 30 June 1422. This defeat discouraged the expansionist intentions of Uri and its allies towards Lake Maggiore for a time.  During the period of unrest following Gian Galeazzo Visconti's death, a tower which would become the nucleus of the third castle, "Sasso Corbaro", was built outside the town.  While the border between Uri and Milan was fixed in the peace treaty of 1426, in 1439 Uri invaded again. While they were unable to take Bellinzona, the victories of the Swiss troops led to Milan granting all of the Leventina Valley to Pollegio to Uri in 1441. Following the death of Duke Filippo Maria Visconti in 1447, Bellinzona was in the middle of the succession crisis between Franchino Rusca of Locarno and Heinrich of Val Mesolcina, who were allied with Uri and the Ambrosian Republic in Milan. The war following the succession crisis lasted nearly three years until Francesco I Sforza seized power in Milan. Bellinzona quickly accepted the new Sforza dynasty and the peace and stability that followed.  The peace was broken again in 1478 when the Swiss once again attacked Bellinzona unsuccessfully. However Swiss pride was restored by the Battle of Giornico which followed, where a force of 600 Swiss soldiers defeated 10,000 Milanese troops. Following the attack, Milan built the "Sasso Corbaro" either on the site of a tower which had been built nearly a century before. The other two castles were strengthened and the "Murata" wall across the valley was rebuilt. Much of the modern castles and fortifications date from this period of construction in the late 15th century.

An associate of the Swiss Confederation.

In 1499 nearly one and a half centuries of Milanese rule ended with the invasion of Milan by Louis XII of France. He captured Bellinzona and fearing an attack by the Swiss, fortified the "Castelgrande" with 1000 troops. Throughout the winter of 1499/1500 unrest in Bellinzona grew, until January when an armed revolt of the citizens of Bellinzona drove the French troops from the town. Following the capture and execution of Ludovico Sforza in April 1500 and seeking protection from France, Bellinzona joined the Swiss Confederation on 14 April 1500, as a condominium under the joint administration of Uri, Schwyz and Nidwalden. Following the Napoleonic invasion of Switzerland in 1798, Bellinzona was the capital of the canton of Bellinzona within the Helvetic Republic (1798–1803).

Bellinzona since 1803.

Following the Act of Mediation in 1803 Bellinzona became part of the independent canton of Ticino, and the capital of the new canton from 1803 to 1814. From that date until 1878, Bellinzona, Lugano, and Locarno, took turns being capital every six years.  The town includes the village of Artore and, since the incorporation in 1907, the former municipalities of Carasso, Daro, and Ravecchia.  In 1874, the first sections of the Gotthard railway opened, linking Bellinzona to Biasca and Locarno. By 1882, the whole line was open, extending northwards to northern Switzerland via the Gotthard Tunnel, southwards to Lugano and Milan via the Monte Ceneri Pass, and down the east shore of Lake Maggiore to Luino. Between 1907 and 1972, Bellinzona was also linked to Mesocco and other Val Mesolcina communities by the Bellinzona–Mesocco railway.

Geography.

On 2 April 2017 the former neighbouring municipalities of Camorino, Claro, Giubiasco, Gnosca, Gorduno, Gudo, Moleno, Monte Carasso, Pianezzo, Preonzo, Sant'Antonio and Sementina merged into Bellinzona.  Bellinzona is situated in the valley of the river Ticino, at an altitude of. The town centre lies about east of the river, with the urban area confined to the bottom and lower slopes of the valley. However the municipality's boundaries extend up both sides of the valley, to altitudes of to the west, and to the east.  The town is located at a point at which the river Ticino, which has been flowing in a generally southerly direction, makes a turn to the west, to flow through the wide Piona di Magadino before entering the Lake Maggiore, and after it finally reaches to the Italian Po Valley and Lombardy.  Upstream, several valleys reach into the high Alps, with access to northern Switzerland over or through the Passo del San Gottardo via the Valle Leventina, the upper valley of the Ticino, and further to the west with access to the Valais over the Nufenen Pass via the Val Bedretto, and access to the Grisonian Surselva of the Anterior Rhine via the Valle di Blenio over the Lukmanier Pass. The river Moesa, running down the Valle Mesolcina from the San Bernardino Pass with access to the Gresionian valley "Rheinwald" of the Posterior Rhine, joins the Ticino on the northern boundary of the town.  To the south the Monte Ceneri Pass crosses the Lugano Prealps to give access to Lake Lugano and an alternate route to Lombardy, whilst the San Jorio Pass provides a possible route east to the upper Lake Como.  The town Bellinzona has an area,, of. Of this area, or 22.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 62.5% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 23.8% is settled (buildings or roads), or 2.5% is either rivers or lakes and or 0.5% is unproductive land. Of the built up area, industrial buildings made up 1.6% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 13.0%. Transportation infrastructure made up 5.8% while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 2.7%. Out of the forested land, 60.1% of the total land area is heavily forested and 1.9% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 6.6% is used for growing crops, while 2.5% is used for orchards or vine crops and 13.0% is used for alpine pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.

Demographics.

Bellinzona has a permanent population () of. In 2008, 29.4% of the population were foreign nationals. Between 1997 and 2007 the population has changed at a rate of 0.7%.  Most of the population () speaks Italian (87.4%), with German being second most common (3.6%) and Serbo-Croatian being third (2.5%). Of the Swiss national languages (), 14,392 people speak Italian, 590 speak German, 189 people speak French, and 13 people speak Romansh. The remainder (1,279 people) speak another language. The metropolitan area of Bellinzona had a population of 47,128, divided into 16 municipalities. , the gender distribution of the population was 46.6% male and 53.4% female. The population was made up of 5,503 Swiss men (31.8% of the population), and 2,567 (14.8%) non-Swiss men. There were 6,781 Swiss women (39.1%), and 2,472 (14.3%) non-Swiss women.  In there were 132 live births to Swiss citizens and 45 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 132 deaths of Swiss citizens and 15 non-Swiss citizen deaths. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens remained the same while the foreign population increased by 30. There were 7 Swiss men who emigrated from Switzerland to another country, 3 Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland to another country, 67 non-Swiss men who emigrated from Switzerland to another country and 70 non-Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland to another country. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources) was an increase of 377 and the non-Swiss population change was a decrease of 202 people. This represents a population growth rate of 1.0%.  The age distribution,, in Bellinzona is; 1,530 children or 8.8% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 1,623 teenagers or 9.4% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 2,091 people or 12.1% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 2,526 people or 14.6% are between 30 and 39, 2,721 people or 15.7% are between 40 and 49, and 2,260 people or 13.0% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 1,969 people or 11.4% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 1,470 people or 8.5% are between 70 and 79, there are 1,133 people or 6.5% who are between 80 and 89. , there were 7,294 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.2 persons per household. there were 1,490 single family homes (or 51.5% of the total) out of a total of 2,892 inhabited buildings. There were 419 two family buildings (14.5%) and 642 multi-family buildings (22.2%). There were also 341 buildings in the municipality that were multipurpose buildings (used for both housing and commercial or another purpose).  The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 1.45%. Of the apartments, a total of 7,255 apartments (85.8% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 932 apartments (11.0%) were seasonally occupied and 268 apartments (3.2%) were empty. there were 8,455 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was the 3 room apartment of which there were 2,746. There were 474 single room apartments and 1,253 apartments with five or more rooms., the construction rate of new housing units was 6.2 new units per 1000 residents.

Elections.

In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the FDP which received 30.61% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SP (23.11%), the CVP (19.85%) and the Ticino League (11.42%). In the federal election, a total of 4,634 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 46.1%.  In the "Ticino Gran Consiglio" election, there were a total of 10,187 registered voters in Bellinzona, of which 6,486 or 63.7% voted. 109 blank ballots and 16 null ballots were cast, leaving 6,361 valid ballots in the election. The most popular party was the PLRT which received 1,569 or 24.7% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were; the SSI (with 1,233 or 19.4%), the PS (with 1,210 or 19.0%) and the PPD+GenGiova (with 957 or 15.0%).  In the "Ticino Consiglio di Stato" election, there were 60 blank ballots and 22 null ballots, which left 6,405 valid ballots in the election. The most popular party was the PS which received 1,472 or 23.% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were; the PLRT (with 1,453 or 22.7%), the SSI (with 1,103 or 17.2%) and the LEGA (with 1,074 or 16.8%).

Economy.

The local industry is mainly based on mechanical engineering. The Società Bancaria Ticinese is based in Bellinzona. The most important employer is Swiss Federal Railways. , Bellinzona had an unemployment rate of 5.16%., there were 33 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 10 businesses involved in this sector. 1,691 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 149 businesses in this sector. 11,647 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 1,093 businesses in this sector. , there were 16,293 workers who commuted into the municipality and 2,631 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 6.2 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. About 45.3% of the workforce coming into Bellinzona are coming from outside Switzerland, while 0.1% of the locals commute out of Switzerland for work. Of the working population, 8.8% used public transportation to get to work, and 50.6% used a private car. , there were 9 hotels in Bellinzona with a total of 145 rooms and 283 beds.

Religion.

From the, 12,185 or 74.0% were Roman Catholic, while 651 or 4.0% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. There are 2,164 individuals (or about 13.14% of the population) who belong to another church (not listed on the census), and 1,463 individuals (or about 8.89% of the population) did not answer the question.

Weather.

Bellinzona has an average of 102.8 days of rain or snow per year and on average receives of precipitation. The wettest month is May during which time Bellinzona receives an average of of rain or snow. During this month there is precipitation for an average of 13 days. The driest month of the year is December with an average of of precipitation over 13 days.

Education.

In Bellinzona about 60.5% of the population (between age 25–64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule").  In Bellinzona there are a total of 2,662 students (). The Ticino education system provides up to three years of non-mandatory kindergarten and in Bellinzona there are 413 children in kindergarten.  The primary school program lasts for five years and includes both a standard school and a special school. In the municipality, 781 students attend the standard primary schools and 51 students attend the special school. In the lower secondary school system, students either attend a two-year middle school followed by a two-year pre-apprenticeship or they attend a four-year program to prepare for higher education. There are 632 students in the two-year middle school and 3 in their pre-apprenticeship, while 271 students are in the four-year advanced program.  The upper secondary school includes several options, but at the end of the upper secondary program, a student will be prepared to enter a trade or to continue on to a university or college. In Ticino, vocational students may either attend school while working on their internship or apprenticeship (which takes three or four years) or may attend school followed by an internship or apprenticeship (which takes one year as a full-time student or one and a half to two years as a part-time student). There are 162 vocational students who are attending school full-time and 299 who attend part-time. The professional program lasts three years and prepares a student for a job in engineering, nursing, computer science, business, tourism and similar fields. There are 50 students in the professional program. , there were 2,957 students in Bellinzona who came from another municipality, while 313 residents attended schools outside the municipality.  Bellinzona is home to 2 libraries. These libraries include; the Biblioteca Cantonale Bellinzona and the "Biblioteca comunale". There was a combined total () of 138,818 books or other media in the libraries, and in the same year a total of 43,919 items were loaned out.

Transportation.

Bellinzona railway station is a major intermediate stop on the Gotthard railway. It is a stopping point for major trains heading north toward Arth-Goldau and Zürich, south toward Lugano, Chiasso and Italy, or southwest to Locarno. The station is also served by the regional trains operated by TiLo to Biasca, Chiasso, Locarno, Lugano and Malpensa Airport.  PostBus Switzerland, known locally as the "AutoPostale", operate a small network of city bus routes within Lugano, as well as longer distance routes to other towns and cities. All routes serve the railway station.  The A2 and A13 motorways, as well as some main roads, link here, thus making it an important transportational node. The A2 runs north via the Gotthard Pass to Lucerne, Basle and Germany, and south to Lugano and Italy. The A13 runs north-east via the San Bernardino Pass to Chur and Austria.

Culture.

The town is known for its carnival Rabadan, which has taken place for over 150 years.

Sport.

The football club AC Bellinzona play in the Swiss Challenge League. Their stadium is the Stadio Comunale.  GDT Bellinzona, the hockey team, plays in the Swiss 1. Liga.  The female basketball team (Pallacanestro Bellinzona) plays in the National League A.  The floorball team (Ticino Unihockey) plays in the National league B since some years.  The light athletics society (GAB Bellinzona) organises every year a meeting called "Galà dei Castelli" (literally: Castles's gala), with a lot of world-famous athletes and the best Swiss athletes.

Heritage sites of national significance.

Bellinzona is home to twelve buildings or areas that are listed as Swiss heritage site of national significance. Additionally, it is home to the UNESCO World Heritage Site of the Three Castles of Bellinzona. The merger on 2 April 2017 added seven additional buildings or sites. The entire old town of Bellinzona, along with the villages of Moleno and Preonzo, is listed on the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.  In addition to the Three Castles and the town walls, the medieval and early modern town is included on the list. Three religious buildings, the Church of S. Maria delle Grazie, the Collegiata dei Ss. Pietro e Stefano and the Church of S. Biagio a Ravecchiai, are on the list. The Cantonal Archives, "Bagno Pubblico", the secondary school () on via Lavizzari 28 and the "Teatro sociale" are the rest of the buildings on the list.

The Three Castles.

The Three Castles, officially listed as the Three Castles, Defensive Wall and Ramparts of the Market-Town of Bellinzone, have been an UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2000. The group is composed of "Castelgrande", castle "Montebello", castle "Sasso Corbaro" and fortified walls. The "Castelgrande" is located on a rocky peak overlooking the valley, with a series of fortified walls that protect the old town and connect to the "Montebello". The third castle ("Sasso Corbaro") is located on an isolated rocky promontory south-east of the other two.

"Castelgrande".

The site of the "Castelgrande" has been fortified since at least the late 1st century BC and until the 13th century it was the only fortification in Bellinzona. During its history the castle has been known as the stronghold (before the 13th century), the Old Castle in the 14–15th centuries, "Uri Castle" after 1506 and Saint Michael's Castle from 1818.  The "Castelgrande" hill includes a nearly vertical side on the north and a steep southern side, but is nearly flat and in diameter. The natural shape of the hill has encouraged every man-made fortification to follow the same contours. While the Roman fort is not visible the Roman foundations were used by the High Middle Ages castle which followed. Of the High Middle Ages castle the only visible parts are a few pieces of wall that are still standing. Much of the visible castle dates from 1250–1500 with extensive renovations and some expansion in the last two centuries. Most of the area inside the castle walls is now flat, open space.  Records from the 11th to 15th centuries as well as archeological evidence indicate that the castle grounds were once full of buildings. However most of these were pulled down by the Dukes of Milan to free up interior space. The open space was divided into 3 large baileys which served to provide temporary housing for troops that could be stationed in Bellinzona. Under the Dukes of Milan the outer fortifications were extended and strengthened. The walls were raised, extended and towers were added. The western walls were totally rebuilt and connected to the town walls.  The castle can be reached by taking an elevator from the foot of the rock to the castle grounds or by climbing steep, narrow streets from the town center through the town wall onto the castle grounds.

Montebello.

Montebello Castle (known as the Small, New or Middle Castle in the 15th century, as Schwyz Castle from 1506 and St. Martin's Castle after 1818) is located to the east of the town center. It was built before 1313 for the pro-Imperial Rusca family, who occupied the castle following the Visconti victory and occupation of the "Castelgrande". By the end of the 14th century it was in the hands of the Visconti. The castle was renovated and expanded between 1462 and 1490 to its current state. In the 19th century the castle fell into disrepair and was renovated starting in 1903.  A little chapel, dedicated to Saint Michael, leans against the wall of the more recent south-facing section; built around 1600, it is one of the few buildings erected in the castles of Bellinzona under the rule of the three Swiss cantons.  Montebello Castle houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum. The museum was opened in 1974 and is located in the tower and the former residential quarters of Montebello Castle. It is divided into two sections-history and archaeology. In the history section there are several capitals from the 15th century and a rare 13th-century Baptismal font as well as drawings and sketchs from several artists. This section also houses a collection of ceremonial and military arms. The archaeology section includes many items from 1400–1500 BC as well as ceramics, glassware, funeral urns, ornamental objects and jewellery in iron and bronze from around the canton. The museum is open from March to November.

Sasso Corbaro.

Sasso Corbaro, known as Unterwalden Castle after 1506 and Saint Barbara's Castle after 1818, is about south-west of town on a rocky hill. Unlike the other two castles Sasso Corbaro is not integrated into the town walls. The first part of the castle was the north-eastern tower which was built in 1478 to close a gap in the defenses of the town. The walls and south-west tower were added later. The castle was struck by lightning multiple times during the 16th and 17th centuries, and by 1900 was falling into ruins.  Today, Sasso Corbaro Castle houses the "Sala Emma Poglia" which is the "wooden room" built for the Emma family during the 17th century. Originally located in the entrance hall of their home in Olivone in the Blenio Valley, the room was purchased by the canton of Ticino in 1944 and housed first in the "Castelgrande" before being moved to the Sasso Corbaro in 1989. The room is panelled entirely in walnut and also includes the "stüva", stove which provided heating. The stove bears the crest of the Emma family (an eagle and a lion rampant). The museum also houses temporary exhibits. It is open from March until November.

Bellinzona (,, ; ; ; ) is a municipality, a historic Swiss town, and the capital of the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. The town is famous for its three castles (Castelgrande, Montebello, Sasso Corbaro) that have been UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 2000.

Bellinzona (: "Bellinzone", v archaické němčině: "Bellenz", : "Bilitio") je hlavní město švýcarského kantonu Ticino. Leží východně od řeky Ticino, v blízkosti Alp. Má obyvatel, není tedy největším městem kantonu - tím je Lugano. Je 45. největším švýcarským městem.


Mission highlights.

Launch originally set for 22 May 1991. Mission postponed less than 48 hours before launch when it became known that a leaking liquid hydrogen transducer in orbiter main propulsion system which was removed and replaced during leak testing in 1990, had failed an analysis by vendor. Engineers feared that one or more of the nine liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen transducers protruding into fuel and oxidizer lines could break off and be ingested by the engine turbopumps, causing engine failure.  In addition, one of orbiter five general purpose computers failed completely, along with one of the multiplexer demultiplexers that control orbiter hydraulics ordinance and orbiter maneuvering system / reaction control system functions in the aft compartment.  A new general purpose computer and multiplexer demultiplexer were installed and tested. One liquid hydrogen and two liquid oxygen transducers were replaced upstream in propellant flow system near the 17-inch (43 cm) disconnect area, which is protected by internal screen. Three liquid oxygen transducers replaced at engine manifold area, while three liquid hydrogen transducers here were removed and openings plugged. Launch reset for 8 am EDT, 1 June, but postponed again after several attempts to calibrate inertial measurement unit 2 failed. Unit was replaced and retested, and launch was rescheduled for 5 June. Launched successfully on 5 June 1991, at 9:24:51 am EDT., the mission had a launch Weight:.  It was the fifth dedicated Spacelab mission, Spacelab Life Sciences-1, and first dedicated solely to life sciences, using the habitable module. Mission featured most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973–1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.  Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation (see G-616); Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEX).  Landing was on 14 June 1991, at 8:39:11 am PDT, on Runway 22, at Edwards Air Force Base, California. Rollout distance:. Rollout time: 55 seconds. Orbiter returned to KSC 21 June. Landing Weight:.

Wake-up calls.

NASA began its longstanding tradition of waking up astronauts with music during Apollo 15. Each track is specially chosen, often by the astronauts' families, and usually has a special meaning to an individual member of the crew, or is applicable to their daily activities.

STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle "Columbia", was a nine-day mission in June, 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology. STS-40 was the first spaceflight that included three women crew members.

STS-40 byla jedenáctá mise raketoplánu Columbia. Celkem se jednalo o 41. misi raketoplánu do vesmíru. Cílem letu byl let laboratoře Spacelab SLS-1.


History.

BALÓNY KUBÍČEK was founded in 1991 by Aleš Kubíček, the designer of first modern Czech hot-air balloon, made in 1983 in "Aviatik club" in Brno. Before founding his own company Aleš Kubíček made several balloons under wings of the company Aerotechnik Kunovice. Straight after the Velvet revolution, with plenty of experience of manufacturing balloons, he started his own private company to manufacture lighter-than-air aircraft.

Today.

Kubicek Balloons is a limited company, mostly owned by the founder Aleš Kubíček. Its headquarters is on Francouzská 81 in Brno city centre, where balloons were originally made. But in 2005 their production moved to a completely new factory facility in Jarní 2a in Brno-Maloměřice, currently the most modern balloon factory in the World. The company has 30 employees (in 2008) and produces circa 90 balloons per year, making it the world’s 3rd largest manufacturer of hot air balloons.  As well as producing standard balloon envelopes in 47 types and sizes they also build baskets, burners and a plenty of man carrying specially shaped balloons for advertising purposes e.g. 38 metre tall flying bear, sea container DHL, St. Gallen cathedral and the green heart of Styria.  Kubicek Balloons holds quality certificates for design, production and maintenance meeting European standards of EASA and was it amongst the first hot-air balloon manufacturers to hold a European type certificate for hot-air balloons.  Kubicek balloons is the only European producer who uses the unique high-tenacity polyester balloon fabric for envelopes, and it is all manufactured ‘in house’ by its sister-company Textil Kubíček in Černá Hora near Brno.  <nowiki>*</nowiki> forecast

Fixed-wing aircraft.

The company also produces the Kubicek M-2 Scout ultralight and light-sport aircraft, under the name "Kubicek Aircraft".

Kubicek Balloons (in Czech "Balóny Kubíček" (pronounced "Koo-bee-check"), the complete official name "BALÓNY KUBÍČEK spol. s r.o.") is a Czech manufacturer of hot-air balloons and airships, the sole such manufacturer in Central and Eastern Europe and one of the largest in the world. From its factory in Brno the company ships its products worldwide.

BALÓNY KUBÍČEK spol. s r.o. (v zahraničí používáno též "Kubicek Balloons") je český výrobce horkovzdušných balónů a vzducholodí, který je třetím největším výrobcem na světě. Továrna sídlí v Brně, ale svou produkci exportuje do zemí všech kontinentů.


Personal.

Camarda is a native of Ozone Park, Queens, New York and graduated from academic and athletic powerhouse Archbishop Molloy High School in 1970. Speaking of his early interest in space flight, Camarda said, "It was a time when spaceflight was so intriguing. It was natural for me to want to be an astronaut, to dream of being an astronaut." He has one daughter, Chelsea Camarda Morton, one grandson, Vincent Cash Morton, and one granddaughter, Kennedy Grace Morton.

Education.

Camarda graduated from Nativity B.V.M. and went to Archbishop Molloy High School. He graduated with a bachelor's degree in aerospace engineering from Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn in 1974, a master's degree in engineering science from George Washington University in 1980, and a doctorate in aerospace engineering from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in 1990.

Career.

After receiving his bachelor's degree, Camarda began work as a research scientist at the NASA's Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. In the Thermal Structures Branch, he was responsible for demonstrating the viability of a heat-pipe cooled leading edge for the Space Shuttle. Camarda then headed up the High-Speed Research and Reusable Launch Vehicle programs and oversaw several test facilities such as the Thermal Structure Laboratory, where he worked on numerous Shuttle component developments.  Camarda holds seven patents on various innovations, including NASA's Heat-Pipe-Cooled Sandwich Panel, named one of the top 100 technical innovations of 1983 by Industrial Research Magazine. After more than 20 years of experience in diverse Shuttle technology applications, he made a career change that put him closer to his work while achieving his dream. Camarda was named a mission specialist in 1996. He also served as a faculty at NYU Poly.

NASA career.

Camarda served as a back-up crew member for Expedition 8 of the International Space Station. His first space flight was STS-114, NASA's "return to flight" mission following the loss of Space Shuttle "Columbia".  Camarda continues to work for NASA and has pioneered an engineering pedagogical approach called EPIC - that explores how to develop a mission as a collaborative training project. He has toured with this including in Finland in 2018.

Charles Joseph "Charlie" Camarda (born May 8, 1952 in Queens, New York) is an American engineer and a NASA astronaut who flew his first mission into space on board the Space Shuttle mission STS-114. He served as Senior Advisor for Engineering Development at NASA Langley Research Center.

Charles Joseph Camarda (* 8. května 1952 Queens, stát New York, Spojené státy americké) je americký astronaut, který absolvoval v roce 2005 jeden let v raketoplánu Discovery.


Differential diagnosis.

Urinary causes occur anywhere between the kidney glomerulus and the urethral meatus. These can be divided into glomerular and non-glomerular causes. Non-glomerular causes can be further subdivided into upper urinary tract and lower urinary tract causes. In general, nephrologists are the experts of glomerular hematuria while urologists manage non-glomerular hematuria. The differential diagnosis can be furthered refined by the temporality of hematuria and associated symptoms. Microscopic hematuria has a prevalence of 2% to 31%, depending upon age, sex, and other factors.

Glomerular hematuria.

A glomerular etiology is suggested by dysmorphic red blood cells, protein, and cellular casts in the urine. This requires the consultation of a nephrologist. Common causes include:  Idiopathic hematuria is hematuria with an unknown cause. It is considered a glomerular syndrome.

Microscopic hematuria.

Microscopic hematuria requires medical testing for detection. It is not visible to the naked eye. Rather it requires microscopic examination for detection. It is defined as three or more red blood cells per high-powered field. Another method for detection of microscopic hematuria is the dipstick method. This test works by detecting hemoglobin in a urine sample. False positives can occur with dipstick testing if free hemoglobin or myoglobin are present. "Red urine" can result from the drug phenazopyridine.

Hemoglobinuria.

Hemoglobin in the absence of red blood cells can also turn urine red. The inciting event for hemoglobin in the urine is hemolysis in the bloodstream. Hemolysis is a process where red blood cells lyse or burst. This releases hemoglobin into the bloodstream. Hemoglobin then leaves the bloodstream and enters urinary tract at Bowman's capsule.

Children.

Common causes of hematuria in children are:

Diagnosis.

After conducting a thorough history and physical examination, further medical testing is warranted. Patients can be stratified into high and low risk. High-risk patients include those with visible hematuria or those with non-visible hematuria and risk factors. A complete evaluation of the urinary tract is indicated for hematuria. This includes imaging of the upper urinary tract and cystoscopy of the lower urinary tract.

Associated symptoms.

The differential diagnosis can be furthered refined by the temporality of hematuria and associated symptoms. During urination, blood can appear in the urine at the onset, midstream, or later. It can also have associated symptoms. These include nausea, fever, chills, abdominal pain, flank pain, groin pain, urinary frequency, urinary urgency, and pain or discomfort with urination.  When hematuria becomes visible during urination can suggest where in the urinary tract the bleeding originates. If it appears soon after the onset of urination, a distal site is suggested. A longer delay suggests a more proximal lesion. In other words, shorter times suggest distal sites while longer times suggest proximal sites. Hematuria that occurs throughout urination suggests that bleeding is occurring above the level of the bladder.  The presence of hematuria without accompanying symptoms should be considered a tumor of the urinary tract until proven otherwise. Other possible causes include acute glomerulonephritis, staghorn calculus, polycystic kidneys, benign prostatic hyperplasia, solitary renal cyst, sickle cell disease, and hydronephrosis. It can also develop after vigorous exercise.  Costovertebral angle tenderness suggests upper urinary tract obstruction. A urinary stone is suggested by the presence of renal colic. The presence of a fever suggests pyelonephritis.

Upper urinary tract imaging.

The preferred modality is a multi-phasic computed topography (CT) urography. This is a three-phase study that includes a non-contrast phase, an arterial phase, and an excretory phase. The study should sufficiently evaluate the kidney and the urothelium lining the upper urinary tracts. If there are contraindications to this study then alternative studies can be used. One alternative is a magnetic resonance (MR) urography with and without intravenous contrast. Another alternative is a retrograde pyelogram paired with either magnetic resonance imaging of the upper urinary tracts (MRI) or a renal ultrasound (US). This imaging assessment is capable of excluding upper tract malignancies.

Younger people.

For patients younger than 35 years old presenting with asymptomatic microscopic hematuria, a cystoscopy may be warranted if risk factors are present.

Initial negative evaluation.

Evaluations of hematuria that do not reveal pathology require follow up. A urinary cytology may be helpful. A urinalysis should be repeated once a year. Follow up can be discontinued after two consecutive negative urinalyses. Repeat hematuria on follow-up studies warrants repeat upper urinary tract imaging and a cystoscopy. This should be performed within three to five years of the first evaluation.

Management.

Acute clot retention.

Acute clot retention is one of three emergencies that can occur with hematuria. The other two are anemia and shock. Blood clots can prevent urine outflow through either ureter or the bladder. This is known as acute urinary retention.  Blood clots that remain in the bladder are digested by urinary urokinase producing fibrin fragments. These fibrin fragments are natural anticoagulants and promote ongoing bleeding from the urinary tract. Removing all blood clots prevents the formation of this natural anticoagulant. This in turns facilitates the cessation of bleeding from the urinary tract.  The acute management of obstructing clots is the placement of a large (22-24 French) urethral Foley catheter. Clots are evacuated with a Toomey syringe and saline irrigation. If this does not control the bleeding, management should escalate to continuous bladder irrigation (CBI) via a three-port urethral catheter. If both a large urethral Foley catheter and CBI fail, an urgent cystoscopy in the operating room will be necessary. Lastly, a transfusion and/or a correction of a coexisting coagulopathy may be necessary.

Epidemiology.

In the United States of America, microscopic hematuria has a prevalence of somewhere between 2% and 31%. Higher rates exist in individuals older than 60 years of age and those with a current or past history of smoking. Only a fraction of individuals with microhematuria are diagnosed with a urologic cancer. When asymptomatic populations are screened with dipstick and/or microscopy medical testing about 2% to 3% of those with hematuria have a urologic malignancy. Routine screening is not recommended. Individuals with risk factors who undergo repeated testing have higher rates of urologic malignancies. These risks factors include age (>35 years), male gender, previous or current smoking, chemical exposure (e.g., benzenes or aromatic amines), and prior pelvic radiation therapy.

Children.

In pediatric populations, the prevalence is 0.5–2%. Risks factor include older age and female gender. About 5% of individuals with microscopic hematuria receive a cancer diagnosis. 40% of individuals with macroscopic hematuria (blood easily visible in the urine) receive a cancer diagnosis.

Trauma.

For more information, please see the section on genitourinary tract injury.

Hematuria is defined as the presence of blood or red blood cells in the urine. An anatomical framework is helpful in developing a comprehensive differential diagnosis. Blood or red blood cells can enter and mix with urine at multiple anatomical sites. These include the urinary system, female reproductive system, and integumentary system.

Hematurie znamená v medicíně přítomnost krve v moči. Jedná se o příznak, který může mít mnoho příčin. Nejčastěji se objevují červené krvinky (erytrocyty) v moči, což může být známka nádoru, případně úrazu ledvin, močovodu, močové trubice, močového měchýře nebo prostaty. Obsahuje-li moč spolu s červenými krvinkami i bílé krvinky, může tento příznak signalizovat např. infekci močových cest.


Mission highlights.

STS-58 was a 1993 shuttle mission dedicated to life sciences research. "Columbias crew performed a series of experiments to gain knowledge on how the human body adapts to the weightless environment of space. Experiments focused on cardiovascular, regulatory, neurovestibular and musculoskeletal systems of the body. The experiments performed on "Columbias crew and on laboratory animals (48 rats held in 24 cages), along with data collected on the SLS-1 mission in June 1991, will provide the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements acquired in the space environment since the Skylab program in 1973 and 1974.  Crew members conducted experiments aimed at understanding bone tissue loss and the effects of microgravity on sensory perception. Two neurovestibular experiments investigating space motion sickness and perception changes were performed on the 2nd day as well. Astronauts Lucid and Fettman wore a headset, called an Accelerometer recording Unit, designed to continually record head movements throughout the day.  Only one minor issue came up on Tuesday, 19 October 1993 associated with a circuit breaker that tripped, cutting off power temporarily to one of the rodent cages in the module. Flight controllers in Houston reported it was not caused by a short in the electrical system and the breaker was reset, restoring power to the cage.  McArthur and Blaha began using the Lower Body Negative Pressure device on flight day 3, which is being tested as a countermeasure for the detrimental effects of microgravity. All three flight crew members will collect urine and saliva samples and keep logs of their exercise and food and fluid intake as part of the Energy Utilization detailed supplementary objective. DSO 612 looks at the nutritial and energy requirements of crew members on long-duration space flights and the relationship between fluid and food consumption.  On Wednesday, 20 October, though the space toilet is working fine, the crew detected a slight leak around the filter door before going to bed. They removed the filter and cleaned up about a teaspoon of water—much less than had been expected. As a precaution, a secondary fan separator unit was used to separate fluid from the air before cycling the air back into the cabin through the filter.  On Thursday, 21 October, Payload Commander Rhea Seddon, Mission Specialists Shannon Lucid and David Wolf and Payload Specialist Martin Fettman collected additional blood and urine samples for the series of metabolic experiments. Some of the samples will follow-up on the calcium absorption experiment performed yesterday. The experiment, sponsored by Dr. C.D. Arnaud of the University of California at San Francisco, studies the mechanisms of how calcium is maintained and used in bone metabolism in space. Based on preliminary results from the 1991 SLS-1 mission, Dr. Arnaud believes the decrease in bone density is due to increased bone breakdown that is not compensated for by a subsequent increase in bone formation.  On Friday, 22 October 1993, using the on-board ham radio called SAREX for Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment, Blaha and Searfoss contacted school children at the Sycamore Middle School in Pleasant View, Tennessee, Gardendale Elementary in Pasadena, Texas and Naparima College in the Caribbean nation known as Trinidad and Tobago on Thursday, 4 November 1993. The Standard Interface Rack, or SIR, was tested today by Searfoss to demonstrate that equipment can be removed from one rack location and reintegrated into another by a single crew member during orbital operations while maintaining reliable mechanical, data and power interfaces.  Another test flying aboard "Columbia" was the "Portable In-flight Landing Operations Trainer" (PILOT), a laptop computer simulator that was flown to qualify its use as a tool for helping the mission commander and pilot maintain their proficiency for approach and landing during longer duration Space Shuttle flights. The laptop was controlled using a joy stick hand controller similar to the one used to fly the orbiter in the final minutes before landing. The simulator would continue to see use up to and including the final Shuttle flight.  On Saturday, the payload crew members were scheduled to devote much of their time to metabolic studies of the 48 rodents on board the Spacelab science workshop. Payload commander Rhea Seddon, and crewmates David Wolf, Shannon Lucid and veterinarian Marty Fettman were scheduled to draw blood from the tails of some of the rodents, then inject a special isotope into the rodents to measure the volume of their plasma. Another blood draw would follow, to measure how weightlessness may be affecting the red blood cell count of the animals.  After several ham radio contacts around the country and work in a vacuum bag designed to ease the body's readaptation to Earth's environment, the orbiter crew made up of Commander John Blaha, Pilot Richard Searfoss and Mission Specialist William McArthur oversaw a short firing of one of the orbital maneuvering system engines to drop the low end of "Columbia"'s orbit from 150 to 142 nautical miles (278 to ) to increase the landing opportunities should the mission be extended for weather or a system problem that would keep the crew in orbit two extra days.  On Wednesday, 27 October 1993, Pilot Rick Searfoss put "Columbia" through some maneuvers as part of the Orbital Acceleration Research Experiment. The main goal of the experiment was to accurately measure the aerodynamic forces that act on the shuttle in orbit and during the early stages of entry. The information will be useful to scientists and engineers planning future Spacelab microgravity research flights in which experiments will need a quiet, motion- free environment to produce the best possible data.  On Thursday, 28 October 1993, after enjoying a half a day off, the astronauts aboard "Columbia" continued to collect scientific data on how humans and animals adapt to the absence of Earth's gravity.  Payload Commander Rhea Seddon sent down a special message to her husband, Astronaut Office Chief Robert L. Gibson when she surpassed his total of 632 hours, 56 minutes in space. "He's still a really good guy, I still love him a lot, but I've got more hours in space than he does, so there!" she teased. Seddon acknowledged, however, that he has more launches and landings, having flown four times to her three.  Pilot Rick Searfoss took time out from snapping some infrared photography of the wildfires burning in southern California to say that the crew's thoughts are with the firefighters working to quell the flames and the residents whose homes are being threatened. He said he hoped the fires would be brought under control soon, and added that the photographs he was taking will be among some 4,000 frames that will be returned to Earth for meteorologists, geologists, ecologists and archeologists to study after the flight.

STS-58 was a mission flown by Space Shuttle "Columbia" launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1993. The missions was primarily devoted to experiments concerning the physiological effects of spaceflight. This was the first in-flight use of the "Portable In-flight Landing Operations Trainer" simulation software. It was also the last time "Columbia" would land at Edwards Air Force Base.

STS-58 byla patnáctá mise raketoplánu Columbia. Celkem se jednalo o 57. misi raketoplánu do vesmíru. Cílem letu byl let laboratoře Spacelab SLS-2.


Early life.

Hoskins was born in Bury St Edmunds, West Suffolk, on 26 October 1942 to Robert Hoskins, a bookkeeper and lorry driver, and Elsie (née Hopkins) Hoskins, a cook and nursery school teacher. His grandmother was Romani. From two weeks old he was brought up in Finsbury Park, London. He attended Stroud Green Secondary School where he was written off as stupid on account of his dyslexia. He left school at 15 with a single O-Level and worked as a porter, lorry driver, plumber and window cleaner. He started but did not complete a 3-year accountancy course. He spent half a year in Israel on a kibbutz, and two years in Syria tending the camels of a Bedouin tribe.

Career.

Hoskins' acting career began in 1968 at the Victoria Theatre in Stoke-on-Trent, in a production of "Romeo and Juliet" in which he played a servant named Peter. A year later, while waiting in the bar at Unity Theatre, London, for his friend the actor Robert Frost, Hoskins found himself being auditioned for a play after being handed a script and told "you're next." His audition was successful and Frost became his understudy. Frost considered Hoskins "a natural", recalling that "he just got up on stage and was brilliant."  His first major television role was in "On the Move" (1975–1976), an educational drama series directed by Barbara Derkow intended to tackle adult illiteracy. He portrayed the character Alf Hunt, a removal man who had problems reading and writing. According to producer George Auckland, up to 17 million people watched the series. His breakthrough in television came later in the original BBC version of Dennis Potter's innovative 6-part fantasy-drama "Pennies from Heaven" (1978), in which he portrayed adulterous sheet music salesman Arthur Parker. He went on to play Iago in Jonathan Miller's BBC Television Shakespeare production of "Othello" (1981). In 1983 Hoskins voiced an advert for Weetabix and during the late 1980s and early 1990s, he appeared in advertising for British Gas and British Telecom (now BT Group). Other television work included "Flickers", portraying Wilkins Micawber in "David Copperfield" (1999), and "The Wind in the Willows" (2006).  British films such as "The Long Good Friday" (1980) and "Mona Lisa" (1986) won him the wider approval of critics, the latter film winning him a Cannes Award, Best Actor Golden Globe, BAFTA Awards, and an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor.  Other works in film included delivering comic turns in Terry Gilliam's "Brazil" (1985); portraying Smee in "Hook" (1991) and in "Neverland" (2011); starring opposite Cher in "Mermaids" (1990); portraying Nikita Khrushchev as a political commissar in "Enemy at the Gates" (2001); and playing Uncle Bart, the violent psychopathic "owner" of Jet Li in "Unleashed" (2005; aka "Danny The Dog"). He had a small role as the protagonist's rock and roll manager in "The Wall" (1979), and in 1997 had a cameo as Ginger Spice’s disguise in the Spice Girls film "Spice World". He directed two films that he also starred in: "The Raggedy Rawney" (1988) and "Rainbow" (1996), and produced "Mrs Henderson Presents" alongside Norma Heyman, for which he was nominated Golden Globe Best Supporting Actor for his performance in the film. A high point in his career was portraying private investigator Edward "Eddie" Valiant in the live-action/animated family blockbuster "Who Framed Roger Rabbit" (1988). Hoskins was not the first choice for the role; Harrison Ford, Bill Murray, and Eddie Murphy were all considered for the part. Film critics, among them Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert, agreed that Hoskins was perfect for the role. As his character interacts and makes physical contact with animated characters in the film, Hoskins was required to take mime training courses in preparation. He suffered hallucinations for months after production on the film had ended. He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award and won a British Evening Standard Award for his performance.  Hoskins was slated to be the last-minute replacement in case Robert De Niro refused the role of Al Capone in "The Untouchables" (1987). When De Niro accepted the part, the director Brian De Palma mailed Hoskins a cheque for £20,000 with a ""Thank You"" note. Hoskins was moved to call the director and ask if there were any more films he wasn't needed for.  He told "The Guardian" in 2007 that he regretted starring as Mario in "Super Mario Bros." (1993), saying that he was extremely unhappy with the film, greatly angered by his experiences making it, and referring to it as the "worst thing I ever did". He was injured several times on set, spent most of the time with co-star John Leguizamo getting drunk to escape boredom, and had no idea the film was based upon a video game until told so by his son.  In 2007 Hoskins appeared in the music video for Jamie T's single "Sheila". In 2009 he returned to television for Jimmy McGovern's drama serial "The Street", playing a publican who opposes a local gangster. For this role he received his only Emmy: Best Actor at the 2010 International Emmys. The 2011 film "In Search of La Che" features a character, "Wermit", whose every line of dialogue is a quote of Bob Hoskins.  On 8 August 2012 Hoskins announced his retirement from acting having been diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2011.

Personal life.

In 1967, aged 25, Hoskins spent a short time volunteering in kibbutz Zikim in Israel, and also herded camels in Syria. When asked in an interview which living person he most despised, Hoskins named Tony Blair and said that "he's done even more damage than Thatcher". He hated Blair to the point that he decided in 2010, for the first time in his life, not to vote for Labour, by then led by Gordon Brown. He made light of his similarities with film actor Danny DeVito, who, he joked, would play him in a film about his life.  With his first wife Jane Livesey, Hoskins had two children - Alex (born 1968) and Sarah (born 1972). With his second wife Linda Banwell, he had two more children - Rosa (born c. 1983) and Jack (born c. 1986). Hoskins divided his time between Hampstead, London and Chiddingly, East Sussex.

Illness and death.

In August 2012, Hoskins retired from acting after being diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2011.  On 29 April 2014, he died of pneumonia at a hospital in London, England at age 71. He is survived by his second wife Linda Banwell and his four children.  Among the actors who paid tribute at his funeral were Stephen Fry, Samuel L. Jackson, and Helen Mirren, who said that "London will miss one of her best and most loving sons".

Robert William Hoskins (26 October 1942 – 29 April 2014) was an English actor. His work included lead roles in "Pennies from Heaven" (1978), "The Long Good Friday" (1980), "Mona Lisa" (1986), "Who Framed Roger Rabbit" (1988), "Mermaids" (1990), and "Super Mario Bros." (1993), and supporting performances in "Brazil" (1985), "Hook" (1991), "Nixon" (1995), "Enemy at the Gates" (2001), "Mrs. Henderson Presents" (2005), "A Christmas Carol" (2009), "Made in Dagenham" (2010), and "Snow White and the Huntsman" (2012). He also directed two feature films: "The Raggedy Rawney" (1988) and "Rainbow" (1996).

Robert William "Bob" Hoskins, Jr. (26. října 1942 Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, Anglie – 29. dubna 2014 Londýn) byl anglický herec.


Plot.

El Mariachi is recruited by CIA officer Sheldon Jeffrey Sands to kill General Emiliano Marquez, a corrupt Mexican Army officer who has been hired by Mexican drug lord Armando Barillo to assassinate the President of Mexico and overthrow the government during a period of unrest in Culiacán (the capital of Sinaloa) which is testing the presidency. Many years before, El Mariachi and his wife Carolina confronted Marquez in a shootout and wounded the general; in retaliation, Marquez took the lives of Carolina and their daughter in an ambush. In addition to El Mariachi, Sands persuades former FBI agent Jorge Ramírez to come out of retirement and kill Barillo, who had murdered his partner Archuleta in the past. Furthermore, AFN operative Ajedrez is assigned by Sands to tail Barillo.  While monitoring Barillo's activities, Ramírez meets Billy Chambers, an American fugitive who has been living under the protection of Barillo, but can no longer stomach the horrible tasks he's been forced to carry out for him. Ramírez convinces Chambers he will provide him protection in exchange for getting closer to Barillo by tagging Chambers' pet chihuahua with a hidden microphone, and Chambers agrees to complete the deal by surrendering to U.S. authorities once Barillo has been taken down. Sands' agent, Cucuy, originally hired to keep an eye on El Mariachi, instead turns and tranquilizes El Mariachi and turns him over to Barillo, also offering to reveal the details of Sands's plan. Cucuy, however, is promptly killed by Chambers while El Mariachi escapes from captivity and calls his friends Lorenzo and Fideo to assist him in his mission.  While monitoring Barillo's activity outside a hospital, Ramírez notices armed men storming the building and follows suit. He discovers that a group of doctors have been gunned down and Barillo has bled to death as a result of a botched facial reconstruction, but realizes that the corpse on the operating table is a body double before he is knocked out and kidnapped by the real Barillo and Ajedrez, who reveals herself to be Barillo's daughter. Sands realizes that his mission has been compromised, but is too late, as he is captured by Barillo and Ajedrez — who drill out his eyes before sending him out. Despite his blindness, he manages to gun down a hitman tailing him with the aid of a chiclet boy.  As Culiacán celebrates the Day of the Dead during the President's visit, Marquez and his army storm in and attack the presidential palace. Marquez's troops, however, are met with resistance from not only the President's bodyguards, but also the citizens of Culiacán and the Mariachis. Sands had instructed El Mariachi to allow the President to be killed before attacking Marquez, but the Mariachis, concluding that the President is a good man, intervene early and protect him. Marquez enters the presidential palace, only to once again confront El Mariachi, who shoots out his kneecaps before finishing him off with a headshot. Ramírez, who was released from captivity by Chambers, faces Barillo. After Barillo guns down Chambers, Ramírez and El Mariachi kill the drug lord. Sands manages to shoot the sadistic Ajedrez dead outside the presidential palace. Ultimately, Lorenzo and Fideo walk away with the cash that Barillo was using to pay Marquez, and help the president safely escape the attempted coup. Ramírez says goodbye to Sands and walks away, having avenged his partner's death. El Mariachi then gives his share of the cash to his home village before walking into the sunset.

Cast.

In a 2003 issue of "Rolling Stone", Depp was named as one of its "People of the Year", and gave an interview in which he briefly discussed his role as Sands:  The idea behind him is there was this guy I used to know in Hollywood, in the business, who on the outside was very charming – soft-spoken and almost hypnotic in the rhythm he used to speak. He refused to call me Johnny – always called me John. You knew this guy was aiming to fuck you over, but somehow you stuck around because he was just so fascinating to watch.  Depp also said in an "Entertainment Weekly" article that he "imagine[d] this guy wore really cheesy tourist shirts", that he had a "sideline obsession with Broadway", and that he favored strange, obvious disguises; all three qualities can be observed in the film. It was also revealed in the director's commentary on the DVD that Depp himself came up with the character's first and middle names.

Production.

Made on a US$29 million budget, the film was shot in May 2001 before "" (2002) and "" (2003) in order to avoid a potential Screen Actors Guild strike. Shooting took place over seven weeks in Querétaro, San Miguel de Allende and Guanajuato, Mexico. It was the first big budget film to be shot in high definition digital video. Rodriguez chose to shoot on digital after George Lucas, who was shooting "", showed him early footage shot digitally. Impressed, Rodriguez chose to shoot digitally, but he knew he did not have enough time to shoot "Spy Kids 2". Instead, he pitched a sequel to "Desperado" to Miramax and wrote a script in six days. The initial draft was 65 pages long, which he padded with a subplot borrowed from an unproduced short film. When Miramax expressed hesitation over the added subplot, he readily removed it. His primary influence was Sergio Leone's "Dollars Trilogy", specifically "The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly". Rodriguez said shooting digitally saved time and money, simplified the filming process, and rendered 35mm film obsolete for him.

Soundtrack.

The film's score includes songs composed by director Robert Rodriguez and performed by a group of musicians gathered specifically for the soundtrack recording. Tracks performed by the group includes "Malagueña" with guitar by Brian Setzer and "Siente Mi Amor", with singing by Salma Hayek. Track 9, "Sands' Theme", credited to "Tonto's Giant Nuts", was written by Johnny Depp. Additional music includes Juno Reactor's "Pistolero", "Me Gustas Tú" by Manu Chao, and "Cuka Rocka" by Rodriguez' own rock band, Chingon. On the DVD director commentary, Robert Rodriguez states that he requested that each of the main actors give him four or eight notes of a melody for their character, but Depp presented him with the entire track.

Television adaptation.

Sony's AXN channel confirmed that it will be airing a TV series adaptation of "El Mariachi" franchise. The series was to have premiered on March 20, 2014.

Release.

"Once Upon a Time in Mexico" was released on September 12, 2003 in 3,282 theaters with an opening weekend gross of US$23.4 million. It went on to make $56.4 million in North America and $41.8 in the rest of the world for a combined total of $98.2 million on a $29 million budget.

Reception.

On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 67% based on reviews from 168 critics, with an average rating of 6.27/10. The site's consensus reads: "Violent, pulpy, loopy fun, with Depp stealing the show." On Metacritic it has a score of 56 out of 100 based on 34 reviews. Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B- on scale of A to F.  "Chicago Sun-Times" film critic Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars and wrote, "Like Leone's movie, the Rodriguez epic is more interested in the moment, in great shots, in surprises and ironic reversals and closeups of sweaty faces, than in a coherent story." A. O. Scott wrote in his review for "The New York Times", "But in the end, the punched-up editing and vibrant color schemes start to grow tiresome, and Mr. Rodriguez, bored with his own gimmickry and completely out of ideas, responds by pushing the violence to needlessly grotesque extremes."  In her review for "USA Today", Claudia Puig wrote, "In "Mexico", Rodriguez has fashioned a swaggering fantasy that pays homage to spaghetti Westerns such as Sergio Leone's "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly". Plenty of blood is shed, lots of powerful artillery is fired, and action sequences provide astounding car crashes and fiery explosions." "Entertainment Weekly" gave the film a "B" rating and praised Depp's performance with its "winking grace notes of Brandoesque flakery... is as minimal and laid-back as his "Pirates of the Caribbean" turn was deep-dish theatrical".

Once Upon a Time in Mexico (also known as Desperado 2) is a 2003 American contemporary western action film written, directed, produced, photographed, scored, and edited by Robert Rodriguez. It is the third and final film in Rodriguez's "Mexico Trilogy", and it is a sequel to 1992's "El Mariachi" and 1995's "Desperado". The film features Antonio Banderas in his second and final performance as El Mariachi. In the film, El Mariachi is recruited by CIA agent Sheldon Sands (Johnny Depp) to kill a corrupt general responsible for the death of his wife, Carolina (Salma Hayek).

Tenkrát v Mexiku (ang. Once Upon a Time in Mexico) je americko-mexický film režiséra Roberta Rodrigueze z roku 2003. Jde o závěrečný díl trilogie o El Mariachim. Prvními dvěma díly jsou "Desperado" a "El Mariachi".


Overview.

Magnatune makes non-exclusive agreements with artists and gives them fifty percent of any proceeds from online sales or licensing. These kinds of policies were very unusual for a record label in 2003–2004. Users can stream or download music in MP3 format (no DRM) without charge before choosing whether to buy or not. (Some MP3s available for free download have Magnatune advertisements in them.) Buyers used to be able to purchase individual albums and choose their own price, from US$5 to $18 per album, but in March 2010 Magnatune moved to a subscriptions-only business model, where buyers have to purchase a monthly subscription (with a three-month minimum) under which they can download as much music as they like from Magnatune. Customers may download music they have purchased in WAV, FLAC, MP3, Ogg Vorbis and AAC encoding formats. Music files sold by Magnatune do not use any form of digital rights management to prevent customers from making copies of music files they have purchased; Magnatune actually encourage buyers to share up to three copies with friends.  All of the tracks downloaded free of charge are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike License. Even though using liberal licensing is not a new idea in itself, Magnatune is one of the first and most visible companies to try to build a business in music around this idea.

Founder.

John Buckman is founder of Magnatune. In 1994, Buckman and his ex-wife Jan Hanford founded Lyris Technologies. Buckman was CEO and primary programmer of Lyris' product line: Lyris ListServer, MailShield, and MailEngine. He sold the company in June 2005. In August 2006, he launched the for-profit corporation BookMooch, an online community for the exchange of used books, which—in combination with his work with Magnatune—has associated Buckman with the Free Culture movement. In September 2007, he was elected to the Board of Directors of the Electronic Frontier Foundation and in February 2010 was appointed chairman of the board. In April 2015 Buckman launched Decent Espresso, a company that is designing a new home espresso machine.  Buckman is the co-author of an article in SysAdmin Magazine (later acquired by Dr. Dobbs) entitled "Which OS is Fastest for High-Performance Network Applications?" and the author of an article in Linux Journal entitled "Magnatune, an Open Music Experiment."

Integration with media players.

Magnatune has an XML API that has made integration within media players possible. Amarok (from version 1.4.4, released in October 2006) allows users to preview and buy music from all signed artists from within the application. Rhythmbox 0.9.7 added this functionality in December 2006. A Slim Devices plugin for Logitech Media Server is available. A plugin for Songbird is also available. Clementine added support for Magnatune in version 0.4.

Magnatune is an American independent record label based in Berkeley, California, founded in spring 2003. It only sold music for download through its website but added a print-CD-on-demand service in late 2004 and in October 2007 began selling complete albums and individual tracks through Amazon.com. In May 2008, Magnatune launched all-you-can-eat membership plans. From March 2010 Magnatune dropped the CD printing service and moved exclusively to all-you-can-eat membership plans. Magnatune was the first record label to license music online and as of May 2015 had sold over 7,000 licenses in its twelve years of existence.

Magnatune je menší nezávislé hudební vydavatelství se sídlem v Berkeley (Kalifornie, USA), založené na jaře roku 2003 Johnem Buckmanem, tehdejším ředitelem společnosti Lyris, zabývající se e-mailovým software. Cílem tohoto vydavatelství je vytvořit férové podmínky jak pro umělce, tak pro samotné posluchače — jeho slogan zní „Nejsme zlí“. Původně prodávalo hudbu pouze ke stažení ze svých webových stránek, avšak ke konci roku 2004 přibyla ještě možnost nechat si poštou poslat na vyžádání potištěné CD. Říjnu roku 2007 začalo také s prodejem celých alb i jednotlivých skladeb v internetovém obchodě Amazon.com. V roce 2008 Magnatune umožnilo předplatitelům platit libovolnou částku za členství a je podle všeho prvním internetovým hudebním obchodem, nabízejícím nelimitované členství bez DRM. Magnatune se také stalo prvním vydavatelstvím, které licencuje hudbu online a k roku 2008 (tedy po pěti letech existence) prodalo již 3000 licencí.


Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg)

Duchess of Württemberg.

Sophie Marie Dorothea Auguste Luise was born in Stettin, Kingdom of Prussia (now Poland), as a Duchess of Württemberg. She was a daughter of Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg and his wife, Princess Friederike of Brandenburg-Schwedt. Named after her mother, Sophie Dorothea, as she was known in her family, was the eldest daughter of eight children: five boys and three girls. In 1769, when she was ten years old, her family took up residence in the ancestral castle at Montbéliard, then an exclave of the Duchy of Württemberg, today part of Franche-Comté. Her younger brother, Alexander of Württemberg, was born there. Montbéliard was the seat of the junior branch of the House of Württemberg, to which she belonged; it was also a cultural center and many intellectual and political figures frequented her parents' palace. The family's summer residence was situated at Étupes.  Duchess Sophie’s education was better than average in the culture-oriented paternal home, and she would love the arts all her life. By the age of sixteen, she spoke German, French, Italian and Latin. When she turned seventeen, Sophia Dorothea was tall, buxom and rosy cheeked with a sunny disposition. She was strong and tender, thoughtful and naive. She was brought up according to French fashion and refinements, as was the custom of that era, but with German bourgeois simplicity. Family virtues were to be valued above all.  In 1773, Sophie Dorothea was among the group of German Princesses considered as possible wives of the heir to the Russian throne, the future Tsar Paul I. However, Sophie of Württemberg was not yet fourteen years old at the time, and Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt, a princess of a more appropriate age, was chosen instead.  Sophie was engaged to Prince Louis of Hesse, the brother of Tsar Paul’s first wife, but when the Russian heir to the throne became a widower in 1776, Frederick II of Prussia proposed Sophie as the ideal candidate to be Paul's second wife. Sophie's former fiancé, the Prince of Hesse-Darmstadt, received a monetary compensation when the engagement was broken. Sophie was sixteen years old and pleased with the prospect of being Empress of Russia. When her mother lamented the unfortunate destiny of some Russian sovereigns, she replied that her only concern was to make her way in her new country quickly and successfully.  The Russian Empress, Catherine II, was delighted with the idea. The Princess of Württemberg shared with her not only a similar education, but also the same original name and place of birth. Frederick II arranged the marriage and Sophie was summoned to Berlin, where Paul joined her. They met for the first time at a state dinner given in honor of his arrival in Berlin. Sophie was eager to please; and, having learned that Paul's tastes were serious, she spoke with him about geometry during their first interview. The next day, she wrote a glowing letter to a friend in which she declared that she was "madly in love." Paul was as happy with the young princess as she was with him: ""I found my intended to be such as I could have dreamed of,"" Paul wrote to his mother, ""She is tall, shapely, intelligent, quick-witted, and not at all shy."" Sophie’s first impressions were no less enthusiastic: ""I am more than content,"" she wrote. ""Never, dear friend, could I be happier. The Grand Duke could not be more kind. I pride myself on the fact that my dear bridegroom loves me a great deal, and this makes me very, very fortunate."" By early fall, she had fallen deeply in love with her future husband. ""I cannot go to bed, my dear and adored Prince, without telling you once again that I love and adore you madly,"" she wrote to Paul. Soon after arriving at St Petersburg that September, she converted to the Russian Orthodox Church, took the name "Maria Feodorovna," and was granted the title Grand Duchess of Russia, with the style "Imperial Highness". The wedding took place on 26 September 1776.

Grand Duchess of Russia.

Paul was of difficult character but Maria Feodorovna was completely satisfied with her fate. ""My dear husband is a perfect angel and I love him to distraction"" she wrote to a friend. Maria Feodorovna never changed her feelings for Paul, and despite everything that happened later, despite his difficult and often tyrannical character, she truly loved him.  Catherine II, at least at the beginning, was enchanted with her daughter-in-law, about whom she wrote to a friend: "I confess to you that I am infatuated with this charming Princess, but literally infatuated. She is precisely what one would have wished: the figure of a nymph, a lily and rose complexion, the loveliest skin in the world, tall and well built; she is grateful; sweetness, kindnesses and innocence are reflected in her face." However, the relationship between the two women quickly turned sour. Maria naturally sided with her neglected husband in the acrimony between the Empress and her son, and the Grand Duchess's good intention to ease the difficult situation only aggravated the differences between them.  In December 1777, Maria gave birth to the first of her ten children, the future Tsar Alexander I. Just three months later, Catherine took the newborn to raise him without interference from the parents. When a second son was born in April 1779, Catherine did the same thing. This caused bitter animosity with Maria, as she and Paul were only allowed weekly visits. For the next four years, the couple did not have any more children. Deprived of raising her eldest sons, Maria Feodorovna had to occupy herself decorating the Palace of Pavlovsk, Catherine's gift to celebrate the birth of her first grandson. Maria's efforts would produce one of the most beautiful estates in all of Russia.

Personality.

Maria Feodorovna was tall, fair, fresh, extremely shortsighted and inclined to be stout. Her carriage was indisputably regal, and she loved the pomp and ceremony associated with court life. She also had a taste for splendor and a passionate interest in small court intrigues. Particularly tenacious of her rank, she was prepared to spend the whole day from morning until night in full dress without respite or fatigue, implacably imposing the same burden on all her entourage, and was ruled by etiquette in the most intimate details of her domestic life. She loved order and regularity. Unlike the Romanovs, she was frugal, a rare virtue in a princess of that time, but she came from a large family that for a long time was only a minor branch of the house of Württemberg.  Her even temper and her patience were instrumental in knowing how to deal with a difficult husband and make a success of her marriage. Her parsimony was such that as a new Grand Duchess, she did not hesitate to take over the clothes of her husband's first wife and to dispute with the lady's maids the very slippers of the defunct Natalia.  Maria cultivated the arts with great enthusiasm, not disdaining even needlework. She was skilled in watercolor; she also knew engraving, designed cameos, and created objects of ivory and amber, which she often presented as gifts. She was a gifted musician, and was a renowned specialist in horticulture, with a lifelong passion for flowers and plants. At Pavlovsk she gathered a literary circle in imitation of that of Étupes, and she organized theatricals for her husband, who delighted in that amusement. In addition to all this, she found time to devote energies to the great charities and educational institutions. She established the institute for the blind in Saint Petersburg, and supported the career of the blind musician Charlotta Seuerling, whose mother she saved from ruin. Serious and purposeful, she prided herself in being more clever than her mother-in-law, never losing an opportunity of contrasting her own impeccable virtue with her mother-in-law's failings. She was equally watchful to attack Catherine's favorites, Grigori Alexandrovich Potemkin and Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov.  Clever, talented, purposeful and energetic, Maria Feodorovna was a nearly perfect Imperial wife, and Paul for many years was a model husband deeply in love with the woman he married.

European tour.

Paul and Maria asked Catherine for permission to travel abroad to Western Europe. In September 1781, under the pseudonyms of "the Count and Countess Severny," the heir to the Russian throne and his wife set off on a journey that lasted fourteen months and took them to Poland, Austria, Italy, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany. Paris made a special impression on the couple. They visited King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette. Louis got along well with Paul while Marie Antoinette, hearing that the Grand Duchess was an intellectual, felt intimidated and nervous when she met Maria Feodorovna who exhibited confidence and stiffness. The conversation would turn lively later and the Queen gave Maria a toilette set with the Wurttemberg arms printed on it. In Austria, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II compared Maria Feodorovna with her husband, finding her superior.  During their visit to Italy, they proved to be much in love, surprising their travelling companions, when Paul could not stop giving kisses in public to his wife. On their way back to St. Petersburg, Maria went to Württemberg to visit her parents. At the end of 1782, they returned to Russia, and Maria devoted her attention to her Palace at Pavlovsk, where she gave birth to Alexandra Pavlovna, the first of six daughters she would bear during the next twelve years. To celebrate Alexandra's birth, Catherine II gave them the Palace of Gatchina, which would occupy Paul's attention until he was called to the throne. Catherine II let the parents raise their daughters.  Maria Feodorovna had ten children: four sons and six daughters. From then on the Russian Imperial house, which until then consisted of only Paul, would be a large family. The younger children were given up to the parents.

Last year under Catherine II.

During the long years of Catherine's reign, Maria and Paul were forced to live in isolation in Gatchina with a tight income. They remained a devoted couple. Maria moderated the extreme elements in her husband's character, having a beneficial influence over him. She continued to beautify Pavlovsk, and dedicated herself to charitable work among its inhabitants. She was devoted to expanding her modest literary salon and ardently planned infrequent theatrical and musical evenings for her family and friends. She herself was an adept player of the harpsichord and loved to read. She kept voluminous diaries that recorded her life in detail. However, in keeping with her last wishes, Nicholas I burned all these volumes after her death. Even most of the letters she wrote have not survived since she usually requested that they be burnt.  The close relationship between Paul and Catherine Nelidova, one of Maria's ladies-in-waiting, was the cause of the first crack in their marriage. Paul's liaison, a deeply intense but, according to him, only platonic attachment to Nelidova, was particularly painful for Maria, as the other woman had been her friend. Her relations with Nelidova became very bitter for several years. Later, however, she began to accept Paul's word that it was only a friendship, and eventually Maria not only reconciled with the idea, but joined forces with Nelidova in an attempt to moderate Paul's increasingly neurotic temperament.

Empress of Russia.

After twenty years in the shadows, the death of Catherine II in 1796 allowed Maria Feodorovna to have a prominent role as Empress consort. During Catherine's lifetime, Maria had no chance of interfering in affairs of state, as Paul himself was excluded, but after her husband's accession to the throne, she took to politics, at first timidly, but increasingly resolutely afterwards. Her influence over her husband was great, and in general beneficial. Even so, it is possible that she abused it in order to help her friends or hurt her enemies.  Maria had exceptional taste. The palaces of Gatchina, Tsarskoe Selo, the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg and The Hermitage were decorated and furnished under her personal guidance. She loved all the arts and supported them generously. Her most important heritage to Russia, however, was the establishment of the first schools for women, as well as numerous charitable organizations in the empire. These institutions existed until the Russian Revolution of 1917. As Empress, she helped as much as possible her numerous poor relations, some of whom, for example her brother, Alexander of Württemberg (1771–1833), were invited to Russia.  Although Paul and his wife were not as close as they once had been, there remained a good deal of warmth between them. Their relationship suffered further in the last years of Paul's life. After Maria gave birth to her tenth and last child in 1798, Paul became infatuated with nineteen-year-old Anna Lopukhina, and this time Paul assured his wife that his behavior was irreproachable and that the relationship was of a paternal nature.  Paul was Emperor for exactly four years, four months, and four days. He was murdered on 12 March 1801.

Dowager Empress.

On the night of her husband's assassination, Maria Feodorovna thought to imitate the example of Catherine II and tried to claim the throne on the grounds that she had been crowned with Paul. It took Maria's son, Alexander I, several days to persuade her to relinquish her reckless claim, for which she had no party to support her. For some time afterward, whenever her son came to visit, the Dowager Empress would place a casket between them containing the bloodstained nightshirt that Paul was wearing on the day of the murder, as a silent reproach. The strained relationship between mother and son improved though, and thanks to the new Tsar, Maria, only forty-two years old when she became a widow, kept the highest female position at court. In public ceremonies, Maria often took the emperor's arm, while the Empress Elisabeth had to walk behind. This custom of precedence of the Dowager Empress over the wife of the reigning monarch was introduced with her and was unique to the Russian court. It did cause resentment with Maria’s daughter-in-law.  Maria not only had the highest female rank in the empire, but managed all the charitable establishments, controlled the bank for loans and enjoyed a considerable income. This substantial revenue made it possible for her to live in grand style. Her apartments were furnished with richness and great taste. Perpetuating the tradition of Catherine II, she attended parades in military uniform, the cordon of an order across her breast. Her elegant, gay receptions, where she appeared sumptuously dressed, surrounded by ladies-in-waiting and chamberlains, were in sharp contrast with the simple court life of Tsar Alexander I, whose retiring ways and the withdrawn personality of his wife were no match for the Dowager Empress's old splendor in the style of the time of Catherine the Great.  The future of her daughters and the education of her three younger children kept Maria’s attention occupied during the first years of her widowhood. She was a good and loving mother, and despite the fact that Catherine took over her two eldest children in their early years, Maria Feodorovna managed to maintain close relationships with them, as with all her children. They remained genuinely attached to her. Her eldest granddaughters, except by Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna, were all named Maria or Sophie in her honour. Her son let her have total control over the future Nicholas I and his younger brother Grand Duke Michael. Maria Feodorovna tried in vain to surpass the education which Catherine II had provided for her two eldest sons, but did not choose the best teachers for the younger ones. Once all her children were grown up, the dowager tsarina maintained an avid correspondence with them, but being of a cold temperament, could be cool and remote.  In 1807, after meeting a deaf boy, Maria established the first Russian school for the deaf.  The Dowager Empress' exalted position made her Palace at Pavlovsk a mandatory place to visit for the great personages of St. Petersburg, but her attempts at having more political influence over her son's policies were not very successful. She vehemently opposed any approach her son made to get to an agreement with Napoleon Bonaparte. In this, she maintained her haughty and categorical opinion. When the French Emperor offered to marry her youngest daughter, Anna Pavlovna, Maria strongly opposed the proposed marriage. Her court was the center of anti-Napoleon sentiment during the Napoleonic Wars and she was a bitter enemy of Bonaparte.  Even past age 50, she retained traces of her youthful freshness. Of a robust constitution, she outlived five of her ten children, including her eldest son and his wife, Elisabeth Alexeievna, seeing the ascension to the throne of her third son, Nicholas I, and was an influential figure in the early education of her grandson, the future Alexander II. In 1822 she moved in the renovated Yelagin Palace, but she died in Pavlovsk on 5 November 1828, at the age of 69.  After her death, Maria's memory was revered by her children and grandchildren. Later Russian tsarinas looked up to her and used her as a role model. Her Palace of Pavlovsk, in which she lived for so long and left a big imprint, was maintained for her descendants as she left it, almost as a family museum, in accordance with her instructions, first by her younger son Michael and later by the Konstantinovich branch of the family, who inherited and kept it until the Russian revolution.

Children.

Maria Feodorovna married Paul on 7 October 1776. Their marriage resulted in the birth of ten children:

Maria Feodorovna (; née Duchess Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg; 25 October 1759 – 5 November 1828 [OS 24 October]) was Empress consort of Russia as the second wife of Tsar Paul I.

Žofie Dorota Württemberská (25. října 1759, Štětín – 5. listopadu 1828, Pavlovsk) byla württemberská princezna, která se provdala za ruského cara Pavla I. a přijala jméno Marie Fjodorovna.


History.

The party was formed in 1996 by Sharansky, whose personal image as a dedicated and long-suffering idealist was intended to be the catalyst for an immigrant revolution in Israeli politics. "Yisrael BaAliyah" was chosen as the name for the party, both denoting its identification with immigration (aliyah being the Hebrew word for immigration to Israel), as well as the literal meaning of "Israel on the up".  With another ex-Soviet dissident Yuli-Yoel Edelstein as a co-founder, they chose a slogan stating that their political party is different: its leaders first go to prison and only then go into politics.  In its first electoral test, the May 1996 Knesset elections, the party won 5.7% of the vote and 7 seats, making it the sixth largest party in the Knesset. It joined Binyamin Netanyahu's Likud-led government, and was given two ministerial posts; Sharansky was appointed Minister of Industry and Trade, whilst Edelstein became Minister of Immigrant Absorption.  On 23 February 1999, Shortly before the 1999 Knesset elections, Michael Nudelman and Yuri Stern left the party to form Aliyah, which later entered into an alliance with another Russian-immigrant party, Yisrael Beiteinu.  In the elections, the party was reduced to six seats, but was now the fifth-largest in the Knesset, having campaigned on the popular motto "Ministry of Internal Affairs in our control" (МВД под наш контроль). It joined Ehud Barak's One Israel-led government, and was given one ministerial portfolio (Sharansky as Minister of Internal Affairs) and one deputy ministerial post (Marina Solodkin as Deputy Minister of Immigrant Absorption). On 20 July 1999, shortly after the elections, left-wingers Roman Bronfman and Alexander Tzinker left the party and formed the Democratic Choice faction. Yisrael BaAliyah left the government on 11 July 2000, in response to suggestions that Barak's negiotations with the Palestinians would result in a division of Jerusalem.  After Ariel Sharon won a special election for Prime Minister in 2001, the party joined his new government, and was again given one ministerial post (Sharansky as Minister of Housing and Construction) and one deputy position (Edelstein as Deputy Immigrant Absorption Minister). In addition, Sharansky was appointed Deputy Prime Minister.  In the January 2003 elections, the party was reduced to just two seats. Sharansky resigned from the Knesset, and was replaced by Edelstein. However, he remained party chairman, and decided to merge it into Likud (which had won the election with a haul of 38 seats). The merger went through on 10 March 2003, and Sharansky was appointed Minister of Jerusalem Affairs, whilst Solodkin was re-appointed Deputy Minister of Immigrant Absorption.

Yisrael BaAliyah (, ; lit., "Israel on the up") was a political party in Israel between its formation in 1996 and its merger into Likud in 2003. It was formed to represent the interests of Russian immigrants by former refuseniks Natan Sharansky and Yuli-Yoel Edelstein. Initially a centrist party, it drifted to the right towards the end of its existence.

Jisra'el ba-alija (: ) byla izraelská politická strana zaměřující se na sionismus a zastupující zájmy ruských přistěhovalců. Strana byla založena Natanem Šaranskym před volbami do Knesetu v roce 1996. Šaransky, bývalý refusenik, se zaměřil téměř výhradně na voliče ze zemí bývalého Sovětského svazu. Strana se zaměřovala se na přistěhovalecká témata (alija je hebrejské slovo běžně užívané k popsání imigrace do Izraele). Jisra'el ba-alija byla centristická strana, která však postupně přijala jestřábí styl. V říjnu 1999 opustili stranu dva poslanci – Roman Bronfman a Alexander Cinker a založili levicovou stranu Bechira demokratit ("Demokratická volba"). Bronfman později vstoupil do strany Jachad. V roce 2003 se Jisra'el ba-alija sloučila s vládnoucí stranou Likud.