Premise.

Characters.

The show revolves around the adventures of the Griffin family, consisting of father Peter Griffin, a bumbling and clumsy yet well-intentioned blue-collar worker; Lois, a pretty stay-at-home mother and piano teacher who is a member of the wealthy Pewterschmidt family; Meg, their often-bullied teenage daughter who is also constantly ridiculed or ignored by the family; Chris, their awkward teenage son, who is overweight, unintelligent and, in many respects, is simply a younger version of his father; and Stewie, their diabolical infant son of ambiguous sexual orientation who is

Setting.

The primary setting of "Family Guy" is Quahog ( [pron. ko-hog or kwo-hog]), a fictional district of Providence, Rhode Island that was founded by Peter's ancestor, Griffin Peterson. MacFarlane resided in Providence during his time as a student at Rhode Island

Development.

MacFarlane initially conceived "Family Guy" in 1995 while studying animation at the Rhode Island School of Design (RISD). During college, he created his thesis film entitled "The Life of Larry", which was submitted by his professor at RISD to Hanna-Barbera. MacFarlane was hired by the company. In 1996 MacFarlane created a sequel to "The Life of Larry" entitled "Larry and Steve", which featured a middle-aged character named Larry and an intellectual dog, Steve; the short was broadcast in 1997 as one of Cartoon Network's "World Premiere Toons".  Executives at Fox saw the "Larry" shorts and contracted MacFarlane to create a series, entitled "Family Guy", based on the characters. Fox proposed MacFarlane complete a 15-minute short, and gave him a budget of $50,000. Several aspects of "Family Guy" were inspired by the "Larry" shorts. While he worked on the series, the characters of Larry and his dog

Production.

Executive producers.

MacFarlane has served as an executive producer during the show's entire history. The first executive producers were David Zuckerman, Lolee Aries, David Pritchard, and Mike Wolf. "Family Guy" has had many executive

Writing.

The first team of writers assembled for the show consisted of Chris Sheridan, Danny Smith, Gary Janetti, Ricky Blitt, Neil Goldman, Garrett Donovan, Matt Weitzman, and Mike Barker. The writing process of "Family Guy" generally starts with 14 writers that take turns writing the scripts; when a script is finished it is given to the rest of the writers to read. These scripts generally include cutaway gags. Various gags are pitched to MacFarlane and the rest of the staff, and those deemed funniest are included in the episode. MacFarlane has explained that normally it takes 10 months to produce an episode because the show uses hand-drawn animation. The show rarely comments on current events for this reason. The show's initial writers had never written for an animated show; and most came from live-action sitcoms.  MacFarlane explains that he is a fan of 1930s and 1940s radio programs, particularly the radio thriller anthology "Suspense", which led him to give early episodes ominous titles like "Death Has a Shadow" and "Mind Over Murder". MacFarlane explained that the team dropped the naming convention after individual episodes became hard to identify, and the

Early history and cancellation.

"Family Guy" officially premiered after Fox's broadcast of Super Bowl XXXIII on January 31, 1999, with "Death Has a Shadow". The show debuted to 22 million viewers, and immediately generated controversy regarding its adult content. The show returned on April 11, 1999, with "I Never Met the Dead Man". "Family Guy" garnered decent ratings in Fox's 8:30 pm slot on Sunday, scheduled between "The Simpsons" and "The X-Files". At the end of its first season the show ranked at No. 33 in the Nielsen ratings, with 12.8 million households tuning in. The show launched its second season in a new time slot, Thursday at 9 pm, on September 23, 1999. "Family Guy" was pitted against NBC's "Frasier", and the series' ratings declined sharply. Subsequently, Fox removed

Cult success and revival.

Fox attempted to sell the rights for reruns of the show, but finding networks that were interested was difficult; Cartoon Network eventually bought the rights, " basically for free", according to the president of 20th Century Fox Television. "Family Guy" premiered in reruns on Adult Swim on April 20, 2003, and immediately became the block's top-rated program, dominating late-night viewing in its time period versus cable and broadcast competition, and boosting viewership by 239%. The complete first and second seasons were released on DVD the same week the show premiered on Adult Swim, and the show became a cult phenomenon, selling 400,000 copies within one month. Sales of the DVD set reached 2.2 million copies, becoming the best-selling television DVD of 2003 and the second-highest-selling television DVD

Lawsuits.

In March 2007 comedian Carol Burnett filed a $6 million lawsuit against 20th Century Fox, claiming that her charwoman cartoon character had been portrayed on the show without her permission. She stated it was a trademark infringement, and that Fox violated her publicity rights. On June 4, 2007, United States District Judge Dean D. Pregerson rejected the lawsuit, stating that the parody was protected under the First Amendment, citing "Hustler Magazine v. Falwell" as a precedent.  On October 3, 2007, Bourne Co. Music Publishers filed a lawsuit accusing the show of infringing its copyright on the song "When You Wish Upon a Star", through a parody song entitled "I Need a Jew" appearing in the episode "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein". Bourne Co., the sole United States copyright owner of the song, alleged the parody pairs a "thinly veiled" copy of its music with antisemitic lyrics. Named in the suit were 20th Century Fox Film Corp., Fox Broadcasting Co., Cartoon Network,

Voice cast.

Seth MacFarlane voices three of the show's main characters: Peter Griffin, Brian Griffin, and Stewie Griffin. Since MacFarlane had a strong vision for these characters, he chose to voice them himself, believing it would be easier than for someone else to attempt it. MacFarlane drew inspiration for the voice of Peter from a security guard he overheard talking while attending the Rhode Island School of Design. Stewie's voice was based on the voice of English actor Rex Harrison, especially his performance in the 1964 musical drama film "My Fair Lady". MacFarlane uses his regular speaking voice when playing Brian.

Hallmarks.

"Road to" episodes.

The "Road to" episodes are a series of hallmark travel episodes. They are a parody of the seven "Road to..." comedy films starring Bing Crosby and Bob Hope. These episodes have always involved Stewie and Brian in some foreign, supernatural or science-fiction location, unrelated to the show's normal location in Quahog. The first, entitled "Road to Rhode Island", aired on May 30, 2000, during the second season. The episodes are known for featuring elaborate musical numbers, similar to the "Road" films. The episodes contain several trademarks, including a special version

Humor.

"Family Guy" uses the filmmaking technique of cutaways, which occur in the majority of "Family Guy" episodes. Emphasis is often placed on gags which make reference to current events and/or modern cultural icons.  Early episodes based much of their comedy on Stewie's "super villain" antics, such as his constant plans for total world domination, his evil experiments, plans and inventions to get rid of things he dislikes, and his constant attempts at matricide. As the series progressed, the writers and MacFarlane agreed that his personality and the jokes were starting to feel dated, so they began writing him with a different personality. "Family Guy" often includes self-referential humor. The most common form is jokes about Fox Broadcasting, and occasions where the characters break the fourth wall by addressing the audience. For example, in "North by North

Reception and legacy.

In 2016, a "New York Times" study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that like other satirical comedies, "Family Guy" "is most popular in cities. The show's popularity was more correlated with support for Hillary Clinton than any other show". As of 2008, the franchise has generated in total revenue, including from TV syndication, from DVD sales, and from merchandise sales.

Critical reception.

"Family Guy" has received widespread critical acclaim, particularly for its pop culture references, blue humor, satire, and non-sequitur storytelling. Catherine Seipp of National Review Online described it as a "nasty but extremely funny" cartoon. Caryn James of "The New York Times" called it a show with an "outrageously satirical family" that "includes plenty of comic possibilities and parodies". "The Sydney Morning Herald" named "Family Guy" the "Show of the Week" on April 21, 2009, hailing it a "pop culture-heavy masterpiece". Frazier Moore from "The Seattle Times" called it an "endless craving for humor about bodily emissions". He thought it was "breathtakingly smart" and said a "blend of the ingenious with the raw helps account for its much broader appeal". He summarized it as "rude, crude and deliciously wrong". "The New Yorker"s Nancy Franklin said that "Family Guy" is becoming one of the best animated shows; she commented on its ribaldry and popularity. The show has become a hit on Hulu; it is the second-highest viewed show after "Saturday Night Live". IGN called "Family Guy" a great show, and commented that it has gotten better since its revival. They stated that they cannot imagine

Awards.

"Family Guy" and its cast have been nominated for 27 Emmy Awards, with 8 wins. MacFarlane won the Outstanding Voice-Over Performance award for his performance as Stewie; Murphy and MacFarlane won the Outstanding Music and Lyrics award for the song "You Got a Lot to See" from the episode "Brian Wallows and Peter's Swallows"; Steven Fonti won the Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation award for his storyboard work in the episode "No Chris Left Behind"; and Greg Colton won the Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation award for his storyboard work in the episode "Road to the Multiverse". The show was nominated for eleven Annie Awards, and won three times, twice in 2006 and once in 2008. In 2009, it was nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Comedy Series, becoming the first animated program to be nominated in this category since "The Flintstones" in 1961. "The Simpsons" was almost

Criticism and controversy.

One of the initial critics to give the show negative reviews was Ken Tucker from "Entertainment Weekly"; he called it ""The Simpsons" as conceived by a singularly sophomoric mind that lacks any reference point beyond other TV shows". The Parents Television Council (PTC), a conservative non-profit watchdog, has attacked the series since its premiere and has branded various episodes as "Worst TV Show of the Week". In May 2000 the PTC launched a letter-writing campaign to the Fox network in an effort to persuade the network to cancel the show. The PTC has placed the show on their annual lists of "Worst Prime-Time Shows for Family Viewing" in 2000, 2005, and 2006. The Federal Communications Commission has received multiple petitions requesting that the show be blocked from broadcasting on indecency grounds. Tucker and the PTC have both accused the show of portraying religion negatively, and

Broadcast.

In the United States, "Family Guy" has aired on Fox since its premiere on January 31, 1999. The show has been syndicated on Adult Swim and TBS since 2003, with both networks holding the rights to the first fifteen seasons of the series. In April 2019, FXX and Freeform began airing reruns of season 16 and started season 17 in October. In 2021, FXX and Freeform will become the exclusive cable network for reruns, which means "Family Guy" will leave the Adult Swim and TBS lineups. This will not affect local syndication stations rights to rerun the series. Local syndication stations have the rights to the first seventeen seasons.  "Family Guy" premiered in Australia on April 9, 1999, on the Seven Network, in

Franchise.

Books.

Family Guy: It Takes a Village Idiot, and I Married One was written by executive story editor Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and actress Alex Borstein. The book was first published on May 8, 2007. The book is a biographical monologue by Lois Griffin covering a portion of her life spanning from her memories of growing up to her attempted run for mayor in the town of Quahog. Though the book primarily consists of

Live performances.

As promotion for the show and as Newman described "[to] expand interest in the show beyond its diehard fans", Fox organized four "Family Guy Live!" performances, which featured cast members reading old episodes aloud. The cast also performed musical numbers from the "" comedy album. The stage shows were an extension of a performance by the cast during the 2004 Montreal Comedy Festival. The "Family Guy Live!" performances, which took place in Los Angeles and New York, sold out and were attended by around 1,200 people each.  At the 59th

Film.

In a July 22, 2007 interview with "The Hollywood Reporter", MacFarlane announced that he may start working on a feature film, although "nothing's official." In "TV Week" on July 18, 2008, MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce a theatrically released "Family Guy" feature film sometime "within the next year." He came up with an idea for the story, "something that you could not do on the show, which [to him] is the only reason to do a movie." He later went on

Spin-off.

MacFarlane co-created—alongside Mike Henry and Richard Appel—the "Family Guy" spin-off

Video games.

The "Family Guy Video Game!" is a 2006 action game released by 2K Games and developed by High Voltage Software.  "", which is centered around the episode "Road to the Multiverse", was released on November 20, 2012.  ""

Merchandise.

As of 2009, six books have been released about the "Family Guy" universe, all published by HarperCollins since 2005. The first, "" () by Steve Callahan, was released on April 26, 2005. Written in the style of a graphic novel, the plot follows Stewie's plans to rule the world. Other books include "" (), which covers the events of the episode of the same name; and "Family Guy and Philosophy: A Cure for the Petarded" (), a collection of 17 essays exploring the connections between the series and historical philosophers. A book written from Brian's point of view (written by Andrew Goldberg) was published in 2006, called "Brian Griffin's Guide to Booze, Broads and the Lost Art of Being a Man".  "Family Guy" has been commercially successful

References.

Informational notes Citations Bibliography

Family Guy is an American animated sitcom created by Seth MacFarlane for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The series centers on the Griffins, a family consisting of parents Peter and Lois; their children, Meg, Chris, and Stewie; and their anthropomorphic pet dog, Brian. The show is set in the fictional city of Quahog, Rhode Island, and exhibits much of its surreal and dark humor in the form of metafictional cutaway gags that often lampoon American culture.

Griffinovi (v anglickém originále Family Guy) je americký animovaný seriál o rodině z fiktivního města Quahog na Rhode Islandu. Vytvořil ho Seth MacFarlane pro Fox Broadcasting Company v roce 1999. "Griffinovi" bylI poprvé zrušen v roce 2000 a poté znovu v roce 2002, ale silný prodej DVD a velká sledovanost vrátily seriál v roce 2005 znovu na scénu. Griffinovi mají přes 300 epizod. Získal mnohá ocenění, ale také čelí mnohé kritice. V Česku je seriál vysílán na stanici Prima Comedy Central, dříve ho vysílala také Prima Cool.


Description.

The hoary fox has a short muzzle, small teeth, a short coat, and slender limbs. The upper part of the body is grey, and the underside of the body is cream or fawn. The tail is black on the tip with a marked dark stripe along the upper surface, which in male animals may extend all the way along the back to the nape of the neck. The ears and outside part of the legs are reddish or tawny, and the lower jaw is black. Some melanistic individuals have also been reported.  It is small for a fox, weighing only, with a head and body length of, and a tail. Together with its slender form, the small size of the hoary fox makes it an agile and fast-running animal, while its relatively weak teeth adapt it to feeding on invertebrates, rather than larger prey.

Behaviour and diet.

Hoary foxes are nocturnal, and largely solitary outside of the breeding season. They mainly eat insects, especially termites and dung beetles, but also may eat rodents, small birds, and fruit. Individuals have widely varying home ranges, depending on the local environment and reported examples are as follows: for 1 adult female in southern Bahia, for a group consisting of an adult breeding pair and 5 juvenile offspring in a pasture of Minas Gerais, and for 2 breeding pairs out of 3 study groups from pastures in eastern Mato Grosso.

Range.

The hoary fox is native to south-central Brazil, although some sightings have been recorded from the north of the country, and Pleistocene fossils are known from Argentina. Although they may be found in more marginal habitats, they usually live in the cerrado, between elevation, where open woodlands, bushlands, and savannahs that are smooth or scattered with trees occur.  No subspecies are recognized.

Reproduction.

Females usually give birth to two to four pups in August to September, after a gestation period around 50 days. The sex ratio of the pups is equal between males and females. The female prepares a den in which to give birth, sometimes using the burrows of other animals. Weaning occurs around 4 months of age. Both parent participate in rearing of the pups.

The hoary fox or hoary zorro ("Lycalopex vetulus"), also known as raposinha-do-campo in Brazil (Portuguese for "meadow fox"), is a species of zorro or "false" fox endemic to Brazil. Unlike many other foxes, it feeds primarily on small invertebrates such as insects.

Pes šedý či pes Azarův ("Lycalopex vetulus") je šelma z čeledi psovitých ("Canidae"). Je to druh nevelkého psa s krátkým pyskem a nevelkými zuby, který obývá brazilské savany. Jeho biologie a tudíž i stav ohrožení je málo objasněn. Prožívá však typicky noční způsob života, při kterém loví menší živočichy jako ještěrky a hlodavce, ale i daleko menší jako např. termity nebo luční koníky.


Early life and education.

Mohammad-Ali Rajai was born on 15 June 1933 in Qazvin, Iran. His father, a shopkeeper named Abdulsamad, died when he was 4 years old. Rajai grew up in Qazvin and moved to Tehran in the late 1940s. He joined the Air Force at age sixteen or seventeen. In 1959 he graduated from Tarbiat Moallem University with a degree in education. He worked as a teacher of mathematics.

Political career.

Before the Islamic revolution.

After moving to Tehran, Rajai became involved in the anti-Shah movement and was associated with Ayatollah Mahmoud Taleghani and the Fadaeian group. At one time a member of the largely anti-clerical People's Mujahedin of Iran (MKO), Rajai turned against its leftist orientation and in 1960 joined the Freedom Movement of Iran. He was arrested at least twice by the Shah's forces for his opposition activities and famously displayed his bare foot at the United Nations while describing being tortured by the Shah’s interrogators. His longest detention extended from May 1974 to late 1978.

After the Islamic revolution.

He was actively involved in the Iranian Revolution and was a leader in the movement to purge Iranian universities of American and European influences, which was later called the Cultural Revolution. Rajaei appointed to important occupations after the victory of Islamic revolution. The occupations were as follow:

Ministry of Education.

At the beginning, Gholam Hosein Shokohi was the minister of education, and Rajaei was one of his chancellors. After Shokohi's resigning due to illness, Muhammad Ali Rajaei was appointed as the supervisor of the ministry of education. He was introduced by Muhammad Javad Bahonar, and he became the supervisor of education ministry from 18th shahrivar month to 7th mehr at 1357 solar. Finally, Mehdi Bazargan presented him as the minister of education in his cabinet. His programs in the ministry of education included fair distribution of facilities, fair distribution of finance among staffs, reforming of centers of educating teachers, creating a suitable pedagogical system for Muslim society, developing of Islamic ethics among teachers and pupils, creating a good relation between parents and teachers and respect to dignity of teachers according to Islam. These schedules were very important for Rajaei, and he tried to realize them. He was in charge of the ministry for nine months. The most important achievements were the consistency of all schools and also trying to do away with discrimination and differences. He also tried to change the contents of educational books and also made attempts of Islamization of their contents.

Appointment as Prime Minister.

In 1979, Rajai left the Freedom Movement. Following the Iranian Revolution, he was appointed minister of education in the government of Mehdi Bazargan, and although Bazargan's cabinet resigned on 6 November 1979, he did not resign and remained in the post until 12 August 1980 when he became prime minister. Following the presidency of Bani Sadr, after 5 months, he nominated Rajai for the position, and parliament voted him in. He appointed Khodapanahi as foreign minister, Mohammad-Reza Mahdavi Kani as interior minister and Javad Fakori as defence minister. During his prime ministership, the Iran–Iraq War started and his government's first policy became the "victory and defence". He was in office until 2 August 1981 when he became the second president of Iran.

Presidency.

Bani Sadr was impeached on 22 June 1981 by parliament, and Khomeini held a Provisional Presidential Council by 6 people headed by Mohammad Beheshti and later Abdul-Karim Mousavi Ardebili. Rajai was one of the members of that Council. He nominated himself for the presidential election in 1981. He was the first president from the Islamic Republican Party after winning 91% of the votes. He officially became the president after the Oath of Office in 2 August 1981. He named Mohammad-Javad Bahonar to the Parliament to become the next prime minister. Parliament voted in to Bahonar and he formed a new government.

Assassination.

On 30 August 1981, President Rajai held a meeting of Iran's Supreme Defence Council, along with the Prime Minister Mohammad Javad Bahonar. Witnesses later stated that a trusted aide brought a briefcase into the conference room, set it between the two leaders, and then left. Another person opened the case, triggering a bomb that set the room ablaze and killed Rajai, Bahonar, and three others. This attack occurred two months after the Hafte Tir bombing. The assassin was identified as Massoud Keshmiri, an operative of the People's Mujahedin of Iran (also known as the MKO, MEK and PMOI), who had infiltrated the Prime Minister's office in the guise of a state security official. Rajai was buried in Behesht-e Zahra.

Political positions.

Rajai's political programs were based on a form of constitutional law that included a position of privilege for Islam. He insisted that those in control of the state must be Muslim, emphasized the "Velayat-e Faqih," and believed it essential that the government cooperate with institutions such as the Islamic Revolutionary Guard and Islamic Revolutionary Court. He respected people's freedom insofar as it did not contraveneIslamic law and tried during his tenure to create a consistent government.

Mohammad-Ali Rajai (; 15 June 1933 – 30 August 1981) was the second President of Iran from 2 to 30 August 1981 after serving as prime minister under Abolhassan Banisadr. He was also minister of foreign affairs from 11 March 1981 to 15 August 1981, while he was prime minister. He was assassinated in a bombing on 30 August 1981 along with prime minister Mohammad-Javad Bahonar.

Muhammad Alí Radžáí (persky ; 15. června 1933 Kazvín – 30. srpna 1981 Teherán) byl od 3. srpna do 30. srpna 1981 prezidentem Íránu. V letech 1980–1981 byl íránským předsedou vlády.


Life and work.

Küng was born in Sursee, Canton of Lucerne. He studied philosophy and theology at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome and was ordained in 1954. He continued his education in various European cities, including the Sorbonne.  In 1960, he was appointed professor of theology at University of Tübingen, Germany. Like his colleague Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI), in 1962 he was appointed "peritus" by Pope John XXIII, serving as an expert theological advisor to members of the Second Vatican Council until its conclusion in 1965. At Küng's instigation, the Catholic faculty at Tübingen appointed Ratzinger as professor of dogmatic theology.  In a 1963 tour of the United States, Küng gave the lecture "The Church and Freedom", receiving an interdict from The Catholic University of America, but an honorary doctorate from St. Louis University. He accepted an invitation to visit John F. Kennedy at the White House.  Küng's doctoral thesis, ""Justification. La doctrine de Karl Barth et une réflexion catholique"", was finally published in English in 1964 as "Justification: The Doctrine of Karl Barth". It located a number of areas of agreement between Barthian and Catholic theologies of justification, concluding that the differences were not fundamental and did not warrant a division in the Church. (The book included a letter from Karl Barth attesting that he agreed with Küng's representation of his theology.) In this book Küng argued that Barth, like Martin Luther, overreacted against the Catholic Church which, despite its imperfections, has been and remains the body of Christ.  In the late 1960s, he became the first major Roman Catholic theologian since the late 19th century Old Catholic Church schism to publicly reject the doctrine of papal infallibility, in particular in his book "Infallible? An Inquiry" (1971). Consequently, on 18 December 1979, he was stripped of his "missio canonica",  his licence to teach as a Roman Catholic theologian, but carried on teaching as a tenured professor of ecumenical theology at the University of Tübingen until his retirement ("Emeritierung") in 1996.  For three months in 1981, he was guest professor at the University of Chicago. During this visit to America he was invited to only one Catholic institution, the University of Notre Dame. He appeared on the Phil Donahue Show. In October 1986, he participated in the Third Buddhist-Christian Theological Encounter held at Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.  In the early 1990s, Küng initiated a project called "Weltethos" ("Global Ethic"), which is an attempt at describing what the world's religions have in common (rather than what separates them) and at drawing up a minimal code of rules of behaviour everyone can accept. His vision of a global ethic was embodied in the document for which he wrote the initial draft, "". This Declaration was signed at the 1993 Parliament of the World's Religions by religious and spiritual leaders from around the world. Later Küng's project would culminate in the UN's "Dialogue Among Civilizations" to which Küng was assigned as one of 19 "eminent persons." Even though it was completed shortly after the terrorist attacks of 9/11 (in September 2001), it was not covered in the U.S. media, about which Küng complained.  In March 1991, he gave a talk titled "No Peace Among Nations until Peace Among the Religions" at UCSD's Price Center. He visited the nearby Beth El synagogue and spoke there on modern German-Jewish relations.  In 1998, he published "Dying with Dignity", co-written with Walter Jens, in which he affirms acceptance of euthanasia from a Christian viewpoint.  In 2003, Küng saw the beatification of Pope Pius IX as evidence of the degeneration of canonizations to "gestures of church politics".  In 2005, Küng published a critical article in Italy and Germany on "The failures of Pope Wojtyla" in which he argued that the world had expected a period of conversion, reform, and dialogue but, instead, John Paul II offered a restoration of the pre-Vatican II status quo—thus blocking reform and inter-church dialogue and reasserting the absolute dominion of Rome.  On 26 September 2005, he had a friendly discussion about Catholic theology over dinner with Pope Benedict XVI, surprising some observers.  Nevertheless, in a 2009 interview with "Le Monde", Küng deeply criticised the lifting of the excommunications on the bishops of the Society of Saint Pius X. The interview drew a rebuke from Cardinal Angelo Sodano.  Based on "Studium Generale" lectures at Tübingen University, his latest publication, "Der Anfang aller Dinge" ("The beginning of all things"), discusses the relationship between science and religion. In an analysis spanning from quantum physics to neuroscience, he comments on the current debate about evolution in the United States, dismissing those opposed to the teaching of evolution as "naive [and] un-enlightened."  In his 2010 book "Was ich glaube", he describes his own personal relationship with nature, how he learned to observe correctly, drawing strength from God's creation without falling victim to a false and fanatic love of nature.  In April 2010, he published in several newspapers an open letter to all Catholic bishops. In the letter he criticized Pope Benedict's handling of liturgical, collegial and inter-religious issues and also the sexual abuse scandals in the Catholic Church. In the letter, he called on bishops to consider six proposals, ranging from speaking up and working on regional solutions to calling for another Vatican council.  He is a signatory of Church 2011, a German-language memorandum demanding reform of the Catholic Church that was promulgated by Catholic theology professors.  In 2013, Küng wrote in "Erlebte Menschlichkeit" ("Experienced Humanity") that he believed people had the right to end their own lives if physical illness, pain, or dementia made living unbearable. He further wrote that he was considering the option of assisted suicide for himself as he was suffering from Parkinson's disease and was losing the ability to see and write with his hands. Küng wrote that he did not wish to follow the example of John Paul II in this case.

Hans Küng (; born 19 March 1928) is a Swiss Catholic priest, theologian, and author. Since 1995 he has been President of the ("Stiftung Weltethos"). He is notable for his rejection of the doctrine of papal infallibility. Although Küng is not officially allowed to teach Catholic theology, his priestly faculties have not been revoked. In 1979, he had to leave the Catholic faculty, but remained at the University of Tübingen as a professor of ecumenical theology, serving as an emeritus professor since 1996.

Hans Küng (* 19. března 1928 Sursee, Kanton Luzern) je původem švýcarský teolog, autor mnoha knih, katolický kněz a průkopník mezináboženského dialogu. Byl významným teologem Druhého vatikánského koncilu, patří mezi nejvýznamnější a nejkontroverznější představitele liberálního katolicismu, od 70. let je pak známý především jako ostrý kritik vládnoucích katolických církevních kruhů a tradicionalismu.


Design and development.

Around 1938, General Henry H. "Hap" Arnold, the head of the United States Army Air Corps, was growing alarmed at the possibility of war in Europe and in the Pacific. Hoping to be prepared for the long-term requirements of the Air Corps, Arnold created a special committee chaired by Brigadier General Walter G. Kilner; one of its members was Charles Lindbergh. After a tour of "Luftwaffe" bases, Lindbergh became convinced that Nazi Germany was far ahead of other European nations.  In a 1939 report, the committee made a number of recommendations, including development of new long-range heavy bombers. When war broke out in Europe, Arnold requested design studies from several companies on a Very Long-Range bomber capable of traveling 5,000 miles (8,000 km). Approval was granted on 2 December 1939.  Based on the design of the Lockheed L-049 (subsequently adopted by the United States Army Air Forces as the C-69), the L-249 never progressed past the design stage, mainly because Boeing had a huge head start with its Boeing B-29 Superfortress, using the same Wright R-3350 Duplex-Cyclone radials as the XB-30 was intended to use. Only a scale model was built. Retaining the wings and tail surfaces of the Model 49, the Model 249-58-01 was to have had a new fuselage with up to six gun turrets (one in the nose, two above and two below the fuselage, and one in the tail) housing 10.50-caliber guns—twinned up in each turret for the nose, dorsal, and ventral emplacements; and one 20-mm cannon for the tail defensive position. Ventral bomb bays were to accommodate eight 2,000-lb. (907 kg.) bombs.

The Lockheed XB-30 (company model L-249) was the design submitted by Lockheed after the request by the United States Army Air Forces for a very heavy bomber, the same request that led to the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, the Douglas XB-31 and Consolidated B-32 Dominator.

Lockheed XB-30 byl projekt těžkého bombardéru, vyvíjený na objednávku amerického armádního letectva firmou Lockheed. Ze stejného zadání vznikly také typy Boeing B-29 Superfortress a Consolidated B-32 Dominator.


Device structure.

An IGBT cell is constructed similarly to a n-channel vertical-construction power MOSFET, except the n+ drain is replaced with a p+ collector layer, thus forming a vertical PNP bipolar junction transistor. This additional p+ region creates a cascade connection of a PNP bipolar junction transistor with the surface n-channel MOSFET.

History.

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. The basic IGBT mode of operation, where a pnp transistor is driven by a MOSFET, was first proposed by K. Yamagami and Y. Akagiri of Mitsubishi Electric in the Japanese patent S47-21739, which was filed in 1968.  Following the commercialization of power MOSFETs in the 1970s, B. Jayant Baliga submitted a patent disclosure at General Electric (GE) in 1977 describing a power semiconductor device with the IGBT mode of operation, including the MOS gating of thyristors, a four-layer VMOS (V-groove MOSFET) structure, and the use of MOS-gated structures to control a four-layer semiconductor device. He began fabricating the IGBT device with the assistance of Margaret Lazeri at GE in 1978 and successfully completed the project in 1979. The results of the experiments were reported in 1979. The device structure was referred to as a "V-groove MOSFET device with the drain region replaced by a p-type anode region" in this paper and subsequently as "the insulated-gate rectifier" (IGR), the insulated-gate transistor (IGT), the conductivity-modulated field-effect transistor (COMFET) and "bipolar-mode MOSFET".  An MOS-controlled triac device was reported by B. W. Scharf and J. D. Plummer with their lateral four-layer device (SCR) in 1978. Plummer filed a patent application for this mode of operation in the four-layer device (SCR) in 1978. USP No. 4199774 was issued in 1980, and B1 Re33209 was reissued in 1996. The IGBT mode of operation in the four-layer device (SCR) switched to thyristor operation if the collector current exceeded the latch-up current, which is known as "holding current" in the well known theory of the thyristor.  The development of IGBT was characterized by the efforts to completely suppress the thyristor operation or the latch-up in the four-layer device because the latch-up caused the fatal device failure. The technology of IGBT had, thus, been established when the complete suppression of the latch-up of the parasitic thyristor was achieved as described in the following.  Hans W. Becke and Carl F. Wheatley developed a similar device, for which they filed a patent application in 1980, and which they referred to as "power MOSFET with an anode region". The patent claimed that "no thyristor action occurs under any device operating conditions". The device had an overall similar structure to Baliga's earlier IGBT device reported in 1979, as well as a similar title.  A. Nakagawa et. al. invented the device design concept of non-latch-up IGBTs in 1984. The invention is characterized by the device design setting the device saturation current below the latch-up current, which triggers the parasitic thyristor. This invention realized complete suppression of the parasitic thyristor action, for the first time, because the maximal collector current was limited by the saturation current and never exceeded the latch-up current. After the invention of the device design concept of non-latch-up IGBTs, IGBTs evolved rapidly, and the design of non-latch-up IGBTs became a de facto standard and the patent of non-latch-up IGBTs became the basic IGBT patent of actual devices.  In the early development stage of IGBT, all the researchers tried to increase the latch-up current itself in order to suppress the latch-up of the parasitic thyristor. However, all these efforts failed because IGBT could conduct enormously large current. Successful suppression of the latch-up was made possible by limiting the maximal collector current, which IGBT could conduct, below the latch-up current by controlling/reducing the saturation current of the inherent MOSFET. This was the concept of non-latch-up IGBT. “Becke’s device” was made possible by the non-latch-up IGBT.  The IGBT is characterized by its ability to simultaneously handle a high voltage and a large current. The product of the voltage and the current density that the IGBT can handle reached more than 5 W/cm, which far exceeded the value, 2 W/cm, of existing power devices such as bipolar transistors and power MOSFETs. This is a consequence of the large safe operating area of the IGBT. The IGBT is the most rugged and the strongest power device that ever developed, thus, providing users with easy use of the device and displaced bipolar transistors and even GTOs. This excellent feature of the IGBT had suddenly emerged when the non-latch-up IGBT was established in 1984 by solving the problem of so-called “latch-up,” which is the main cause of device destruction or device failure. Before that, the developed devices were very weak and were easy to be destroyed because of “latch-up.”

Practical devices.

Practical devices capable of operating over an extended current range were first reported by B. Jayant Baliga et al. in 1982. The first experimental demonstration of a practical discrete vertical IGBT device was reported by Baliga at the IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM) that year. General Electric commercialized Baliga's IGBT device the same year. Baliga was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame for the invention of the IGBT.  A similar paper was also submitted by J. P. Russel et al. to IEEE Electron Device Letter in 1982. The applications for the device were initially regarded by the power electronics community to be severely restricted by its slow switching speed and latch-up of the parasitic thyristor structure inherent within the device. However, it was demonstrated by Baliga and also by A. M. Goodman et al. in 1983 that the switching speed could be adjusted over a broad range by using electron irradiation. This was followed by demonstration of operation of the device at elevated temperatures by Baliga in 1985. Successful efforts to suppress the latch-up of the parasitic thyristor and the scaling of the voltage rating of the devices at GE allowed the introduction of commercial devices in 1983, which could be utilized for a wide variety of applications. The electrical characteristics of GE's device, IGT D94FQ/FR4, were reported in detail by Marvin W. Smith in the proceedings of PCI April 1984. Marvin W. Smith showed in Fig.12 of the proceedings that turn-off above 10 amperes for gate resistance of 5kOhm and above 5 amperes for gate resistance of 1kOhm was limited by switching safe operating area although IGT D94FQ/FR4 was able to conduct 40 amperes of collector current. Marvin W. Smith also stated that the switching safe operating area was limited by the latch-up of the parasitic thyristor.  Complete suppression of the parasitic thyristor action and the resultant non-latch-up IGBT operation for the entire device operation range was achieved by A. Nakagawa et al. in 1984. The non-latch-up design concept was filed for US patents. To test the lack of latch-up, the prototype 1200 V IGBTs were directly connected without any loads across a 600 V constant voltage source and were switched on for 25 microseconds. The entire 600 V was dropped across the device and a large short circuit current flowed. The devices successfully withstood this severe condition. This was the first demonstration of so-called "short-circuit-withstanding-capability" in IGBTs. Non-latch-up IGBT operation was ensured, for the first time, for the entire device operation range. In this sense, the non-latch-up IGBT proposed by Hans W. Becke and Carl F. Wheatley was realized by A. Nakagawa et al. in 1984. Products of non-latch-up IGBTs were first commercialized by Toshiba in 1985. This was the real birth of the present IGBT.  Once the non-latch-up capability was achieved in IGBTs, it was found that IGBTs exhibited very rugged and a very large safe operating area. It was demonstrated that the product of the operating current density and the collector voltage exceeded the theoretical limit of bipolar transistors, 2 W/cm, and reached 5 W/cm.  The insulating material is typically made of solid polymers which have issues with degradation. There are developments that use an ion gel to improve manufacturing and reduce the voltage required.  The first-generation IGBTs of the 1980s and early 1990s were prone to failure through effects such as latchup (in which the device will not turn off as long as current is flowing) and secondary breakdown (in which a localized hotspot in the device goes into thermal runaway and burns the device out at high currents). Second-generation devices were much improved. The current third-generation IGBTs are even better, with speed rivaling power MOSFETs, and excellent ruggedness and tolerance of overloads. Extremely high pulse ratings of second and third-generation devices also make them useful for generating large power pulses in areas including particle and plasma physics, where they are starting to supersede older devices such as thyratrons and triggered spark gaps. High pulse ratings and low prices on the surplus market also make them attractive to the high-voltage hobbyists for controlling large amounts of power to drive devices such as solid-state Tesla coils and coilguns.

Patent issues.

The device proposed by J. D. Plummer in 1978 (US Patent Re.33209) is the same structure as a thyristor with a MOS gate. Plummer discovered and proposed that the device can be used as a transistor although the device operates as a thyristor in higher current density level. J. D. Plummer reported this fact in his technical paper: "A MOS-Controlled Triac Device" B.W. Scharf and J.D. Plummer, 1978 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference, SESSION XVI FAM 16.6. The device proposed by J. D. Plummer is referred here as “Plummer’s device.” On the other hand, Hans W. Becke proposed, in 1980, another device in which the thyristor action is completely eliminated under any device operating conditions although the basic device structure is the same as that proposed by J. D. Plummer. The device developed by Hans W. Becke is referred here as “Becke’s device” and is described in US Patent 4364073. The difference between “Plummer’s device” and “Becke’s device” is that “Plummer’s device” has the mode of thyristor action in its operation range and “Becke’s device” never has the mode of thyristor action in its entire operation range. This is a critical point, because the thyristor action is the same as so-called “latch-up.” “Latch-up” is the main cause of fatal device failure. Thus, theoretically, “Plummer’s device” never realizes a rugged or strong power device which has a large safe operating area. The large safe operating area can be achieved only after “latch-up” is completely suppressed and eliminated in the entire device operation range. However, the Becke's patent (US Patent 4364073) did not disclose any measures to realize actual devices.  Despite Becke’s patent describing a similar structure to Baliga's earlier IGBT device, several IGBT manufacturers paid the license fee of Becke’s patent. Toshiba commercialized “non-latch-up IGBT” in 1985. Stanford University insisted in 1991 that Toshiba’s device infringed US Patent RE33209 of “Plummer’s device.” Toshiba answered that “non-latch-up IGBTs” never latched up in the entire device operation range and thus did not infringe US Patent RE33209 of “Plummer’s patent.” Stanford University never responded after Nov. 1992. Toshiba purchased the license of “Becke’s patent” but never paid any license fee for “Plummer’s device.” Other IGBT manufacturers also paid the license fee for Becke’s patent.

Applications.

, the IGBT is the second most widely used power transistor, after the power MOSFET. The IGBT accounts for 27% of the power transistor market, second only to the power MOSFET (53%), and ahead of the RF amplifier (11%) and bipolar junction transistor (9%). The IGBT is widely used in consumer electronics, industrial technology, the energy sector, aerospace electronic devices, and transportation.

Advantages.

The IGBT combines the simple gate-drive characteristics of power MOSFETs with the high-current and low-saturation-voltage capability of bipolar transistors. The IGBT combines an isolated-gate FET for the control input and a bipolar power transistor as a switch in a single device. The IGBT is used in medium- to high-power applications like switched-mode power supplies, traction motor control and induction heating. Large IGBT modules typically consist of many devices in parallel and can have very high current-handling capabilities in the order of hundreds of amperes with blocking voltages of. These IGBTs can control loads of hundreds of kilowatts.

Comparison with power MOSFETs.

An IGBT features a significantly lower forward voltage drop compared to a conventional MOSFET in higher blocking voltage rated devices, although MOSFETS exhibit much lower forward voltage at lower current densities due to the absence of a diode Vf in the IGBT's output BJT. As the blocking voltage rating of both MOSFET and IGBT devices increases, the depth of the n- drift region must increase and the doping must decrease, resulting in roughly square relationship decrease in forward conduction versus blocking voltage capability of the device. By injecting minority carriers (holes) from the collector p+ region into the n- drift region during forward conduction, the resistance of the n- drift region is considerably reduced. However, this resultant reduction in on-state forward voltage comes with several penalties:  In general, high voltage, high current and low switching frequencies favor the IGBT while low voltage, medium current and high switching frequencies are the domain of the MOSFET.

IGBT models.

Circuits with IGBTs can be developed and modeled with various circuit simulating computer programs such as SPICE, Saber, and other programs. To simulate an IGBT circuit, the device (and other devices in the circuit) must have a model which predicts or simulates the device's response to various voltages and currents on their electrical terminals. For more precise simulations the effect of temperature on various parts of the IGBT may be included with the simulation. Two common methods of modeling are available: device physics-based model, equivalent circuits or macromodels. SPICE simulates IGBTs using a macromodel that combines an ensemble of components like FETs and BJTs in a Darlington configuration. An alternative physics-based model is the Hefner model, introduced by Allen Hefner of the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Hefner's model is fairly complex that has shown very good results. Hefner's model is described in a 1988 paper and was later extended to a thermo-electrical model which include the IGBT's response to internal heating. This model has been added to a version of the Saber simulation software.

IGBT failure mechanisms.

The failure mechanisms of IGBTs includes overstress (O) and wearout(wo) separately.  The wearout failures mainly include bias temperature instability (BTI), hot carrier injection (HCI), time-dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB), electromigration (ECM), solder fatigue, material reconstruction, corrosion. The overstress failure mainly include electrostatic discharge (ESD), latch-up, avalanche, secondary breakdown, wire-bond liftoff and burnout.

An insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a three-terminal power semiconductor device primarily used as an electronic switch which, as it was developed, came to combine high efficiency and fast switching. It consists of four alternating layers (P-N-P-N) that are controlled by a metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) gate structure without regenerative action. Although the structure of the IGBT is topologically the same as a thyristor with a 'MOS' gate (MOS gate thyristor), the thyristor action is completely suppressed and only the transistor action is permitted in the entire device operation range. It is used in switching power supplies in high-power applications: variable-frequency drives (VFDs), electric cars, trains, variable speed refrigerators, lamp ballasts, arc-welding machines, and air conditioners.

Bipolární tranzistor s izolovaným hradlem (Anglicky "Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor" IGBT) je druh tranzistorů, který je zkonstruován pro velký rozsah spínaných výkonů (od zlomků W až po desítky MW) a vysokou pulzní frekvenci. IGBT je integrovaná kombinace unipolární a bipolární součástky. Čip tranzistoru má hradlo izolované tenkou oxidovou vrstvou stejně, jako výkonový MOSFET. Na kolektorové straně je vytvořen PN přechod, který injektuje minoritní nosiče do kanálu, když je IGBT sepnut. To výrazně snižuje úbytek napětí a tím i ztrátový výkon v sepnutém stavu.


Systematics.

The genus was designated in 1895 by Karl Moritz Schumann and named after Pierre Rebut (1828–1902), a French cactus nurseryman. The type species is "R. minuscula", which has been in cultivation since 1887.

Limits of the genus.

There has been considerable debate about the extent of the genus. In the middle of the twentieth century there was a tendency to separate groups of plants within "Rebutia" as new genera, e.g. "Mediolobivia", whereas towards the end of the century the reverse tendency predominated, with genera previously regarded as separate, such as "Weingartia", being subsumed within "Rebutia". At the beginning of the twenty-first century there was a broad consensus, as reflected in Kew's list of Vascular Plant Families and Genera, that the following genera should be regarded as synonyms of "Rebutia":  The history of the taxonomic treatment of the genera "Rebutia", "Aylostera", "Weingartia", "Sulcorebutia" and "Cintia" is summarized below.  The variation in the treatment of the genus is illustrated by the difference between Mosti et al., who in 2011 treated "Aylostera" and "Weingartia" (including "Cintia" and "Sulcorebutia") as distinct from "Rebutia", and the Plant List, which separated "Cintia", "Sulcorebutia" and "Weingartia" from "Rebutia", but merged "Aylostera".

Species.

The number of species is similarly debatable, because of disagreement both over what constitutes the genus and what constitutes a species. A very large number of plants that have circulated as species of "Rebutia" are now generally regarded as varieties, forms or synonyms of others. E. F. Anderson recognised forty-one species in 2001., the Plant List accepted only 12 species, along with a much larger number of synonyms and unresolved names:

Phylogeny.

Recent research has indicated that the genus "Rebutia" as currently defined is polyphyletic. "Sulcorebutia" and "Weingartia" were kept as separate genera in the study; a summary cladogram for those species studied is shown below. Species formerly classified as "Weingartia", "Sulcorebutia" and "Cintia" show a close relationship to each other and to species of "Rebutia" with naked pericarpels ("Rebutia" II), including the type species "R. minuscula". The larger group of species of "Rebutia" studied, those with hairy or bristly pericarpels, form a separate, more distantly related clade ("Rebutia" I). It is suggested that these be excluded from the genus.

Rebutia is a genus in the family Cactaceae, native to Bolivia and Argentina. They are generally small, colorful cacti, globular in form, which freely produce flowers that are relatively large in relation to the body. They have no distinctive ribs, but do have regularly arranged small tubercles. They are considered fairly easy to grow and they may produce large quantities of seeds that germinate freely around the parent plant.

Rebucie ("Rebutia") je rod malých, jihoamerických, vysokohorských kaktusů. Vzhledem těla a trnů nejsou příliš zajímavé, jsou ale velmi oblíbené pro své snadné a bohaté kvetení. Proto jsou často pěstovány a nabízeny v obchodech. K objevení a prozkoumání nalezišť výrazně přispěli Češi A. V. Frič a Karel Kníže.


Early life.

The son of a well-known rabbi and Talmudist, Kirzner was born in London and arrived to the United States via South Africa.

Education.

After studying with the University of Cape Town, South Africa in 1947–48 and with the University of London External Programme in 1950–51, Kirzner received his B.A. "summa cum laude" from Brooklyn College in 1954, an MBA in 1955 and Ph.D. in 1957 from New York University, where he studied under Ludwig von Mises.

Economics.

Kirzner is emeritus professor of economics at New York University and a leading authority on Ludwig von Mises's thinking and methodology in economics. Kirzner's research on entrepreneurship economics is also widely recognized. His book, "Competition and Entrepreneurship" criticizes neoclassical theory for its preoccupation with the model of perfect competition, which neglects the important role of the entrepreneur in economic life. Kirzner's work integrating entrepreneurial action into neoclassical economics has been more widely accepted than nearly any other Austrian idea of the late twentieth century.  In 2006, Kirzner received the Global Award for Entrepreneurship Research "for developing the economic theory emphasizing the importance of the entrepreneur for economic growth and the functioning of the capitalist process." While Kirzner's ideas have greatly impacted the field of entrepreneurship studies, he has mainly been associated with the opportunity discovery view. However, a careful reading of Kirzner's work would suggest that his work on entrepreneurship can be split into two camps, one focusing on discovery and the other on creation.  Like his compatriot Joseph Schumpeter, Kirzner's work can arguably be divided into Kirzner Mark I and Kirzner Mark II. Kirzner's major work is in the economics of knowledge and entrepreneurship and the ethics of markets. Kirzner has said that he agrees with Roger Garrison's statement that Kirzner's work takes the middle ground, as opposed to the recent, more extreme position of some Austrian School economists who deny the relevance of market equilibrium.  Universidad Francisco Marroquín granted him an Honorary Doctorate Degree for his contributions to economic theory. Honorary Doctoral Degrees at Universidad Francisco Marroquín UFM also named its Kirzner Entrepreneurship Center in his honor.

Author.

Some of his works on economics include: Liberty Fund is currently publishing Israel Kizner's Collected Works in ten volumes under the supervision of Peter Boettke and Frederic Sautet. The first volume, "The Economic Point of View," came out in December 2009, the second volume, "Market Theory and the Price System," in May 2011 and the third volume, "Essays on Capital," in June 2012. The fourth volume, "Competition and Entrepreneurship," is scheduled to come out in 2013, which will also be the year of the 40th anniversary of the publication of the book.

Judaic scholar.

Kirzner is also an ordained rabbi and Talmudic scholar, and serves as the rabbi of the congregation once headed by his father in Brooklyn, New York. He is one of the most famous disciples of Rabbi Isaac Hutner, the late dean of the Yeshiva Rabbi Chaim Berlin, where he studied for many years during the same years he obtained his academic training. Kirzner is an authority on Hutner's writings and is one of the few official editors of all sources that Hutner quotes.

Israel Meir Kirzner (also Yisroel Mayer Kirzner ; born February 13, 1930) is a British-born American economist closely identified with the Austrian School.

Israel Meir Kirzner (Jisra'el Mayer Kirzner) (* 13. února 1930) je ekonom a současný vůdčí představitel tzv. Rakouské školy. Syn proslulého rabína a talmudisty se narodil v Londýně, v Anglii a přišel přes Jižní Afriku do USA.


Basic architecture.

The Speech API can be viewed as an interface or piece of middleware which sits between "applications" and speech "engines" (recognition and synthesis). In SAPI versions 1 to 4, applications could directly communicate with engines. The API included an abstract "interface definition" which applications and engines conformed to. Applications could also use simplified higher-level objects rather than directly call methods on the engines.  In SAPI 5 however, applications and engines do not directly communicate with each other. Instead, each talks to a runtime component (sapi.dll). There is an API implemented by this component which applications use, and another set of interfaces for engines.  Typically in SAPI 5 applications issue calls through the API (for example to load a recognition grammar; start recognition; or provide text to be synthesized). The sapi.dll runtime component interprets these commands and processes them, where necessary calling on the engine through the engine interfaces (for example, the loading of grammar from a file is done in the runtime, but then the grammar data is passed to the recognition engine to actually use in recognition). The recognition and synthesis engines also generate events while processing (for example, to indicate an utterance has been recognized or to indicate word boundaries in the synthesized speech). These pass in the reverse direction, from the engines, through the runtime DLL, and on to an "event sink" in the application.  In addition to the actual API definition and runtime DLL, other components are shipped with all versions of SAPI to make a complete Speech Software Development Kit. The following components are among those included in most versions of the Speech SDK:

Versions.

Xuedong Huang was a key person who led Microsoft's early SAPI efforts.

SAPI 1-4 API family.

SAPI 1.

The first version of SAPI was released in 1995, and was supported on Windows 95 and Windows NT 3.51. This version included low-level Direct Speech Recognition and Direct Text To Speech APIs which applications could use to directly control engines, as well as simplified 'higher-level' Voice Command and Voice Talk APIs.

SAPI 3.

SAPI 3.0 was released in 1997. It added limited support for dictation speech recognition (discrete speech, not continuous), and additional sample applications and audio sources.

SAPI 4.

SAPI 4.0 was released in 1998. This version of SAPI included both the core COM API; together with C++ wrapper classes to make programming from C++ easier; and ActiveX controls to allow drag-and-drop Visual Basic development. This was shipped as part of an SDK that included recognition and synthesis engines. It also shipped (with synthesis engines only) in Windows 2000.  The main components of the SAPI 4 API (which were all available in C++, COM, and ActiveX flavors) were:

SAPI 5 API family.

The Speech SDK version 5.0, incorporating the SAPI 5.0 runtime was released in 2000. This was a complete redesign from previous versions and neither engines nor applications which used older versions of SAPI could use the new version without considerable modification.  The design of the new API included the concept of strictly separating the application and engine so all calls were routed through the runtime sapi.dll. This change was intended to make the API more 'engine-independent', preventing applications from inadvertently depending on features of a specific engine. In addition, this change was aimed at making it much easier to incorporate speech technology into an application by moving some management and initialization code into the runtime.  The new API was initially a pure COM API and could be used easily only from C/C++. Support for VB and scripting languages were added later. Operating systems from Windows 98 and NT 4.0 upwards were supported.  Major features of the API include:

SAPI 5.0.

This version shipped in late 2000 as part of the Speech SDK version 5.0, together with version 5.0 recognition and synthesis engines. The recognition engines supported continuous dictation and command & control and were released in U.S. English, Japanese and Simplified Chinese versions. In the U.S. English system, special acoustic models were available for children's speech and telephony speech. The synthesis engine was available in English and Chinese. This version of the API and recognition engines also shipped in Microsoft Office XP in 2001.

SAPI 5.1.

This version shipped in late 2001 as part of the Speech SDK version 5.1. Automation-compliant interfaces were added to the API to allow use from Visual Basic, scripting languages such as JScript, and managed code. This version of the API and TTS engines were shipped in Windows XP. Windows XP Tablet PC Edition and Office 2003 also include this version but with a substantially improved version 6 recognition engine and Traditional Chinese.

SAPI 5.2.

This was a special version of the API for use only in the Microsoft Speech Server which shipped in 2004. It added support for SRGS and SSML mark-up languages, as well as additional server features and performance improvements. The Speech Server also shipped with the version 6 desktop recognition engine and the version 7 server recognition engine.

SAPI 5.3.

This is the version of the API that ships in Windows Vista together with new recognition and synthesis engines. As Windows Speech Recognition is now integrated into the operating system, the Speech SDK and APIs are a part of the Windows SDK. SAPI 5.3 includes the following new features:

SAPI 5.4.

This is an updated version of the API that ships in Windows 7.

SAPI 5 Voices.

Microsoft Sam (Speech Articulation Module) is a commonly shipped SAPI 5 voice. In addition, Microsoft Office XP and Office 2003 installed L&H Michael and Michelle voices. The SAPI 5.1 SDK installs 2 more voices, "Mike" and "Mary". Windows Vista includes Microsoft Anna which replaces Microsoft Sam and sounds more natural and intelligible. It is also installed on Windows XP by Microsoft Streets & Trips 2006 and later versions. The Chinese version of Vista and later Windows client versions also include a female voice named Microsoft Lili.

Managed code Speech API.

A managed code API ships as part of the.NET Framework 3.0. It has similar functionality to SAPI 5 but is more suitable to be used by managed code applications. The new API is available on Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, Windows Vista, and Windows Server 2008.  The existing SAPI 5 API can also be used from managed code to a limited extent by creating a COM Interop code (helper code designed to assist in accessing COM interfaces and classes). This works well in some scenarios however the new API should provide a more seamless experience equivalent to using any other managed code library.  However, major obstacle towards transitioning from the COM Interop is the fact that the managed implementation has subtle memory leaks which lead to memory fragmentation and exclude the use of the library in any non-trivial applications. As a workaround, Microsoft has suggested using a different API, which has fewer voices.

Speech functionality in Windows Vista.

Windows Vista includes a number of new speech-related features including:  Microsoft Agent most notably, and all other Microsoft speech applications use SAPI 5.

Compatibility.

The Speech API is compatible with the following operating systems:

The Speech Application Programming Interface or SAPI is an API developed by Microsoft to allow the use of speech recognition and speech synthesis within Windows applications. To date, a number of versions of the API have been released, which have shipped either as part of a Speech SDK or as part of the Windows OS itself. Applications that use SAPI include Microsoft Office, Microsoft Agent and Microsoft Speech Server.

Speech Application Programming Interface neboli SAPI je API od společnosti Microsoft, které umožňuje použití rozpoznání a syntézu řeči pro aplikace Windows. Několik verzí SAPI byly použity jako součást jazyka SDK, nebo přímo jako část pro operační systém Windows. Mezi aplikace, které používají SAPI, patří Microsoft Office, Microsoft Agent a Microsoft Speech Server.


Background.

Attlee's announcement.

Clement Attlee, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, announced on 20 February 1947 that:

Future of the Princely States.

Attlee wrote to Mountbatten on 18 March 1947: "It is, of course, important that the Indian States should adjust their relations with the authorities to whom it is intended to hand over power in British India; but as was explicitly stated by the Cabinet Mission His Majesty's Government do not intend to hand over their powers and obligations under paramountcy to any successor Government. It is not intended to bring paramountcy as a system to a conclusion earlier than the date of the final transfer of power, but you are authorised, at such time as you think appropriate, to enter into negotiations with individual States for adjusting their relations with the Crown. The princely states would be free from orders and treaties of British Rule in India. They can either join the two dominions or stay separate"

The June 3 Plan.

The June 3, 1947 plan was also known as the Mountbatten Plan. The British government proposed a plan, announced on 3 June 1947, that included these principles:

Provisions.

The Act's most important provisions were:  The Act also made provision for the division of joint property, etc. between the two new countries, including in particular the division of the armed forces.

Partition.

There was much violence, and many Muslims from what would become India fled to Pakistan; and Hindus and Sikhs from what would become Pakistan fled to India. Many people left behind all their possessions and property to avoid the violence and flee to their new country.

Princely states.

On 4 June 1947, Mountbatten held a press conference in which he addressed the question of the princely states, of which there were over 563. The treaty relations between Britain and the Indian States would come to an end, and on 15 August 1947 the suzerainty of the British Crown was to lapse. They would be free to accede to one or the other of the new dominions or to remain independent.

India.

Lord Mountbatten of Burma, the last Viceroy, was asked by the Indian leaders to continue as the Governor-General of India. Jawaharlal Nehru became the Prime Minister of India and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became the Home Minister.  Over 560 princely states acceded to India by 15 August. The exceptions were Junagadh, Hyderabad and Jammu and Kashmir. The state of Jammu and Kashmir was contiguous to both India and Pakistan, but its Hindu ruler chose to remain initially independent. Following a Pakistani tribal invasion, he acceded to India on 26 October 1947, and the state was disputed between India and Pakistan. The state of Junagadh initially acceded to Pakistan but faced a revolt from its Hindu population. Following a breakdown of law and order, its Dewan requested India to take over the administration on 8 November 1947. India conducted a referendum in the state on 20 February 1948, in which the people voted overwhelmingly to join India. The state of Hyderabad, with the majority Hindu population but Muslim ruler faced intense turmoil and sectarian violence. India intervened in the state on 13 September 1948, following which the ruler of the state signed the Instrument of Accession, joining India.

Pakistan.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah became the Governor-General of Pakistan, and Liaquat Ali Khan became the Prime Minister of Pakistan.  Between October 1947 and March 1948 the rulers of several Muslim-majority states signed instruments of accession to join Pakistan. These included Amb, Bahawalpur, Chitral, Dir, Kalat, Khairpur, Kharan, Las Bela, Makran, and Swat.

Repeal.

The Indian Independence Act was subsequently repealed in Article 395 of the Constitution of India and in Article 221 of the Constitution of Pakistan of 1956, both constitutions being intended to bring about greater independence for the new states. Although under British law, the new constitutions did not have the legal authority to repeal the Act, the repeal was intended to establish them as independent legal systems based only on home-grown legislation. The Act has not been repealed in the United Kingdom, where it still has an effect, although some sections of it have been repealed.

The 1947 Indian Independence Act (1947 c. 30 (10 & 11. Geo. 6.)) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that partitioned British India into the two new independent dominions of India and Pakistan. The Act received the Royal Assent on 18 July 1947 and thus India and Pakistan, comprising West (modern day Pakistan) and East (modern day Bangladesh) regions, came into being on 15 August.

Zákon o nezávislosti Indie (anglicky "Indian Independence Act 1947") byl zákon přijatý Parlamentem Spojeného království, který oficiálně schválil nezávislost Indie a její rozdělení.


Plot.

Rock band No Vacancy performs at a nightclub three weeks before auditioning for a Battle of the Bands competition. Guitarist Dewey Finn creates on-stage antics, including a stage dive that abruptly ends the performance. The next morning, Dewey wakes up in the apartment he lives in with his friend, Ned Schneebly, and Ned's girlfriend, Patty Di Marco. They inform Dewey that he is overdue on his share of the rent, and that he must make up for it within one week or move out. When Dewey meets No Vacancy at a rehearsal session, he finds out that he has been replaced by another guitarist named Spider. Later, while attempting to sell some of his equipment for rent money, Dewey answers a phone call from Rosalie Mullins, the principal of the Horace Green prep school, inquiring for Ned about a short-term position as a substitute teacher. Desperate for his rent money, Dewey impersonates Ned and gets the position. On his first day at school, "Mr. S" (the name Dewey adopts when realizing he doesn’t know how to spell Schneebly) spends it behaving erratically, much to the class' confusion.  The next day, Dewey overhears the students playing their instruments in music class and devises a plan to form them into a new band to audition for Battle of the Bands. He casts classical guitarist Zack Mooneyham as lead guitarist, percussionist Freddy Jones as drummer, cellist Katie on bass, pianist Lawrence on keyboard, and himself as lead vocalist and guitarist. He assigns the rest of the class to various roles of backup singers, groupies, roadies, with Summer Hathaway as band manager. The project replaces normal lessons, but helps the students to embrace their talents and gain confidence. He reassures Lawrence, who is worried about not being cool enough for the band; Zack, whose father personally disapproves of rock music; and Tamika, an overweight girl who is too self-conscious to audition for backup singer despite having a powerful singing voice. During one eloquent lesson, Dewey teaches the kids that rock and roll is the way to "Stick it to the Man" and stand up for themselves. Band "groupies" Michelle and Elani, with Summer's approval, pitch the band name "The School of Rock."  Two weeks into his hiring, Dewey sneaks some of his students out of school to audition for a spot in the competition, while the rest of the class stay behind to maintain cover. When Freddy wanders off, Dewey retrieves him, but the group is rejected because the bill is full. After Summer tricks the staff into thinking that the students all have a terminal illness, the band is added to the bill. The next day, Mullins decides to check on Dewey's teaching progress, forcing Dewey to teach the actual material. Mullins explains that a parents' night will take place at the school the day before Battle of the Bands.  While Dewey prepares for the parents' night, Ned receives a paycheck from the school via mail, and eventually learns of Dewey's treachery. During the parents' meeting, the parents inquire about what Dewey was teaching the kids, so he explains to the parents as best he can. The meeting is halted when Ned, Patty, Mullins and the police arrive. Dewey then reveals his real name, admits he's not a licensed teacher and abruptly leaves after the parents misinterpret his statement about “touching” the kids and being "touched" by them. Back at the apartment, Dewey and Patty clash, while Ned intervenes and informs Dewey that he should move out.  The next morning, the parents cause an uproar in front of Mullins at her office, while the kids decide not to let their hard work go to waste. When the new substitute discovers that the kids are missing, she informs Mullins, and Mullins and the parents race to the competition. Ned, constantly bossed around by Patty up to this point, finally stands up for himself by breaking up with Patty and leaves to see the band perform. A school bus comes to pick up Dewey, who leads the kids to the Battle of the Bands, and decides that they should play a song written by Zack. Initially dismissed as a gimmick, the band wins over the entire crowd. Much to Dewey's dismay, No Vacancy wins, but the audience chant for School of Rock and demand an encore. Mullins and the parents, while upset at the deception, admit to being impressed by the children's talent and confidence on stage.  Some time later, an after-school program known as the School of Rock has opened as Dewey continues to coach the students he played with before, while Ned teaches beginners.

Production.

Screenwriter Mike White's concept for the film was inspired by the Langley Schools Music Project. Jack Black once witnessed a stage dive gone wrong involving Ian Astbury of rock band The Cult, which made its way into the film. Many scenes from the movie were shot around the New York City area. The school portrayed in "School of Rock" is actually Main Hall at Wagner College in Staten Island, New York. In the DVD commentary, the kids say that all of the hallway scenes were shot in one hallway. One of the theaters used in many of the shots was at Union County Performing Arts Center located in Rahway, New Jersey.

Music.

Soundtrack.

The eponymous album was released on September 30, 2003. Sammy James Jr. of the band The Mooney Suzuki penned the title track with screenwriter Mike White, and the band backed up Jack Black and the child musicians on the soundtrack recording of the song. The film's director, Richard Linklater, scouted the country for talented 13-year-old musicians to play the rock and roll music featured on the soundtrack and in the film. The soundtrack includes "Immigrant Song" by Led Zeppelin, a band that has rarely granted permission for use of their songs in film and television. Linklater came up with the idea to shoot a video on the stage used at the end of the film, with Jack Black begging the band for permission with the crowd extras cheering and chanting behind him. The video was sent directly to the living members of Led Zeppelin, and permission was granted for the song. The video is included on the DVD.

Songs featured in the film.

<nowiki>*</nowiki> Featured on the "Soundtrack" album

Reception.

Box office performance.

"School of Rock" opened at #1 with a weekend gross of $19,622,714 from 2,614 theaters for an average of $7,507 per venue. In its second weekend, the film declined just 21 percent, earning another $15,487,832 after expanding to 2,929 theaters, averaging $5,288 per venue, and bringing the 10-day gross to $39,671,396. In its third weekend, it dropped only 28 percent, making another $11,006,233 after expanding once again to 2,951 theaters, averaging $3,730 per venue, and bringing the 17-day gross to $54,898,025. It spent a total of six weeks among the Top 10 films and eventually grossed $81,261,177 in the United States and Canada and another $50,015,772 in international territories for a total gross of $131,282,949 worldwide, almost four times its budget of $35 million. This made "School of Rock" the highest-grossing music-themed comedy of all time, until it was overtaken in 2015 by "Pitch Perfect 2".

Critical response.

"School of Rock" received an approval rating of 91% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 199 reviews with an average rating of 7.73/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Black's exuberant, gleeful performance turns "School of Rock" into a hilarious, rocking good time." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 82 out of 100, based on 41 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".

Awards and nominations.

The film was nominated for several awards, including Black receiving a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actor – Comedy or Musical (which he lost to Bill Murray for "Lost in Translation"), and winning an MTV Movie Award for Best Comedic Performance. In 2004 the film won Best Comedy Film at the British Comedy Awards.

Legacy.

Possible sequel.

In 2008, Jack Black said that a sequel was being considered. It was later reported that director Richard Linklater and producer Scott Rudin would return. Mike White was returning as screenwriter for the sequel, titled "School of Rock 2: America Rocks", which picks up with Finn leading a group of summer school students on a cross-country field trip that delves into the history of rock 'n' roll. In 2012, Black stated that he believed the sequel was unlikely, saying, "I tried really hard to get all the pieces together. I wouldn't want to do it without the original writer and director, and we never all got together and saw eye-to-eye on what the script would be. It was not meant to be, unfortunately," but added, "never say never".

Stage adaptation.

On April 5, 2013, Andrew Lloyd Webber announced that he had bought the rights to "School of Rock" for a stage musical. On December 18, 2014, the musical was officially confirmed and it was announced that the show would receive its world premiere on Broadway in autumn 2015, at the Winter Garden Theatre. It ultimately began previews on November 9, 2015, and opened on December 6, 2015. The musical has a book by "Downton Abbey" creator Julian Fellowes, and is directed by Laurence Connor, with choreography by JoAnn M. Hunter, set and costume design by Anna Louizos and lighting by Natasha Katz. The musical features an original score composed by Lloyd Webber, with lyrics by Glenn Slater and sound design by Mick Potter, in addition to music from the original film. "School of Rock" became Lloyd Webber's first show opening on Broadway before London since "Jesus Christ Superstar" in 1971. The stage adaptation eventually closed on January 20, 2019, having grossed $160,145,109 over the course of 1,309 performances.

10-year reunion.

On August 29, 2013, a 10-year anniversary screening of the film was held in Austin, Texas, at the Paramount Theatre. Those in attendance included director Richard Linklater, Jack Black, Mike White, Miranda Cosgrove and the rest of the young cast members, except for Cole Hawkins (who played Leonard). The event, hosted by the Austin Film Society and Cirrus Logic, included a red carpet, a full cast and crew Q&A after the screening, where the now-grown child stars discussed their current pursuits in life, and a VIP after-party performance by the School of Rock band during which "School of Rock", "The Legend of The Rent", "Step Off" and "It's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock 'n' Roll)" were played.

Television adaptation.

On August 4, 2014, Nickelodeon announced that it was working with Paramount Television to develop a television show adaptation of the film. Production started in the fall and the series premiered in 2016. It starred Breanna Yde, Ricardo Hurtado, Jade Pettyjohn, Lance Lim, Aidan Miner, and Tony Cavalero. The series adaptation of "School of Rock" ran for three seasons from March 12, 2016 to April 8, 2018.

School of Rock is a 2003 comedy film directed by Richard Linklater, produced by Scott Rudin, and written by Mike White. The film stars Jack Black, Joan Cusack, Mike White, Sarah Silverman, and Miranda Cosgrove. Black plays struggling rock guitarist Dewey Finn, who is kicked out of his band and subsequently disguises himself as a substitute teacher at a prestigious prep school. After witnessing the musical talent of his students, Dewey forms a band of fifth-graders to attempt to win the upcoming Battle of the Bands and pay off his rent.

Škola ro(c)ku (v originále School of Rock) je komediální film z roku 2003 s Jackem Blackem v hlavní roli. Vypráví příběh neúspěšného rockera Dewey Finna, který se nechá zaměstnat jako suplující učitel na prestižní soukromé základní škole a snaží se vytvořit ze své třídy rockovou skupinu, která by mu pomohla vyhrát soutěž rockových kapel.


Background.

Petronilla came to the throne through special circumstances. Her father, Ramiro, was bishop of Barbastro-Roda when his brother, Alfonso I, died childless in 1134. Alfonso left the crown to the three religious military orders, but his decision was not respected. The aristocracy of Navarre elected a king of their own, restoring their independence, and the nobility of Aragon raised Ramiro to the throne. As king, he received a papal dispensation to abandon his monastic vows in order to secure the succession to the throne. King Ramiro the Monk, as he is known, married Agnes of Aquitaine in 1135; their only child, Petronilla, was born the next year in Huesca.  Petronilla's marriage was a very important matter of state. The nobility had rejected the proposition of Alfonso VII of Castile to arrange a marriage between Petronilla and his son Sancho and to educate her at his court. When she was just a little over one year old, Petronilla was betrothed in Barbastro on 11 August 1137 to Raymond Berengar IV, Count of Barcelona, who was twenty-three years her senior. At El Castellar on 13 November, Ramiro abdicated, transferred authority to Ramon Berenguer, and returned to monastic life. Ramon Berenger de facto ruled the kingdom using the title of "Prince of the Aragonese" ("princeps Aragonensis").

Reign.

In August 1150, when Petronilla was fourteen, the betrothal was ratified at a wedding ceremony held in the city of Lleida. Petronilla consummated her marriage to Ramon Berenguer in the early part of 1151, when she reached the age of 15. The marriage produced five children: Peter (1152–57), Raymond Berengar (1157–96), Peter (1158–81), Dulce (1160–98), and Sancho (1161–1223). While she was pregnant with the first, on 4 April 1152, she wrote up a will bequeathing her kingdom to her husband in case she did not survive childbirth.  While her husband was away in Provence (1156–57), where he was regent (since 1144) for the young Count Raymond Berengar II, Queen Petronilla remained in Barcelona. Accounting records show her moving between there and Vilamajor and Sant Celoni while presiding over the court in Raymond Berengar's absence.

Widowhood.

After her husband's death in 1162, Petronilla received the prosperous County of Besalú and the Vall de Ribes for life. Her eldest son was seven years old when, on 18 June 1164 ("Actum est hoc in Barchinona XIIII kalendas julii anno Dominice incarnationis M C LXIIII"), Petronilla abdicated the throne of Aragon and passed it to him. When Raymond Berenguer inherited the throne from his mother, he changed his name to Alfonso out of deference to the Aragonese. The second son, named Peter, then changed his name to Raymond Berenguer.  Petronilla died in Barcelona in October 1173 and was buried at Barcelona Cathedral; her tomb has been lost. After her death, Besalú and Vall de Ribes reverted to the direct domain of the Count of Barcelona, her son Alfonso, who by 1174 had bestowed Besalú on his wife, Sancha. In the Ribes, the local bailiff, Ramon, had carved out for himself "a virtually independent administrative authority" there. He had conducted an inventory for Petronilla after Raymond Berenguer's death, and his son and namesake was in power in 1198.

Legacy.

In 1410, after the death of King Martin without living legitimate descendants, the House of Barcelona became extinct in the legitimate male line. Two years later, Ferdinand I was enthroned per the Compromise of Caspe. Although Ferdinand triumphed mainly for political and military reasons, the theoretical basis of his candidacy was inheritance in the female line, for which Queen Petronilla served as the precedent. He was Martin's closest legitimate male relative, but related through a woman. His chief opponent, Count James II of Urgell, was related to Martin more distantly, but in the male line. In Catalonia there were indications that women were forbidden to hold comital office, but in Aragon there was no legislation on the subject. In both places there were a few cases of women who had passed on their right to their sons, most importantly Petronilla.  There is a long debate whether Petronilla was the true ruler of Aragon. Some claim that Ramiro II gave the kingdom of Aragon to his son-in-law and that the presence of Petronilla was secondary. According to Jerónimo de Zurita, there was a clause in the pact with Ramon Berenguer stating that if Petronilla died, Aragon would pass to the children of Ramon Berenguer through a future second marriage. In any case, there is insufficient documentation to make a completely conclusive statement about the question and the Compromise of Caspe confirmed the legitimacy of female transmission.

Petronilla (29 June/11 August 1136 – 15 October 1173), whose name is also spelled Petronila or Petronella (Aragonese "Peyronela" or "Payronella", and ), was the queen of Aragon from the abdication of her father, Ramiro II, in 1137 until her own abdication in 1164. She was the last ruling member of the Jiménez dynasty in Aragon, and by marriage brought the throne to the House of Barcelona.

Petronila Aragonská (1136, Huesca – 13. října 1173) byla aragonská královna, jediná dcera aragonského krále Ramira II. a Anežky z Poitou.


Role.

The ARTHUR detects hostile artillery by tracking projectiles in flight. The original ARTHUR Mod A can locate guns at 15 - 20 km and 120 mm mortars at 30 - 35 km with a circular error probable of 0.45% of range. This is accurate enough for effective counter-battery fire by friendly artillery batteries. ARTHUR can operate as a stand-alone, medium-range weapons locating radar or a long-range weapon locating system, consisting of two to four radars working in coordination. This flexibility enables the system to maintain a constant surveillance of an area of interest.  The upgraded ARTHUR Mod B meets the British Army's MAMBA requirement for locating guns, mortars or rockets. It can locate guns at 20 - 25 km and 120 mm mortars at 35 - 40 km with a circular probable error of 0.35% of range. MAMBA was successfully used by the British Army in Iraq and Afghanistan, with an availability of 90%.  ARTHUR Mod C has a larger antenna and can detect guns at 31 km, mortars at 55 km and rockets at 50 - 60 km depending on their size, and locate targets at a rate of 100 per minute with CEP 0.2% of range for guns and rockets and 0.1% for mortars.  It can be carried by a C-130 or slung under a heavy lift helicopter such as a Chinook. Its air mobility allows it for use by light and rapid reaction forces such as airborne and marine units.

Nordic Battle Group.

The use of the ARTHUR in Nordic Battle Groups will primarily concentrate on preventing the use of artillery barrages in civilian areas, since the radar can identify an artillery unit guilty of targeting civilians. It will also be used to warn friendly mission troops of incoming indirect fire.

Operational Modes.

ARTHUR can be operated in two main modes: Weapon locating and Fire direction. Weapon locating is used to determine the location of the guns, mortars or rocket launchers that fired and their target area. Fire direction is used to adjust the fire of own artillery onto target coordinates.

Weapon Locating.

When locating enemy artillery, the radar tracks the up-going trajectory of shells, calculates their points of origin and impact and, with other information, displays it to the radar operator(s). Depending on national tactics, techniques, procedures, the commander's orders and the situation, this information may be used to alert any troops in the impact area and engage the hostile batteries with counter-battery fire. If the users have digital communications networks these messages may be sent automatically. The ARTHUR can determine whether the artillery piece is of artillery-type, rocket-type or mortar-type based upon the curve of the trajectory, the munition's speed, and its range.

Fire Direction.

When in Fire direction mode the radar calculates the expected impact location of the friendly fire. From this corrections are calculated and reported to hit the target coordinates.  Sweden also uses the radar for 'fall of shot' calibration.

Threats.

Radars are easy to detect and locate if the enemy has the necessary ELINT/ESM capability. The consequences of this detection are likely to be attack by artillery fire or aircraft (including anti-radiation missiles) or ECM. In other circumstances ground attack with direct fire or short range indirect fire are the main threat. The usual measures against the first are using a radar horizon to screen from ground-based detection, minimising transmission time, deploying radars singly and moving frequently. Swedish ARTHUR units usually operate in groups of three that guard the immediate surroundings.

ARTHUR is an acronym for "Artillery Hunting Radar", is a Counter-battery radar system originally developed jointly for and in close co-operation with the Norwegian and Swedish armed forces by Ericsson Microwave Systems in both Sweden and Norway. It is also used by the British Army, under the name Mobile Artillery Monitoring Battlefield Radar, or Mobile Artillery Monitoring Battlefield Asset (MAMBA)

Dělostřelecký systém ARTHUR (ARTillery HUnting Radar) je mobilní pozemní radiolokační systém vyvinutý švédskou firmou Ericsson v 90. letech 20. století. Jeho nejčastějším nosičem je vozidlo Bv 206. Slouží k vyhledávání letících dělostřeleckých projektilů a po krátkém sledování určí místo výstřelu i dopadu. Jeho pracovní dosah se pohybuje od 2,7 - 40 km. Může zpracovat až 100 cílů za minutu a v režimu vyhledávání sledovat až 8 střel. Radiolokátor ARTHUR je schopen určit postavení zbraní, jež střely vypálily, a účinně na ně navést vlastní palebné prostředky.