Pre-race.

Ferrari terminated Alain Prost's contract with the team following his public criticism of them. His raceseat was taken by Gianni Morbidelli, the Ferrari test driver. After being dropped by the Jordan team two races earlier, Roberto Moreno returned to Formula One to take Morbidelli's place at Minardi. Benetton did not renew Nelson Piquet's contract with the team, and Australia would be his last Formula One race. Bertrand Gachot returned to Formula One after completing his jail sentence in Britain, replacing Éric Bernard at Larrousse, who had been injured at the previous race meeting in Japan. The Coloni team were entered for their final Grand Prix; new owner Andrea Sassetti had confirmed that the team would be reborn as Andrea Moda Formula for the following season. Williams also had a 'B'-spec version of the FW14 present, but elected not to use it in the race.

Qualifying.

Pre-qualifying report.

The one-hour pre-qualifying session took place in sunny and dry conditions on Thursday afternoon, instead of Friday morning to expand the race meeting to four days. The session resulted in the Brabham and Footwork teams getting their cars through to the main qualifying sessions, with Martin Brundle's Brabham three tenths of a second faster than Alex Caffi's Footwork. Mark Blundell was just four hundredths of a second behind in the other Brabham, with Michele Alboreto's Footwork just 0.002 of a second slower in fourth.  Gabriele Tarquini narrowly failed to pre-qualify for Fondmetal as his track time was limited after a left rear suspension failure on the exit of turn 11, which turned his car into the wall. It was his first failure to pre-qualify for Fondmetal in three attempts. Slowest was Naoki Hattori in the Coloni, over five seconds away from Brundle's pace. Coloni had failed to pre-qualify for every race in 1991, their last season at the highest level. It also proved to be Hattori's last opportunity at this level.

Qualifying report.

The sunshine continued for both the remaining qualifying sessions on the Friday and Saturday. Aguri Suzuki crashed heavily at turn 1 which contributed to his failure to qualify. His new teammate Bertrand Gachot also did not progress through qualifying. Martin Brundle, having finished in the points in the last race and pre-qualified fastest on the Friday, surprisingly struggled and failed to qualify in his last race for Brabham-Yamaha. Stefano Modena also crashed in qualifying but was unhurt and able to take the race start on Sunday, having already set a time that was sufficient for him to secure a place on the grid. McLaren managed to qualify both their cars on the front row of the grid with Senna in pole position. Nigel Mansell and Riccardo Patrese, in the two Williams-Renault cars, occupied the second row. Benetton occupied the third row with Nelson Piquet out-qualifying Michael Schumacher for the only time in the 1991 season. Gianni Morbidelli qualified in 8th position, only one place behind Jean Alesi in his first race for Ferrari. In his first race for Minardi-Ferrari, Roberto Moreno also managed to qualify 18th fastest.

Race.

Race report.

In the torrential rain (which had been falling since halfway through the Group A touring car support race earlier in the day), the race started mostly without incident. Riccardo Patrese lost two places at the start and emerged behind Jean Alesi's Ferrari but there were no accidents in the first few laps. However, as the race continued into lap 3 Gerhard Berger, unseen by the television cameras, ran wide which allowed Nigel Mansell to move up to second position, but rejoining in third. Mansell then proceeded to quickly close the gap to Ayrton Senna in first place. But by lap 5 the incidents began to occur which would affect Mansell's ability to pass Senna. This was because so many yellow flags were being displayed by the marshals around the extremely wet circuit. On lap six Mansell moved alongside Senna on the Brabham Straight but quickly saw a wave from a marshal, who was leaning out from the barriers, to warn of wreckage ahead. Nicola Larini's Modena-Lamborghini had crashed on the straight and was lying across the track. Mansell had to abandon his line and rejoin the racing line behind Senna, who had also had to avoid Jean Alesi's stricken Ferrari, which had also crashed yards after Larini on the other side of the road, as did Schumacher's Benetton who also spun off on the side of the road.  Pierluigi Martini's Minardi car aquaplaned on the Brabham Straight on lap 10, which sent his car straight into the right hand wall and rebounded to the other side of the track before eventually stopping out of the drivers' way. This indicated that the rain was beginning to fall even harder, and more torrential than before.  Riccardo Patrese was struggling with his car because a front wing, from another car, got stuck towards the front of his undertray. This was spotted by James Hunt in the BBC race commentary, although Murray Walker had suggested earlier that it was the undertray that was loose. Mansell then, as a result of the increasing downpour, spun off on the start of lap 16 on the Wakefield Road straight, before turn 3, having "instantly gone out of control" according to Mansell himself. The torrential downpour also made Michele Alboreto spin out of the race on lap 15 as well as Stefano Modena, in his last race for Tyrrell-Honda, although he continued. Nelson Piquet also spun at the high-speed Stag turn but was able to recover and he continued as well.  Gerhard Berger spun off at the end of lap 16 having just recovered from an earlier spin at the Malthouse Corner moments before. Murray Walker said that the weather was becoming worse and the rain was lashing down on the start/finish line. Just after this happened Senna drove onto the start/finish straight and gestured to the race officials, as he went past, to try to get the race stopped. Moments later, with Senna on lap 17, the race was finally stopped. By the end of lap 16 the race order actually was Senna in 1st from Piquet, Morbidelli, de Cesaris, Zanardi and Modena. However, the race officials decided to count back to lap 14 despite the 1991 ruling that early race stoppages should have been counted back one lap. This incident was similar to the controversy of the 2003 Brazilian Grand Prix, where computers finalising the race concluded the result a lap too early.  There were attempts to restart the race from the officials, who showed their determination to do so by ordering the 10-minute warning board to be displayed to the drivers and teams to indicate a race restart. But after serious protests from Senna and Riccardo Patrese (who stormed up to the race stewards to argue against a restart), the race was finally abandoned for good. Roland Bruynseraede eventually waved the red flag to indicate the stoppage to the spectators, drivers and teams. As a result, Senna was declared the race winner from Mansell and Berger.

Post-race.

The podium ceremony only had Ayrton Senna and Gerhard Berger present because Nigel Mansell was sent to hospital after the injuries he sustained in his crash on lap 16. When interviewed by Jackie Stewart in the post-race press conference, Senna stated:  Senna and Berger both revealed at the press conference that they would not have started the race if this race did not determine the Constructor's Championship, as the McLaren and Williams teams both went into this race with a chance of winning the championship. When Stewart asked him if they should start a race if ever faced with those type of wet conditions in the future, Senna's reply was a firm "No, they should not start the race", though he understood the pressure that was on the officials and teams to start. He then added that the officials should not be held solely responsible as the drivers, including himself, chose to get in their cars and start the race so they should be held equally responsible.  Nigel Mansell, after being helped from his Williams-Renault commented that "everything was ok other than it was a complete joke, I mean there was debris all over the place. I've got a headache like there's no tomorrow, so I've probably had a little bit of a concussion". He also made reference to the fact that "there was a truck down the straight" as well as four cars and, as a result, the race should have had 10 laps to be stopped.  With less than seventy-five percent of the race distance being completed, half the usual world championship points were awarded, the first time this had happened in Formula One since the wet 1984 Monaco Grand Prix had been stopped just before half distance. Senna and Berger's result was enough for McLaren to win the 1991 World Constructors Championship by 14 points over Williams. This was McLaren's seventh constructors championship, and their fourth and last championship won with engine partners Honda.

The 1991 Australian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 3 November 1991 at the Adelaide Street Circuit. It was the 16th and final race of the 1991 Formula One World Championship. Torrential rain resulted in the race being stopped after just 16 of the scheduled 81 laps had been completed. Confusion caused the official results to be declared from the end of the 14th lap. It holds the record for being the shortest Formula One World Championship race ever held.

Grand Prix Austrálie (LVI Foster's Australian Grand Prix) byla 16. závodem sezóny 1991, který se konal 3. listopadu 1991 na okruhu Adelaide. Grand Prix Austrálie byla původně vypsána na 81 kol, ale pro hustý déšť byla po 13 kolech ukončena a piloti získali jen polovinu bodů.


Appearance and physical characteristics.

"Paramecium caudatum" is 170–330 micrometres long (usually 200–300 micrometres). The cell body is spindle-shaped, rounded at the front, tapering at the posterior to a blunt point. Early microscopists likened its shape to that of a slipper, and commonly referred to it as the "slipper animalcule." The pellicle is uniformly covered with cilia, and has a long oral groove, leading to deeply embedded oral cavity, lined with cilia (short, hair-like protoplasmic processes that serve as organs of locomotion and food capture). "P. caudatum" has two contractile vacuoles, which serve to excrete excess water taken up from the outside, regulating the water contents of the body. Radially distributed "collecting canals" give the contractile vacuoles a distinctive star-like shape. The cell is enclosed by a cellular envelope (cortex) densely studded with spindle-shaped extrusomes called trichocysts.  "P. caudatum" feed on bacteria and small eukaryotic cells, such as yeast and flagellate algae. the accumulated food particles, at the posterior end of the cytopharynx, are directed by the long cilia into the rounded, ball-like mass in the endoplasm called food vacuole. The food vacuoles are circulated by the streaming movement of the endoplasm which is called cyclosis. In hypotonic conditions (freshwater), the cell absorbs water by osmosis. It regulates osmotic pressure with the help of bladder-like contractile vacuoles, gathering internal water through its star-shaped radial canals and expelling the excess through the plasma membrane. When moving through the water, they follow a spiral path while rotating on the long axis.  "Paramecium" have two nuclei (a large macronucleus and a single compact micronucleus). They cannot survive without the macronucleus and cannot reproduce without the micronucleus. Like all ciliates, "Paramecia" reproduce asexually, by binary fission. During reproduction, the macronucleus splits by a type of amitosis, and the micronuclei undergo mitosis. The cell then divides transversally, and each new cell obtains a copy of the micronucleus and the macronucleus.  Fission may occur as part of the normal vegetative cell cycle. Under certain conditions, it may be preceded by self-fertilization (autogamy), or it may follow conjugation, a sexual phenomenon in which "Paramecia" of compatible mating types fuse temporarily and exchange genetic material. During conjugation, the micronuclei of each conjugant divide by meiosis and the haploid gametes pass from one cell to the other. The gametes of each organism then fuse to form diploid micronuclei. The old macronuclei are destroyed, and new ones are developed from the new micronuclei.  Without the rejuvenating effects of autogamy or conjugation a "Paramecium" ages and dies. Only opposite mating types, or genetically compatible organisms, can unite in conjugation.

Paramecium caudatum is a species of unicellular organisms belonging to the genus "Paramecium" of the phylum Ciliophora. They can reach 0.33 mm in length and are covered with minute hair-like organelles called cilia. The cilia are used in locomotion and feeding. The species is very common, and widespread in marine, brackish and freshwater environments.

Trepka velká ("Paramecium caudatum") je nálevník běžně se vyskytující v organicky znečištěných vodách po celém světě. Slouží proto jako bioindikátor tohoto znečištění. Trepka velká je při délce 0,17–0,35 mm největší z rodu trepek a je pozorovatelná i pouhým okem. Má asymetrický tvar připomínající botu, který se rozšiřuje směrem k zadní části, což jí přineslo svůj český rodový název. Její buňka je jedna z nejsložitějších v přírodě, a slouží jako modelový organismus nejenom pro výuku biologie na školách, ale i pro výzkum epigenetiky, funkce bičíků nebo procesu endosymbiózy.


Qualitative typology.

Qualitative typology develops cross-linguistically viable notions or types that provide a framework for the description and comparison of individual languages. A few examples appear below.

Typological systems.

Subject–verb–object positioning.

One set of types reflects the basic order of subject, verb, and direct object in sentences:  These labels usually appear abbreviated as "SVO" and so forth, and may be called "typologies" of the languages to which they apply. The most commonly attested word orders are SOV and SVO while the least common orders are those that are object initial with OVS being the least common with only four attested instances.  In the 1980s, linguists began to question the relevance of geographical distribution of different values for various features of linguistic structure. They may have wanted to discover whether a particular grammatical structure found in one language is likewise found in another language in the same geographic location. Some languages split verbs into an auxiliary and an infinitive or participle, and put the subject and/or object between them. For instance, German ( - *"I have a fox in-the woods seen"), Dutch ( - *"Hans suspected that Jan Marie saw to learn to swim") and Welsh ( - *"Is the checking spelling after its to complete"). In this case, linguists base the typology on the non-analytic tenses (i.e. those sentences in which the verb is not split) or on the position of the auxiliary. German is thus SVO in main clauses and Welsh is VSO (and preposition phrases would go after the infinitive).  Many typologists classify both German and Dutch as V2 languages, as the verb invariantly occurs as the second element of a full clause.  Some languages allow varying degrees of freedom in their constituent order, posing a problem for their classification within the subject–verb–object schema. Languages with bound case markings for nouns, for example, tend to have more flexible word orders than languages where case is defined by position within a sentence or presence of a preposition. To define a basic constituent order type in this case, one generally looks at frequency of different types in declarative affirmative main clauses in pragmatically neutral contexts, preferably with only old referents. Thus, for instance, Russian is widely considered an SVO language, as this is the most frequent constituent order under such conditions—all sorts of variations are possible, though, and occur in texts. In many inflected languages, such as Russian, Latin, and Greek, departures from the default word-orders are permissible but usually imply a shift in focus, an emphasis on the final element, or some special context. In the poetry of these languages, the word order may also shift freely to meet metrical demands. Additionally, freedom of word order may vary within the same language—for example, formal, literary, or archaizing varieties may have different, stricter, or more lenient constituent-order structures than an informal spoken variety of the same language.  On the other hand, when there is no clear preference under the described conditions, the language is considered to have "flexible constituent order" (a type unto itself).  An additional problem is that in languages without living speech communities, such as Latin, Ancient Greek, and Old Church Slavonic, linguists have only written evidence, perhaps written in a poetic, formalizing, or archaic style that mischaracterizes the actual daily use of the language. The daily spoken language of Sophocles or Cicero might have exhibited a different or much more regular syntax than their written legacy indicates.

Morphosyntactic alignment.

Another common classification distinguishes nominative–accusative alignment patterns and ergative–absolutive ones. In a language with cases, the classification depends on whether the subject (S) of an intransitive verb has the same case as the agent (A) or the patient (P) of a transitive verb. If a language has no cases, but the word order is AVP or PVA, then a classification may reflect whether the subject of an intransitive verb appears on the same side as the agent or the patient of the transitive verb. Bickel (2011) has argued that alignment should be seen as a construction-specific property rather than a language-specific property.  Many languages show mixed accusative and ergative behaviour (for example: ergative morphology marking the verb arguments, on top of an accusative syntax). Other languages (called "active languages") have two types of intransitive verbs—some of them ("active verbs") join the subject in the same case as the agent of a transitive verb, and the rest ("stative verbs") join the subject in the same case as the patient. Yet other languages behave ergatively only in some contexts (this "split ergativity" is often based on the grammatical person of the arguments or on the tense/aspect of the verb). For example, only some verbs in Georgian behave this way, and, as a rule, only while using the perfective (aorist).

Phonological systems.

Linguistic typology also seeks to identify patterns in the structure and distribution of sound systems among the world's languages. This is accomplished by surveying and analyzing the relative frequencies of different phonological properties. These relative frequencies might, for example, be used to determine why contrastive voicing commonly occurs with plosives, as in English "neat" and "need", but occurs much more rarely among fricatives, such as the English "niece" and "knees". According to a worldwide sample of 637 languages, 62% have the voicing contrast in stops but only 35% have this in fricatives. In the vast majority of those cases, the absence of voicing contrast occurs because there is a lack of voiced fricatives and because all languages have some form of plosive, but there are languages with no fricatives. Below is a chart showing the breakdown of voicing properties among languages in the aforementioned sample. Languages worldwide also vary in the number of sounds they use. These languages can go from very small phonemic inventories (Rotokas with six consonants and five vowels) to very large inventories (!Xóõ with 128 consonants and 28 vowels). An interesting phonological observation found with this data is that the larger a consonant inventory a language has, the more likely it is to contain a sound from a defined set of complex consonants (clicks, glottalized consonants, doubly articulated labial-velar stops, lateral fricatives and affricates, uvular and pharyngeal consonants, and dental or alveolar non-sibilant fricatives). Of this list, only about 26% of languages in a survey of over 600 with small inventories (less than 19 consonants) contain a member of this set, while 51% of average languages (19-25) contain at least one member and 69% of large consonant inventories (greater than 25 consonants) contain a member of this set. It is then seen that complex consonants are in proportion to the size of the inventory.  Vowels contain a more modest number of phonemes, with the average being 5-6, which 51% of the languages in the survey have. About a third of the languages have larger than average vowel inventories. Most interesting though is the lack of relationship between consonant inventory size and vowel inventory size. Below is a chart showing this lack of predictability between consonant and vowel inventory sizes in relation to each other.

Quantitative typology.

Quantitative typology deals with the distribution and co-occurrence of structural patterns in the languages of the world. Major types of non-chance distribution include:  Linguistic universals are patterns that can be seen cross linguistically. Universals can either be absolute, meaning that every documented language exhibits this characteristic, or statistical, meaning that this characteristic is seen in most languages or is probable in most languages. Universals, both absolute and statistical can be unrestricted, meaning that they apply to most or all languages without any additional conditions. Conversely, both absolute and statistical universals can be restricted or implicational, meaning that a characteristic will be true on the condition of something else (if Y characteristic is true, then X characteristic is true).

Linguistic typology (or language typology) is a field of linguistics that studies and classifies languages according to their structural and functional features. Its aim is to describe and explain the common properties and the structural diversity of the world's languages. Its subdisciplines include, but are not limited to: qualitative typology, which deals with the issue of comparing languages and within-language variance; quantitative typology, which deals with the distribution of structural patterns in the world’s languages; theoretical typology, which explains these distributions; syntactic typology, which deals with word order, word form, word grammar and word choice; and lexical typology, which deals with language vocabulary.

Typologická klasifikace jazyků pojednává o způsobech dělení různých typů jazyků podle různých hledisek. Nejvíce propracovaná je morfologická typologie, jazyky je však možné rozlišovat například i z hlediska fonologie, syntaxe, pravopisu atd.


Naming.

The species was first described in 1851 when material was collected from Mozambique. After looking at material found in Natal, South Africa, it was redescribed as "E. kosiensis". After looking more carefully at the material, the original name was kept, and the redescribed name was no longer used.

Habitat.

"E. ferox" is found along the southern coast of Mozambique and in northern Natal and can be found very close to the ocean on white beach sand, often growing near other vegetation on the sand dunes. It is also found in evergreen forests. Its preferred habitat is very humid in the summer and rainfall amounts can range from 1000mm to 1250mm per year. The climate is more mild in the winter, and it is uncertain whether the species is ever exposed to frost.

Leaf, stem and root morphology.

The trunk is often subterranean, and can grow up to a meter in length. Its roots contract due to the collapse of transverse sheets of cells in the cortex. It is thought that this contraction can help prevent seedlings from desiccation as they develop. The leaves are pinnately compound and can grow up to two meters long. They are typically hard-textured, and green. Young leaves are described as being hairy, and ranging from dark green to coppery brown in color. Each leaflet is about 15 cm long and about 3.5 to 5 cm wide. The leaflets can be flat or twisted, and are usually broad with spine-tipped lobes. They are inserted at about 70° on the rhachis.

Reproduction and growth.

"E. ferox" is reported to grow relatively fast compared to members of other cycad genera, but are considered slow-growing when compared to other orders and classes. "E. ferox" reproduces using cones that are of a dark salmon color, as opposed to the greenish coloration typical of other cycads. It shares this coloration with "E. gratus", although the two species likely evolved this condition independently. The cones are sexually dimorphic: the male cone is a 40 to 50 cm long cylinder that is 7 to 10 cm wide with a peduncle that is up to 2 to 3 cm long; the female cone is 25 to 50 cm long, 20 to 25 cm wide, and sessile. Males can have up to ten cones at one time and females can have up to five cones at one time. The cones also emerge in succession, rather than emerging simultaneously. The shields of the megasporophylls are pyramidal shaped, with flattened facets. The seeds, which are about 4.5 to 5 cm long and 1.5 to 2 cm wide, are red, narrow, oblong and glossy.

Human use and cultivation.

Cultivation is very popular among "E. ferox" since it can be grown fairly easily as long as there is plenty of water, well-drained soil, and moderate temperatures. It is not very tolerant to frost, and it is best suited in warmer regions. They can be propagated from both the seed and from the removal of suckers. Humans have been know to obtain and consume starch that is found in the stem of "E. ferox". It can be used by local people for starch content

Genetics and evolutionary history.

"E. ferox" is not able to hybridize with other species of the genus "Encephalartos" very successfully. The chromosome number in "E. ferox", as well as other species of the genus "Encephalartos" for which chromosome number has been found, is 2n = 18. It is possible that "E. ferox" is most closely related to "E. arenarius" due to a similar ecology and similar leaf and cone morphologies. One study used "E. ferox" as an out group in a comparison of eight Eastern Cape species because it was considered distantly related to those species.

Encephalartos ferox, a member of the family Zamiaceae, is a small cycad with 35 cm wide subterranean trunk. It gets its name from the Latin word ferocious, likely from the spine-tipped lobes on the leaves of the plant. It is found naturally on the south-eastern coast of Africa where it has been used by local people for its starch content. It is considered to be one of the most popular cultivated cycads.

Encephalartos ferox je druh cykasu z čeledi zamiovité. Pochází z Jižní Afriky. Je známý velkými lístky a zářivě červenými šišticemi.


Biography.

Rex Robert Brown was born in Graham, Texas on July 27, 1964. His father was forty when Brown was born, and died in 1971. He was raised by his mother and sister. Brown was first introduced to music through his grandmother, who taught him to play the piano when he was a child, and turned him onto ragtime music and Scott Joplin. Brown was a member of the Boy Scouts of America and achieved the rank of Eagle Scout. Brown became a fan of ZZ Top and Def Leppard as a youth, and started playing bass when he was twelve years old. He remains a fan of Black Sabbath, Led Zeppelin and hardcore punk.

Career.

Pantera.

Pantera was formed in 1981. Brown joined Pantera on bass in 1982 replacing Tommy D. Bradford adopting the alias "Rex Rocker". Brown was a classmate of, and played in the high school jazz band with, drummer Vinnie Paul, and guitarist Dimebag Darrell (then known as Diamond Darrell). Brown was credited as "Rex Rocker" on Pantera's first 3 albums: "Metal Magic" (1983), "Projects in the Jungle" (1984), and "I Am the Night" (1985), he would be credited by his birth name starting with the band's fourth album Power Metal and onwards.  Pantera recruited vocalist Phil Anselmo to replace Terry Glaze in 1987. With Anselmo taking over as the new frontman, the band's fourth album, Power Metal, was released in 1988. By 1990, the band had been signed with Atco Records, and released their fifth album, "Cowboys from Hell", which proved to be the band's turning point to commercial success. Over the course of the band's walkthrough in the 1990s decade, Pantera released four more studio albums, "Vulgar Display of Power" (1992), "Far Beyond Driven" (1994), "The Great Southern Trendkill" (1996), and "Reinventing the Steel" (2000). After releases of a and a, Pantera was nominated for four best metal performance Grammys, for "I'm Broken," "Suicide Note Pt. I," "Cemetery Gates," and "Revolution Is My Name."  In 2001, Pantera went on what at the time was believed to be a temporary hiatus, mainly due to Anselmo's focus on side projects. Pantera would official disband in 2003.

Down.

In 1998, during his stay in Louisiana, he was invited by Phil Anselmo for a jam session that included all the members of Down except their bass player Todd Strange, who left the band. That night they ended up writing several demos for what later became their recorded in the fall of 2001 at Anselmo's barn that had been transformed into a professional studio. The album was released on March 26, 2002, and became the first Down release featuring Brown on bass. The band, however, went on hiatus again at the very end of 2002.  In 2006, the band reunited and started writing the material for their third studio album. "" was released in 2007. The band toured as the opening act for Metallica. During that time, he became good friends with James Hetfield, who - similarly to Brown - completed an alcohol rehabilitation course back in 2002.  Wanting to explore different music, Brown left Down in 2011.

Other work.

In 1999, Brown, Dimebag Darrell, and Vinnie Paul teamed up with country artist David Allan Coe in a project called Rebel Meets Rebel. This group released an album on May 2, 2006 on Vinnie Paul's Big Vin Records label.  Brown has worked previously with Jerry Cantrell on five tracks included on the album called "Boggy Depot" as well as eleven tracks with Crowbar on the album "Lifesblood for the Downtrodden". He has also provided bass work for Crowbar in 2004 and 2005 and to Cavalera Conspiracy in 2008. Rex revealed his new project Arms of the Sun, a project also featuring John Luke Hebert (of King Diamond) on drums, Lance Harvill on vocals and guitar, and Ben Bunker (of Gryn) on guitar. The group has completed work on thirteen tracks at Willie Nelson's Pedernales Recording Studio in Austin, produced and mixed by Terry Date. In February 2011 it was announced that Brown had amicably left Arms of the Sun. A replacement bassist has not yet been announced.  In March 2011, it was announced that Brown had formed a new band, Kill Devil Hill with Vinny Appice (Heaven & Hell, Black Sabbath, Dio) on drums, Mark Zavon (RATT, W.A.S.P., 40 Cycle Hum) on guitar and Dewey Bragg (Pissing Razors) on vocals. The group has demoed around 10 songs, which, according to Appice, sound "like a cross between Black Sabbath, Alice in Chains and a little bit of Led Zeppelin thrown in. It's heavy, but with a lot of cool hooks and melodic overtones, too." Kill Devil Hill released their debut album in May 2012 to critical acclaim, and continue to tour in support of their music.  In 2013, Brown released an autobiography, titled "Official Truth: 101 Proof", which chronicles his personal life and journey through Pantera, including the events leading to the band's disbandment.  In 2015, Brown penned the foreword to the book "Survival of the Fittest: Heavy Metal in the 1990s", by author Greg Prato. Rex was also interviewed for the book (as well as his former bandmate in Pantera, Anselmo, among many others).

Personal life.

According to his autobiography, Brown met his future ex-wife Belinda through a mutual friend. The couple got engaged in 1994 and married in May 1995. They have twins born in 2000. Brown refuses to give any further information on his children in order to keep their privacy. The couple divorced in 2004 but reunited in 2007, and remained together until 2011. Brown does not "subscribe to any particular organized religion", though he says he believes in God and the Ten Commandments.  In August 2009, Brown was disincluded from the Down tour due to acute pancreatitis. He then had his gallbladder and polyps on his pancreas removed. "Rex has been through hell, man," said bandmate Pepper Keenan. "He was cut from rib to rib and they cleaned him out, but he's in top shape again. After twenty-five years on the road – drinking every day and whatnot... well, the old days are over, my friend."

Playing style and equipment.

Brown was a jazz bassist and was offered a scholarship to the University of North Texas but declined. He often plays with a pick.  Brown was notable for often contributing walking basslines underneath Darrell's guitar solos. Standout tracks include "Floods", "Walk", "5 Minutes Alone", "Throes of Rejection", "Cowboys from Hell", "Living Through Me (Hells' Wrath)", "I Can't Hide", "Use My Third Arm", "Where You Come From", "This Love", "I'm Broken", and many others.  In Pantera's earliest days, Brown was witnessed playing an Ibanez Roadstar bass. In the late 80s he switched to Charvel basses and played a white 5 string and a black 4 string model. He used these basses exclusively through the Cowboys From Hell and Vulgar Display of Power albums, before he briefly used a 4 and 5 string model Ernie Ball MusicMan Stingray bass during the Vulgar Display of Power tour as well as a Fernandes Telecaster shaped bass for the "Walk" music video. In 1993, Brown began endorsing Spector bass guitars, notably all his basses had humbuckers. He continues to use Spectors to this day, with his own signature model. Shaped somewhat similar to a Gibson Thunderbird, the Spector Rex Brown Signature bass comes in several different finishes and is available in 4 and 5 string models. In 2011, Spector released a new signature bass by Brown named the Spector RXT. The bass has the same electronics as his first signature bass but instead of a Thunderbird, it is shaped like a Telecaster. Although this was released to the market by Spector, it was originally intended to be released by ESP Guitars under the LTD banner. Several prototypes and pre-production models exist, some of which are owned by Brown and can be seen used while playing with Down in 2009. After over 20 years of using Spector basses, on July 6, 2015, he announced that he had left Spector and is now a Warwick artist, by showing a photo of his new Warwick bass.

Rex Robert Brown (born July 27, 1964) is an American musician and author, who is best known as having been the longtime bassist for the band Pantera (1982–2003). He is a former member of Down (2001–2011), and is the former bassist for the band Kill Devil Hill. He released his debut solo album "Smoke on This" on July 28, 2017. For the first time in Brown's career, the work features him not only as a bassist but also as lead vocalist and guitarist.

Rex Robert Brown (* 27. července, 1966 Graham, Texas) je americký baskytarista, který se nejvíce proslavil spoluprací s americkou heavymetalovou skupinou Pantera, ve které hrál od začátku 80. let až do jejího konce v roce 2003. Spolu s bývalým zpěvákem Pantery Philem se po rozpadu Pantery ihned připojil ke skupině Down, kde nahradil basáka Todda Strange a hrál také na albu "Lifesblood for the Downtrodden" od americké skupiny "Crowbar". Během prvního období Pantery přijal jméno "Rex Rocker", které používal až k albu Far Beyond Driven, kdy ho spolu s kytaristou Dimebagem změnil. Rex začal být uváděn prostě jako "Rex Brown" a "Diamond Darell" jako "Dimebag Darrell".


Early life.

Von Däniken was born in Zofingen, Aargau. Brought up as a Roman Catholic, he attended the Saint-Michel International Catholic School in Fribourg, Switzerland. During his time at the school he rejected the church's interpretations of the Bible and developed an interest in astronomy and the phenomenon of flying saucers. At the age of 19, he was given a four-month suspended sentence for theft. He left the school and was apprenticed to a Swiss hotelier for a time, before moving to Egypt. In December 1964, von Däniken wrote "Hatten unsere Vorfahren Besuch aus dem Weltraum?" ("Did our Ancestors have a Visit from Space?") for the German-Canadian periodical "Der Nordwesten". While in Egypt, he was involved in a jewelry deal which resulted in a nine-month conviction for fraud and embezzlement upon his return to Switzerland.  Following his release, von Däniken became a manager of the Hotel Rosenhügel in Davos, Switzerland, during which time he wrote "Chariots of the Gods?" (German "Erinnerungen an die Zukunft", which literally translated is "Memories of the Future"), working on the manuscript late at night after the hotel's guests had retired. The draft of the book was turned down by several publishers. Econ Verlag (now part of Ullstein Verlag) was willing to publish the book after a complete reworking by a professional author,, who used the pseudonym of Wilhelm Roggersdorf. Utermann was a former "Schriftleiter" of "Völkischer Beobachter" and had been a Nazi bestselling author. The re-write of "Chariots of the Gods?" was accepted for publication early in 1967, but not printed until March 1968. Against all expectations, the book gained widespread interest and became a bestseller. Von Däniken was paid 7 percent of the book's turnover, while 3 percent went to Utermann. In 1970, Der Spiegel referred to the hype over Däniken as "Dänikitis".<ref name="Spiegel 40/70">Der Spiegel 44418148 Gläubige Gemeinde, 1970, Nr. 40, 1970-09-28, p. 214</ref>  In November 1968 von Däniken was arrested for fraud, after falsifying hotel records and credit references in order to take out loans for $130,000 over a period of twelve years. He used the money for foreign travel to research his book. Two years later, von Däniken was convicted for "repeated and sustained" embezzlement, fraud, and forgery, with the court ruling that the writer had been living a "playboy" lifestyle. He unsuccessfully entered a plea of nullity, on the grounds that his intentions were not malicious and that the credit institutions were at fault for failing adequately to research his references, and on 13 February 1970 he was sentenced to three and a half years imprisonment and was also fined 3,000 francs. He served one year of this sentence before being released.  His first book, "Chariots of the Gods?", had been published by the time of his trial, and its sales allowed him to repay his debts and leave the hotel business. Von Däniken wrote his second book, "Gods from Outer Space", while in prison.

Claims of alien influence on Earth.

The general claim of von Däniken over several published books, starting with "Chariots of the Gods?" in 1968, is that extraterrestrials or "ancient astronauts" visited Earth and influenced early human culture. Von Däniken writes about his belief that structures such as the Egyptian pyramids, Stonehenge, and the Moai of Easter Island, and certain artifacts from that period, are products of higher technological knowledge than is presumed to have existed at the times they were manufactured. He also describes ancient artwork throughout the world as containing depictions of astronauts, air and space vehicles, extraterrestrials, and complex technology. Von Däniken explains the origins of religions as reactions to contact with an alien race, and offers interpretations of sections of the Old Testament of the Bible.

Criticism.

In 1966, when von Däniken was writing his first book, scientists Carl Sagan and I. S. Shklovskii wrote about the possibility of paleocontact and extraterrestrial visitation claims in one chapter of their book "Intelligent Life in the Universe", leading author Ronald Story to speculate in his book "The Space-gods Revealed" that this may have been the genesis of von Däniken's ideas. Many ideas from this book appeared in different form in Däniken's books.  Prior to von Däniken's work, other authors had presented ideas of extraterrestrial contacts. He has failed to credit these authors properly or at all, even when making the same claims using similar or identical evidence. The first edition of von Däniken's "Erinnerungen an die Zukunft" failed to cite Robert Charroux's "One Hundred Thousand Years of Man's Unknown History" despite making very similar claims, and publisher Econ-Verlag was forced to add Charroux in the bibliography in later editions, to avoid a possible lawsuit for plagiarism.

Logical and factual errors.

Iron pillar of Delhi.

In "Chariots of the Gods?", von Däniken cited the Iron pillar of Delhi in India, erected approximately 402 CE, as a prime example of extraterrestrial influence due to its "unknown origins" and a complete absence of rust despite its estimated 1,500 years of continuous exposure to the elements. When informed by an interviewer, in 1974, that the pillar was not rust-free, and that its origin, method of construction, and relative resistance to corrosion were all well understood, von Däniken responded that he no longer believed extraterrestrials had been involved in its creation.

Cueva de los Tayos.

In "The Gold of the Gods", von Däniken describes an expedition that he undertook through man-made tunnels within Cueva de los Tayos, a natural cave system in Ecuador, guided by a local man named Juan Moricz. He reported seeing mounds of gold, strange statues, and a library containing metal tablets, all of which he considered to be evidence of ancient extraterrestrial visitation. A local priest, Father Crespi, stewarded a collection of the gold extraterrestrial relics, he said, with special permission from the Vatican. Moricz told "Der Spiegel" that there had been no expedition; von Däniken's descriptions came from "a long conversation", and the photos in the book had been "fiddled". During the 1974 interview, von Däniken asserted that he had indeed seen the library and the artifacts in the tunnels, but he had embellished some aspects of the story to make it more interesting. "In German we say a writer, if he is not writing pure science, is allowed to use some "dramaturgische Effekte" – some theatrical effects," he said. "And that's what I have done." Four years later, he admitted that he had never been inside Cueva de los Tayos, and had fabricated the entire cave adventure. A geologist found no evidence of artificial tunnels in the area. Father Crespi's gold artifacts, according to an archeologist consulted by "Der Spiegel", were mostly brass imitations sold locally as tourist souvenirs.

"Book of Dzyan" and "Tulli Papyrus".

Samuel Rosenberg said that the "Book of Dzyan", referred to by von Däniken, was "a fabrication superimposed on a gigantic hoax concocted by Madame Blavatsky." He also says that the "Tulli Papyrus", cited by von Däniken in one of his books, is probably cribbed from the Book of Ezekiel, and quoted Nolli (through Walter Ramberg, Scientific Attache at the U.S. Embassy in Rome), then current Director of the Egyptian Section of the Vatican Museum, as "suspect[ing] that Tulli was taken in and that the papyrus is a fake." According to Richard R. Lingeman of "The New York Times", it is likely that von Däniken obtained these references from UFO books that mentioned them as real documents.

Nazca Lines.

Von Däniken brought the Nazca Lines to public prominence in "Chariots of the Gods?" with his proposal that the lines were built on instructions from extraterrestrial beings as airfields for their spaceships. In his 1998 book "Arrival of The Gods", he added that some of the pictures depicted extraterrestrials. The idea did not originate with von Däniken; it began after people who first saw the lines from the air made joking comparisons to Martian "canals", and had already been published by others.  Descriptions of some Nazca line photos in "Chariots of the Gods?" contain significant inaccuracies. One, for example, purporting to demonstrate markings of a modern airport, was actually the knee joint of one of the bird figures, and was quite small. Von Däniken said that this was an "error" in the first edition, but it has not been corrected in later editions.  Consensus among archeologists is that the Nazca lines were created by pre-Columbian civilizations for cultural purposes. Efforts by archeologists to refute fringe theories such as Däniken's have been minimal, however. Silverman and Proulx have said that this silence from archaeologists has harmed the profession, as well as the Peruvian nation. Von Däniken's books attracted so many tourists to the Nazca region that researcher Maria Reiche had to spend much of her own time and money preserving the lines.

Piri Reis map.

Von Däniken wrote in "Chariots of the Gods?" that a version of the Piri Reis map depicted some Antarctic mountains that were and still are buried in ice, and could only be mapped with modern equipment. His theory relies on the book of "Maps of the Ancient Sea Kings" by Charles Hapgood. A.D. Crown, in "Some Trust in Chariots", explains how this is simply wrong. The map in von Däniken's book only extends five degrees south of the equator, ending in Cape São Roque, which means that it doesn't extend to Antarctica. Von Däniken also said that the map showed some distortions that would only happen if it was an aerial view taken from a spaceship flying above El Cairo, but in fact it doesn't extend far enough to the south to cause visible distortions in an aerial view. Von Däniken also asserts the existence of a legend saying that a god gave the map to a priest, the god being an extraterrestrial being. But Piri Reis said that he had drawn that map himself using older maps, and the map is consistent with the cartographic knowledge of that time. Also, the map is not "absolutely accurate" as claimed by von Däniken, since it contains many errors and omissions; a fact that von Däniken did not correct when he covered the map again in his 1998 book "Odyssey of the Gods". Other authors had already published this same idea, a fact that von Däniken did not recognize until 1974 in an interview with "Playboy" magazine.

Pyramid of Cheops.

Erich von Däniken puts forward many beliefs about the Great Pyramid of Giza in his 1968 book "Chariots of the Gods?", saying that the ancient Egyptians could not have built it, not having sufficiently advanced tools, leaving no evidence of workers, and incorporating too much 'intimate' knowledge about the Earth and its geography into the design. However, the technique of construction is well understood, the tools the Egyptians used are known, marks left in the quarries by those tools are still visible, and many examples of the tools are preserved in museums.  Von Däniken claims that it would have taken the Egyptians too long to cut all the blocks necessary and drag them to the construction site in time to build the Great Pyramid in only 20 years; but a "Nova" documentary demonstrates how quickly a block of stone can be cut with the available tools and shows examples of the rollers used in their transportation.  Von Däniken also said that there were too many problems with their tools, and, according to him, the Egyptians had no prehistory so they could not have possibly built these large pyramids, even though there are pyramids in Egypt that were built before the Great Pyramid. Because he believed that there was no prehistory, von Däniken put forward that there is nothing known about how, when, or why these pyramids were built.  Von Däniken also claims that Egyptians built perfect pyramids from the beginning, but numerous pyramid precursors survive, showing the errors made and corrected by Egyptian architects while they were perfecting the technique. These include simple mastabas, the Step Pyramid of Djoser, and the so-called Bent Pyramid.  In his book, he says that there is no evidence of Egyptian workers at the pyramid site; however, archaeologists have found evidence of buildings where workers would have lived, with bakeries and sewer systems. There are also tombs of workers, with some of the skeletons showing evidence of having received medical care. This may indicate the workers were well taken care of, which suggests they were Egyptian.  Von Däniken claims that the height of the Cheops pyramid multiplied by one million is the distance to the Sun. In fact the calculation produces a figure of only 91,000 miles. Also, he notes that the Great Pyramid is located on the Median line dividing the continents, and that the Egyptians could not have aligned the edges so perfectly to true north without advanced technology that only aliens could give them. Egyptian builders, however, knew of simple methods to find north via star observation. Egyptologists have found artifacts and drawings of an object called a merkhet, which enabled the ancient Egyptians to find true north using the North Star and other stars aligned with the merkhet. The ancient Egyptian astronomers and, possibly, farmers spent much time studying the stars in order to accurately track the agricultural seasons.

Sarcophagus of Palenque.

Von Däniken claimed that the Sarcophagus of Palenque depicted a spaceman sitting on a rocket-powered spaceship, wearing a spacesuit. However, archaeologists see nothing special about the figure, a dead Maya monarch (K'inich Janaab' Pakal) wearing traditional Maya hairstyle and jewellery, surrounded by Maya symbols that can be observed in other Maya drawings. The right hand is not handling any rocket controls, but simply making a traditional Maya gesture that other figures in the sides of the lid also make, and is not holding anything. The rocket shape is actually two serpents joining their heads at the bottom, with the rocket "flames" being the beards of the serpents. The rocket motor under the figure is the face of a monster, symbol of the underworld. (In "Chariots of the Gods?" Von Däniken also incorrectly states the sculpture to be from Copan, rather than Palenque.)

Peruvian stones.

Von Däniken put forward photographs of ancient stones in Peru, with carvings of men using telescopes, detailed world maps, and advanced medical operations, all beyond the knowledge of ancient Peruvians. But the PBS television series "Nova" determined that the stones were modern, and located the potter who made them. This potter makes stones daily and sells them to tourists. Von Däniken had visited the potter and examined the stones himself, but he didn't mention this in his book. He says that he didn't believe the potter when he said that he had made the stones. Von Däniken says that he asked Doctor Cabrera, a local surgeon who owns the museum, and Cabrera had told him that the potter's claims were a lie and that the stones were ancient. But the potter had proof that Cabrera had thanked him for providing the stones for the museum. Von Däniken claimed that the stones at the museum were very different from those made by the potter, but the "Nova" reporters oversaw the manufacturing of one stone and confirmed that it was very similar to those in the museum.

European ethnocentrism.

Kenneth Feder accused von Däniken of European ethnocentrism, while John Flenley and Paul Bahn suggested that views such as his interpretation of the Easter Island statues "ignore the real achievements of our ancestors and constitute the ultimate in racism: they belittle the abilities and ingenuity of the human species as a whole."

Other criticisms.

Ronald Story published "" in 1976, written in response to the evidence presented in von Däniken's "Chariots of the Gods?". It was reviewed as "a coherent and much-needed refutation of von Däniken's theories". Archeologist Clifford Wilson wrote two books similarly debunking von Däniken: "Crash Go the Chariots" in 1972 and "The Chariots Still Crash" in 1975.  A 2004 article in "Skeptic Magazine" states that von Däniken took many of the book's concepts from "The Morning of the Magicians", that this book in turn was heavily influenced by the Cthulhu Mythos, and that the core of the ancient astronaut theory originates in H. P. Lovecraft's stories "The Call of Cthulhu" written in 1926, and "At the Mountains of Madness" written in 1931.

Response to criticism.

Speaking in a 2001 documentary, von Däniken said that although he could not conclusively prove to the scientific community that any of the items in his archive were of alien origin, he felt that "today's science" would not accept such evidence, as "the time is simply not right". He argued that it was first necessary to "prepare" mankind for a "wonderful new world".

Popularity.

According to von Däniken, books in his series have altogether been translated into 32 languages and have sold more than 63 million copies.  Jungfrau Park located near Interlaken, Switzerland, was opened as the Mystery Park in 2003. Designed by von Däniken, it explored several great "mysteries" of the world.  Ridley Scott said that his film "Prometheus" is related to some of von Däniken's ideas regarding early human civilization.  Reviewing the two-disc DVD release of Roland Emmerich's film "Stargate", Dean Devlin referred to the "Is There a Stargate?" feature where "author Erich von Däniken discusses evidence he has found of alien visitations to Earth."  Von Däniken is an occasional presenter on the History Channel and H2 show "Ancient Aliens", where he talks about aspects of his theories as they pertain to each episode.  Von Däniken is a member of the Swiss Writers Association, the German Writers Association and the International PEN Club. He was awarded with an honorary doctorate by the La Universidad Boliviana. He received the Huesped Illustre award from the cities of Ica and Nazca in Peru. In Brazil, he received the Lourenco Filho award in Gold and Platinum. In 2004, he was awarded the Explorers Festival prize.

Erich Anton Paul von Däniken (; ; born 14 April 1935) is a Swiss author of several books which make claims about extraterrestrial influences on early human culture, including the best-selling "Chariots of the Gods?", published in 1968. Von Däniken is one of the main figures responsible for popularizing the "paleo-contact" and ancient astronauts hypotheses.

Erich Anton Paul von Däniken (* 14. dubna 1935 Zofingen, kanton Aargau, Švýcarsko) je kontroverzní švýcarský spisovatel a záhadolog, který je znám především svými knihami, v nichž píše o tom, že Zemi měli v minulosti navštěvovat mimozemšťané a ovlivňovat historii lidstva. Svoji první a asi nejdůležitější knihu, "Vzpomínky na budoucnost", vydal v roce 1968 – ta ihned vzbudila veliké pozdvižení, mnoho kontroverze – Däniken obdržel spoustu kritiky, ale i sympatizanty, z nichž někteří pokračují v jeho výzkumu a považují se za alternativní nebo „ne-mainstreamové“ historické badatele, kteří nejstarší dějiny lidstva zkoumají právě z perspektivy Dänikenova axiomu. Knihy Ericha von Dänikena byly přeloženy do dvaceti jazyků. Stal se spoluzakladatelem a členem společnosti A.A.S.R.A. (Archaeology, Astronautics SETI Research Association), která sdružuje zájemce o výzkum mimozemských civilizací a dávné historie lidstva.


Geology.

Považský Inovec Mts. is considered as asymmetric horst emerging from the Neogene sedimentary fill of the Pannonian Basin between the Váh and Nitra rivers. The horst is bordered by steep normal faults and usually divided from north to south into three segments (or blocks). Basement rocks are in the northern portion dominated by crystalline schists (mostly diaphthorites, phyllonites, biotite micaschists and gneisses, amphibolites and migmatites). Extensive Late Paleozoic volcanosedimentary succession (Kálnica group) is present in the cover unit, in the area between the Selec and Hrádok villages. Sparse relicts of peculiar Upper Cretaceous sediments (Belice unit) are locally present in the northern and southern block. The transversal Hrádok reverse fault separates the northern block from the central block. Only the central block shows typical structure of the Fatra-Tatra Belt which is typical composed of Tatric crystalline basement composed of granitoids and gneisses, covered by the Mesozoic deposits and two superimposed cover nappes (lower Fatric unit and upper Hronic unit). Granitoid rocks form the Bojná and the Zlatníky massifs. The Fatric nappe is represented by the Zliechov succession. The Hronic nappe is preserved in outlayers, e.g. in the Tematín or Beckov Castle rocks. Both cover nappes are composed of the Triassic to Early Cretaceous rocks, mostly limestones, marlstones and dolomites. Relicts of the clastic deposits of Inner-Carpathian Paleogene Basin are found on the western slopes of the mountains.

Paleontology.

The Čertova pec caves near Radošina have yielded relics of multiple human habitation from the Stone Age. Finds include artifacts from the Mousterian culture (associated primarily with Neanderthals) and the later Szeletian culture.

Považský Inovec is a mountain range in western Slovakia, named after the Váh river. It is 48 km (30 mi) long and 15–25 km (9-16 mi) wide mountain range. It is situated from the city of Hlohovec, raising from the Danubian Hills, and slowly raising further north until nearly to the city of Trenčín where it borders the Strážov Mountains, where is also the highest hill of the entire mountain range, "Inovec" (1042 m). The mountain range separates basins of the Váh and Nitra rivers.

Považský Inovec je geomorfologický celek na západním Slovensku. Základní (jádrové) pohoří zabíhající do Podunajské nížiny patří do Fatransko-tatranské oblasti. Při jeho délce 48 km a proměnlivé šířce 15 až 25 km zabírá celkovou plochu o rozloze asi 600 km2. Nejvyšším bodem členité vrchoviny je vrch Inovec (1042 m). Má složitou geologickou stavbu. Je bohatý na minerální prameny, bez větších vodních toků. Klimaticky spadá do mírně teplé oblasti. Setkávají se zde teplomilné a horské druhy rostlin, druhově rozmanité je i zastoupení živočichů. Lidské osídlení se datuje od starší doby kamenné. Oblast je vhodná pro turistiku.


Early life.

Rezanov was born in Saint Petersburg on March 28, 1764. He mastered five languages by the age of 14. He joined the Izmaylovsky Regiment at the same age and left five years later in 1784 as captain. Rezanov then spent five years as a court officer in Pskov. In 1791, he joined the staff of Gavrila Derzhavin in his capacity as the private secretary to the Empress Catherine. Platon Zubov took interest in Rezanov, hiring him as an aide within a year of his employment with Derzhavin. Zubov became interested in the fur trade activities of Irkutsk merchant Grigory Shelikhov. His influence with Catherine II was used to secure priests from the Valaam Monastery and colonists for Shelikov's settlements on Kodiak Islands.

Interest in fur trade.

In the winter of 1793 Rezanov was appointed as Zubov's personal representative to oversee the fledgling operations. In August 1794 Rezanov arrived at Irkutsk, the center of the Shelikhov-Golikov Company, a city where his father Pyotr had once served as a civil servant for several decades. He likely joined Shelikhov in visiting Kyakhta during the annual trading with the Qing Empire. Rezanov found the land routes to China "inefficient and archaic" when compared to the naval trade of the British in Guangzhou. In January 1795 he married Shelikhov's and Natalia Shelikova's 14-year-old daughter Anna, who came with a dowry in shares of Shelikhov's company. Anna died in childbirth seven years later. Rezanov became a partner in the company, rapidly developing into a keen and tireless man of business. At the death of Shelikhov later in 1795, he became the leading spirit of the wealthy and amalgamated company, but felt marginalized and harassed because the heir to the company was Shelikhov's formidable wife Natalia. Rezanov resolved to develop the company by obtaining for himself and his partners a royal charter with monopoly privileges to exploit and rule, like the privileges granted by Great Britain to the East India Company.

Russian-American Company.

Rezanov had just succeeded in persuading Catherine II to sign his charter when she died (1796), forcing him to begin again to obtain a charter from the unbalanced and intractable Tsar Paul I. For a time the outlook appeared hopeless, but Rezanov's skill, subtlety and address prevailed, and he obtained the Tsar's signature to the Ukase of 1799 shortly before the Tsar was assassinated. The Russian-American Company (RAC) was granted a monopoly over the Pacific Northwest coast of North America, from latitude 55 degrees northward, roughly the southern border of Alaska today; and over the chain of islands extending from Kamchatka northward to Alaska and southward to Japan for a period of twenty years. As a civil servant, Rezanov couldn't be directly named a director of the company, so he was officially designated the RAC's "High Representative in the Capital." The majority of the shares were owned by the Shelikhov family, although Rezanov, Tsar Paul, the future Tsar Alexander I of Russia and Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich were also shareholders. Initially the company turned a favorable profit until the first years of the 19th century, after which mismanagement and scarcity of nourishing food threatened it with serious losses, if not ultimate ruin.  In order to get a fleet to the area, the First Russian circumnavigation was undertaken, with Rezanov on board, taking the route from St Petersburg to Brazil to the Kingdom of Hawaii to Kamchatka. The ships would not only supply the colonies in America but also begin a Russian fur trade between Alaska, Japan and China, and collect scientific data. Rezanov was appointed as minister plenipotentiary and given the special assignment of opening diplomatic relations with the isolationist Tokugawa Shogunate. Before reaching Japan, the Russians visited Hawaii where they learned of the destruction of the Russian colony of Redoubt Saint Michael in America. The "Neva", one of the two ships in the expedition, was dispatched north on 31 May 1804 and was critical in taking back Saint Michael in the Battle of Sitka later that year. Rezanov was impressed with the agricultural potential of the Hawaiian Islands, exclaiming that "All of Siberia might be supplied by sugar from Owhyhee". On board the "Nadezhda", Rezanov and the remaining crew under Adam Johann von Krusenstern sailed for Petropavlovsk.  Finally departing for Japan in the autumn of 1804, the "Nadezhda" entered Nagasaki Bay in September. Rezanov didn't endear himself with his hosts, a Japanese translator telling him that "All of Japan is talking of you and saying that you are different from the Dutch, prouder, more heated and that you look down on the Japanese". After many months of waiting for the Shogun's decision about opening trade relations with Russia, first isolated on board ship, then confined in a small compound on shore, the Russians left Nagasaki on 5 April 1805, their efforts at opening trade an embarrassing failure.  "Nadezhda" returned to Petropavlovsk on 24 May 1805, where Rezanov found orders directing him to remain in the Russian colonies as Imperial inspector and plenipotentiary of the company, and to correct the abuses that were ruining the great enterprise. He departed on the "Maria" on 28 July for Novo-Arkhangelsk by way of the Aleutian islands. While touring the colonies, Rezanov established measures to protect the fur-bearing animals from reckless slaughter, especially on the Pribilof Islands, along with punishing or banishing the worst offenders against the company's laws. Additionally he established several schools and libraries, donating some of his own books, and he established cooking schools that flourished briefly.

Mission to Alta California.

Conditions in the colonies were harsh; housing was primitive, and food was scarce, with many supply ships being lost at sea. In 1806 the colonists at Sitka were dying of scurvy and starvation. In desperation, on 26 Feb. 1806 Rezanov put together a small crew and left Sitka sailing south on the "Juno" on a life-or-death expedition to California to buy food and supplies from Russia's chief competitor in colonizing the Pacific coast, the Spanish. Sick with hunger and scurvy, they arrived under the guns of the Spanish overlooking San Francisco Bay on 27 March, meeting with the "comandante" of San Francisco, Don José Darío Argüello. During a stay of six weeks, Rezanov was successful in bartering and buying wheat, barley, peas, beans, flour, tallow, salt and other items. Departing on 10 May, he reached Sitka on 8 June. Rezanov had begun a love affair with the 15-year-old daughter of the comandante Concepción Argüello ("Conchita"). The couple became engaged, causing a sensation in the tight-knit California society, especially because of their differences in religion and nationality, but Rezanov's diplomatic skill won over the clergy. Rezanov had the promise of the perplexed governor to forward a copy of the treaty to Spain at once. He proceeded to Petropavlovsk, where he dispatched his ships, without the consent of the Tsar——in effect declaring war on his own——to attack the Japanese island Sakhalin of the lower Kuril group. Rezanov then began the overland trip to Saint Petersburg, hoping to obtain the Tsar's approval for the treaty. He wrote personal letters to the Pope and to the King of Spain asking dispensation and royal consent for his marriage.

Death.

He died of fever and exhaustion in Krasny Yar (now Krasnoyarsk), Siberia, on March 8, 1807. His grave was destroyed by bolsheviks, but his remains were reburied. On October 28, 2000, at Rezanov's grave in the Trinity churchyard of Krasnoyarsk (where according to one account his remains were moved in the late 1950s) there was a service for the dead and the dedication of a memorial to Rezanov. Poets had taken up the story of Rezanov and Conchita, turning it into a famous romance in Russia. The memorial has a white cross, bearing on one side the inscription “Nikolai Petrovich Rezanov 1764 — 1807. I will never forget you”, and on the other side — “Maria Concepcion de Arguelio 1791 — 1857. I will see you never more”.

Assessment.

The treaty with California, the bare suggestion of which made such a commotion far away in the land of New Spain, was the least of Rezanov's projects. It was sincerely conceived, for he was deeply and humanely concerned for his employees and the wretched natives who were little more than the slaves of the company; but its very obviousness raised the necessary amount of dust.  His correspondence with the company betrays a clearly defined purpose to annex to Russia the entire western coast of North America, and to encourage immediate emigration from the parent country on a large scale. Had he lived, there is, all things considered, hardly a doubt that he would have accomplished his object. The treaty was never signed, the reforms of Rezanov died of discouragement, the fortunes of the colonies gradually collapsed, and the Spanish girl who had loved Rezanov became a nun.

Legacy.

Rezanov's romance with Concepción became the subject of "Concepcion de Arguello", a ballad by the San Francisco author, Francis Bret Harte, and a 1937 novel, "Rezánov and Doña Concha", by the largely forgotten San Francisco author Gertrude Atherton, who had also written a biography of Rezanov on the centennial of his romance with Concepcion.  In 1979, the composer Alexei Rybnikov and the poet Andrey Voznesensky wrote one of the first Russian rock operas, choosing the love affair of Rezanov and Concepcion as their subject and naming the opera after two of Rezanov's ships, "Juno" and "Avos". The original production has enjoyed immense success in the Lenkom Theatre and is still being performed to standing ovations as of 2013. The original actor playing Rezanov from 1979–2005, Nikolai Karachentsov, was seriously injured in a car crash in 2005, and has been replaced in the production by Dmitry Pevtsov and Viktor Rakov.  The High Mass for the two lovers was attended by Gary E. Brown, Police Chief of the city of Monterey, California. He was in Siberia as part of a Pointman Leadership Institute team to instruct the National Police in Ethical Based Leadership. Chief Brown scattered on Rezanov's tomb some earth from Conchita's grave, and at the suggestion of Monterey resident John Middleton, a rose from her burial site, and took some earth from Rezanov's grave to scatter on the resting place of Concepcion de Arguello in Benicia, CA. “It will connect them forever in a symbolic way” said the chief. He went on to share that the love story which took place 200 years ago forever united the cities of Krasnoyarsk and Monterey.

Nikolai Petrovich Rezanov () ( – ) was a Russian nobleman and statesman who promoted the project of Russian colonization of Alaska and California to three successive Tsars—Catherine the Great, Paul, and Aleksander I. Aleksander I commissioned him as Russian ambassador to Japan (1804) to conclude a commercial treaty. In order to get there he was appointed co-commander of the First Russian circumnavigation (1803-1806), led by Adam Johann von Krusenstern. Rezanov departed the expedition when it reached Kamchatka after visiting Japan where he was unsuccessful in his ambassadorial mission. He was also the author of a lexicon of the Japanese language and of several other works, which are preserved in the library of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences, of which he was a member. Rezanov's biggest legacy was the Russian-American Company.

Nikolaj Petrovič Rezanov (; 1764 - 1807) byl ruský šlechtic a politik, podporující projekt ruské kolonizace Ameriky převážně na Aljašce a v Kalifornii. Byl jedním z deseti ruských baronů, byl prvním ruským velvyslancem v Japonsku (1804) a podnítil první ruský pokus o plavbu kolem světa (1803) a osobně vedl expedici na Kamčatku. Byl autorem slovníku japonštiny a několika dalších děl, která jsou uschována v knihovně petrohradské akademie věd, jejímž byl členem. Rezanov také založil ambiciózní Ruskoamerickou kožešinovou společnost, která stála v čele ruské kolonizace Ameriky.


Semantic field.

The words care, therapy, treatment, and intervention overlap in a semantic field, and thus they can be synonymous depending on context. Moving rightward through that order, the connotative level of holism decreases and the level of specificity (to concrete instances) increases. Thus, in health care contexts (where its senses are always noncount), the word "care" tends to imply a broad idea of everything done to protect or improve someone's health (for example, as in the terms "preventive care" and "primary care", which connote ongoing action), although it sometimes implies a narrower idea (for example, in the simplest cases of wound care or postanesthesia care, a few particular steps are sufficient, and the patient's interaction with that provider is soon finished). In contrast, the word "intervention" tends to be specific and concrete, and thus the word is often countable; for example, one instance of cardiac catheterization is one intervention performed, and coronary care (noncount) can require a series of interventions (count). At the extreme, the piling on of such countable interventions amounts to interventionism, a flawed model of care lacking holistic circumspection—merely treating discrete problems (in billable increments) rather than maintaining health. "Therapy" and "treatment", in the middle of the semantic field, can connote either the holism of "care" or the discreteness of "intervention", with context conveying the intent in each use. Accordingly, they can be used in both noncount and count senses (for example, "therapy for chronic kidney disease can involve several dialysis treatments per week").  The words "aceology" and "iamatology" are obscure and obsolete synonyms referring to the study of therapies.  The English word "therapy" comes via Latin "therapīa" from and literally means "curing" or "healing".

Types of therapies.

By chronology, priority, or intensity.

Levels of care.

Levels of care classify health care into categories of chronology, priority, or intensity, as follows:

Lines of therapy.

Treatment decisions often follow formal or informal algorithmic guidelines. Treatment options can often be ranked or prioritized into lines of therapy: first-line therapy, second-line therapy, third-line therapy, and so on. First-line therapy (sometimes called induction therapy, primary therapy, or front-line therapy) is the first therapy that will be tried. Its priority over other options is usually either: (1) formally recommended on the basis of clinical trial evidence for its best-available combination of efficacy, safety, and tolerability or (2) chosen based on the clinical experience of the physician. If a first-line therapy either fails to resolve the issue or produces intolerable side effects, additional (second-line) therapies may be substituted or added to the treatment regimen, followed by third-line therapies, and so on.  An example of a context in which the formalization of treatment algorithms and the ranking of lines of therapy is very extensive is chemotherapy regimens. Because of the great difficulty in successfully treating some forms of cancer, one line after another may be tried. In oncology the count of therapy lines may reach 10 or even 20.  Often multiple therapies may be tried simultaneously (combination therapy or polytherapy). Thus combination chemotherapy is also called polychemotherapy, whereas chemotherapy with one agent at a time is called single-agent therapy or monotherapy.  Adjuvant therapy is therapy given in addition to the primary, main, or initial treatment, but simultaneously (as opposed to second-line therapy). Neoadjuvant therapy is therapy that is begun before the main therapy. Thus one can consider surgical excision of a tumor as the first-line therapy for a certain type and stage of cancer even though radiotherapy is used before it; the radiotherapy is neoadjuvant (chronologically first but not primary in the sense of the main event). Premedication is conceptually not far from this, but the words are not interchangeable; cytotoxic drugs to put a tumor "on the ropes" before surgery delivers the "knockout punch" are called neoadjuvant chemotherapy, not premedication, whereas things like anesthetics or prophylactic antibiotics before dental surgery are called premedication.  Step therapy or stepladder therapy is a specific type of prioritization by lines of therapy. It is controversial in American health care because unlike conventional decision-making about what constitutes first-line, second-line, and third-line therapy, which in the U.S. reflects safety and efficacy first and cost only according to the patient's wishes, step therapy attempts to mix cost containment by someone other than the patient (third-party payers) into the algorithm. Therapy freedom and the negotiation between individual and group rights are involved.

By therapy composition.

Treatments can be classified according to the method of treatment:

A therapy or medical treatment (often abbreviated tx, Tx, or T) is the attempted remediation of a health problem, usually following a diagnosis.

Léčba (terapie, kúra, kurýrování) je souhrnný název pro soubor opatření prováděných s cílem ovlivnit průběh onemocnění. Cíle léčby mohou být různé:


Origins.

When the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar conquered Jerusalem, he killed or exiled most of its inhabitants and appointed Gedaliah, son of Achikam, as governor of the now-Babylonian province of Judah. Many Jews who had fled to Moab, Ammon, Edom, and other neighboring lands returned to Judah, tended the vineyards again, and enjoyed a new respite after their earlier suffering.  However, Baalis, king of Ammon, was hostile and envious of the Judean remnant and sent a Judean, Yishmael Ben Netaniah, who was descended from the royal family of Judea, to assassinate Gedaliah. In the seventh month (Tishrei) of 582/1 BCE (some four to five years following the destruction of the Temple, although the exact year is unclear and subject to dispute; others claim the assassination took place in the same year as the destruction), a group of Jews led by Yishmael came to Gedaliah in the town of Mitzpa and were received cordially. Gedaliah had been warned of his guest's murderous intent, but refused to believe his informants, believing their report was mere slander. Yishmael murdered Gedaliah, together with most of the Jews who had joined him and many Babylonians whom the Babylonian King had left with Gedaliah. The remaining Jews feared the vengeance of the Babylonian King (in view of the fact that the King's chosen ruler, Gedaliah, had been killed by a Jew) and fled to Egypt.

In Hebrew Bible.

The events are recounted briefly in the Hebrew Bible in 2 Kings 25:25–26:  A fuller account is in Jeremiah, chapter 41, where the murder of a group of envoys and the kidnapping of the gubernatorial staff and family are also related:

In Josephus.

In Josephus' books of the Antiquities of the Jews, the story of the conspiracy is provided in considerable detail.

Institution of fast.

The surviving remnant of Jews was thus dispersed and the land remained desolate. In remembrance of these tribulations, the Jewish sages instituted the 'Fast of the Seventh' (see Zechariah 8:19) on the day of Gedaliah's assassination in the seventh month.  The Bible does not specify on which day of the seventh month Gedaliah was killed. However, the Hebrew word "hodesh" can mean "new moon" as well as "month", suggesting that he was killed on the first of the month. According to the Talmud, Gedaliah was killed on the third of the month. Other sources suggest that Gedaliah was killed on the first of the month, but the fast is delayed until after Rosh Hashanah, since fasting is prohibited during a festival.  According to the Talmud, the aim of the fast day is "to establish that the death of the righteous is likened to the burning of the House of our God." Just as fasts were ordained to commemorate the destruction of the Jewish Temple, likewise a fast was ordained to commemorate the death of Gedaliah.

Dates.

The fast is observed on the third of Tishrei in the Hebrew calendar. This is the day after the second day of Rosh Hashanah. The Gregorian (civil) date for the Fast of Gedalia varies from year to year.  When Rosh Hashanah falls on Thursday and Friday, the fast is postponed until Sunday (which would be the fourth of Tishrei), since no public fast may be observed on Shabbat (Saturday) with the exception of Yom Kippur. That was most recently the case in 2017, and will next happen in 2024.  This year's and upcoming dates of the fast:

Observances.

The fast is observed from dawn until dusk. As with regular fast days, the hazzan includes the prayer Aneinu in the repetition of the Amidah during Shacharit and Mincha as a separate Bracha between the prayers for redemption and healing, and in the private recitation of the Mincha amidah it is recited as an addition to Shema Koleinu (general prayer acceptance). The Avinu Malkeinu prayer is recited and as it is during the Ten Days of Repentance the additions reference the new year. A Torah scroll is taken from the ark and the passages of Ki Tissa are read from the Torah (Exodus 32:11–14 and 34:1–10). The same Torah reading is added at Mincha, followed in Ashkenazic congregations by a Haftarah reading. As the fast falls during the days of Penitence, the S'lichot prayer is recited before the start of Shacharit and incorporates also an extra paragraph relating to the Fast of Gedaliah. There is no Slichot service at the time of the repetition of the Amidah.  In the Spanish and Portuguese rite, the prayers are recited from the Book of Prayers for Fast Days. There are lengthy additions to the prayers that are not found in the daily and Sabbath siddur, and that are specific to the day as well as prayers that are common to all the fast days with the exception of Yom Kippur.

The Fast of Gedalia (, ; "Tzom Gedalya"), also transliterated from the Hebrew language as Gedaliah or Gedalya(h), is a minor Jewish fast day from dawn until dusk to lament the assassination of Gedaliah, the righteous governor of Judah. His death ended Jewish autonomy following the destruction of the First Temple.

Půst Gedaljův (, "Com Gedalja") je veřejný postní den v judaismu, připomínaný 3. tišri (den po skončení Roš ha-šana) na paměť zavraždění místodržícího "Gedalji ben Achikam" v Micpe. Příběh o Gedaljovi můžeme nalézt v 2. knize Královské 25, 22-26:


Biography.

He received his first lessons from his father, the set painter Johann Valentin Tischbein. In 1768, he went to Kassel to work in the studios of his uncle, Johann Heinrich Tischbein. Four years later, he took a long trip through France, ending in Paris, where he studied with Johann Georg Wille. In 1777, he took a trip to Naples and Rome, where he met and worked with Jacques-Louis David. He returned to Germany in 1780.  That same year, he was appointed court painter to Friedrich Karl August, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont in Bad Arolsen and was later named "Council and Cabinet Painter". During the 1780s he made three trips to the Netherlands, on behalf of his patron, where he improved his skills in portrait painting.  In 1795, he was hired by Leopold III, Duke of Anhalt-Dessau but, by this time, noble patronage was no longer the necessity it once was so, only one year later, Tischbein went to Berlin and became a successful independent portrait painter. In 1799, he had even greater success in Dresden. The following year, he received an appointment to replace Adam Friedrich Oeser as Director of the Academy of Visual Arts in Leipzig.  In 1806, he went to Saint Petersburg to settle the estate of his brother, the architect and set designer, Ludwig Philipp Tischbein (1744-1806). He remained there for three years to finish several lucrative commissions from the Russian aristocracy.  His daughter, Caroline (1783–1843) and son Carl Wilhelm (1797-1855) also became artists.

Johann Friedrich August Tischbein, known as the "Leipziger Tischbein" (9 March 1750, Maastricht - 21 June 1812, Heidelberg) was a German portrait painter from the Tischbein family of artists.

Johann Friedrich August Tischbein (9. března 1750, Maastricht – 21. června 1812, Heidelberg), takzvaný "Lipský Tischbein", byl německý malíř. Proslavil se především rodinnými portréty a byl nejznámější představitel druhé generace umělecké rodiny Tischbeinů.