Structure.

It arises from the dorsal surface of the axillary border of the scapula for the upper two-thirds of its extent, and from two aponeurotic laminae, one of which separates it from the infraspinatus muscle, the other from the teres major muscle.  Its fibers run obliquely upwards and laterally; the upper ones end in a tendon which is inserted into the lowest of the three impressions on the greater tubercle of the humerus; the lowest fibers are inserted directly into the humerus immediately below this impression.

Relations.

The teres minor originates at the lateral border and adjacent posterior surface of the scapula. It inserts at the greater tubercle of the humerus. The tendon of this muscle passes across, and is united with, the posterior part of the capsule of the shoulder-joint.

Innervation.

The muscle is innervated by the posterior branch of axillary nerve where it forms a pseudoganglion. A pseudoganglion has no nerve cells but nerve fibres are present. Damage to the fibers innervating the teres minor is clinically significant.

Variation.

Sometimes a group of muscle fibres from teres minor may be fused with infraspinatus.

Function.

The infraspinatus and teres minor attach to head of the humerus; as part of the rotator cuff they help hold the humeral head in the glenoid cavity of the scapula. They work in tandem with the posterior deltoid to externally (laterally) rotate the humerus, as well as adduction. Teres Minor can produce only very small scapular plane adduction during maximal contraction (Hughes RE, An KN 1996) with adductor moment arm of approximately 0.2 cm at 45° of shoulder internal rotation and approximately 0.1 cm at 45° of shoulder external rotation.

Clinical significance.

Injury.

There are two types of rotator cuff injuries: acute tears and chronic tears. Acute tears occur as a result of a sudden movement. This might include throwing a powerful pitch, holding a fast moving rope during water sports, falling over onto an outstretched hand at speed, or making a sudden thrust with the paddle in kayaking. A chronic tear develops over a period of time. They usually occur at or near the tendon, as a result of the tendon rubbing against the underlying bone. The teres minor is typically normal following a rotator cuff tear.

Imaging.

Atrophy of the teres minor muscle is often a consequence of a rotator cuff tear, but common isolated teres minor atrophies have also been found. A quadrangular space syndrome causes excessive and or chronically compression of the structures which pass through this anatomical tunnel. The axillary nerve and the posterior humeral circumflex artery pass through the space. People affected note shoulder pain and paresthesia down the arm first and foremost in abduction, extension, external rotation and overhead activity. Selective atrophy of the teres minor muscle has been seen and pulled together directly with compression of the corresponding axillary nerve branch or posterior humeral circumflex artery. Fibrous bands, cysts of the glenoid labrum, lipoma or dilated veins can occupy the quadrilateral space pathologically. Similar symptoms are common with anterior shoulder dislocation, humeral neck fracture, brachial plexus injury and thoracic outlet and inlet syndrome. It is important to include those pathologies for a complete as possible differential diagnosis.  Ultrasonography is a tool to detect a fatty degenerative atrophy of the teres minor and shows in affected muscles increased echogenicity and betimes a slight reduction in muscle bulk. MR imaging helps to consolidate the diagnosis of neurogenic muscle atrophy. Extracellular edema after traumatic events causing neural damage show an increased signal intensity on T2-weighted MRI sequences and normal intensity on T1-weighted sequences. Posterior humeral circumflex artery compression and reduced blood flow in stressful arm positions and or maneuvers can be diagnosed by a Doppler ultrasonography. The nerve should be detected adjacent to the vessel. In an elevated arm position the axillary neurovascular bundle can be seen at the posterior axillary fold just before it perforates the deltoideus, while the posterior course is well visible in the neutral position. For a detailed assessment of the artery, a MR angiography is required. The major task of an ultrasonographic examination is to rule out any space occupying mass. Additional electromyography is helpful to reveal any decelerated nerve conduction velocity, and thus denervation of the concerned muscle.

The teres minor (Latin "teres" meaning 'rounded') is a narrow, elongated muscle of the rotator cuff. The muscle originates from the lateral border and adjacent posterior surface of the corresponding right or left scapula and inserts at both the greater tubercle of the humerus and the posterior surface of the joint capsule.

Malý oblý sval (lat. musculus teres minor) je jeden z kosterních svalů, které ovládají a stabilizují ramenní kloub. Tvoří oblé bříško, které je povázkou odděleno od podhřebenového svalu a je dále překryto svalem deltovým. Sval postupuje dále přes kloubní pouzdro ramenního kloubu, s jehož přední plochou srůstá, a upíná se na velký hrbolek pažní kosti, společně s nadhřebenovým a podhřebenovým svalem.


History.

The first permanent settler inhabitant of Kemijärvi was Paavali Ollinpoika Halonen, who moved, from the region of Oulu, from Niskakylä, Utajärvi to Kemijärvi about 1580. His wife was Anna Laurintytär Halonen and their children were Paavo, Olli and Pekka Halonen. Paavali's place of residence is known today as Halosenranta. As the first settlers moved to Kemijärvi, the area was no longer inhabited exclusively by the Sami people, but Ämmänvaara in the area of the municipality is an ancient sacrificial place of Samis.  The railway reached Kemijärvi in 1934. It was extended north to Salla and what is now Russia during World War II, though the line is currently moribund beyond Kemijärvi. Kemijärvi railway station has passenger train service to Rovaniemi, Oulu and Helsinki. The direct overnight train service between Kemijärvi and Helsinki was controversially withdrawn in September 2006, with VR (Finnish Railways) stating that its new sleeping car trains could not operate with the diesel locomotives needed for the (then) non-electrified railway north of Rovaniemi.  However, a year later, the Ministry of Transport and Communications and VR reached an agreement concerning partial public funding of the service, which was restored in 2008 with a diesel generator car supplying head-end power to the passenger cars. The generator car disappeared from the train in March 2014 when the electrification extension from Rovaniemi to Kemijärvi was inaugurated, an event which also assured Kemijärvi a permanent place in the VR network.  On 9 May 1986, a BAE Hawk Mk 51 crashed in Kemijärvi whilst practising for a flight display due to loss of orientation. The pilot, First Lieutenant M. Kähkönen, died upon impact.

Transport.

The city is served by Kemijärvi railway station, with direct trains to Helsinki.

Twin towns - sister cities.

Kemijärvi is twinned with:

Kemijärvi (, ) is a municipality of Finland. It is located in the province of Lapland. The municipality has a population of () and covers an area of of which is water. The population density is.

Kemijärvi (severosámsky "Giemajávri") je město ležící v severním Finsku v provincii Laponsko. Leží 86 km severovýchodně od Rovaniemi. Je to také nejsevernější město ve Finsku. Celá správní oblast města (včetně blízkých vesnic) má 9 759 obyvatel žijících na území o rozloze 3929,7 km2 z nichž 427,56 km2 je voda. Hustota osídlení je 2,8371 obyvatel na km2. Město je sevřeno mezi jezera Kemijärvi a Pöyliöjärvi.


Principles of construction.

Absorption is the process of being drawn into a (usually larger) body or substrate, and adsorption is the process of deposition upon a surface. This can be used to remove both particulate and gaseous hazards. Although some form of reaction may take place, it is not necessary; the method may work by attractive charges. For example, if the target particles are positively charged, a negatively charged substrate may be used. Examples of substrates include activated carbon, and zeolites. This effect can be very simple and highly effective, for example using a damp cloth to cover the mouth and nose while escaping a fire. While this method can be effective at trapping particulates produced by combustion, it does not filter out harmful gases which may be toxic or which displace the oxygen required for survival.

Safety of old gas masks.

Gas masks have a limited useful lifespan that is related to the absorbent capacity of the filter. Once the filter has been saturated with hazardous chemicals, it ceases to provide protection and the user may be injured. Most gas masks use sealing caps over the air intake and are stored in vacuum sealed bags to prevent the filter from degrading before use, but the protective abilities also degrade as the filter ages or if it is exposed to moisture and heat. Very old unused gas mask filters from World War II may not be effective at all in protecting the user, and can even potentially cause harm to the user due to long-term changes in the filter chemical composition. Some World War II gas masks contained chrysotile asbestos or crocidolite asbestos in their filters. It is unknown how long for certain the materials were used in filters. Breathing blue asbestos in the factories resulted in the death of 10 percent of the workforce due to pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma. This rate was between 2.5 and 3.2 times the normal incidence of lung or respiratory cancers.  Many stories have originated from various Russian gas masks and their filters that are now common in surplus stores; the GP-5 was often considered to have an asbestos filter. Although the filter is made so that the asbestos fibres cannot be breathed in if the filter layer is not damaged, these expired filters and others should be avoided for risk of health. All Russian Cold War period gas mask filters contain asbestos and should be avoided.  Modern gas masks are quite safe and do not use asbestos, but it is still important to be careful when using a modern gas mask. Typically, masks using 40 mm connections are a more recent design. Rubber degrades with time, so new in-box "modern type" masks can be cracked and leak. Also, the US C2 canister (black) was shown to contain hexavalent chromium: the studies by the U.S. Army Chemical Corps showed that the levels in the filter were acceptable, but imply caution when using, as it is a carcinogen.

Filter classification.

The filter is selected according to the toxic compound. Each filter type protects against a particular hazard and is color-coded:  Particle filters are often included, because in many cases, the hazardous materials are in the form of mist, which is captured already by the particle filter before entering the chemical adsorber. In Europe and jurisdictions with similar rules like Russia and Australia, filter types are given suffix numbers to indicate their capacity: for non-particle hazards, the level "1" is assumed and a number "2" is used to indicate a better level. For particles (P), three levels are always given with the number. In the US, only the particle part is further classified by NIOSH air filtration ratings.  A filter type that can protect multiple hazards is notated with the European symbols concatenated with each other. Examples include ABEK, ABEK-P3, and ABEK-HgP3. A2B2E2K2-P3 is the highest rating of filter available. An entirely different "multi/CBRN" filter class with an olive color is used in the US.  Filtration may be aided with an air pump to improve wearer comfort. Filtration of air is only possible if there is sufficient oxygen in the first place. Thus, when handling asphyxiants, or when ventilation is poor or the hazards are unknown, filtration is not possible and air must be supplied (with a SCBA system) from a pressurized bottle as in scuba diving.

Use.

A modern mask typically is constructed of an elastic polymer in various sizes. It is fitted with various adjustable straps which may be tightened to secure a good fit. Crucially, it is connected to a filter cartridge near the mouth either directly, or via a flexible hose. Some models contain drinking tubes which may be connected to a water bottle. Corrective lens inserts are also available for users who require them.  Masks are typically tested for fit before use. After a mask is fitted, it is often tested by various challenge agents. Isoamyl acetate, a synthetic banana flavourant, and camphor are often used as innocuous challenge agents. In the military, teargases such as CN, CS, and stannic chloride in a chamber may be used to give the users confidence in the efficiency of the mask.

Reaction and exchange.

This principle relies on substances harmful to humans being usually more reactive than air. This method of separation will use some form of generally reactive substance (for example an acid) coating or supported by some solid material. An example is synthetic resins. These can be created with different groups of atoms (usually called functional groups) that have different properties. Thus a resin can be tailored to a particular toxic group. When the reactive substance comes in contact with the resin, it will bond to it, removing it from the air stream. It may also exchange with a less harmful substance at this site.  Though it was crude, the hypo helmet was a stopgap measure for British troops in the trenches that offered at least some protection during a gas attack. As the months passed and poison gas was used more often, more sophisticated gas masks were developed and introduced. There are two main difficulties with gas mask design:

History and development.

Early breathing devices.

According to "Popular Mechanics", "The common sponge was used in ancient Greece as a gas mask..." In 1785, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier invented a respirator.  Primitive respirator examples were used by miners and introduced by Alexander von Humboldt already in 1799, when he worked as a mining engineer in Prussia. The forerunner to the modern gas mask was invented in 1847 by Lewis P. Haslett, a device that contained elements that allowed breathing through a nose and mouthpiece, inhalation of air through a bulb-shaped filter, and a vent to exhale air back into the atmosphere. According to "First Facts," it states that the "gas mask resembling the modern type was patented by Lewis Phectic Haslett of Louisville, Kentucky who received a patent on June 12, 1849."  Early versions were constructed by the Scottish chemist John Stenhouse in 1854 and the physicist John Tyndall in the 1870s. Another early design was the "Safety Hood and Smoke Protector" invented by Garrett Morgan in 1912, and patented in 1914. It was a simple device consisting of a cotton hood with two hoses which hung down to the floor, allowing the wearer to breathe the safer air found there. In addition, moist sponges were inserted at the end of the hoses in order to better filter the air. This was later modified to include its own air supply, leading to World War I era gas masks.<ref name="pbs.org/wgbh/theymadeamerica2"></ref><ref name="encyclopedia.com/topic/Garrett_Morgan2"></ref><ref name="biography.com/people/garrett-morgan2"></ref>

First World War.

The First World War brought about the first need for mass-produced gas masks on both sides because of extensive use of chemical weapons. The German army successfully used poison gas for the first time against Allied troops at the Second Battle of Ypres, Belgium on 22 April 1915. As an immediate response was cotton wool wrapped in muslin issued to the troops by 1 May. This was followed by the Black Veil Respirator, invented by John Scott Haldane, which was a cotton pad soaked in an absorbent solution which was secured over the mouth using black cotton veiling.  Seeking to improve on the Black Veil respirator, Cluny MacPherson created a mask made of chemical absorbing fabric and which fitted over the entire head. A canvas hood treated with chlorine-absorbing chemicals, and fitted with a transparent mica eyepiece. Macpherson presented his idea to the British War Office Anti-Gas Department on 10th of May 1915, with prototypes being developed soon after. The design was adopted by the British Army and introduced as the British Smoke Hood in June 1915; Macpherson was appointed to the War Office Committee for Protection against Poisonous Gases. More elaborate sorbent compounds were added later to further iterations of his helmet (PH helmet), to defeat other respiratory poison gases used such as phosgene, diphosgene and chloropicrin. In summer and autumn 1915, Edward Harrison, Bertram Lambert and John Sadd developed the Large Box Respirator. This canister gas mask had a tin can containing the absorbent materials by a hose and began to be issued in February 1916. A compact version, the Small Box Respirator, was made a universal issue from August 1916.  In the first gas masks of World War I, it was initially found that wood charcoal was a good absorbent of poison gases. Around 1918, it was found that charcoals made from the shells and seeds of various fruits and nuts such as coconuts, chestnuts, horse-chestnuts, and peach stones performed much better than wood charcoal. These waste materials were collected from the public in recycling programs to assist the war effort.  The first effective filtering activated charcoal gas mask in the world was invented in 1915 by Russian chemist Nikolay Zelinsky.  Also in World War I, since dogs were frequently used on the front lines, a special type of gas mask was developed that dogs were trained to wear. Other gas masks were developed during World War I and the time following for horses in the various mounted units that operated near the front lines. In America thousands of gas masks were produced for American as well as Allied troops. Mine Safety Appliances was a chief producer. This mask was later used widely in industry.

Modern mask.

The British Respirator, Anti-Gas (Light) was developed in 1943 by the British. It was made of plastic and rubber-like material that greatly reduced the weight and bulk, compared to World War I gas masks and fitted the user's face more snugly and comfortably. The main improvement was replacing the separate filter canister connected with a hose by a filter canister screwed on the side of the gas mask, that could be replaced easily. Also, it had replaceable plastic lenses.  Gas mask development since has mirrored the development of chemical agents in warfare, filling the need to protect against ever more deadly threats, biological weapons, and radioactive dust in the nuclear era. However, for agents that cause harm through contact or penetration of the skin, such as blister agent or nerve agent, a gas mask alone is not sufficient protection, and full protective clothing must be worn in addition to protect from contact with the atmosphere. For reasons of civil defense and personal protection, individuals often buy gas masks since thry believe that they protect against the harmful effects of an attack with nuclear, biological, or chemical (NBC) agents, which is only partially true, as gas masks protect only against respiratory absorption. Most military gas masks are designed to be capable of protection against all NBC agents, but they can have filter canisters proof against those agents (heavier) or only against riot control agents and smoke (lighter and often used for training purposes); likewise, there are lightweight masks solely for use in riot control agents and not for NBC situations.  Although thorough training and the availability of gas masks and other protective equipment can nullify the casualty-causing effects of an attack by chemical agents, troops who are forced to operate in full protective gear are less efficient in completing tasks, tire easily, and may be affected psychologically by the threat of attack by those weapons. During the Cold War, it was seen as inevitable that there would be a constant NBC threat on the battlefield and so troops needed protection in which they could remain fully functional; thus, protective gear and especially gas masks have evolved to incorporate innovations in terms of increasing user comfort and in compatibility with other equipment (from drinking devices to artificial respiration tubes, to communications systems etc.). The gas mask has thus now arrived at a "fourth generation" of development. During the Iran–Iraq War (1980–88), Iraq developed its chemical weapons program with the help of European countries such as Germany and France and used them in a large scale against Iranians and Iraqi Kurds. Iran was unprepared for chemical warfare. In 1984, Iran received gas masks from the Republic of Korea and East Germany, but the Korean masks were not suited for the faces of non-East Asian people, the filter lasted for only 15 minutes, and the 5,000 masks bought from East Germany proved to be not gas masks but spray-painting goggles. As late as 1986, Iranian diplomats still traveled in Europe to buy active charcoal and models of filters to produce defensive gear domestically. In April 1988, Iran started domestic production of gas masks by the Iran Yasa factories.

In schools.

Most civilians learned how to use gas masks through the civil defense department, but children received most gas mask education in school drills. Schools would implement gas mask education and training after the outbreak of a war. Schools would harshly enforce the compulsory carrying of gas masks at all times. Gas mask and air raid drills were closely related and children would be made to wear gas masks in everyday activities, including gymnastics. The wearing of gas masks in the classrooms were especially difficult for teachers as they had trouble distinguishing one child from another. The gas masks became as uniform as the students' uniforms. Other civilians learned the use of a gas mask through posters, pamphlets, and radio lectures, but children learned through cartoons and rhymes such as "coughs and sneezes spread diseases".

A gas mask is a mask used to protect the wearer from inhaling airborne pollutants and toxic gases. The mask forms a sealed cover over the nose and mouth, but may also cover the eyes and other vulnerable soft tissues of the face. Most gas masks are also respirators, though the word "gas mask" is often used to refer to military equipment (such as a field protective mask). The gas mask only protects the user from digesting, inhaling and contact through the eyes (many agents affect through eye contact). Most combined gas mask filters will last around 8 hours in a nuclear biological chemical (NBC) situation. Chemical specific filters can last up to 20 hours in an NBC situation.

Ochranná maska (hovorově plynová maska) slouží k ochraně obličeje, očí a dýchacích cest nositele před toxickými látkami ve vzduchu. Ty mohou být ve skupenství pevném (prachové částice - typické pro radioaktivní látky, různé dýmy či viry a bakterie), kapalném (aerosoly - mohou obsahovat radioaktivní látky či rozpuštěné chemické škodliviny nebo bakterie a viry) či plynném (radioaktivní plyny a toxické plynné látky).


Production.

Most fungi are aerobic (use oxygen) and are found almost everywhere in extremely small quantities due to the diminute size of their spores. They consume organic matter wherever humidity and temperature are sufficient. Where conditions are right, fungi proliferate into colonies and mycotoxin levels become high. The reason for the production of mycotoxins is not yet known; they are not necessary for the growth or the development of the fungi. Because mycotoxins weaken the receiving host, they may improve the environment for further fungal proliferation. The production of toxins depends on the surrounding intrinsic and extrinsic environments and these substances vary greatly in their toxicity, depending on the organism infected and its susceptibility, metabolism, and defense mechanisms.

Major groups.

Aflatoxins are a type of mycotoxin produced by "Aspergillus" species of fungi, such as "A. flavus" and "A. parasiticus". The umbrella term aflatoxin refers to four different types of mycotoxins produced, which are B, B, G, and G. Aflatoxin B, the most toxic, is a potent carcinogen and has been directly correlated to adverse health effects, such as liver cancer, in many animal species. Aflatoxins are largely associated with commodities produced in the tropics and subtropics, such as cotton, peanuts, spices, pistachios, and maize.  Ochratoxin is a mycotoxin that comes in three secondary metabolite forms, A, B, and C. All are produced by "Penicillium" and "Aspergillus" species. The three forms differ in that Ochratoxin B (OTB) is a nonchlorinated form of Ochratoxin A (OTA) and that Ochratoxin C (OTC) is an ethyl ester form Ochratoxin A. "Aspergillus ochraceus" is found as a contaminant of a wide range of commodities including beverages such as beer and wine. "Aspergillus carbonarius" is the main species found on vine fruit, which releases its toxin during the juice making process. OTA has been labeled as a carcinogen and a nephrotoxin, and has been linked to tumors in the human urinary tract, although research in humans is limited by confounding factors.  Citrinin is a toxin that was first isolated from "Penicillium citrinum", but has been identified in over a dozen species of "Penicillium" and several species of "Aspergillus". Some of these species are used to produce human foodstuffs such as cheese ("Penicillium camemberti"), sake, miso, and soy sauce ("Aspergillus oryzae"). Citrinin is associated with yellowed rice disease in Japan and acts as a nephrotoxin in all animal species tested. Although it is associated with many human foods (wheat, rice, corn, barley, oats, rye, and food colored with Monascus pigment) its full significance for human health is unknown. Citrinin can also act synergistically with Ochratoxin A to depress RNA synthesis in murine kidneys.  Ergot Alkaloids are compounds produced as a toxic mixture of alkaloids in the sclerotia of species of "Claviceps", which are common pathogens of various grass species. The ingestion of ergot sclerotia from infected cereals, commonly in the form of bread produced from contaminated flour, causes ergotism, the human disease historically known as St. Anthony's Fire. There are two forms of ergotism: gangrenous, affecting blood supply to extremities, and convulsive, affecting the central nervous system. Modern methods of grain cleaning have significantly reduced ergotism as a human disease; however, it is still an important veterinary problem. Ergot alkaloids have been used pharmaceutically.  Patulin is a toxin produced by the "P. expansum", "Aspergillus", "Penicillium", and "Paecilomyces" fungal species. "P. expansum" is especially associated with a range of moldy fruits and vegetables, in particular rotting apples and figs. It is destroyed by the fermentation process and so is not found in apple beverages, such as cider. Although patulin has not been shown to be carcinogenic, it has been reported to damage the immune system in animals. In 2004, the European Community set limits to the concentrations of patulin in food products. They currently stand at 50 μg/kg in all fruit juice concentrations, at 25 μg/kg in solid apple products used for direct consumption, and at 10 μg/kg for children's apple products, including apple juice.  Fusarium toxins are produced by over 50 species of "Fusarium" and have a history of infecting the grain of developing cereals such as wheat and maize. They include a range of mycotoxins, such as: the fumonisins, which affect the nervous systems of horses and may cause cancer in rodents; the trichothecenes, which are most strongly associated with chronic and fatal toxic effects in animals and humans; and zearalenone, which is not correlated to any fatal toxic effects in animals or humans. Some of the other major types of "Fusarium" toxins include: beauvercin and enniatins, butenolide, equisetin, and fusarins.

Occurrence.

Although various wild mushrooms contain an assortment of poisons that are definitely fungal metabolites causing noteworthy health problems for humans, they are rather arbitrarily excluded from discussions of mycotoxicology. In such cases the distinction is based on the size of the producing fungus and human intention. Mycotoxin exposure is almost always accidental whereas with mushrooms improper identification and ingestion causing mushroom poisoning is commonly the case. Ingestion of misidentified mushrooms containing mycotoxins may result in hallucinations. The cyclopeptide-producing "Amanita phalloides" is well known for its toxic potential and is responsible for approximately 90% of all mushroom fatalities. The other primary mycotoxin groups found in mushrooms include: orellanine, monomethylhydrazine, disulfiram-like, hallucinogenic indoles, muscarinic, isoxazole, and gastrointestinal (GI)-specific irritants. The bulk of this article is about mycotoxins that are found in microfungi other than poisons from mushrooms or macroscopic fungi.

In indoor environments.

Buildings are another source of mycotoxins and people living or working in areas with mold increase their chances of adverse health effects. Molds growing in buildings can be divided into three groups — primary, secondary, and tertiary colonizers. Each group is categorized by the ability to grow at a certain water activity requirement. It has become difficult to identify mycotoxin production by indoor molds for many variables, such as (i) they may be masked as derivatives, (ii) they are poorly documented, and (iii) the fact that they are likely to produce different metabolites on building materials. Some of the mycotoxins in the indoor environment are produced by "Alternaria", "Aspergillus" (multiple forms), "Penicillium", and "Stachybotrys". "Stachybotrys chartarum" contains a higher number of mycotoxins than other molds grown in the indoor environment and has been associated with allergies and respiratory inflammation. The infestation of "S. chartarum" in buildings containing gypsum board, as well as on ceiling tiles, is very common and has recently become a more recognized problem. When gypsum board has been repeatedly introduced to moisture, "S. chartarum" grows readily on its cellulose face. This stresses the importance of moisture controls and ventilation within residential homes and other buildings. The negative health effects of mycotoxins are a function of the concentration, the duration of exposure, and the subject's sensitivities. The concentrations experienced in a normal home, office, or school are often too low to trigger a health response in occupants.  In the 1990s, public concern over mycotoxins increased following multimillion-dollar toxic mold settlements. The lawsuits took place after a study by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) in Cleveland, Ohio, reported an association between mycotoxins from "Stachybotrys" spores and pulmonary hemorrhage in infants. However, in 2000, based on internal and external reviews of their data, the CDC concluded that because of flaws in their methods, the association was not proven. "Stachybotrys" spores in animal studies have been shown to cause lung hemorrhaging, but only at very high concentrations.  One study by the Center of Integrative Toxicology at Michigan State University investigated the causes of Damp Building Related Illness (DBRI). They found that "Stachybotrys" is possibly an important contributing factor to DBRI. So far animal models indicate that airway exposure to "S. chartarum " can evoke allergic sensitization, inflammation, and cytotoxicity in the upper and lower respiratory tracts. Trichothecene toxicity appears to be an underlying cause of many of these adverse effects. Recent findings indicate that lower doses (studies usually involve high doses) can cause these symptoms.  Some toxicologists have used the Concentration of No Toxicological Concern (CoNTC) measure to represent the airborne concentration of mycotoxins that are expected to cause no hazard to humans (exposed continuously throughout a 70–yr lifetime). The resulting data of several studies have thus far demonstrated that common exposures to airborne mycotoxins in the built indoor environment are below the CoNTC, however agricultural environments have potential to produce levels greater than the CoNTC.

In food.

Mycotoxins can appear in the food chain as a result of fungal infection of crops, either by being eaten directly by humans or by being used as livestock feed.  In 2004 in Kenya, 125 people died and nearly 200 others were treated after eating aflatoxin-contaminated maize. The deaths were mainly associated with homegrown maize that had not been treated with fungicides or properly dried before storage. Due to food shortages at the time, farmers may have been harvesting maize earlier than normal to prevent thefts from their fields, so that the grain had not fully matured and was more susceptible to infection.  Spices are susceptible substrate for growth of mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxin production. Red chilli, black pepper, and dry ginger were found to be the most contaminated spices.  Physical methods to prevent growth of mycotoxin‐producing fungi or remove toxins from contaminated food include temperature and humidity control, irradiation and photodynamic treatment. Mycotoxins can also be removed chemically and biologically using antifungal/anti‐mycotoxins agents and antifungal plant metabolites.

In animal food.

Dimorphic fungi, which include Blastomyces dermatitidis and Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, are known causative agents of endemic systemic mycoses.  There were outbreaks of dog food containing aflatoxin in North America in late 2005 and early 2006, and again in late 2011.  Mycotoxins in animal fodder, particularly silage, can decrease the performance of farm animals and potentially kill them. Several mycotoxins reduce milk yield when ingested by dairy cattle.  Mycobacterium is derived from its "fungus-like" nature

In dietary supplements.

Contamination of medicinal plants with mycotoxins can contribute to adverse human health problems and therefore represents a special hazard. Numerous natural occurrences of mycotoxins in medicinal plants and herbal medicines have been reported from various countries including Spain, China, Germany, India, Turkey and from the Middle East. In a 2015 analysis of plant-based dietary supplements, the highest mycotoxin concentrations were found in milk thistle-based supplements, at up to 37 mg/kg.

Health effects.

Some of the health effects found in animals and humans include death, identifiable diseases or health problems, weakened immune systems without specificity to a toxin, and as allergens or irritants. Some mycotoxins are harmful to other micro-organisms such as other fungi or even bacteria; penicillin is one example. It has been suggested that mycotoxins in stored animal feed are the cause of rare phenotypical sex changes in hens that causes them to look and act male.

In humans.

Mycotoxicosis is the term used for poisoning associated with exposures to mycotoxins. Mycotoxins have the potential for both acute and chronic health effects via ingestion, skin contact, inhalation, and entering the blood stream and lymphatic system. They inhibit protein synthesis, damage macrophage systems, inhibit particle clearance of the lung, and increase sensitivity to bacterial endotoxin.  The symptoms of mycotoxicosis depend on the type of mycotoxin; the concentration and length of exposure; as well as age, health, and sex of the exposed individual. The synergistic effects associated with several other factors such as genetics, diet, and interactions with other toxins have been poorly studied. Therefore, it is possible that vitamin deficiency, caloric deprivation, alcohol abuse, and infectious disease status can all have compounded effects with mycotoxins.

Mitigation.

Mycotoxins greatly resist decomposition or being broken down in digestion, so they remain in the food chain in meat and dairy products. Even temperature treatments, such as cooking and freezing, do not destroy some mycotoxins.

Removal.

In the feed and food industry it has become common practice to add mycotoxin binding agents such as montmorillonite or bentonite clay in order to effectively adsorb the mycotoxins. To reverse the adverse effects of mycotoxins, the following criteria are used to evaluate the functionality of any binding additive:  Since not all mycotoxins can be bound to such agents, the latest approach to mycotoxin control is mycotoxin deactivation. By means of enzymes (esterase, de-epoxidase), yeast ("Trichosporon mycotoxinvorans"), or bacterial strains (Eubacterium BBSH 797 developed by Biomin), mycotoxins can be reduced during pre-harvesting contamination. Other removal methods include physical separation, washing, milling, nixtamalization, heat-treatment, radiation, extraction with solvents, and the use of chemical or biological agents. Irradiation methods have proven to be effective treatment against mold growth and toxin production.

Regulations.

Many international agencies are trying to achieve universal standardization of regulatory limits for mycotoxins. Currently, over 100 countries have regulations regarding mycotoxins in the feed industry, in which 13 mycotoxins or groups of mycotoxins are of concern. The process of assessing a need for mycotoxin regulation includes a wide array of in-laboratory testing that includes extracting, clean-up and separation techniques. Most official regulations and control methods are based on high-performance liquid techniques (e.g., HPLC) through international bodies. It is implied that any regulations regarding these toxins will be in co-ordinance with any other countries with which a trade agreement exists. Many of the standards for the method performance analysis for mycotoxins is set by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN). However, one must take note that scientific risk assessment is commonly influenced by culture and politics, which, in turn, will affect trade regulations of mycotoxins.  Food-based mycotoxins were studied extensively worldwide throughout the 20th century. In Europe, statutory levels of a range of mycotoxins permitted in food and animal feed are set by a range of European directives and EC regulations. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has regulated and enforced limits on concentrations of mycotoxins in foods and feed industries since 1985. It is through various compliance programs that the FDA monitors these industries to guarantee that mycotoxins are kept at a practical level. These compliance programs sample food products including peanuts and peanut products, tree nuts, corn and corn products, cottonseed, and milk. There is still a lack of sufficient surveillance data on some mycotoxins that occur in the U.S.

Use in fiction.

A fictional use of a mycotoxin occurs in William Gibson's seminal novel "Neuromancer" (1984). A "Russian war-time mycotoxin" is administered to Case, the novel's protagonist.  In Babylon 5, Season 1 Episode 2 “Soul Hunter,” Doctor Stephen Franklin asks for 20cc’s of mycotoxin when treating a victim of a knife attack.

A mycotoxin (from the Greek μύκης, "fungus" and τοξίνη, "toxin") is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by organisms of the fungus kingdom and is capable of causing disease and death in both humans and other animals. The term'mycotoxin' is usually reserved for the toxic chemical products produced by fungi that readily colonize crops.

Mykotoxikóza je onemocnění způsobené toxiny hub, zejména mikroskopických hub nazývaných nepřesně též plísně. Na rozdíl od mykózy vzniká toxin mimo tělo postiženého.


Biography.

Antoni Szyling was born in Płoniawy-Bramura. He finished a 7-year trade school in 1904 and from an early age was an active member of the Polish pro-independence nationalist paramilitary organization the Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist Party. He had several safehouses, in which he stored "bibuła" and arms, as well as hiding wanted PPS members and members of other organizations. Arrested by the authorities of the Russian Empire, he served several one-and-a-half-month sentences in the Warsaw Citadel and Daniłłiczowski Prison. He was also denied the right to study at a university and was conscripted into the Russian Army for two years (1905–1907). In 1910, he married Zofia Bajkowski (1887–1944). In the years 1909–1912 he was able to finish 'industrial-agricultural courses' at the Higher Agricultural School in Warsaw, and from 1912 to 1913 he worked on an experimental folwark in Szamocin. In 1914 he was mobilized into the Russian Army again and fought in the First World War.  In 1917, with the rank of captain, he joined the Polish 2nd Corps in the East. In 1918 he was promoted to major, and soon afterwards taken prisoner by the Germans. In January 1919 he joined the Polish Army. During the Polish-Soviet War he commanded the 44th Infantry Regiment. In 1922 he was promoted to colonel and later retired at his own request. In 1925 he was commissioned again and became the commander of the 28th Infantry Division in Warsaw. Later he commanded the 23rd Infantry Division in Katowice and the 8th Infantry Division in Modlin. In 1929 he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general (generał brygady). In May 1937 he worked at the General Inspectorate of the Armed Forces in Silesia.  During the German attack on Poland (1939) that started World War II he commanded Army Kraków. This army was the main pivot of Polish defence. Its main task was to delay advancing German troops and withdraw eastwards along the northern line of the Carpathians and defend the heavily industrialized Upper Silesia region. It consisted of four infantry divisions (6th, 7th, 23rd and 55th), two mountain infantry divisions (21st and 22nd), one mountain brigade and two cavalry brigades: one motorized (10th) and one standard ("Kraków"). It was the most southwestern of the Polish Armies, with Army Łódź to its north and Army Karpaty to its southeast.  During the early stages of the Battle of the Border the northern Army Łódź was partially surrounded by quickly advancing German forces. Army Kraków, attacked by the German 14th Army under the command of General Wilhelm List, was forced to retreat to protect its flanks from 2 September onwards. A careful tactician, General Szylling followed the strategy of'retreat to fight another day' instead of engaging the superior enemy. General Szylling, despite the increasingly difficult situation for the Polish forces, was able to retreat successfully towards the city of Lublin, following his orders and avoiding several German attempts to surround him. On 19 September Szyling's forces joined with Army Lublin of General Tadeusz Piskor in the Battle of Tomaszów Lubelski, the second largest tank battle of the campaign. Polish forces followed the plan of General Piskor, but the German defences proved too strong and the majority of Polish forces, including the headquarters of both generals, were encircled and surrendered on 20 September.  Hence General Szylling became a German prisoner for the second time. He spent most of the war in the Oflag VII-A Murnau POW camp. On 30 April 1945 he was freed by advancing American forces; he decided not to return to Polish Communist-controlled Poland, but emigrated to France and later to the United Kingdom and, finally, to Canada (in 1947). In 1949 he married Maria Róża Dobrowolska (1896–1986). He lived on a farm at Abercorn, near Montreal, where he died on 17 June 1971. He is buried in Saint-Sauveur, Quebec. He actually died at the Maria (Curie) Sklodowski Polish Home for the Aged on Belanger Street in Montreal.  After emigrating he wrote a monograph, "Moje dowodzenie we wrześniu 1939" ("My command in September 1939"). The original draft was given to (Boguslaw Borejsza-Wysocki) my father Antoni Borejsza-Wysocki (1918–2000) to be published at a later date. It was published in Kraków in 2007 - with some minor changes and additions unbeknownst to the author.  In 1946 the Polish government promoted him to generał dywizji in recognition of his valor.

Antoni Szylling (31 August 1884 – 17 June 1971) was a Polish general, considered, along with Generals Wiktor Thommée and Stanisław Maczek, to have been one of the most successful Polish Army commanders during the Invasion of Poland of 1939.

Antoni Szylling (31. srpna 1881, Płoniawy-Bramura, Ruské impérium – 17. června 1971, Montreal, Kanada) byl polský generál za druhé světové války, velel Armádě Krakov.


Hallstatt type site.

In 1846, Johann Georg Ramsauer (1795–1874) discovered a large prehistoric cemetery near Hallstatt, Austria (), which he excavated during the second half of the 19th century. Eventually the excavation would yield 1,045 burials, although no settlement has yet been found. This may be covered by the later village, which has long occupied the whole narrow strip between the steep hillsides and the lake. Some 1,300 burials have been found, including around 2,000 individuals, with women and children but few infants. Nor is there a "princely" burial, as often found near large settlements. Instead, there are a large number of burials varying considerably in the number and richness of the grave goods, but with a high proportion containing goods suggesting a life well above subsistence level.  The community at Hallstatt was untypical of the wider, mainly agricultural, culture, as its booming economy exploited the salt mines in the area. These had been worked from time to time since the Neolithic period, and in this period were extensively mined with a peak from the 8th to 5th centuries BC. The style and decoration of the grave goods found in the cemetery are very distinctive, and artifacts made in this style are widespread in Europe. In the mine workings themselves, the salt has preserved many organic materials such as textiles, wood and leather, and many abandoned artefacts such as shoes, pieces of cloth, and tools including miner's backpacks, have survived in good condition.  Finds at Hallstatt extend from about 1200 BC until around 500 BC, and are divided by archaeologists into four phases:  Hallstatt A–B (1200–800 BC) are part of the Bronze Age Urnfield culture. In this period, people were cremated and buried in simple graves. In phase B, tumulus (barrow or kurgan) burial becomes common, and cremation predominates. The "Hallstatt period" proper is restricted to HaC and HaD (800–450 BC), corresponding to the early European Iron Age. Hallstatt lies in the area where the western and eastern zones of the Hallstatt culture meet, which is reflected in the finds from there. Hallstatt D is succeeded by the La Tène culture.  Hallstatt C is characterized by the first appearance of iron swords mixed amongst the bronze ones. Inhumation and cremation co-occur. For the final phase, Hallstatt D, daggers, almost to the exclusion of swords, are found in western zone graves ranging from c. 600–500 BC. There are also differences in the pottery and brooches. Burials were mostly inhumations. Halstatt D has been further divided into the sub-phases D1–D3, relating only to the western zone, and mainly based on the form of brooches.  Major activity at the site appears to have finished about 500 BC, for reasons that are unclear. Many Hallstatt graves were robbed, probably at this time. There was widespread disruption throughout the western Hallstatt zone, and the salt workings had by then become very deep. By then the focus of salt mining had shifted to the nearby Hallein Salt Mine, with graves at Dürrnberg nearby where there are significant finds from the late Hallstatt and early La Tène periods, until the mid-4th century BC, when a major landslide destroyed the mineshafts and ended mining activity.  Much of the material from early excavations was dispersed, and is now found in many collections, especially German and Austrian museums, but the Hallstatt Museum in the town has the largest collection.

Culture and trade.

It is probable that some if not all of the diffusion of Hallstatt culture took place in a Celtic-speaking context. In northern Italy the Golasecca culture developed with continuity from the Canegrate culture. Canegrate represented a completely new cultural dynamic to the area expressed in pottery and bronzework making it a typical western example of the western Hallstatt culture.  The Lepontic Celtic language inscriptions of the area show the language of the Golasecca culture was clearly Celtic making it probable that the 13th-century BC precursor language of at least the western Hallstatt was also Celtic or a precursor to it. Lepontic inscriptions have also been found in Umbria, in the area which saw the emergence of the Terni culture, which had strong similarities with the Celtic cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène. The Umbrian necropolis of Terni, which dates back to the 10th century BC, was identical under every aspect, to the Celtic necropolis of the Golasecca culture.  Trade with Greece is attested by finds of Attic black-figure pottery in the elite graves of the late Hallstatt period. It was probably imported via Massilia (Marseilles). Other imported luxuries include amber, ivory (Gräfenbühl) and probably wine. Recent analyses have shown that the reputed silk in the barrow at Hohmichele was misidentified. Red kermes dye was imported from the south as well; it was found at Hochdorf.  The settlements were mostly fortified, situated on hilltops, and frequently included the workshops of bronze-, silver-, and goldsmiths. Typical sites are the Heuneburg on the upper Danube surrounded by nine very large grave tumuli, Mont Lassois in eastern France near Châtillon-sur-Seine with, at its foot, the very rich grave at Vix, and the hill fort at Molpír in Slovakia. Tumuli graves had a chamber, rather large in some cases, lined with timber and with the body and grave goods set about the room.  In the central Hallstatt regions toward the end of the period (Ha D), very rich graves of high-status individuals under large tumuli are found near the remains of fortified hilltop settlements. There are some chariot burials, including (possibly) Býčí Skála, Vix and Hochdorf. A model of a chariot made from lead has been found in Frögg, Carinthia, and clay models of horses with riders are also found. Wooden "funerary carts", presumably used as hearses and then buried, are sometimes found in the grandest graves. Pottery and bronze vessels, weapons, elaborate jewellery made of bronze and gold, as well as a few stone stelae (especially the famous Warrior of Hirschlanden) are found at such burials. The daggers that largely replaced swords in chief's graves in the west were probably not serious weapons, but badges of rank, and used at the table.  The material culture of Western Hallstatt culture was apparently sufficient to provide a stable social and economic equilibrium. The founding of Marseille and the penetration by Greek and Etruscan culture after c. 600 BC, resulted in long-range trade relationships up the Rhone valley which triggered social and cultural transformations in the Hallstatt settlements north of the Alps. Powerful local chiefdoms emerged which controlled the redistribution of luxury goods from the Mediterranean world that is characteristic of the La Tène culture.  Iron swords appear in the later periods, from the 8th century, with tools coming rather later. Initially iron was rather exotic and expensive, and sometimes used as a prestige material for jewellery. The potter's wheel appears right at the end of the period.  The apparently largely peaceful and prosperous life of Hallstatt D culture was disrupted, perhaps even collapsed, right at the end of the period. There has been much speculation as to the causes of this, which remain uncertain. Large settlements such as Heuneburg and the Burgstallkogel were destroyed or abandoned, rich tumulus burials ended, and old ones were looted. There was probably a significant movement of population westwards, and the succeeding La Tène culture developed new centres to the west and north, their growth perhaps overlapping with the final years of the Hallstatt culture.

Art.

At least the later periods of Hallstatt art from the western zone are generally agreed to form the early period of Celtic art. Decoration is mostly geometric and linear, and best seen on fine metalwork finds from graves (see above). Styles differ, especially between the west and east, with more human figures and some narrative elements in the latter. Animals, with waterfowl a particular favourite, are often included as part of other objects, more often than humans, and in the west there is almost no narrative content such as scenes of combat depicted. These characteristics were continued into the succeeding La Tène style.  Imported luxury art is sometimes found in rich elite graves in the later phases, and certainly had some influence on local styles. The most spectacular objects, such as the Strettweg Cult Wagon, the Warrior of Hirschlanden and the bronze couch supported by "unicyclists" from the Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave are one of a kind in finds from the Hallstatt period, though they can be related to objects from other periods.  More common objects include weapons, in Ha D often with hilts terminating in curving forks ("antenna hilts"). Jewellery in metal includes fibulae, often with a row of disks hanging down on chains, armlets and some torcs. This is mostly in bronze, but "princely" burials include items in gold.  The origin of the narrative scenes of the eastern zone, from Hallstatt C onwards, is generally traced to influence from the Situla art of northern Italy and the northern Adriatic, where these bronze buckets began to be decorated in bands with figures in provincial Etruscan centres influenced by Etruscan and Greek art. The fashion for decorated situlae spread north across neighbouring cultures including the eastern Hallstatt zone, beginning around 600 BC and surviving until about 400 BC; the Vače situla is a Slovenian example from near the final period. The style is also found on bronze belt plates, and some of the vocabulary of motifs spread to influence the emerging La Tène style.  According to Ruth and Vincent Megaw, "Situla art depicts life as seen from a masculine viewpoint, in which women are servants or sex objects; most of the scenes which include humans are of the feasts in which the situlae themselves figure, of the hunt or of war". Similar scenes are found on other vessel shapes, as well as bronze belt-plaques. The processions of animals, typical of earlier examples, or humans derive from the Near East and Mediterranean, and Nancy Sandars finds the style shows "a "gaucherie" that betrays the artist working in a way that is uncongenial, too much at variance with the temper of the craftsmen and the craft". Compared to earlier styles that arose organically in Europe "situla art is weak and sometimes quaint", and "in essence not of Europe".  Except for the Italian Benvenuti Situla, men are hairless, with "funny hats, dumpy bodies and big heads", though often shown looking cheerful in an engaging way. The Benevenuti Situla is also unusual in that it seems to show a specific story.

Geography.

Two culturally distinct areas, an eastern and a western zone are generally recognised. There are distinctions in burial rites, the types of grave goods, and in artistic style. In the western zone, members of the elite were buried with sword (HaC) or dagger (HaD), in the eastern zone with an axe. The western zone has chariot burials. In the eastern zone, warriors are frequently buried with helmet and a plate armour breastplate. Artistic subjects with a narrative component are only found in the east, in both pottery and metalwork. In the east the settlements and cemeteries can be larger than in the west.  The approximate division line between the two subcultures runs from north to south through central Bohemia and Lower Austria at about 14 to 15 degrees eastern longitude, and then traces the eastern and southern rim of the Alps to Eastern and Southern Tyrol.

Western Hallstatt zone.

Taken at its most generous extent, the western Hallstatt zone includes:  More peripheral areas were:  While Hallstatt is regarded as the dominant settlement of the western zone, a settlement at the Burgstallkogel in the central Sulm valley (southern Styria, west of Leibnitz, Austria) was a major centre during the Hallstatt C period. Parts of the huge necropolis (which originally consisted of more than 1,100 tumuli) surrounding this settlement can be seen today near Gleinstätten, and the chieftain's mounds were on the other side of the hill, near Kleinklein. The finds are mostly in the Landesmuseum Joanneum at Graz, which also holds the Strettweg Cult Wagon.

Eastern Hallstatt zone.

The eastern Hallstatt zone includes:  Trade, cultural diffusion, and some population movements spread the Hallstatt cultural complex (western form) into Britain, and Ireland.

Genetics.

A genetic study published in "Nature" in May 2018 examined the remains of a male and female buried at a Hallstatt cemetery near Litoměřice, Czech Republic between ca. 600 BC and 400 BC. The male was found to be a carrier of the paternal haplogroup R1b and the maternal haplogroup H6a1a. The female was a carrier of the maternal haplogroup HV0.

The Hallstatt culture was the predominant Western and Central European culture of Late Bronze Age (Hallstatt A, Hallstatt B) from the 12th to 8th centuries BC and Early Iron Age Europe (Hallstatt C, Hallstatt D) from the 8th to 6th centuries BC, developing out of the Urnfield culture of the 12th century BC (Late Bronze Age) and followed in much of its area by the La Tène culture. It is commonly associated with Proto-Celtic and Celtic populations in the Western Hallstatt zone and with (pre-)Illyrians in the eastern Hallstatt zone.

Doba halštatská označuje období, během kterého se ve střední Evropě objevili Keltové a začalo se zpracovávat železo. Začátek tohoto období je archeology datován do období 7. století př. n. l. a končí kolem roku 450 př. n. l. Svůj název dostalo podle hornorakouského města Hallstattu v Solné komoře. V polovině 19. století tam bylo objeveno přes tisíc hrobů. Nálezy z hrobů se s převahou daly zařadit do nejstarší doby železné.


History.

The Shinano River has a long history in Honshu, and along with other rivers in the region, has a significant effect on the geography and ecology of the area. Originally the Shinano River would have drained straight into an estuary-like Fukushima lagoon before making its way into the Sea of Japan after flowing down from the Japanese Alps. Over centuries of sediments being brought downstream, a marshy plain formed in the lagoon into what is currently the Echigo Plain. Estimates presented in 1993 place the amount of loose sediment in the river system at. The construction of diversion channels have limited the upkeep required to keep a navigable passage between the Niigata port and the open ocean; however, a consequence of diverting sediment has been that the northern coast of Niigata Prefecture (which includes Niigata and its port) is receding by an average per year (measured from 1947 to 1975) due to sediment being released well-south of the river's original mouth in Niigata. The Shinano River Project, funded by the British Academy, investigates the development of the Shinano—Chikuma River system. It has uncovered some of the earliest examples of Flame-style pottery (kaen doki), dating from the Middle Jōmon period (3500–2500 BCE), have been found at Sanka excavation site in Nagaoka, Niigata, near the confluence of the Sai and Shinano Rivers.  As with rivers across the world, the Shinano provided a valuable means of transport. The system also provided a method of transport for goods to be moved downstream to one of three ports, Nutaru, Niigata and the provincial port of Kambara. Little evidence remains which details the importance or role of these ports; however, large amounts of Medieval Chinese artefacts have been found in the region and it is the setting of the Muromachi period play, "Miuri", was set in Kambara indicating its regional significance. There is limited evidence which has caused some historians (such as Shishi Tokamachi) to suggest that the Shinano system was not widely used for boat travel until the eighteenth century. Brian Goldsmith, however, contends that the Shinano was, in fact, used for waterborne trade based on archaeological finds, including coin hoards and imported pottery, found in the headwaters of the Shinano. One of the main inland roads in Honshu followed the Shinano valley inland to the Japanese Alps. The location of the road indicates that the river played a vital role in local trade. The Chikuma valley also provided a link across the island of Honshu.  The confluence of the Chikuma and Sai rivers, called the Kawanakajima Plain, was the location a series of battles in the sixteenth century as part of the Sengoku period. The most significant of the battles was fought on 18 October 1561 between the Takeda clan and Uesugi clan, and resulted in severe casualties to both sides. The battles have become well known in Japanese military history, mentioned in literature, woodblock printing and movies.  The Shinano River system has a long history of hydroelectric power generation, with the first hydroelectric power plant in Japan being located in the system. During the construction of a plant on the Shinano River in the Niigata Prefecture in July 1922, it was reported at the time that Korean workers were being mistreated and murdered. The Shinano River incident involved 1,200 workers, approximately 600 of whom were Korean, who were subjected to regular mistreatment by their Japanese foremen. The mistreatment included malnutrition, forced labour up to sixteen hours a day and severe beatings for those who tried to escape. News articles at the time alleged that up to 100 Koreans were killed during construction and that local farmers had reported seeing bodies floating down river. This incident occurred following the annexation of Korea by Japan and was partially responsible for the development of trade unions for Korean workers in Japan.  Two Japanese naval cruisers, one launched in 1911 and the second in 1938, were named after the Chikuma River. A 1940s aircraft carrier was named after the old Shinano Province.

Course.

The Chikuma River rises in the northeastern foothills of Mount Kobushigatake in the Japanese Alps on the border of Saitama, Yamanashi and Nagano Prefectures, partially in the Chichibu Tama Kai National Park  It joins with the Yochi River and flows roughly north to join the Yu River () then turns northwest into an intermontane basin at Nagano City where it is joined by the Sai River from Matsumoto and the Hoshina River (). The Chikuma then changes direction and flows northeast from Nagano into Niigata Prefecture where it changes its name to the Shinano River. The Shinano continues northeast to a confluence with Uono River between Ojiya and Uonuma ().  After its confluence with Uono River, the Shinano is crossed by Koshiji Bridge and the Shinetsu train line before emerging onto Echigo Plains of the Niigata Prefecture at Sanjō. After entering the Echigo Plains the river becomes deltaic and swampy due to its very small gradient (an average of 1 in 4000).  The, completed in the 1920s, diverts flood water northwest into the Sea of Japan while the river splits into a number of branches and continuing northeast. Approximately south of its mouth, the river turns north and flows towards Niigata. The Sekiya Diversion Channel was completed in the 1960s in response to flooding in Niigata continuing after construction of the Ōkōzu Channel. It is designed to mitigate flooding by diverting flood waters away from the city and straight into the Sea of Japan. The river turns northeast and flows through Niigata City for approximately before finally emptying into the Sea of Japan.  The river is crossed multiple times as it meanders its way through Niigata, including by the Bandai Bridge which was, when it was originally built in 1886, the longest bridge in Japan at. The current Bandai Bridge, built in 1929 and designated as a nationally important cultural property, is only long. This is also in stark contrast with the river's width at the Ohkouzu Diversion Channel.

Ōkōzu Diversion Channel.

Due to seasonal high rainfall in the Shinano's watershed the fertile farmlands on the Niigata plain were subjected to flooding every three to four years which destroyed crops, particularly rice, and villages. Attempts from local residents to secure funding to build a diversion channel began in the mid-early eighteenth century, during the Kyōhō era. Government support was not secured until the early twentieth century following severe flooding and inundation in 1896. Construction work on the began in 1909 and concluded in 1922. The success of the channel was short-lived, however, as the floodgate collapsed in 1927 due to erosion of the channel bed and was not fully repaired until 1931.  The construction of the diversion channel has resulted in marsh fields drying on the Niigata plain which allows for greater production. Likewise, drier land has also allowed for the construction of infrastructure such as expressways and the Shinkansen express-train network, to support a greater population in the area.  A new weir wall was constructed between 1992 and 2000 due to safety concerns with the original wall. Construction was planned to limit negative affects on scenery and wildlife. To this end, natural stones were used for the exterior and fishways were included in the design.

Sekiya Diversion Channel.

Flooding in the Niigata area continued following the construction of the Ōkōzu Channel. As a result, another channel, which was originally planned in the Edo period (1700s–1800s), was built on the western outskirts of Niigata City to further mitigate the risk of flooding and to help prevent saltwater intrusion into the Shinano estuary. The Sekiya Diversion Channel was originally to be funded by the Niigata Prefecture; however the 1964 Niigata earthquake resulted in the funds no longer being available so it was adopted as a national project. Construction of the Sekiya Diversion Channel commenced in 1968 and concluded in 1973 with a channel long and wide. The channel provides another alternate path for sediment to be directed straight out to sea and away from the Niigata port. The channel is crossed by the Echigo Line and the National Route 402 (excavated materials from the channel were used in the construction of Route 402).

Major dams.

There are a number of major dams in the Shinano River system, but not on the main river itself, rather its tributaries are extensively dammed and used for electricity generation as well as water for irrigation. The major dams in the system are listed below:

Watershed.

The basin of the Shinano-Chikuma River system is the third largest in Japan and at, is the longest river in the country. The river system supports a population of around 3 million () but supports significant agriculture and electricity generation. The river has 880 branches which is the second highest in Japan after the Yodo River.  The discharge of the river averages, with a mean maximum of to mean minimum of. In addition to this discharge, of water is used for municipal and industrial supply across the basin.  The Chikuma River originates in the Japanese Alps at altitudes of above and has a basin in its own right of. The Chikuma continues generally north-northeast joining with the Sai and changing name to the Shinano, after. The Chikuma, therefore, includes around sixty percent of the whole river system's basin and around 58 percent of the river's length.  In the upper reaches of the river, where it is known as the Chikuma, only around ten percent of the land is flat, agricultural land and around of it is irrigated. By the time the river flows onto the Echigo Plain, however, much more land is devoted to agriculture and there is huge potential for irrigation, especially due to influence of the Ohkouz Channel and weir. The abundance of water and fertile soils has led to this area being the one of the best rice producing areas in Japan.  Rainfall varies considerably in the Shinano basin. In the middle part of the Chikuma River, near its confluence with the Sai River, rainfall is some of the lowest in Japan, generally staying below. The low precipitation is primarily due to its encirclement by the three ranges which make up the Japanese Alps and by the Jōshin'etsu-kōgen National Park. However, the upper reaches of the Chikuma and Sai Rivers and the lower part of the Chikuma River (where it changes name to the Shinano River) receive annually. In the central areas of the Shinano River, especially in the Uono Basin, precipitation increases to around ; this area receives some of the highest winter snow falls in Japan with 40–50% of this precipitation falling as snow. The heavy snow melt is responsible for much of flooding to affect the Echigo, but also allows for the hydroelectricity generation and regular irrigation.

Ecology.

The Shinano basin supports a large range of plant life, including over 1,100 species of plant which grow on the river bank, in the river bed or more broadly. The basin also supports a large range of animal life both in and around the river. However, the development of the river has threatened the continuing existence of a number of different species. Across the country, thirty to fifty (or higher) percent of endangered species are from freshwater river systems and the impact on the Shinano river system is also clear. Primarily this affects fish and amphibians due to their reliance on the river. The construction of weirs and dams to support agriculture and industry as well as the introduction of invasive species and pollution have been the main causes of ecosystem degradation. The Shinano basin provides a habitat for around twenty-five percent of Japan's fish species (around fifty-five of the 200 fish species living in Japan) including both endemic freshwater fish as well as diadromous fish.  The construction of large dams, especially in the mid and upper reaches of the system have significantly affected the ability of fish to migrate up and down the river, and into the Sea of Japan. There has also been a significant increase in the amount of fishing which takes place in the system which is associated with the introduction of invasive fish species and waterbirds into the system. The development of the river, and human settlement, has also resulted in the environmental degradation of key fish habitat. Changes in the system have affected its ability to support and maintain fish species which are endemic to the river. Some actions have been taken to overcome these issues, including prohibitions on fishing salmon during breeding and stocking certain areas for fishing, especially in areas where Tsukeba fish shacks (popup stores along the riverbank) are regularly set up.  The river system has also long been home to bird life. The negative effects of human development have not as significantly affected birds as fish due to the more limited changes to bird habitat (which includes the forests which still remain on surrounding mountains). There are more than 130 species of birds which frequent the river system, these include starlings and ducks as well as migratory birds such as cranes and ibis.

Economy.

Electricity production.

The Shinano River system, particularly in its upper reaches (Chikuma River) and in the Sai basin, is used for hydroelectric power generation due to the steep gradient in its upper reaches and its high discharge producing, as a whole, 2,618 megawatts. While the construction of hydroelectric power stations began before World War II, it significantly increased following the war. These power plants, such as the Shimofanato Power Station and the 450,000 kilowatt JR East Shinano River Hydropower Station near Ojiya, supply Tokyo.  There are several hydroelectric power plants operated by Tokyo Electric Power Company in the river system. The Shin-Takasegawa Pumped Storage Station is a significant power plant located on the Takase River near Ōmachi, it boasts the second tallest dam (and the tallest rock-filled embankment) in Japan, and an output of 1280 megawatts.  Additionally, Japan's oldest hydroelectric power plant is located in the Shinano River system. The Miyashiro Power Plant No. 1 was opened by the Azumi Electric Power Company in 1904 and has, since then, been in continual operation, currently operated by Chubu Electric Power Company.

Tourism.

Tourism is a major industry in the Shinano River basin as there are a number of attractions in the area. The Shinano River system attracts a number of tourists from across the country for angling and to experience Tsukeba fish shacks which are set up along the river bank and bed to cook fish as they are caught.  The hot springs along the Chikuma River for example from tourists into the upper reaches of the river. The high rate of snow in the mountains surrounding both the Chikuma and Shinano Rivers make them attractive places for snow sports with a number of ski resorts scattered throughout the mountains. The 1998 Winter Olympics, which were held in Nagano, indicate the large number of locations for snow sports in the area.  In addition to these natural attractions, human involvement in the area is also responsible for making tourism a large part of the regional economy. Every year, around 6.5–7 million people visit the Zenkō-ji Buddhist template in Nagano. It is believed that visiting the template will grant salvation. This has resulted in the head temple of the Tendai sect being a significant attraction for tourists throughout its 1,400-year history.

The, known as the in its upper reaches, is the longest and widest river in Japan and the third largest by basin area (behind the Tone River and Ishikari River). It is located in northeastern Honshu, rising in the Japanese Alps and flowing generally northeast through Nagano and Niigata Prefectures before emptying into the Sea of Japan.

Šinano ( [Šinanogawa]) je nejdelší japonská řeka. Protéká prefekturami Nagano a Niigata. Je 367 km dlouhá (nejdelší v Japonsku) a její povodí má rozlohu 11 900 km2 (třetí největší v Japonsku). V prefektuře Nagano se nazývá Čikuma (千曲川; "Čikumagawa").


Overview.

During development, Intel generally identifies processors with codenames, such as "Prescott", "Willamette", "Coppermine", "Katmai", "Klamath", or "Deschutes". These usually become widely known, even after the processors are given official names on launch.  The original Pentium-branded CPUs were expected to be named 586 or i586, to follow the naming convention of prior generations (286, i386, i486). However, as the firm wanted to prevent their competitors from branding their processors with similar names (as AMD had done with their Am486), Intel filed a trademark application on the name in the United States, but was denied because a series of numbers was considered to lack "trademark distinctiveness".  Following Intel's prior series of 8086, 80186, 80286, 80386, and 80486 microprocessors, the firm's first P5-based microprocessor was released as the original Intel Pentium on March 22, 1993. Marketing firm Lexicon Branding was hired to coin a name for the new processor. The suffix "-ium" was chosen as it could connote a fundamental ingredient of a computer, like a chemical element, while the prefix "pent-" could refer to the fifth generation of x86.  Due to its success, the Pentium brand would continue through several generations of high-end processors. In 2006, the name briefly disappeared from Intel's technology roadmaps, only to re-emerge in 2007.  In 1998, Intel introduced the Celeron brand for low-priced microprocessors. With the 2006 introduction of the Intel Core brand as the company's new flagship line of processors, the Pentium series was to be discontinued. However, due to a demand for mid-range dual-core processors, the Pentium brand was repurposed to be Intel's mid-range processor series, between the Celeron and Core series, continuing with the Pentium Dual-Core line.  In 2009, the "Dual-Core" suffix was dropped, and new x86 microprocessors started carrying the plain "Pentium" name again.  In 2014, Intel released the "Pentium 20th Anniversary Edition", to mark the 20th anniversary of the Pentium brand. The processors are unlocked and highly overclockable.  In 2017, Intel splits Pentium into two line-ups, Pentium Silver aiming for low-power devices and shares architecture with Atom and Celeron and Pentium Gold aiming for entry-level desktop and using existing architecture, such as Kaby Lake or Coffee Lake

Pentium-branded processors.

P5 microarchitecture based.

The original "Intel P5" or "Pentium" and "Pentium MMX" processors were the superscalar follow-on to the 80486 processor and were marketed from 1993 to 1999. Some versions of these were available as Pentium OverDrive that would fit into older CPU sockets.

P6 microarchitecture based.

In parallel with the P5 microarchitecture, Intel developed the "P6 microarchitecture" and started marketing it as the "Pentium Pro" for the high-end market in 1995. It introduced out-of-order execution and an integrated second-level cache on dual-chip processor package. The second P6 generation replaced the original P5 with the "Pentium II" and rebranded the high-end version as "Pentium II Xeon". It was followed by a third version named the "Pentium III" and "Pentium III Xeon" respectively. The Pentium II line added the MMX instructions that were also present in the Pentium MMX.  Versions of these processors for the laptop market were initially named "Mobile Pentium II" and "Mobile Pentium III", later versions were named "Pentium III-M". Starting with the Pentium II, the Celeron brand was used for low-end versions of most Pentium processors with a reduced feature set such as a smaller cache or missing power management features.

Netburst microarchitecture based.

In 2000, Intel introduced a new microarchitecture named "NetBurst", with a much longer pipeline enabling higher clock frequencies than the P6-based processors. Initially, these were named "Pentium 4", and the high-end versions have since been named simply Xeon. As with Pentium III, there are both "Mobile Pentium 4" and "Pentium 4 M" processors for the laptop market, with Pentium 4 M denoting the more power-efficient versions. Enthusiast versions of the Pentium 4 with the highest clock rates were named "Pentium 4 Extreme Edition".  The "Pentium D" was the first multi-core Pentium, integrating two Pentium 4 chips in one package and was available as the enthusiast "Pentium Extreme Edition".

Pentium M microarchitecture based.

In 2003, Intel introduced a new processor based on the P6 microarchitecture named "Pentium M", which was much more power-efficient than the Mobile Pentium 4, Pentium 4 M, and Pentium III M. Dual-core versions of the Pentium M were developed under the code name "Yonah" and sold under the marketing names "Core Duo" and "Pentium Dual-Core". Unlike Pentium D, it integrated both cores on one chip. From this point, the Intel Core brand name was used for the mainstream Intel processors, and the Pentium brand became a low-end version between Celeron and Core. All Pentium M based designs including Yonah are for the mobile market.

Core microarchitecture based.

The "Pentium Dual-Core" name continued to be used when the Yonah design was extended with 64-bit support, now named the "Core microarchitecture". This eventually replaced all NetBurst-based processors across the four brands Celeron, Pentium, Core, and Xeon. Pentium Dual-Core processors based on the Core microarchitecture use the Allendale and Wolfdale-3M designs for desktop processors and Merom-2M for mobile processors.

Pentium (2009).

In 2009, Intel changed the naming system for Pentium processors, renaming the Wolfdale-3M based processors to "Pentium", without the Dual-Core name, and introduced new single- and dual-core processors based on Penryn under the Pentium name.  The Penryn core is the successor to the Merom core and Intel's 45 nm version of their mobile series of Pentium microprocessors. The FSB frequency is increased from 667 MHz to 800 MHz, and the voltage is lowered. Intel released the first Penryn Core, the Pentium T4200, in December 2008. In June 2009, Intel released the first single-core processor to use the Pentium name, a Consumer Ultra-Low Voltage (CULV) Penryn core named Pentium SU2700.  In September 2009, Intel introduced the Pentium SU4000 series together with the Celeron SU2000 and Core 2 Duo SU7000 series, which are dual-core CULV processors based on Penryn-3M and using 800 MHz FSB. The Pentium SU4000 series has 2 MB L2 cache but is otherwise basically identical to the other two lines.

Nehalem microarchitecture based.

The Nehalem microarchitecture was introduced in late 2008 as a successor to the Core microarchitecture, and in early 2010, a new "Pentium" G6950 processor based on the "Clarkdale" design was introduced based on the "Westmere" refresh of Nehalem, which were followed by the mobile P6xxx based on Arrandale a few months later.  On January 7, 2010, Intel launched a new Pentium model using the Clarkdale chip in parallel with other desktop and mobile CPUs based on their new Westmere microarchitecture. The first model in this series is the Pentium G6950. The Clarkdale chip is also used in the Core i3-5xx and Core i5-6xx series and features a 32 nm process (as it is based on the Westmere microarchitecture), integrated memory controller and 45 nm graphics controller and a third-level cache. In the Pentium series, some features of Clarkdale are disabled, including AES-NI, hyper-threading (versus Core i3), and the graphics controller in the Pentium runs at 533 MHz, while in the Core i3 i3-5xx series they run at 733 MHz, and Dual Video Decode that enables Blu-ray picture-in picture hardware acceleration, and support for Deep Color and xvYCC. The memory controller in the Pentium supports DDR3-1066 max, the same as the Core i3 i3-5xx series. The L3 cache is also 1 MB less than in the Core i3-5xx series.

Sandy Bridge microarchitecture based.

The Sandy Bridge microarchitecture was released in the Pentium line on May 22, 2011.

Ivy Bridge microarchitecture based.

Currently, there exist Ivy Bridge models G2010, G2020, G2120, G2030, and G2130. All are dual-core and have no hyper-threading or Turbo Boost.

Haswell microarchitecture based.

Several Haswell-based Pentium processors were released in 2013, among them the G3258 "Anniversary Edition", first released in 2014 by Intel to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the line. As with prior-generation Pentium processors, Haswell and Haswell Refresh-based parts have two cores only, lack support for hyper-threading, and use the LGA1150 socket form factor.

Broadwell microarchitecture based.

It was launched in Q1 2015 using a 14 nm process (e.g. the dual-core 1.9 GHz Intel Pentium 3805U with 2 MB cache). It used the FCBGA1168 socket.

Skylake microarchitecture based.

Supporting up to 64 GB RAM. Features like Intel VT-x, Turbo Boost, Intel vPro, Hyper-Threading are not available.  Integrated graphics are provided by Intel HD Graphics 510, utilizing a maximum of 1.7 GB of memory, for resolutions up to 4096×2304 @ 60 Hz using Display Port supporting up to 3 displays.

Kaby Lake microarchitecture based.

In Q1 2017 Intel released the Kaby Lake-based Pentium G4560; it is the first Pentium-branded CPU since the Netburst-based Pentium 4 to support hyper-threading, a feature available in some ""Core""-branded products. Features include a clock speed of 3.5 GHz with four threads, 3 MB of L3 cache and Intel HD 610 integrated graphics.

Pentium-compatible Intel processors.

Due to its prominence, the term "Pentium-compatible" is often used to describe any x86 processor that supports the IA-32 instruction set and architecture. Even though they do not use the Pentium name, Intel also manufactures other processors based on the Pentium series for other markets. Most of these processors share the core design with one of the Pentium processor lines, usually differing in the amount of CPU cache, power efficiency or other features. The notable exception is the Atom line, which is an independent design.

Pentium is a brand used for a series of x86 architecture-compatible microprocessors produced by Intel since 1993. In their form, Pentium processors are considered entry-level products that Intel rates as "two stars", meaning that they are above the low-end Atom and Celeron series, but below the faster Intel Core lineup, and workstation Xeon series.

Pentium je mikroprocesor od společnosti Intel, který byl uvedený na trh roku 1993. Je to superskalární procesor, tj. během jednoho hodinového cyklu dokáže vykonat více operací, čímž se výrazně zvýší výkon mikroprocesoru. Toho dosahuje tím, že má ne jednu, ale dvě pipeline: U a V (některé instrukce ovšem bylo možné provádět jen ve V). Jednalo se o první mikroprocesor s architekturou x86 který tuto RISCovou vlastnost implementoval. Obsahuje také velmi výkonnou jednotku FPU.


Classification.

Cofán is a language isolate. Some scholars claim Cofán is not classified into a language family. The language does exhibit some lexical similarities to Chibchan, a geographically neighboring language. However, evidence of the lexical influence Chibchan has on Cofán does not prove any genetic relationship between the two languages.  Jolkesky (2016) also notes that there are lexical similarities with Paez.

Phonology.

Vowels.

There are ten vowels in Cofán: five oral vowels and their nasal counterparts.

Consonants.

As noted by Raphael Fischer and Kees Hengeveld, Cofán has a moderately large consonant inventory. A notable feature is the three-way voicing distinction for stops and affricates.

Grammar.

Word order in Cofán is mostly free and flexible and is influenced by pragmatic factors. Subordinate clauses, however, have a strong preference for being predicate-final.  Paragraphs are a distinct and important structure in Cofán grammar. There are fifteen different paragraph types used in Cofán narrative discourse. The narrative paragraph and simultaneous paragraph “form the backbone of narrative discourse.” The coordinate descriptive paragraph and deictic paragraph are used to portray character or participant identity development and to outline situations. Reason, contrast, and antithetical paragraphs are used to foster relationships and tension between speakers and events. Amplification paragraphs, contraction paragraphs, negated antonym paragraphs and cyclic paragraphs are used in “paraphrasing” particular information. Lastly, comment paragraphs and quote and dialogue paragraphs are used to add detail to a narrative.

Orthography.

A written system of the Cofán has been devised by M. B. Borman. Some are simple letters, while others are compound. Nasalization on vowels is orthographically represented by placing after the vowel. (For example, // is written.) Prenasalization on stops and affricates is orthographically represented either by placing before bilabials (for example, for //) or by placing elsewhere (for example, for // and for //).

Counting system.

Cofán’s number system is a base-five system. Cofán speakers use Spanish numerals to count.

Vocabulary.

Loukotka (1968) and the basic vocabulary items of 1-7 and 9-10. Number 4 and 11-19 are from "Moon Handbooks: Ecuador and the Galápagos Islands".

The Cofán language (also Kofan or Kofane; autonym: A'ingae) is the language of the Cofán people, an indigenous group native to the province of Sucumbíos in northeast Ecuador and southern Colombia (Nariño Department; Orito, San Miguel and Valle del Guamuez in Putumayo Department).

Cofán [kofan], psáno též kofan, je domorodý jazyk čibčské jazykové rodiny, kterým hovoří několik set mluvčích v Ekvádoru a Kolumbii. V Ekvádoru při hranici s Kolumbií je tento jazyk úřední. Tento jazyk se vyučuje na základních školách. Písmo je latinka.