Early life.

Strong was born Marco Giuseppe Salussolia on 5 August 1963 in the London district of Islington, the son of an Austrian mother and Italian father. His father left the family soon after his birth, and he was brought up by his mother while she worked as an au pair in Germany. He later said, "The home I grew up in was a flat in Myddelton Square in London's Islington, a beautiful Georgian square with a huge church in the middle. We moved around a lot when I was a kid. I remember flats in Walthamstow, Clapton, Stoke Newington, and Edmonton." He said in 2008 that he was inspired to become an actor as a child by watching French actor Alain Delon, stating, "I remember watching him in films and though I couldn't understand a word he was saying I remember thinking he looked great." However, in 2019, he clarified that he did not actually consider acting as a career option until he was in his late teens.  When Strong was a child, his mother legally changed his name to help him fit in with his English peers. He was baptised a Catholic. He attended Wymondham College, where he sang in the punk bands the Electric Hoax and Private Party; the name of the latter was based on the idea that the band's shows would not be attended, due to prospective audiences thinking that the event was a private party. He had ambitions to become a lawyer, but he returned home to London after one year of studying German law at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, subsequently studying English and Drama at Royal Holloway and later attending the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School.

Career.

Strong appeared in two "Prime Suspect" serials for ITV as Inspector (later Detective Chief Superintendent) Larry Hall, in "Prime Suspect 3" (1993) and "Prime Suspect 6" (2003). He also had starring roles in two BBC Two drama serials, "Our Friends in the North" (1996) and "The Long Firm" (2004), earning a BAFTA nomination for the latter. He also played the villainous Colonel Brand in "Sharpe's Mission" (1996). Strong portrayed the romantic lead, Mr. Knightley, in the 1996 ITV adaptation of Jane Austen's novel "Emma". He then played the role of Steve in the 1997 film adaptation of Nick Hornby's "Fever Pitch", opposite Colin Firth.  At the beginning of the 2000s, Strong appeared in "Heartlands" and in Shakespeare's "Twelfth Night" at the Donmar Warehouse, for which he was nominated for the 2003 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Supporting Role. He was later featured in Roman Polanski's "Oliver Twist" (2005), played Mussawi in the film "Syriana" (2005), and played an assassin named Sorter in "Revolver" (2005). Strong portrayed the traitorous Wictred in "Tristan & Isolde", showing his talent with swordplay, and since 2006, he has provided the narration in the BBC's genealogy series "Who Do You Think You Are?". In 2007, Strong was one of the final two actors considered for the part of Anton Chigurh in "No Country for Old Men"; despite the persistence of rumours, he claims he was never offered the part. Strong was Pinbacker, the insane captain of "Icarus I" in "Sunshine" (2007). Also in 2007, Strong portrayed Prince Septimus, the youngest of the seven Stormhold princes, in "Stardust".  In 2008, he played Nick Calderelli in "Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day", Mannie Miesel in "Flashbacks of a Fool", Finn in "Babylon A.D.", Archy in "RocknRolla", and Philipp Bouhler in "Good". Also in 2008, he portrayed Hani Salaam, the Jordanian intelligence chief and director of the feared GID in "Body of Lies", marking his first collaboration with English director Ridley Scott. Strong's performance as Hani Salaam earned him a nomination for the London Critics Circle Film Award for Best British Supporting Actor and his performance was mentioned by several critics, with Scott calling it "a marvel of exotic suavity and cool insinuation" while Ebert "particularly admired" his aura of suave control. The following year, he played a lead part in the Channel 4 film "Endgame", and he played Lord Blackwood, the main villain, in "Sherlock Holmes", who has somehow returned after his execution with a plot to take over the British Empire using an arsenal of dark arts and new technologies. The film marked his third time working with director Guy Ritchie. He went on to work with Ridley Scott for a second time in the 2010 epic adventure film "Robin Hood", portraying the antagonist Sir Godfrey. The same year, he played Frank D'Amico, the head of a criminal organisation, in "Kick-Ass". Strong says he is drawn to playing the antagonist. He tries to "understand the purpose of the character", and then work on building a believable individual.  In 2011, he played Thaal Sinestro, Green Lantern and Hal Jordan's mentor, in the superhero film "Green Lantern". Strong said the film "closely follows the early comics. Sinestro starts out as Hal Jordan's mentor, slightly suspicious and not sure of him because obviously Hal is the first human being who's made into a Green Lantern. He's certainly very strict and certainly unsure of the wisdom of Hal becoming a Green Lantern." Strong went on to state that the character "is a military guy but isn't immediately bad. It's the kind of person he is that lends himself to becoming bad over the course of the comics being written, but initially he's quite a heroic figure." He also revealed that the outfit and other aspects of the character very closely follow the character's early days. Also in 2011, he voiced Pod in "The Secret World of Arrietty" and Captain Titus of the Ultramarines Chapter in the video game "". The same year, and most notably, he played the role of Jim Prideaux in the film adaptation of "Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy", which was earlier played by Ian Bannen in the iconic original 1979 BBC series starring Alec Guinness. The film premiered in competition at the 68th Venice International Film Festival on 5 September 2011.  Strong then played Clive Cornell in "The Guard" (2011), which is the most successful independent Irish film of all time in terms of Irish box-office receipts, overtaking "The Wind that Shakes the Barley" (2006). He next portrayed the role of Jacob Sternwood in the British thriller "Welcome to the Punch". He played Matai Shang, the leader of the Therns in "John Carter" (2012), and starred in Kathryn Bigelow's action thriller film "Zero Dark Thirty" (2012) alongside Jessica Chastain, Jason Clarke, and Joel Edgerton. The film had its premiere in Los Angeles on 19 December 2012 and had its wide release on 11 January 2013. The film received wide critical acclaim and was nominated for five Academy Awards, including Best Picture.  In November 2012, Strong and Taissa Farmiga were cast as the lead characters John Washington and Anna Greene in "Mindscape", produced by Jaume Collet-Serra, the feature-length directorial debut of Jorge Dorado. The film centres on a man with the ability to enter people's memories who begins working on the case of a brilliant but problematic teenager to determine whether she is a sociopath or the victim of trauma. The film came to American cinemas in June 2014. Jaguar Cars produced an advertisement in 2014, initially shown during Super Bowl XLVIII and later online and on television, featuring Strong alongside fellow British actors Ben Kingsley and Tom Hiddleston. It was themed around their recent film roles as villains, and used the tagline "It's good to be bad". That same year, Strong co-starred in the historical drama film "The Imitation Game", alongside Benedict Cumberbatch and Keira Knightley, in which he played MI6 chief Stewart Menzies.  In 2015, Strong won the Olivier Award for Best Actor for his role in "A View from the Bridge", which he starred in as Eddie Carbone at the Young Vic. When Strong went over to perform the play on Broadway in New York, he received similar levels of acclaim, and was nominated for the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Play, and the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play, for his performance. In 2016, he starred in the spy action comedy "Grimsby", about a British black-ops spy (Strong) whose idiotic brother (Sacha Baron Cohen) is an English football hooligan. Also that year, he starred in a production of "The Red Barn", by David Hare, which premiered in October 2016 at the National Theatre, (Lyttelton Stage), and co-starred in the political thriller film "Miss Sloane", directed by John Madden. The film premiered at the AFI Film Festival in November 2016.  In 2018, Strong starred alongside Ethan Hawke and Noomi Rapace in hostage thriller "Stockholm", and had the leading role in Fox network's "Deep State", an espionage thriller in which he portrays an ex-spy named Max Easton, who after the death of his son, is brought out of retirement unwillingly, to avenge his death. In 2019, he portrayed the villain Doctor Thaddeus Sivana in the superhero film "Shazam!."

Personal life.

Strong continues to live in London. He said in October 2007, "I've got no desire to live anywhere else. I was born here, my wife was born here, my kids were born here and this is where we're going to stay. I feel like I have a lovely balance. I'm able to keep my head below the parapet. I get on with my work, I have a family and I get on the Tube. It just so happens that I'm doing this job."  Strong speaks fluent German and some Italian. He dubbed over Daniel Craig's voice in German when "German with an English accent" was required for the 1997 drama film "Obsession".  In an interview, Strong named David Bowie as his style icon. He was named one of "GQ" 50 best dressed British men in 2015. He supports Arsenal FC.

Mark Strong (born Marco Giuseppe Salussolia; 5 August 1963) is a British actor. He is best known for his film roles such as Prince Septimus in "Stardust" (2007), Lord Henry Blackwood in "Sherlock Holmes" (2009), Frank D'Amico in "Kick-Ass" (2010), Jim Prideaux in "Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy" (2011), George in "Zero Dark Thirty" (2012), Major General Stewart Menzies in "The Imitation Game" (2014), Merlin in "" (2014) and "" (2017), and Dr. Thaddeus Sivana in "Shazam!" (2019).

Mark Strong, rodným jménem Marco Giuseppe Salussolia, (* 30. srpna 1963 Londýn, Spojené království) je britský herec. Po otci je Ital, po matce Rakušan, jeho nynější jméno a příjmení není umělecký pseudonym, neboť jeho matka jej nechala oficiálně přejmenovat tak, aby lépe zapadl do britského prostředí. Původně chtěl být právníkem a práva také několik let studoval v rodné zemi své matky, v Rakousku, ale nakonec se vrátil do Londýna, kde studoval angličtinu a drama, poté ještě navštěvoval divadelní školu v Bristolu.


Function.

SUMO modification of proteins has many functions. Among the most frequent and best studied are protein stability, nuclear-cytosolic transport, and transcriptional regulation. Typically, only a small fraction of a given protein is SUMOylated and this modification is rapidly reversed by the action of deSUMOylating enzymes. SUMOylation of target proteins has been shown to cause a number of different outcomes including altered localization and binding partners. The SUMO-1 modification of RanGAP1 (the first identified SUMO substrate) leads to its trafficking from cytosol to nuclear pore complex. The SUMO modification of hNinein leads to its movement from the centrosome to the nucleus. In many cases, SUMO modification of transcriptional regulators correlates with inhibition of transcription. One can refer to the GeneRIFs of the SUMO proteins, e.g. human SUMO-1, to find out more.  There are 4 confirmed SUMO isoforms in humans; SUMO-1, SUMO-2, SUMO-3 and SUMO-4. At the amino acid level, SUMO1 is about 50% identical with the nearly identical SUMO2. SUMO-2/3 show a high degree of similarity to each other and are distinct from SUMO-1. SUMO-4 shows similarity to SUMO-2/3 but differs in having a Proline instead of Glutamine at position 90. As a result, SUMO-4 isn't processed and conjugated under normal conditions, but is used for modification of proteins under stress-conditions like starvation. During mitosis, SUMO-2/3 localize to centromeres and condensed chromosomes, whereas SUMO-1 localizes to the mitotic spindle and spindle midzone, indicating that SUMO paralogs regulate distinct mitotic processes in mammalian cells. One of the major SUMO conjugation products associated with mitotic chromosomes arose from SUMO-2/3 conjugation of topoisomerase II, which is modified exclusively by SUMO-2/3 during mitosis. SUMO-2/3 modifications seem to be involved specifically in the stress response. SUMO-1 and SUMO-2/3 can form mixed chains, however, because SUMO-1 does not contain the internal SUMO consensus sites found in SUMO-2/3, it is thought to terminate these poly-SUMO chains. Serine 2 of SUMO-1 is phosphorylated, raising the concept of a'modified modifier'.

DNA damage response.

Cellular DNA is regularly exposed to DNA damaging agents. A DNA damage response (DDR) that is well regulated and intricate is usually employed to deal with the potential deleterious effects of the damage. When DNA damage occurs, SUMO protein has been shown to act as a molecular glue to facilitate the assembly of large protein complexes in repair foci. Also, SUMOylation can alter a protein's biochemical activities and interactions. SUMOylation plays a role in the major DNA repair pathways of base excision repair, nucleotide excision repair, non-homologous end joining and homologous recombinational repair. SUMOylation also facilitates error prone translesion synthesis.

Structure.

SUMO proteins are small; most are around 100 amino acids in length and 12 kDa in mass. The exact length and mass varies between SUMO family members and depends on which organism the protein comes from. Although SUMO has very little sequence identity with ubiquitin at the amino acid level, it has a nearly identical structural fold.  The structure of human SUMO1 is depicted on the right. It shows SUMO1 as a globular protein with both ends of the amino acid chain (shown in red and blue) sticking out of the protein's centre. The spherical core consists of an alpha helix and a beta sheet. The diagrams shown are based on an NMR analysis of the protein in solution.

Prediction of SUMO attachment.

Most SUMO-modified proteins contain the tetrapeptide consensus motif Ψ-K-x-D/E where Ψ is a hydrophobic residue, K is the lysine conjugated to SUMO, x is any amino acid (aa), D or E is an acidic residue. Substrate specificity appears to be derived directly from Ubc9 and the respective substrate motif. Currently available prediction programs are:

SUMO attachment.

SUMO attachment to its target is similar to that of ubiquitin (as it is for the other ubiquitin-like proteins such as NEDD 8). The SUMO precursor has some extra amino acids that need to be removed, therefore a C-terminal peptide is cleaved from the SUMO precursor by a protease (in human these are the SENP proteases or Ulp1 in yeast) to reveal a di-glycine motif. The obtained SUMO then becomes bound to an E1 enzyme (SUMO Activating Enzyme (SAE)) which is a heterodimer. It is then passed to an E2 which is a conjugating enzyme (Ubc9). Finally, one of a small number of E3 ligating proteins attaches it to the protein. In yeast, there are four SUMO E3 proteins, Cst9, Mms21, Siz1 and Siz2. While in ubiquitination an E3 is essential to add ubiquitin to its target, evidence suggests that the E2 is sufficient in SUMOylation as long as the consensus sequence is present. It is thought that the E3 ligase promotes the efficiency of SUMOylation and in some cases has been shown to direct SUMO conjugation onto non-consensus motifs. E3 enzymes can be largely classed into PIAS proteins, such as Mms21 (a member of the Smc5/6 complex) and Pias-gamma and HECT proteins. On Chromosome 17 of the human genome, SUMO2 is near SUMO1+E1/E2 and SUMO2+E1/E2, among various others. Some E3's, such as RanBP2, however, are neither. Recent evidence has shown that PIAS-gamma is required for the SUMOylation of the transcription factor yy1 but it is independent of the zinc-RING finger (identified as the functional domain of the E3 ligases). SUMOylation is reversible and is removed from targets by specific SUMO proteases. In budding yeast, the Ulp1 SUMO protease is found bound at the nuclear pore, whereas Ulp2 is nucleoplasmic. The distinct subnuclear localisation of deSUMOylating enzymes is conserved in higher eukaryotes.

Role in protein purification.

Recombinant proteins expressed in "E. coli" may fail to fold properly, instead forming aggregates and precipitating as inclusion bodies. This insolubility may be due to the presence of codons read inefficiently by "E. coli", differences in eukaryotic and prokaryotic ribosomes, or lack of appropriate molecular chaperones for proper protein folding. In order to purify such proteins it may be necessary to fuse the protein of interest with a solubility tag such as SUMO or MBP (maltose-binding protein) to increase the protein's solubility. SUMO can later be cleaved from the protein of interest using a SUMO-specific protease such as Ulp1 peptidase.  Programs for prediction SUMOylation:

Small Ubiquitin-like Modifier (or SUMO) proteins are a family of small proteins that are covalently attached to and detached from other proteins in cells to modify their function. SUMOylation is a post-translational modification involved in various cellular processes, such as nuclear-cytosolic transport, transcriptional regulation, apoptosis, protein stability, response to stress, and progression through the cell cycle.

SUMO (z angl. "small ubiquitin-like modifier"), též sentrin, je malý signální protein, který vykazuje prostorovou podobnost s ubikvitinem. Je tvořen beta-skládanými listy omotanými kolem centrálního alfa-helixu, celkem se lidský SUMO skládá asi ze 101 aminokyselin. SUMO se v procesu sumoylace připojuje na lysinový postranní řetězec na cílovém proteinu, pokud se daný lysinový zbytek nachází v takzvaném SUMO-konsensuálním motivu ; možný je i proces opačný (desumoylace), navozovaný SUMO-specifickými proteázami.


Early life.

Frederick William was born in Berlin, the son of Prince Augustus William of Prussia (the second son of King Frederick William I of Prussia) and Duchess Luise of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. His mother's elder sister, Elisabeth, was the wife of Augustus William's brother King Frederick II ("Frederick the Great"). Frederick William became heir-presumptive to the throne of Prussia on his father's death in 1758, since Frederick II had no children. The boy was of an easy-going and pleasure-loving disposition, averse to sustained effort of any kind, and sensual by nature.  His marriage with Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Crown Princess of Prussia, daughter of Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, contracted 14 July 1765 in Charlottenburg, was dissolved in 1769. He then married Frederica Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt, daughter of Ludwig IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt on 14 July 1769 also in Charlottenburg. Although he had seven children by his second wife, he had an ongoing relationship with his mistress, Wilhelmine Enke (created Countess Wilhelmine von Lichtenau in 1796), a woman of strong intellect and much ambition, and had five children by her—the first when she was still in her teens.  Frederick William, before the corpulence of his middle age, was a man of singularly handsome presence, not without mental qualities of a high order; he was devoted to the arts – Boccherini, Mozart and the young Beethoven enjoyed his patronage, and his private orchestra had a Europe-wide reputation. He also was a talented cellist. But an artistic temperament was hardly what was required of a king of Prussia on the eve of the French Revolution, and Frederick the Great, who had employed him in various services (notably in an abortive confidential mission to the court of Russia in 1780), openly expressed his misgivings as to the character of the prince and his surroundings. For his part, Frederick William, who had never been properly introduced to diplomacy and the business of rulership, resented his uncle for not taking him seriously.

Reign.

The misgivings of Frederick II appear justified in retrospect. Frederick William's accession to the throne (17 August 1786) was, indeed, followed by a series of measures for lightening the burdens of the people, reforming the oppressive French system of tax-collecting introduced by Frederick, and encouraging trade by the diminution of customs dues and the making of roads and canals. This gave the new king much popularity with the masses; the educated classes were pleased by Frederick Williams's reversal of his uncle's preference for the French language and the promotion of the German language, with the admission of German writers to the Prussian Academy, and by the active encouragement given to schools and universities. Frederick William also terminated his predecessor's state monopolies for coffee and tobacco and the sugar monopoly. Under his reign the codification known as "Allgemeines Preußisches Landrecht", initiated by Frederick II, continued and was completed in 1794.

Mysticism and religious policies.

In 1781 Frederick William, then prince of Prussia, inclined to mysticism, had joined the Rosicrucians, and had fallen under the influence of Johann Christoph von Wöllner and Johann Rudolf von Bischoffwerder. On 26 August 1786 Wöllner was appointed privy councillor for finance ("Geheimer Oberfinanzrath"), and on 2 October 1786 was ennobled. Though not in name, he in fact became prime minister; in all internal affairs it was he who decided; and the fiscal and economic reforms of the new reign were the application of his theories. Bischoffswerder, too, still a simple major, was called into the king's counsels; by 1789 he was already an adjutant-general. The opposition to Wöllner was, indeed, at the outset strong enough to prevent his being entrusted with the department of religion; but this too in time was overcome, and on 3 July 1788 he was appointed active privy councillor of state and of justice and head of the spiritual department for Lutheran and Catholic affairs. From this position Wöllner pursued long lasting reforms concerning religion in the Prussian state.  The king proved eager to aid Wöllner's crusade. On 9 July 1788 a religious edict was issued forbidding Evangelical ministers from teaching anything not contained in the letter of their official books, proclaimed the necessity of protecting the Christian religion against the "enlighteners" ("Aufklärer"), and placed educational establishments under the supervision of the orthodox clergy. On 18 December 1788 a new censorship law was issued to secure the orthodoxy of all published books. This forced major Berlin journals like Christoph Friedrich Nicolai's "Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliothek" and Johann Erich Biester's "Berliner Monatsschrift" to publish only outside the Prussian borders. Moreover, people like Immanuel Kant were forbidden to speak in public on the topic of religion.  Finally, in 1791, a Protestant commission was established at Berlin ("Immediate-Examinationscommission") to watch over all ecclesiastical and scholastic appointments. Although Wöllner's religious edict had many critics, it was an important measure that, in fact, proved an important stabilizing factor for the Prussian state. Aimed at protecting the multi-confessional rights enshrined in the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, the provisions of Wöllner's edict were intended to safeguard against religious strife by imposing a system of state sponsored limits. The edict was also a notable step forward regarding the rights of Jews, Mennonites, and Herrnhut brethren, who now received full state protection. Given the confessional divides within Prussian society, primarily between Calvinists and Lutherans but increasingly Catholics as well, such a policy was important for maintaining a stable civil society.  In his zeal for establishing Prussia as a paragon of stable Christian statehood, Frederick William outstripped his minister; he even blamed Wöllner's "idleness and vanity" for the inevitable failure of the attempt to regulate opinion from above, and in 1794 deprived him of one of his secular offices in order that he might have more time "to devote himself to the things of God"; in edict after edict the king continued to the end of his reign to make regulations "in order to maintain in his states a true and active Christianity, as the path to genuine fear of God".

Foreign policies.

The attitude of Frederick William II towards the army and foreign policy proved fateful for Prussia. The army was the very foundation of the Prussian state, as both Frederick William I and Frederick the Great had fully realised. The army had been their first care, and its efficiency had been maintained by their constant personal supervision. Frederick William II had no taste for military matters and put his authority as "Warlord" ("Kriegsherr") into commission under a supreme college of war ("Oberkriegs-Collegium") under the Duke of Brunswick and General Wichard Joachim Heinrich von Möllendorf. It was the beginning of the process that ended in 1806 at the disastrous Battle of Jena. Although the Prussian army reached its highest peacetime level of manpower under Frederick William II (189,000 infantry and 48,000 cavalry), under his reign the Prussian state treasury incurred a substantial debt, and the quality of the troops' training deteriorated.  Under the circumstances, Frederick William's interventions in European affairs were of little benefit to Prussia. The Dutch campaign of 1787, entered into for purely family reasons, was indeed successful, but Prussia received not even the cost of her intervention. An attempt to intervene in the war of Russia and Austria against the Ottoman Empire failed to achieve its objective; Prussia did not succeed in obtaining any concessions of territory, and the dismissal of minister Hertzberg (5 July 1791) marked the final abandonment of the anti-Austrian tradition of Frederick the Great.  Meanwhile, the French Revolution alarmed the ruling monarchs of Europe, and in August 1791 Frederick William, at the meeting at Pillnitz Castle, agreed with Emperor Leopold II to join in supporting the cause of King Louis XVI of France. However the king's character and the confusion of the Prussian finances could not sustain effective action in this regard. A formal alliance was indeed signed on 7 February 1792, and Frederick William took part personally in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, but the king was hampered by want of funds, and his counsels were distracted by the affairs of a deteriorating Poland, which promised a richer booty than was likely to be gained by the anti-revolutionary crusade into France. A subsidy treaty with the sea powers (Great Britain and the Netherlands, signed at The Hague, 19 April 1794) filled Prussia's coffers, but at the cost of a promise to supply 64,000 land troops to the coalition. The insurrection in Poland that followed the partition of 1793, and the threat of unilateral intervention by Russia, drove Frederick William into the separate Treaty of Basel with the French Republic (5 April 1795), which was regarded by the other great monarchies as a betrayal, and left Prussia morally isolated in the struggle between the monarchical principle and the new republican creed of the Revolution. Although the land area of the Prussian state reached a new peak under his rule after the third partition of Poland in 1795, the new territories included parts of Poland such as Warsaw that had virtually no German population, severely straining administrative resources due to various pro-Polish revolts.

Personal life and patronage of the arts.

Frederick William's first marriage, to Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick (his first cousin) had ended after four years during which both spouses had been unfaithful. Their uncle, Frederick II, granted a divorce reluctantly, as he was more fond of Elisabeth than of Frederick William. His second marriage lasted until his death, but he continued his relationship with Wilhelmine Enke. In 1794–1797 he had a castle built for her on the Pfaueninsel. Moreover, he was involved in two more (bigamist) morganatic marriages: with Elisabeth Amalie, Gräfin von Voß, Gräfin von Ingenheim in 1787 and (after her death in 1789) with Sophie Juliane Gräfin von Dönhoff. He had another seven children with those two women, which explains why his people also called him "der Vielgeliebte" ("the much loved") and "der dicke Lüderjahn" ("the fat scallywag"). His favourite son—with Wilhelmine Enke—was Graf Alexander von der Mark. His daughter from Sophie Juliane, Countess Julie of Brandenburg (4 January 1793, Neuchâtel – 29 January 1848, Vienna), married to Frederick Ferdinand, Duke of Anhalt-Köthen.  Other buildings constructed under his reign were the Marmorpalais in Potsdam and the world-famous Brandenburger Tor in Berlin.  On 16 November 1797, Frederick William II died in Potsdam. He was succeeded by his son, Frederick William III, who had resented his father's lifestyle and acted swiftly to deal with what he considered the immoral state of the court. Frederick William II is buried in the Berliner Dom.

Children.

Frederick William II had the following children:

Frederick William II (; 25 September 1744 – 16 November 1797) was King of Prussia from 1786 until his death. He was in personal union the Prince-elector of Brandenburg and (via the Orange-Nassau inheritance of his grandfather) sovereign prince of the Canton of Neuchâtel. Pleasure-loving and indolent, he is seen as the antithesis to his predecessor, Frederick II. Under his reign, Prussia was weakened internally and externally, and he failed to deal adequately with the challenges to the existing order posed by the French Revolution. His religious policies were directed against the Enlightenment and aimed at restoring a traditional Protestantism. However, he was a patron of the arts and responsible for the construction of some notable buildings, among them the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin.

Fridrich Vilém II. Pruský ("Friedrich Wilhelm II. von Hohenzollern"; 25. září 1744, Berlín – 16. listopadu 1797, Postupim) byl od roku 1786 do své smrti král pruský, kurfiřt a markrabě braniborský (jako Fridrich Vilém III.) a kníže neuchâtelský. Pocházel z braniborské větve rodu Hohenzollernů. Svou požitkářskou a zahálčivou povahou působil jako protiklad svého předchůdce Fridricha II. Velikého. Obtížně se vyrovnával s osvícenstvím a společenskými důsledky Francouzské revoluce; za jeho vlády Prusko oslabilo vnitřně i mezinárodně.


Career.

Myricks was born in Clinton, Mississippi. A durable jumper, he first broke onto the track scene in 1976. While competing for Mississippi College, he was the NCAA Champion in the long jump. He followed that with a second place at the U. S. Olympic Trials, beating defending Olympic champion Randy Williams in the process. At the 1976 Olympics, he broke his foot while warming up for the final and was unable to compete. His teammates Arnie Robinson and Williams finished 1 and 2. The three American jumpers had been easily the top three jumpers in qualifying.  In 1979 he won again the NCAA Championship, this time both indoors and outdoors. He was also the US National Champion (27–2), and World Cup Champion (8.52 m). He repeated as U.S. national champion in 1980 and in 1989.  He competed for the United States at the 1988 Summer Olympics held in Seoul, South Korea, where he won the bronze medal in the men's long jump competition. In addition to the 1976 Olympics, Myricks won the 1980 Olympic Trials (over a young Carl Lewis), the team that did not go to the Olympics due to the 1980 Summer Olympics boycott. As consolation, he received one of 461 Congressional Gold Medals created especially for the spurned athletes. He finished second to Lewis in the 1984 Olympic Trials. He finished fourth in the Olympics that year.  He set his personal best of 8.74 m (28' 8") in the long jump at the 1988 Olympic Trials. That jump still ranks Myricks as the number 5 long jumper ever. It was the trials record, for a few minutes, until surpassed by Carl Lewis. After qualifying for four straight Olympic teams, Myricks returned in 1992 as a 36-year-old to a fifth Olympic Trials, finishing in seventh place.  Myricks was the third-place jumper at the 1991 World Championships in Athletics - Men's Long Jump when Lewis and Mike Powell were fighting over the world record, what many consider the greatest long jump competition ever.  Based on a statistical comparison of 8.16 meters, Myricks had more competitions (170) over that mark than any other competitor. Moving that comparison to 8.50 m, he ranks second (17) to Carl Lewis (39) (as of 1996; since 1996, only 9 jumpers have jumped 8.50). Myricks' last 8.50 in 1991, at the age of 35, is tied with Lewis' mark from the 1996 Olympics as the M35 Masters World Record.  He was also a useful 200 m sprinter, with a best of 20.03 s at the US National Championships in 1983 behind his nemesis Carl Lewis, who along with Mike Powell overshadowed him for most of his career. He ran the 200 at the 1983 World Championships in Athletics. Myricks won the U.S. nationals in the 200 meters in 1988.  Myricks is also a graduate of Mississippi College. He was coached there by Joe Walker (now at Ole Miss). Larry Myricks was suspended (May 1990) by the TAC after a positive test for a banned stimulant before the 1990 U.S. Championships. This suspension was extended to a lifetime ban for two subsequent positive tests. He was later reinstated after having served only one year.

Larry Myricks (born 10 March 1956) is an American former athlete, who mainly competed in the long jump event. He is a two-time winner of the World Indoor Championships (1987, 1989) and a two-time winner of the World Cup (1979, 1989). He also won a bronze medal at the 1988 Seoul Olympics, and bronze medals at the World Championships in 1987 and 1991.

Larry Myricks (* 10. března 1956, Clinton, Mississippi) je bývalý americký atlet, dvojnásobný halový mistr světa ve skoku do dálky.


Early life.

Amenábar was born in Santiago, Chile, to a Chilean father, Hugo Ricardo Amenábar and a Spanish mother, Josefina Cantos. He has a dual Chilean-Spanish citizenship. His father worked as a technician at General Electric, while his mother decided to stay at home and take care of the children. Alejandro is the younger of two brothers; his older brother, Ricardo, was born in 1969.  Josefina's older sister had moved to the capital of Chile, Santiago, and she invited Josefina to join her there. In Santiago, Josefina met Hugo. Alejandro was born there in 1972.  In August 1973, his family moved to Spain. The family settled in Madrid, living in a camping caravan. When Alejandro was six years old, they moved to a complex on the outskirts of the town of Paracuellos de Jarama (Madrid).

Studies.

Alejandro and his brother did not watch much television. From the age of 15, Alejandro would dedicate his time to going to the cinema to watch movies. Other than theater, his passions were writing stories and reading books. According to Alejandro's mother, Alejandro had the capacity to absorb everything he read. As a child, he also composed melodies with the keyboard and guitar with the same ease as when he wrote his stories.  Alejandro started his studies at the Padres Escolapios de Getafe school. In his second year of high school, he transferred to the Alameda de Osuna institute, in the north-east of Madrid. The school was not close to where Alejandro was living; however, his parents, who were very concerned about his education, decided to enroll him in that institute because it was known as one of the best schools in Madrid.  Before he became a director, Alejandro worked as a stock boy in a warehouse and as a gardener, until he had enough money to buy his own home camera. He did not want to start his university studies in cinema before ever having touched a camera. Amenábar entered the Information Sciences Faculty at Madrid's Complutense University, where after numerous scholastic failures he decided to give up studying cinema and he began directing. The advantage from having attended university was that he met people who later in life would become very important throughout his career (that was the case for Sergio Rozas and Carlos Montero, through whom he met Eduardo Noriega). At university, he also met Mateo Gil, a friend and companion, and the pair made a pact to always support each other's projects.

Film career.

Between 1991 and 1994, Amenábar made three short films which in a very significant way influenced his first full-length films: "La Cabeza", "Himenóptero", and "Luna".  Knowing José Luis Cuerda helped Alejandro greatly in his career. A friend of José Luis Cuerda gave him the script of "Himenóptero" so he would give his opinion. Thereafter, Cuerda was interested in Amenábar's work. This led to him becoming the producer of "Thesis" (1996), which is one of Amenábar's most recognized films, putting his name on the map. "Thesis" was a thriller set in the School of Information Sciences at the Complutense University of Madrid. Through this film, he gained the attention of critics in the Berlin Film Festival and won seven Goyas, including Best Picture and Best New Director.  In 1997 he made "Abre Los Ojos", a science fiction movie that had notable success at international festivals such as Berlin and Tokyo. Impressed by the movie, Tom Cruise bought the rights to adapt and produce the film, starring in a remake, "Vanilla Sky".  His third large film was "The Others", a ghost story starring Nicole Kidman. It was very successful at an international level, especially in Spain, where it was the most viewed film that year. "The Others" was also very popular in the United States, where it was at the top of the box office for several weeks. The film premiered at the Venice Film Festival in 2001, won eight Goyas, including the Best Picture and Best Director, and was nominated for best European Film Movie.  In 2004 Amenábar released "The Sea Inside", a real life-story about a quadriplegic Ramón Sampedro (played by Javier Bardem), which addressed issues such as euthanasia, abortion, or “the right to a dignified life.” The movie won 14 Goyas, including best movie and best director, and an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 2004.  In 2008 Amenábar released his next film, called "Mists of Time"; however he later changed the name to "Agora". The film starred big-name actors including Rachel Weisz and Max Minghella. Agora premiered on October 9, 2009, and with a budget of 50 million euros, it is the most expensive Spanish film in history.  After a hiatus of almost seven years, Amenábar returned in 2015 with the thriller "Regression", starring Ethan Hawke and Emma Watson. The film had its world premiere at the San Sebastián International Film Festival in September 2015, where reviews were lukewarm.  Amenábar is also the composer of the soundtrack of his films, as well as others, such as "Butterfly's Tongue" directed by José Luis Cuerda and "Nobody Knows Anybody" directed by Mateo Gil.

Personal life.

In 2004, Amenábar came out as gay. On 18 July 2015, he married David Blanco. Amenábar was raised Catholic, but later became Agnostic and is now Atheist.

Alejandro Fernando Amenábar Cantos (born March 31, 1972) is a Spanish-Chilean film director, screenwriter and composer. Among other honors, he has won nine Goyas and two European Film Awards and one Academy Award. He has written (or co-written) the screenplays to all six of his films and composed almost all of their soundtracks.

Alejandro Fernando Amenábar Cantos (* 31. března 1972 v Santiago de Chile) je chilsko-španělský filmový režisér, scenárista a hudební skladatel. Narodil se v Chile, jeho matkou je Španělka a jeho otcem je Chilan. V srpnu 1973 emigroval spolu se svou rodinou do Madridu z důvodu chilských nepokojů. V roce 2004 se přihlásil ke své homosexualitě.


History.

Due to its proximity to the Banias spring, the history of Tel Azaziat is closely connected.

Boundary demarcation agreement 1923.

In 1916, Britain and France concluded the Sykes–Picot Agreement, which proposed to divide the Middle East between them into spheres of influence. The formal objective of the League of Nations Mandate system was to administer parts of the defunct Ottoman Empire, which had been in control of the Middle East since the 16th century. The two powers had to solve the difficult task for a creation of a boundary line running from Metula to Tel Dan until the Gulf of Eilat, after Britain had been given a League of Nations mandate for Palestine in 1922.  On 23 December 1920, the two powers came to a preliminary agreement according to which a section of the boundary line would pass through a body of water, the Sea of Galilee. (..) Such a boundary line would have divided the Sea of Galilee into two unequal parts, giving joint territorial domination over the two parts of the lake. (..) Under the influence of the actual topography as well as in response to political pressures and the desire to interfere as little as possible in everyday life in the border zone, the boundary was shifted from the location originally agreed upon. In a boundary demarcation agreement initialled on 3 February 1922, and finally ratified a year later on 7 March 1923, the boundary line between Palestine and Syria was defined as a set of straight lines joining a number of designated points, clearly definable on the ground. (..) the intention was not to associate it [the boundaries] with the River Jordan, the Hule lake or the Sea of Galilee, but rather to distance it to the east of these water bodies and thus to avoid claims of joint sovereignty over them.

Syrian independence 1946.

In April 1946, when Syria was granted Independence, France and Britain signed an agreement to hand over control of the Banias to the British mandate of Palestine. The Syrian government expressed wishes to leave Banias within Syrian territory and afterwards declared France's signature to be invalid. The British refused to discuss the situation.

After Israeli independence 1948.

On the day the British left Palestine, Syrian forces crossed the border and attacked nearby Israeli settlements. Most assaults were repulsed, but by the end of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War three small areas, west of the international border, remained in Syrian hands. In the 1949 Armistice Agreements, Syria agreed to withdraw its troops from the occupied areas and to turn them into demilitarized zones. Sovereignty in these sections was acknowledged to be Israeli, but no side was allowed to build there fortifications or keep military forces. The Syrians violated the agreement and built several purely military positions west of the border, some in the DMZs, like Tel Azaziat, which was used for unceasing attacks against Israel.  A letter dated 25 February 1960 from the representative of Israel to the President of the Security Council claimed,  On 13 November 1964, the IAF puts Plan 'Ayit' into effect. It calls for launching attacks on Arab targets in response for the shelling of Israeli settlements. Israeli Mysteres attack the Syrian position at Tel Azaziat on the same day.  There was no common border agreement from April 1946 until the Six-day war of June 1967.

The Six-Day war 1967.

Syrian units designated to take part in operation Victory began assembling on the night of May 24. Troops from the Syrian 35th Division reinforced the positions at Banias and Tel Azaziat.  A report filed by the UNTSO Tiberias Control Centre describes the situation during the first hours of the break-out of the Six-day war:  On the fifth day of the war, on 9 June 1967, Israeli defense minister Moshe Dayan reverses his stand and the decision of the cabinet, and orders attack on the Golan Heights.  On the night of June 9–10, the 8th armored brigade advanced toward the Banias region and captured it on the morning of the 10th of June. The constant shelling from Tel Azaziat during 19 years came finally to an end.

Present.

On top of Tel Azaziat are still the remains of the Syrian fortifications, as are the mines laid by the Syrian army around the hill, the only cleared sector is in direction to Tel Faher.

Tel Azaziat () is a hill in the foothills of the Golan Heights in northern Israel, 330 m above sea level, 1.5 km east of moshav She'ar Yashuv, 1.5 km south east of kibbutz Dan and 2 km west of Tel Faher. The basalt hill was a Syrian military outpost built within the DMZ, used to shell the Israeli villages below. It has views of eastern Hula Valley.

Tel Azazijat nebo v hebraizovaném tvaru Giv'at Azaz (: תל עזזיאת nebo גבעת עזז, : "Tal Azazijat") je čedičový pahorek o nadmořské výšce cca 290 metrů v Izraeli, respektive na pomezí izraelského Chulského údolí a Golanských výšin okupovaných Izraelem od roku 1967. Na severozápadním úpatí ho obtéká řeka Banias.


Childhood and education, 1651–75.

Fénelon was born on 6 August 1651 at the Château de Fénelon, in Sainte-Mondane, Périgord, Aquitaine, in the Dordogne river valley, the second of the three children of Pons de Salignac, Comte de La Mothe-Fénelon by his wife Louise de La Cropte. Reduced to the status of "impecunious old nobility" by François' time, the La Mothe-Fénelons had produced leaders in both Church and state. His uncle Francois currently served as bishop of nearby Sarlat, a see in which fifteen generations of the Fénelon family had filled the episcopal chair. "In fact, so many members of the family occupied the position that it had begun to be considered as practically a familial apanage to which the Salignac-Fénelon had a right as seigneurs of the locality"  Fénelon's early education was provided in the Château de Fénelon by private tutors, who gave him a thorough grounding in the language and literature of the Greek and Latin classics. In 1663, at age 12, he was sent to the University of Cahors, where he studied rhetoric and philosophy under the influence of the Jesuit "ratio studiorum". When the young man expressed interest in a career in the church, his uncle, the Marquis Antoine de Fénelon (a friend of Jean-Jacques Olier and Vincent de Paul) arranged for him to study at the Collège du Plessis in Paris, whose theology students followed the same curriculum as the theology students at the Sorbonne. While there, he became friends with Antoine de Noailles, who later became a cardinal and the Archbishop of Paris. Fénelon demonstrated so much talent at the Collège du Plessis that at age 15, he was asked to give a public sermon.  About 1672 (i.e. around the time he was 21 years old), Fénelon's uncle managed to get him enrolled in the Séminaire de Saint-Sulpice, the Sulpician seminary in Paris.

Early years as a priest, 1675–85.

In about 1675, (when he would have been 24), Fénelon was ordained as a priest. He initially dreamed of becoming a missionary to the East, but instead, and at the instigation of friends, he preached in Sulpician parishes and performed routine pastoral work as his reputation for eloquence began to grow.  In early 1679, François Harlay de Champvallon, Archbishop of Paris, selected Fénelon as director of "Nouvelles-Catholiques", a community in Paris for young Huguenot girls, who had been removed from their families and were about to join the Church of Rome In 1681 he published a pedagogical work "Traité de l'éducation des filles" (Treatise on the Education of Girls) which brought him much attention, not only in France, but abroad as well.  From 1681 to 1695, Fénelon was prior of the fortified monastery at Carennac.

Missionary to the Huguenots, 1686–87.

During this period, Fénelon had become friends with his future rival Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet. When Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685, the Church began a campaign to send the greatest orators in the country into the regions of France with the highest concentration of Huguenots to persuade them of the errors of Protestantism. Upon Bossuet's suggestion, Fénelon was included in this group, alongside such oratorical greats as Louis Bourdaloue and Esprit Fléchier.  He consequently spent the next three years in the Saintonge region of France preaching to Protestants. He persuaded the king to remove troops from the region and tried to avoid outright displays of religious oppression, though, in the end, he was willing to resort to force to make Protestants listen to his message. He believed that "to be obliged to do good is always an advantage and that heretics and schismatics, when forced to apply their minds to the consideration of truth, eventually lay aside their erroneous beliefs, whereas they would never have examined these matters had not authority constrained them."

Important friends, 1687–89.

During this period, Fénelon assisted Bossuet during his lectures on the Bible at Versailles. It was probably at Bossuet's urging that he now composed his "Réfutation du système de Malebranche sur la nature et sur la grâce", a work in which he attacked Nicolas Malebranche's views on optimism, the creation, and the Incarnation. This work was not published until 1820, long after Fénelon's death  Fénelon also became friendly with the Duc de Beauvilliers and the Duc de Chevreuse, who were married to the daughters of Louis XIV's minister of finance Jean-Baptiste Colbert. He wrote a "Treatise on the Existence of God".  In 1688, Fénelon first met his cousin Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte Guyon, usually known simply as Madame Guyon. At that time, she was well received in the social circle of the Beauvilliers and Chevreuses. Fénelon was deeply impressed by her piety and actively discipled her. He would later become a devotee and defend her brand of Quietism.

Royal tutor, 1689–97.

In 1689, Louis XIV named Fénelon's friend the Duc de Beauvilliers as governor of the royal grandchildren. Upon Beauvilliers' recommendation, Fénelon was named the tutor of the Dauphin's eldest son, the 7-year-old Duke of Burgundy, who was second in line for the throne. This brought him a good deal of influence at court.  As tutor, Fénelon was charged with guiding the character formation of a future King of France. He wrote several important works specifically to guide his young charge. These include his "Fables" and his "Dialogues des Morts".  But by far the most lasting of his works that Fénelon composed for the duke was his "Les Aventures de Télémaque" [The Adventures of Telemachus, Son of Ulysses], written in 1693–94. On its surface, "The Adventures of Telemachus" was a novel about Ulysses' son Telemachus. On another level, it became a biting attack on the divine right absolute monarchy which was the dominant ideology of Louis XIV's France. In sharp contrast to Bossuet, who, when tutor to the Dauphin, had written "Politique tirée de l'Écriture sainte" which affirmed the divine foundations of absolute monarchy while also exhorting the future king to use restraint and wisdom in exercising his absolute power, Fénelon went so far as to write "Good kings are rare and the generality of monarchs bad".  French literary historian Jean-Claude Bonnet calls "Télémaque" "the true key to the museum of the eighteenth century imagination." One of the most popular works of the century, it became an immediate best seller both in France and abroad, going through many editions and translated into every European language and even Latin verse (first in Berlin in 1743, then in Paris by Étienne Viel [1737-87]). It inspired numerous imitations, such as the Abbé Jean Terrasson's novel "Life of Sethos" (1731), which in turn inspired Mozart's "Magic Flute". It also more directly supplied the plot for Mozart's opera, "Idomeneo" (1781). Scenes from "Télémaque" appeared in wallpaper. The American president Andrew Jackson wallpapered the entrance hall to his slave plantation, The Hermitage, in Tennessee, with scenes from Telemachus on the Island of Calypso.  Most believed Fénelon's tutorship resulted in a dramatic improvement in the young duke's behaviour. Even the memoirist Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, who generally disliked Fénelon, admitted that when Fénelon became tutor, the duke was a spoiled, violent child; when Fénelon left him, the duke had learned the lessons of self-control as well as being thoroughly impressed with a sense of his future duties. "Telemachus" is therefore widely seen as the most thorough exposition of the brand of reformism in the Beauvilliers-Chevreuse circle, which hoped that following Louis XIV's death, his brand of autocracy could be replaced by a monarchy less centralized and less absolute, and with a greater role for aristocrats such as Beauvilliers and Chevreuse.  In 1693, Fénelon was elected to Seat 34 of the Académie française.  In 1694, the king named Fénelon Abbot of Saint-Valéry, a lucrative post worth 14,000 livres a year.  The early- to mid-1690s are significant since it was during this period that Mme de Maintenon (quasi-morganatic wife of Louis XIV since roughly 1684) began to regularly consult Fénelon on matters of conscience. Also, since Fénelon had a reputation as an expert on educating girls, she sought his advice on the house of Saint-Cyr which she was founding for girls.  In February 1696, the king nominated Fénelon to become the Archbishop of Cambrai while at the same time asking him to remain in his position as tutor to the duke of Burgundy. Fénelon accepted, and he was consecrated by his old friend Bossuet in August.

Quietist controversy, 1697–99.

As already noted, Fénelon had met Mme Guyon in 1688 and became an admirer of her work.  In 1697, following a visit by Mme Guyon to Mme de Maintenon's school at Saint-Cyr, Paul Godet des Marais, Bishop of Chartres (Saint-Cyr was located within his diocese) expressed concerns about Mme Guyon's orthodoxy to Mme de Maintenon. The bishop noted that Mme Guyon's opinions bore striking similarities to Miguel de Molinos' Quietism, which Pope Innocent XI condemned in 1687. Mme de Maintenon responded by requesting an ecclesiastical commission to examine Mme Guyon's orthodoxy: the commission consisted of two of Fénelon's old friends, Bossuet and de Noailles, as well as the head of the Sulpician order of which Fénelon was a member. The commission sat at Issy and, after six months of deliberations, delivered its opinion in the "Articles d'Issy", 34 articles which briefly condemned certain of Mme Guyon's opinions, as well as set forth a brief exposition of the Catholic view of prayer. Both Fénelon and the Bishop of Chartres signed the articles, as did all three commission members. Mme Guyon immediately submitted to the decision.  At Issy, the commission asked Bossuet to follow up the Articles with an exposition. Bossuet thus proceeded to write "Instructions sur les états d'oraison," which he submitted to the commission members, as well as to the Bishop of Chartres and Fénelon, requesting their signatures before its publication. Fénelon refused to sign, arguing that Mme Guyon had already admitted her mistakes and there was no point in further condemning her. Furthermore, Fénelon disagreed with Bossuet's interpretation of the Articles d'Issy, as he wrote in "Explication des Maximes des Saints" (a work often regarded as his masterpiece - English: "Maxims of the Saints"). Fénelon interpreted the Articles d'Issy in a way much more sympathetic to the Quietist viewpoint than Bossuet proposed.  Louis XIV responded to the controversy by chastising Bossuet for not warning him earlier of Fénelon's opinions and ordered Bossuet, de Noailles, and the Bishop of Chartres to respond to the "Maximes des Saints". Shocked that his grandson's tutors held such views, the king removed Fénelon from his post as royal tutor and ordered Fénelon to remain within the boundaries of the archdiocese of Cambrai.  This unleashed two years of pamphlet warfare as the two sides traded opinions. On 12 March 1699, the Inquisition formally condemned the "Maximes des Saints", with Pope Innocent XII listing 23 specific propositions as unorthodox.  Fénelon immediately declared that he submitted to the pope's authority and set aside his own opinion. With this, the Quietist matter was dropped.  However, that same year, "The Adventures of Telemachus" was published. This book also enraged Louis XIV, for it appeared to question his regime's very foundations. Thus, even after Fénelon abjured his Quietist views, the king refused to revoke his order forbidding Fénelon from leaving his archdiocese.

Later years.

As Archbishop of Cambrai, Fénelon spent most of his time in the archiepiscopal palace, but also spent several months of each year visiting churches and other institutions within his archdiocese. He preached in his cathedral on festival days, and took an especial interest in seminary training and in examining candidates for the priesthood prior to their ordination.  During the War of the Spanish Succession, Spanish troops encamped in his archdiocese (an area France had only recently captured from Spain), but they never interfered with the exercise of his archiepiscopal duties. Warfare, however, produced refugees, and Fénelon opened his palace to refugees fleeing the ongoing conflict.  During these latter years, Fénelon wrote a series of anti-Jansenist works. The impetus was the publication of the "Cas de Conscience", which revived the old Jansenist distinction between questions of law and questions of fact, and argued that though the church had the right to condemn certain opinions as heretical, it did not have the right to oblige one to believe that these opinions were actually contained in Cornelius Jansen's "Augustinus". The treatises, sermons, and pastoral letters Fénelon wrote in response occupy seven volumes in his collected works. Fénelon particularly condemned Pasquier Quesnel's "Réflexions morales sur le Nouveau Testament." His writings contributed to the tide of scholarly opinion which led to Pope Clement XI's 1713 bull "Unigenitus", condemning Quesnel's opinions.  Although confined to the Cambrai archdiocese in his later years, Fénelon continued to act as a spiritual director for Mme de Maintenon, as well as the ducs de de Chevreuse and de Beauvilliers, the duke of Burgundy, and other prominent individuals.  Fénelon's later years were blighted by the deaths of many of his close friends. Shortly before his death, he asked Louis XIV to replace him with a man opposed to Jansenism and loyal to the Sulpician order. He died on 7 January 1715.

Fénelon as reformer and defender of human rights.

Paul Hazard remarks on the bitterness of the questions Fénelon has his fictional hero Telemachus put to Idomeneus, King of Salente: "those same questions, in the same sorrowing tone, Fénelon puts to to his pupil, the Duc de Bourgogne, against the day, when he will have to take over the royal power: Do you understand the constitution of kingship? Have you acquainted yourself with the moral obligations of Kings? Have you sought means of bringing comfort to the people? The evils that are engendered by absolute power, by incompetent administration, by war, how will you shield your subjects from them? And when in 1711, the same Duc de Bourgogne became Dauphin of France, it was a whole string of reforms that Fénelon submitted to him in preparation for his accession". Finally, to complete the credit items of Fénelon's account, we must put his defense of Human Rights. Thus he speaks:

Quotations.

« Sur-tout ne vous laissez point ensorceler par les attraits diaboliques de la géométrie. »  "Above all, do not allow yourself to be bewitched by the evil charms of geometry."

François de Salignac de la Mothe-Fénelon (), more commonly known as François Fénelon (6 August 1651 – 7 January 1715), was a French Roman Catholic archbishop, theologian, poet and writer. He today is remembered mostly as the author of "The Adventures of Telemachus", first published in 1699.

François Fénelon, plným jménem François de Salignac de la Mothe-Fénelon (6. srpna 1651 – 7. ledna 1715) byl francouzský teolog, básník a spisovatel, od roku 1696 arcibiskup v Cambrai. Byl zastáncem kvietismu.


History.

Águilas FC was founded in 1925, and played most of its history in lower levels. In July 2010, after five consecutive seasons in the third division, the club disappeared due to heavy debts.

The origin of football in Águilas.

Águilas FC was founded in 1925, but before the foundation of this one, other teams existed. In 1896 the Sporting Club Aguileño was founded. This team was the best of the region during the decade of 1900, because they won 26 matches of 26, without giving up a goal. The Sporting Club Aguileño disappeared in 1907 due to the lack of rivals. The Club Deportivo Aguileño was founded in 1907 and remained undefeated till 1917. The CD Aguileño folded in 1921 due to economic problems. Until 1925 the only teams in Águilas were the Arenas, Gimnástico and Universitari. In September 1924 the Region of Murcia Football Federation was created, but none of the Águilas teams enrolled in the federation; however, that year the Águilas FC played a match against Real Murcia.

Águilas CF foundation.

Immediately, a new club was founded in the city, Águilas FC, which started playing in the regional leagues.  In 1925 the Águilas FC was founded. The team played its first match against Almería FC and the result was 1–1. The team can ́t have high aspirations, because their best players played in Lorca FC. After being in regional categories for several years, the team debuted in Tercera División in 1956 and in 1998 debuted in Segunda División B.

Debut in Segunda B and the Segunda División B play-offs.

In 1999, their first season in Segunda B, they managed to achieve the permanency, but the team was relegated to Tercera División. Águilas CF return to Segunda B in 2005, they ended the season in second position and they played their first Segunda División B play-off, but they were eliminated by Alicante CF in the first round.  In 2007, Águilas Cf received the Royal Order of Sports Merit silver plate granted by the Sports Council. After the 2008 elections, one Murcia ́s businessman called Antonio Vicente García became president of the club. Antonio starts a project to reach the Segunda División B play-off again, but the project fails and the team gets involved in serious economic problems.

Uniform.

The official uniform is based on a blue and white shirt with vertical stripes, a blue sport pants and a white and blue socks with horizontal stripes.

Stadium.

The Águilas CF played their games in “El Rubial”. The stadium seats 4000 spectators and was football ́s oldest stadium active in Spain after “El Molinón”. Its dimensions are 95x65 meters.

Águilas Club de Fútbol was a Spanish football team in Águilas, in the autonomous community of Murcia. Founded in 1925 and dissolved in 2010, it played its last season (2009–10) in Segunda División B – Group 2, holding home games at "Estadio El Rubial", with a 3,000 seat capacity.

Águilas Club de Fútbol byl španělský fotbalový klub sídlící ve městě Águilas v Murcijském regionu. Klub byl založen v roce 1925, zanikl v roce 2010.


Structure and properties.

Imidazole is a planar 5-membered ring. It exists in two equivalent tautomeric forms, because hydrogen can be bound to one or the other nitrogen atom. Imidazole is a highly polar compound, as evidenced by its electric dipole moment of 3.67 D. It is highly soluble in water. The compound is classified as aromatic due to the presence of a planar ring containing 6 π-electrons (a pair of electrons from the protonated nitrogen atom and one from each of the remaining four atoms of the ring). Some resonance structures of imidazole are shown below:

Amphoterism.

Imidazole is amphoteric. That is, it can function as both an acid and as a base. As an acid, the p"K" of imidazole is 14.5, making it less acidic than carboxylic acids, phenols, and imides, but slightly more acidic than alcohols. The acidic proton is the one bound to nitrogen. Deprotonation gives the imidazole anion, which is symmetrical. As a base, the p"K" of the conjugate acid (cited as p"K" to avoid confusion between the two) is approximately 7, making imidazole approximately sixty times more basic than pyridine. The basic site is the nitrogen with the lone pair (and not bound to hydrogen). Protonation gives the imidazolium cation, which is symmetrical.

Preparation.

Imidazole was first reported in 1858 by the German chemist Heinrich Debus, although various imidazole derivatives had been discovered as early as the 1840s. It was shown that glyoxal, formaldehyde, and ammonia condense to form imidazole (glyoxaline, as it was originally named). This synthesis, while producing relatively low yields, is still used for generating "C"-substituted imidazoles. In one microwave modification, the reactants are benzil, benzaldehyde and ammonia in glacial acetic acid, forming 2,4,5-triphenylimidazole ("lophine").  Imidazole can be synthesized by numerous methods besides the Debus method. Many of these syntheses can also be applied to substituted imidazoles by varying the functional groups on the reactants. These methods are commonly categorized by the number of reacting components.  The (1,5) or (3,4) bond can be formed by the reaction of an imidate and an α-aminoaldehyde or α-aminoacetal. The example below applies to imidazole when R = R = hydrogen.  The (1,2) and (2,3) bonds can be formed by treating a 1,2-diaminoalkane, at high temperatures, with an alcohol, aldehyde, or carboxylic acid. A dehydrogenating catalyst, such as platinum on alumina, is required. The (1,2) and (3,4) bonds can also be formed from "N"-substituted α-aminoketones and formamide with heat. The product will be a 1,4-disubstituted imidazole, but here since R = R = hydrogen, imidazole itself is the product. The yield of this reaction is moderate, but it seems to be the most effective method of making the 1,4 substitution.  This method proceeds in good yields for substituted imidazoles. An adaptation of the Debus method, it is called the Debus-Radziszewski imidazole synthesis. The starting materials are substituted glyoxal, aldehyde, amine, and ammonia or an ammonium salt.  Imidazole can be synthesized by the photolysis of 1-vinyltetrazole. This reaction will give substantial yields only if the 1-vinyltetrazole is made efficiently from an organotin compound, such as 2-tributylstannyltetrazole. The reaction, shown below, produces imidazole when R = R = R = hydrogen. Imidazole can also be formed in a vapor-phase reaction. The reaction occurs with formamide, ethylenediamine, and hydrogen over platinum on alumina, and it must take place between 340 and 480 °C. This forms a very pure imidazole product.  The Van Leusen reaction can also be employed to form imidazoles starting from TosMIC and an aldimine. The Van Leusen Imidazole Synthesis allows the preparation of imidazoles from aldimines by reaction with tosylmethyl isocyanide (TosMIC). The reaction has later been expanded to a two-step synthesis in which the aldimine is generated in situ: the Van Leusen Three-Component Reaction (vL-3CR).

Biological significance and applications.

Imidazole is incorporated into many important biological molecules. The most pervasive is the amino acid histidine, which has an imidazole side-chain. Histidine is present in many proteins and enzymes and plays a vital part in the structure and binding functions of hemoglobin. Imidazole-based histidine compounds play a very important role in intracellular buffering. Histidine can be decarboxylated to histamine, which is also a common biological compound. Histamine can cause urticaria (hives) when it is produced during allergic reaction. The relationship between histidine and histamine is shown below:  One of the applications of imidazole is in the purification of His-tagged proteins in immobilised metal affinity chromatography (IMAC). Imidazole is used to elute tagged proteins bound to nickel ions attached to the surface of beads in the chromatography column. An excess of imidazole is passed through the column, which displaces the His-tag from nickel coordination, freeing the His-tagged proteins.  Imidazole has become an important part of many pharmaceuticals. Synthetic imidazoles are present in many fungicides and antifungal, antiprotozoal, and antihypertensive medications. Imidazole is part of the theophylline molecule, found in tea leaves and coffee beans, that stimulates the central nervous system. It is present in the anticancer medication mercaptopurine, which combats leukemia by interfering with DNA activities.  A number of substituted imidazoles, including clotrimazole, are selective inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase, which makes them interesting drug targets in inflammation, neurodegenerative diseases and tumors of the nervous system. Other biological activities of the imidazole pharmacophore relate to the downregulation of intracellular Ca and K fluxes, and interference with translation initiation.

Pharmaceutical derivatives.

The substituted imidazole derivatives are valuable in treatment of many systemic fungal infections. Imidazoles belong to the class of azole antifungals, which includes ketoconazole, miconazole, and clotrimazole.  For comparison, another group of azoles is the triazoles, which includes fluconazole, itraconazole, and voriconazole. The difference between the imidazoles and the triazoles involves the mechanism of inhibition of the cytochrome P450 enzyme. The N3 of the imidazole compound binds to the heme iron atom of ferric cytochrome P450, whereas the N4 of the triazoles bind to the heme group. The triazoles have been shown to have a higher specificity for the cytochrome P450 than imidazoles, thereby making them more potent than the imidazoles.  Some imidazole derivatives show effects on insects, for example sulconazole nitrate exhibits a strong anti-feeding effect on the keratin-digesting Australian carpet beetle larvae "Anthrenocerus australis", as does econazole nitrate with the common clothes moth "Tineola bisselliella".

Industrial applications.

Imidazole itself has few direct applications. It is instead a precursor to a variety of agrichemicals, including enilconazole, climbazole, clotrimazole, prochloraz, and bifonazole.

Salts of imidazole.

Salts of imidazole where the imidazole ring is the cation are known as imidazolium salts (for example, imidazolium chloride or nitrate). These salts are formed from the protonation or substitution at nitrogen of imidazole. These salts have been used as ionic liquids and precursors to stable carbenes. Salts where a deprotonated imidazole is an anion are also well known; these salts are known as imidazolates (for example, sodium imidazolate, NaCHN).

Safety.

Imidazole has low acute toxicity as indicated by the of 970 mg/kg (Rat, oral).

Imidazole is an organic compound with the formula CNH. It is a white or colourless solid that is soluble in water, producing a mildly alkaline solution. In chemistry, it is an aromatic heterocycle, classified as a diazole, and has non-adjacent nitrogen atoms.

Imidazol je dusíkatá aromatická heterocyklická sloučenina, klasifikována jako alkaloid. Imidazol je základní sloučenina, ze které je odvozena třída sloučenin nazývaných imidazoly; tyto sloučeniny mají stejnou základní kruhovou strukturu, liší se však substituenty. Kruhový systém imidazolu je součástí důležitých biologických stavebních bloků, například aminokyseliny histidinu a příbuzného hormonu histaminu. Imidazol může sloužit jako zásada nebo slabá kyselina. Imidazolový kruh je obsažen v řadě léčiv, například antimykotikách a v nitroimidazolu.


Playing career.

Junior.

During his junior career, he was a member of the London Knights team that won the 2005 OHL Championship and the 2005 Memorial Cup.

Professional.

Although eligible in the 2003 NHL Entry Draft, Girardi went undrafted, as no NHL team felt he was a skilled enough player to play professionally, in spite of having a relatively good year in the Ontario Hockey League with 39 points in 68 games. Not to be discouraged, Girardi persevered and contacted several NHL teams for a tryout. The New York Rangers took a second look at Girardi and invited him to their training camp in the 2005–06 season. He eventually signed a free agent, two-way American Hockey League (AHL) contract with the Hartford Wolf Pack, the Rangers' AHL affiliate, and began the 2005–06 season with the Charlotte Checkers of the ECHL. Eventually, Girardi was called up to the AHL's Wolf Pack and while there, was signed to an NHL deal by the Rangers. Girardi was called up by the New York Rangers on January 27, 2007, after an injury to Rangers defenceman Darius Kasparaitis, and made his NHL debut that night in a 2–1 win over the Philadelphia Flyers. Girardi remained in the NHL for the remainder of the season, playing in 34 games and recording 6 assists. He also played in 10 playoff games, going pointless as the Rangers lost in the second round 4–2 to the Buffalo Sabres. On February 16, 2008, Girardi signed a two-year, $3.1 million contract extension with the Rangers.  On July 9, 2010, Girardi re-signed with the Rangers, signing a four-year, $13.3 million deal. During the 2010–11 season, Girardi led the NHL in blocked shots, with 236.  For the 2011–12 season, Girardi was named an interim alternate captain for the Rangers while Marc Staal was recovering from post-concussion syndrome. In Staal's absence, Girardi led all NHL skaters in average ice-time, averaging nearly 28 minutes per game. His play earned him a spot in the 2012 NHL All-Star Game. Girardi scored his first playoff goal on April 26, 2012, against the Ottawa Senators during Game 7 of the 2012 Eastern Conference Quarterfinals.  During the 2012–13 lockout-shortened season, Girardi was named an interim alternate captain for the Rangers a second time while Marc Staal was recovering from an injury sustained on March 3 when he was hit with a puck in the eye.  During the 2013–14 season, on February 28, Girardi signed a six-year, $33 million extension with the Rangers. He was named an alternate captain for the Rangers for the remainder of the season when captain Ryan Callahan was traded at the NHL trade deadline to the Tampa Bay Lightning. Girardi's solid defensive play in the playoffs was a key part in the Rangers' run to the 2014 Stanley Cup Finals, where they lost to the Los Angeles Kings.  Girardi became a permanent alternate captain during the 2014–15 season, and spent most of the season on the Rangers' top defensive pairing with captain Ryan McDonagh. Girardi's solid defensive play that season led to the Rangers winning the Presidents' Trophy, as well as a run to the Eastern Conference Final, where the Rangers lost to the Tampa Bay Lightning in a hard-fought, 7-game series.  Girardi started the 2015–16 season strong, contributing to a 14–2–2 start to the 2015–16 season for the Rangers. Midway through the season, however, the Rangers slumped, going 4–7–2 in the month of December, with many critics blaming Girardi for the slump. Even though the Rangers seemed to play better by February, Girardi suffered a knee injury late in the season, and the team started to fall apart, losing to the Pittsburgh Penguins in the first round of the playoffs in five games, despite many expecting the Rangers to make another deep playoff run.  Following the 2016–17 season, his 11th with the Rangers, due to a decline in play and salary cap considerations it was announced that Girardi would be bought out from the remaining three years of his contract on June 14, 2017. On July 1, 2017, Girardi signed as a free agent a two-year, $6 million deal with the Tampa Bay Lightning. The Lightning announced through its social media account that Girardi would be wearing the #5, which was a continuation of the number he used as a member of the Rangers.  In game 4 of the second round in the 2018 NHL playoffs, Girardi scored an overtime goal to give the Lightning the win and a 3–1 series lead over the Boston Bruins.  Giradi announced his retirement from hockey on September 20, 2019. Girardi retired 30th in playoff games played by a defenceman, and as the all-time leader in shots blocked, having blocked nearly 2,000 shots in his career (the league did not begin tracking blocked shots until 2005).

Personal life.

Girardi's childhood idol was Mark Messier. During the off-season, Girardi resides in Fort Erie, Ontario.  Girardi and his wife Pam have two children together – a son and a daughter. Girardi and his family live in Davis Islands neighborhood of Tampa, Florida.

Daniel Girardi (born April 29, 1984) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey defenceman. Undrafted, Girardi played 13 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) with the New York Rangers and Tampa Bay Lightning.

Daniel Girardi (* 29. března 1984 v Welland, Ontario) je bývalý kanadský hokejový obránce, největší část kariéry strávil v týmu New York Rangers, avšak poslední dvě sezóny hájil barvy Tampy Bay.


Geography.

Rýchory lie on the southe-eastern edge of Krkonoše. The main ridge is approximately 1.5 km long with the slopes included Rýchory are roughly 6 km long. They lie 4 km southwest from Žacléř, 10 km north of Trutnov and 5 km east from Janské Lázně. The ridge is oriented in northwest-southeast direction. The highest peak is Dvorský les (1033 m), which forms the south-eastern ending of the main ridge and it is the easternmost One-thousander in Krkonoše. The north-western ending is the peak Kutná (1001 m) with Rýchorská bouda mountain chalet. Between these two there are no other important peaks. A short side ridge branches to the south-west with a nameless peak of 1008 m. To the north, the pass Rýchorský kříž divides Rýchory from northward ridge towards the main part of Krkonoše.  Rýchory constitutes the easternmost part of the Krkonoše Mountains National Park and thanks to their highly valuable botanical locations, the upper parts around the main ridge of Rýchory have been included in Zones I and II of the national park. The Dvorský les forest in Rýchory preserves a remaining area of beech primeval forest, consisting of the bizarre trunks of old beech, rowan, birch and spruce trees covered with moss and is a favourite location of nature photographers.  In the northern slopes of the Rýchory ridge and in the valley of Sněžný potok there is a small settlement called Rýchory as well, which forms part of the town Žacléř.

Gold Mining.

Based on legends, written down by chronicler Simon Hüttel of Trutnov, gold was mined on the slopes of Rýchory as early as 11th century, while the most important mines were founded during the reign of Duke Oldřich of Bohemia. First written record of gold mining is from the year 1542. Emperor Ferdinand I granted mining privileges to the market town Svoboda nad Úpou. A gold mining village Sklenářovice was also founded in a southern valley of Rýchory. Largest extent of gold mining came after 1648, when Emperor Ferdinand III confirmed the privileges of Svoboda nad Úpou. Mining was ended in 1742.  The gold of Rýchory is unique in Europe, because it contains palladium, other deposits with similar composition are only in Brazil.

Rýchory (German: ["Rehorn" / "Rehorngebirge"]) are mountain ridge in the Czech Republic lying in the eastern Krkonoše (Giant Mountains). It is the easternmost tip of Krkonoše, forming a broad belt of forested ridges from Horní Lysečiny over the Mravenečník (Anteater) hill to the Sklenářovický hill.

"Ostatní významy názvu naleznete v rozcestníku Rýchory" Rýchory () jsou horský hřeben v České republice ležící ve východních Krkonoších. Rýchory () jsou horský hřeben v České republice ležící ve východních Krkonoších.


Overview.

The entire project is 8.6 km long. There are four tunnels (two sets of twin tunnels), the 3.5 km long western set and the 1.6 km long eastern set, containing two lanes of traffic in each tunnel. The tunnels were bored in Mount Carmel, essentially under the city of Haifa and have three portals: one from the west, near the MATAM business park (with a connection to the Coastal Highway and the Old Haifa–Tel Aviv Highway), one in the center off Ruppin Road (next to the Grand Canyon Shopping Mall), and from the east connecting to the Krayot (aka the "Checkpost") interchange and Highway 22 at the Yadin/Mevo Carmel interchange.  The project was built by Carmelton, a subsidiary of Ashtrom and Shikun UVinui, two of the largest infrastructure companies in Israel, and the tunnels were bored by China Civil Engineering Construction Corporation (CCECC), a Chinese company specializing in tunnel boring.  In January 2009, boring was completed on the westbound tunnel in the eastern portion of the project. Boring of the last tunnel was completed on June 1, 2009. The cost for drivers is 8.7 NIS for each segment (a drive to the central portal is considered one segment and driving the entire east-west route is composed of two segments). Payment can be made in cash at a toll booth or by video tolling using automatic number plate recognition for subscribers who arrange a billing relationship or by video or transponder tolling for Highway 6 subscribers. The total cost of the project was estimated at approximately 1.2 billion NIS (approx. US$300 million in 2008 dollars).  In early March 2014 construction was completed on a connector between the tunnels' eastern portal and Highway 22. This connector is the final link between a series of controlled-access highways that together form an inter-city highway corridor stretching along most of Israel's Mediterranean coast, from Acre (Akko) in the north to Ashdod in the south. This corridor consists of whole or parts of highways 22, 23, 2, 20 and 4.

History.

Plans for the tunnels were first proposed as early as 1992, and the winning tender for the construction of the tunnels was awarded to Carmelton in 1997. In 1999 Carmelton obtained financing for the project, however construction was delayed due to objections and other legal matters, at which point Israel Discount Bank backed out of its obligation to provide credit for the project. A lengthy legal suit followed, which eventually forced the bank to carry out its financial obligations.  Six hundred Chinese workers were brought in for the project by CCECC. The project was first delayed just one week after the cornerstone was laid in April 2007, following concerns over electromagnetic radiation standards. Work finally resumed on June 19, 2007.  The project was once again delayed in September 2008, when CCECC demanded that the contract with Carmelton be re-negotiated due to the increase in costs which CCECC had to deal with, mainly due to a rise in construction materials costs. Construction work was disrupted for over a month, first slowing down and eventually stopping completely. Work was resumed on October 23, 2008.  Despite these delays, Carmelton managed to open the tunnels on December 1, 2010, six months ahead of schedule.

Highway 23, more-commonly known as the ""Carmel Tunnels"" (, "Minharot HaCarmel"), are a set of toll tunnels in Haifa, Israel. The tunnels' purpose is to reduce road congestion in the Haifa area and to provide an alternate route of reaching the eastern and central parts of the city, Haifa Bay and the Krayot area to and from Israel's central coastal plain without having to travel through traffic-congested downtown Haifa, having to drive up and across Mount Carmel, or bypassing Haifa from the east – along the edge of the Jezreel Valley (via Highway 70 for example). The tunnels cut the travel time from the Haifa South interchange in the west to the Checkpost interchange in the east from 30–50 minutes down to 6 minutes.

Karmelské tunely (hebrejsky: מנהרות הכרמל, "Minharot ha-Karmel") je silniční spojení dálničního typu v Haifě v Izraeli, zbudované v letech 2007–2010.


History.

In the early days of the Roman Empire, the landowner had the right to extract minerals. The reason behind this was that mineral resources were seen as "fruit of the soil" which were deemed to belong the landowner. The first regalia, or royal privileges, emerged in the first millennium, but there was still no "Bergregal" governing mining rights as part of the laws regulating property. Emperors and kings, the nobility or clerics who ruled over a territory, established this right for themselves, based on their ownership of land and the mineral resources found therein. This was easy for the king or territorial princes because, as a rule, they were the actual landowners. But it was often political and economic circumstances rather than law and statute that were instrumental in the establishment of the "Bergregal". The Emperor, Barbarossa, had the "Bergregal" recorded in writing for the first time in Germany as part of the Roncaglian Constitution in 1158. This effectively removed the right to extract minerals from the landowner who, from then on, had to purchase such rights from the king. As a result of the Roncaglian Constitution, mining rights passed over time into the hands of the territorial lords. This led to arbitrary presumptions of rights by these territorial princes. Because of "Kleinstaaterei" – the plethora of minor states – and the special position of ecclesiastical principalities in the Holy Roman Empire, enforcement of the "Bergregal" by the emperor was virtually impossible. and so, in many cases, it was given to the princes. For example, Frederick I vested this privilege in Otto the Rich, the Margrave of Meissen. Likewise, the Bishop of Chur was given the "Bergregal" in 1349 and the King of Bohemia already received these rights even before the Golden Bull was issued.  In 1356, the Golden Bull finally enshrined in writing that these rights were ultimately held, not by the emperor, but by the seven electoral princes (the archbishops of Cologne, Mainz and Trier, the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony, Margrave of Brandenburg) as his territorial lords. Existing grants of rights to lower-ranking lords were unaffected. In general, the electoral princes were keen to retain the "Bergregal" for themselves.  The Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, saw the rights of the "Bergregal" pass from the electoral princes to the lesser nobility. To enforce their mining rights, the territorial lords had mining regulations enacted, the so-called "Bergordnung", which regulated in detail the mining activities, the duties or tithes (the "Zehnt"), the structure of the mining authorities and the privileges of the miners themselves. In the 19th century the "Bergregal" in the German states was gradually superseded by mining acts or "Berggesetze". In Prussia, the "Bergregal" was ended by the General Mining Act for the Prussian States ("Allgemeine Berggesetz für die Preußischen Staaten") or ABG of 24 June 1865. Landowners' rights were removed and mining regulations were clearly defined in the "Berggesetz". This process began with the Napoleonic conquests, when French law was temporarily enacted in many parts of Germany, and was largely completed with the adoption of the General Mining Act of the Kingdom of Saxony ("Allgemeinen Berggesetzes für das Königreich Sachsen") on 16 June 1868.

Legal implications and exercise.

As a result of the "Bergregal", there was a legal separation of property ownership and mining rights. Local landowners were only left with exploration and mining rights for a few unimportant minerals. The territorial prince, on the other hand, had three options by which he could exercise his rights under the "Bergregal":  The first opportunity for mining to be operated for the benefit of the state came in those countries in which mining was regulated by free declaration ("Freierklärung"). But here, the ruler had to have explicitly renounced his rights to the exploitation of natural resources. In practice, no German state – indeed no European state – had a monopoly over mining rights.  The way mining rights were granted went back to the days of feudalism. However, mining privileges was not just granted to certain individuals, but also to entire estates or towns. In particular, towns involved in the mining industry for a long time were given special privileges and rights. One of these was the granting of the "freedom to mine" ("Bergfreiheit"), with its associated privileges, to the miners and burghers of the towns. These privileges were intended to support the mining industry and growth of the towns. However, this freedom was not part of the "Bergregal"; it was based, in the German states at least, on the old mining constitutions. In these constitutions, the "Bergregal" was exercised through the declaration of such freedom. It was also quite common for all three options described above to be used simultaneously in the same state.

Distinctions and demarcations.

Specifically which minerals were governed by the "Bergregal" varied from state to state, but generally there were two categories: the "upper" or "higher" "Bergregal" and the "lower" "Bergregal". The upper "Bergregal", which covered the mining of precious metals (gold and silver), but could include salt and precious stones remained, almost without exception, in the hands of the state rulers. Precious stones and salt were not part of the upper "Bergregal" in all countries, however. The lower "Bergregal" covered the mining of base metals, like iron, tin, copper, cobalt, lead and bismuth, as well as the minerals arsenic, sulphur, saltpetre and antimony. In many cases these rights were awarded to a third party or granted to landowners under the mining regulations ("Bergordnung").  The mining of bituminous coal, brown coal and peat did not initially come under the "Bergregal"; instead ownership remained with the landowners because these resources were classed as fossil fuels. But the territorial lords very quickly realised that coal mining was potentially very lucrative and, as a result, the "Bergregal" was soon extended to cover coal too. Peat cutting continued to fall outside the "Bergregal", as did the quarrying of gravel, clay, marl and limestone. These minerals were the property of the landowners. In the Prussian states, semi-precious stones and precious stones were not part of the "Bergregal" if they were lying loose in a field or were brought to light in the course of economic activity such as ploughing.

Issues.

Issues inevitably arose over the "Bergregal". In states where specific resources were not governed by a mining act ("Bergrecht"), but were now regulated by a newly introduced "Bergregal", there was serious opposition from the mining companies. They did not initially want to denounce their ownership in order to lease the right to mine or to have to lease their mine property. In addition, new taxes, such as the mine tithe and special mine duties like the so-called "Quatembergeld", led to unrest amongst the mine operators. The introduction of coal tithes frequently led to disputes. To pay the coal tithe, 10 per cent of coal production had to be separated into special heaps. This coal had to be sold first, the profit going to the territorial lords. This coal was often stolen by night. As a result, the mining companies had to be supervised by mining authorities ("Bergbehörde"). In the mining fields of the Mark of Brandenburg, there was such unrest that the military had to intervene.  Other problems were caused by the location of the ore deposits. If a deposit extended over two territories, there could be disagreements at the state border. The mining operators often ended up in conflict. Because different organizations were responsible on either side of the border, there was the question of which mining jurisdiction (mining court or "Berggericht") was responsible for handling a case. These disputes could adversely affect the relationship between the territorial princes as well as the local mining industry. The situation was aided slightly, if the powers of one mining court were greater than those of the other.

Economics.

The "Bergregal" represented a considerable source of income for its owner. The entitlement to a fixed percentage (usually 10%) of the commodity (in the early days of mining usually salt or ore) from each pit, (the so-called mine tithe, "Bergzehnt" or "Fron") formed the basis for the wealth of the great rulers, for example, in the Electorate of Hanover and Duchy of Saxony, helping to finance their expensive royal households. The owner of the "Bergregal" also had the option of first refusal. This effectively resulted in a monopoly. In this way, many regions laid the economic foundations for their future development and the territorial lords and princes showed great interest in the promotion of the mines in their lands, whether through advances, grants or joint construction, because a decline in the mining industry could result in an empty treasury.

Present-day regulations.

Following the end of the "Bergregal", mining acts were introduced in the individual states to govern the extraction of mineral resources. In Germany the exploration and extraction of natural resources is governed by the Federal Mining Act ("Bundesberggesetz"). The Austrian equivalent is the Raw Materials Act ("Mineralrohstoffgesetz"). In Switzerland, the exploration and mining of minerals is regulated by the Swiss "Bergregal". In 1649, ten courts in Graubünden broke away from Austrian rule. At that time it was already laid down that mining rights under the "Bergregal" lay with the landowner. This regulation is still in force today.

The Bergregal () was the historic right of ownership of untapped mineral resources in parts of German-speaking Europe; ownership of the "Bergregal" meant entitlement to the rights and royalties from mining. Historically, it was one of those privileges that constituted the original sovereign rights of the king.

Horní regál byl v době středověku soubor práv panovníka týkajících se získávání nerostů v zemích pod jeho kontrolou. V dobovém chápání měl pouze panovník právo na veškeré nerostné bohatství v zemi a pouze on mohl podle těchto práv propůjčovat privilegium k dolování dalším osobám. V takovém případě měl na vytěžené nerosty vladař nejen předkupní právo, ale část výtěžku získával i v rámci takzvané urbury, tedy stanoveného podílu na zisku, kterou mu musel horní podnikatel, kverk, odvádět. Regál zabraňoval svévolnému dolování nerostných ložisek, zároveň také umožňoval v případě potřeby provádět těžbu bez souhlasu majitele daného pozemku, na němž se těžba konala.