Name.

"Weibo" (微博) is the Chinese word for "microblog". Sina Weibo launched its new domain name weibo.com on 7 April 2011, deactivating and redirecting from the old domain, t.sina.com.cn, to the new one. Due to its popularity, the media sometimes refers to the platform simply as "Weibo," despite the numerous other Chinese microblogging/weibo services including Tencent Weibo (腾讯微博), Sohu Weibo (搜狐微博), and NetEase Weibo (网易微博).

Background.

Sina Weibo is a platform based on fostering user relationships to share, disseminate and receive information. Through either the website or the mobile app, users can upload pictures and videos publicly for instant sharing, with other users being able to comment with text, pictures and videos, or use a multimedia instant messaging service. The company initially invited a large number of celebrities to join the platform at the beginning, and has since invited many media personalities, government departments, businesses and non-governmental organizations to open accounts as well for the purpose of publishing and communicating information. To avoid the impersonation of celebrities, Sina Weibo uses verification symbols; celebrity accounts have an orange letter "V" and organizations' accounts have a blue letter "V". Sina Weibo has more than 500 million registered users; out of these, 313 million are monthly active users, 85% use the Weibo mobile app, 70% are college-aged, 50.10% are male and 49.90% are female. There are over 100 million messages posted by users each day. With more than 100 million followers, actress Xie Na holds the record for the most followers on the platform. Despite fierce competition among Chinese social media platforms, Sina Weibo has proven to be the most popular; part of this success may be attributable to the wider use of mobile technologies in China.

History.

After the July 2009 Ürümqi riots, China shut down most domestic microblogging services, including Fanfou, the very first weibo service. Many popular non-China-based microblogging services like Twitter, Facebook, and Plurk have since been blocked. Sina Corporation CEO Charles Chao considered this to be an opportunity, and on 14 August 2009, Sina launched the tested version of Sina Weibo; basic functions including message, private message, comment and repost were made available that September. A Sina Weibo–compatible API platform for developing third-party applications was launched on 28 July 2010.  On 1 December 2010, the website experienced an outage, which administrators later said was due to the ever-increasing numbers of users and posts. Registered users surpassed 100 million in February 2011. Since 23 March 2011, t.cn has been used as Sina Weibo's official shortened URL in lieu of sinaurl.cn. On 7 April 2011, weibo.com replaced t.sina.com.cn as the new main domain name used by the website. The official logo was also updated. In June 2011, Sina announced an English-language version of Sina Weibo would be developed and launched, though content would still be governed by Chinese law.  On 11 January 2013, Sina Weibo and Alibaba China (a subsidiary of Alibaba Group) signed a strategic cooperation agreement.  With more and more foreign celebrities using Sina Weibo, language translation has become an urgent need for Chinese fans who wish to communicate with their idols online; while many already understand English, most users still struggle with Korean. In January 2013, Sina Weibo and NetEase.com announced that they had reached a strategic cooperation agreement. When users browse foreign language content, they can now directly obtain translation results through the YouDao Dictionary.  The Sina Weibo financial report in February 2013 showed that its total revenue was approximately US$66 million and that the number of registered users had exceeded the 500 million mark.  In April 2013, Sina officially announced that Sina Weibo had signed a strategic cooperation agreement with Alibaba. The two sides conducted in-depth cooperation in areas such as user account interoperability, data exchange, online payment, and internet marketing. At the same time, Sina announced that Alibaba, through its wholly owned subsidiary, had purchased the preferred shares and common shares issued by Sina Weibo Company for US$586 million, which accounted for approximately 18% of Weibo's fully diluted and diluted total shares.

Ownership.

On 9 April 2013, Alibaba Group announced that it would acquire 18% of Sina Weibo for US$586 million, with the option to buy up to 30% in the future; Alibaba exercised this option when Weibo was listed on NASDAQ in April 2014.

Users.

According to iResearch's report on 30 March 2011, Sina Weibo had 56.5% of China's microblogging market based on active users and 86.6% based on browsing time over competitors such as Tencent Weibo and Baidu. The top 100 users had over 485 million followers combined. More than 5,000 companies and 2,700 media organizations in China use Sina Weibo. The site is maintained by a growing microblogging department of 200 employees responsible for technology, design, operations, and marketing.  Sina executives invited and persuaded many Chinese celebrities to join the platform. Users now include Asian celebrities, movie stars, singers, famous business and media figures, athletes, scholars, artists, organizations, religious figures, government departments, and officials from Hong Kong, Mainland China, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, and Macau, as well as some famous foreign individuals and organizations, including Kevin Rudd, Boris Johnson, David Cameron, Narendra Modi, Toshiba, and the German national football team. Like Twitter, Sina Weibo has a verification program for known people and organizations. Once an account is verified, a verification badge is added beside the account name.  According to research by Sina Corporation, the number of active users reached over 400 million by Q1 2018, making Sina Weibo the 7th platform with at least 400 million active users, and daily usage increased by 21%.

Functions.

Basic function.

(1) open API  Sina weibo API covers all functions of sina weibo. It can send microblog, send photos, add attention and even search.  (2) client: when sina weibo is officially launched, it will simultaneously launch various mobile phones, browsers, microblogging clients on IM, robots and SMS platforms.  (3) pictures and video sharing: sina weibo has the functions of pictures, video and music sharing. [56]  (4) sync to other micro blogs  (5) search function

Main function.

Publish function: users can publish content like blog and chat tools  Forwarding function: users can forward their favorite content to their weibo with one click (the forwarding function is an improvement of the RT function of Twitter, keeping original posts to avoid tampering in the process of transmission) and add their own comments when forwarding.  Following function: users can follow their favorite users and become followers of this user (i.e. "fans").  Comment function: users can comment on any micro blog. (this is a special feature based on Chinese users' habits. Later, Yahoo Meme and Google Buzz also have comment functions.)  Search function: users can insert a topic between two # signs. Like this, # a certain topic XXX#, then issued micro blog, you can click this, automatic search micro blog all contain "a certain topic XXX" related micro blog. The discussion can be expanded to achieve aggregation of information.  Private message function: the user can click private message and send a private message to any user on sina weibo who has opened a private message port. This private message will only be seen by the other side. Achieve private communication.

Features.

Many of Sina Weibo's features resemble those of Twitter. A user may post with a 140-character limit (increased to 2,000 as of January 2016 with the exception of reposts and comments), mention or talk to other people using "@UserName" formatting, add hashtags, follow other users to make their posts appear in one's own timeline, re-post with "//@UserName" similar to Twitter's retweet function "RT @UserName", select posts for one's favorites list, and verify the account if the user is a celebrity. URLs are automatically shortened using the domain name t.cn, akin to Twitter's t.co. Official and third-party applications can access Sina Weibo from other websites or platforms.  Since a recent update you can now add images and this has made Sina Weibo more similar to Instagram in its function as a social media platform (also an app) in China.  Hashtags differ slightly between Sina Weibo and Twitter, using the double-hashtag "#HashName#" format (the lack of spacing between Chinese characters necessitates a closing tag). Users can own a hashtags by requesting hashtag monitoring; the company reviews these requests and responds within one to three days. Once a user owns a hashtag, they have access to a wide variety of functions available only to them on the condition that they remain active (less than 1 post per calendar week revokes these privileges).  Additionally, users are allowed to insert graphical emoticons or attach their own images, music and/or video files in every post. Comments appear as a list below each post; a commenter can also choose to re-post the comment, quoting the whole original post, to their own page.  Unregistered users can only browse a few posts by verified accounts. Neither unverified account pages nor comments to posts by verified accounts are accessible to unregistered users.  Although often described as a Chinese version of Twitter, Sina Weibo combines elements of Twitter, Facebook, and Medium, along with other social media platforms. Sina Weibo users interact more than Twitter users do, and while many topics that go viral on Weibo also originate from the platform itself, Twitter topics often come from outside news or events.  Trending Topics  Sina Weibo's "trending topics" is a list of current popular topics based partly on tracking user participation and partly on the preference of Weibo staff. Once a topic is trending, it often becomes a heated issue and can have wide-ranging social influence; as such, the list has reshaped how Chinese people relate to the news media.

Verification.

Sina Weibo has a verification policy, much like Twitter's account verification, for confirming the identity of a user (celebrities, organizations etc.). Once a user is verified, a colorful V is appended to their username; individuals receive an orange V, while organizations and companies receive a blue V. A graph and declaration certifying the verification appear on verified user pages. There are several kinds of verifications: personal, college, organization, verification for official accounts (government departments, social media platforms and famous companies), and Weibo Master (linked with phone numbers and followers). When the number of microblogs reaches a threshold, users can apply for the verification of "Weibo Master."

Clients.

Sina produces mobile applications for various platforms to access Sina Weibo, including Android, BlackBerry OS, iOS, Symbian S60, Windows Mobile and Windows Phone.  Sina has also released a desktop client for Microsoft Windows under the product name Weibo Desktop.

International versions.

Sina Weibo is available in both simplified and traditional Chinese characters. The site also has versions catering to users from Hong Kong and Taiwan. Weibo is now developing its international edition in English and other languages. On 9 January 2018, the company ran a week-long public test of its English edition.  Sina Weibo's official iPhone and iPad apps are available in English.  Weibo International supports existing Weibo accounts and allows Facebook accounts to link to the platform; users can also use their mobile phone number (including international mobile phone numbers) to register new accounts.

Weibo Stories.

One of the most recent features of Weibo is Stories. "Weibo's stories" is a video function allowing users to record a video and save them in a separate "Story" menu in their profile page.

Weibo VLOG.

Weibo has also launched a new "Vlog" function. Now, every video with a hashtag VLOG will be available in the main search page under "VLOG" sub-menu.

Other services.

Weilingdi (微领地, literally, "micro fief") is another service bundled with Weibo. Similar to Foursquare, Weilingdi is a location-based social networking website for mobile devices; the site grew out of Sina's 2011 joint venture with GeoSentric's GyPSii. Sina's Tuding (图钉) photo-sharing service, similar to Instagram, is also produced by the same joint venture. Sina Lady Weibo (新浪女性微博) specializes in women's interests. Weibo Data Center enables users to access data analysis about a topic of their choice, Sina Weibo's official data, and demographic information. Sina Weibo has also recently released a desktop version available for free download at its website.

Censorship.

In cooperation with internet censorship in China, Sina sets strict controls over the posts on its services. Posts with links using some URL shortening services (including Google's goo.gl), or containing blacklisted keywords, are not allowed on Sina Weibo. Posts on politically sensitive topics are deleted after manual checking.  Sina Weibo is believed to employ a distributed, heterogeneous strategy for censorship that has a great amount of defense-in-depth, which ranges from keyword list filtering to individual user monitoring. Nearly 30% of the total deletion events occur within 5–30 minutes, and nearly 90% of the deletions happen within the first 24 hours.  On 9 March 2010, the posts by Chinese artist and activist Ai Weiwei at Sina Weibo to appeal for information on the 2008 Sichuan earthquake going public were deleted and his account was closed by the site administrator. Attempts to register accounts with usernames alluding to Ai Weiwei were blocked. On 30 March 2010, Hong Kong singer Gigi Leung blogged about the jailed Zhao Lianhai, an activist and father to a 2008 Chinese milk scandal victim; that post was also deleted by an administrator shortly thereafter.  On 16 March 2012, all users of Sina Weibo in Beijing were told to register with their real names.  Starting on 31 March 2012, the comment function of Sina Weibo was shut down for three days, along with Tencent QQ.  In May 2012, Sina Weibo introduced new restrictions on the content its users can post.  In October 2012, Sina Weibo heavily censored discussion of the Foxconn strikes in October 2012.  On 4 June 2013, Sina Weibo blocked the terms "Today," "Tonight," "June 4," and "Big Yellow Duck." If a user searched using these terms, a message would appear stating that according to relevant laws, statutes and policies, the results of the search couldn't be shown. This censorship was implemented because a photoshopped version of Tank Man which swapped all tanks in the photo with the sculpture Rubber Duck had been circulating on Twitter.  According to a BBC news report, the decreasing number of users since 2014 can be attributed both to the crackdown by the Chinese government on the use of aliases to create accounts and to the rising threat from competitor WeChat.  On 8 September 2017, Weibo gave an ultimatum to its users to verify their accounts with their real names by 15 September.  On 18 February 2018, Sina Weibo provided a 'Comment moderation' function for both head users and official members. Comments received after opening this feature will not be displayed immediately, instead requiring approval from moderators. Users can utilize this feature to avoid illegal content appearing in their comment section.  On 11 June 2020, the Cybersecurity Administration of China ordered Weibo to suspend its "trending topics" page for a week. The CAC accused Weibo of "dissemination of illegal information".

Promotions.

Weibo Paid Ads.

Average organic post view is around 10% – 15% on Weibo. To attract more followers, there are 3 types of paid ads options available:

Livery airplane.

On 8 June 2011, Tianjin Airlines unveiled an Embraer E-190 jet in special Sina Weibo livery and named it "Sina Weibo plane" (新浪微博号). It is the first commercial airplane to be named after a website in China.

Villarreal CF.

In January 2012, Sina Weibo also announced that they would be sponsoring Spanish football club Villarreal CF in its match with FC Barcelona, to increase its fanbase in China.

CCTV 2018 New Year's Gala.

On 5 February 2018, Weibo officially announced that it will become the exclusive partner of the New Media Social Platform of the CCTV Spring Festival Gala in 2018 to attract more Chinese people worldwide to use Weibo.

Statistics.

Most popular accounts (individuals).

As of 19 April 2019, the following ten individuals managed the most popular accounts (name handle in parentheses) and the number of followers:

Record-setting posts.

On 13 September 2013, the unverified handle "veggieg" (widely believed to be Faye Wong) posted a message suggesting that she had divorced her husband. The message was commented and re-posted more than a million times in four hours. The record was broken on 31 March 2014 by Wen Zhang, who posted a long apology admitting an extramarital affair when his wife Ma Yili was pregnant with their second child. This message was commented and re-posted more than 2.5 million times in 10 hours. (Ma's response generated 2.18 million responses in 12 hours.) On 22 June 2014, TFBOYS member Wang Junkai was awarded a Guinness World Record title for a Weibo post that was reposted 42,776,438 times. Luhan holds the Guinness World Record for most comments.

Sina Weibo () (新浪微博) is a Chinese microblogging (weibo) website. Launched by Sina Corporation on 14 August 2009, it is one of the biggest social media platforms in China, with over 445 million monthly active users as of Q3 2018. The platform has been a huge financial success, with surging stocks, lucrative advertising sales and high revenue and total earnings per quarter. At the start of 2018, it surpassed the US$30 billion market valuation mark for the first time.

Sina Weibo je čínská sociální síť určená pro mikroblogování. Svým způsobem je čínskou verzí sociální sítě Twitter a v mnoha aspektech tu můžeme shledat i určitou podobnost se sociální sítí Instagram. Svým počtem uživatelů se řadí mezi největší platformy sociálních sítí v Číně. V roce 2018 dosáhla Sina Weibo 413 milionů aktivních uživatelů. Svým uživatelům nabízí mnoho funkcí jako je např. zasílání zpráv, sdílení příspěvků, fotografií či sledování ostatních uživatelů. Sina Weibo je dostupná, jak ve zjednodušené, tak i ve tradiční čínštině. V procesu vývoje je také anglická verze, která má usnadnit užívání Sina Weibo zahraničním uživatelům a zároveň oslovit další publikum nejen z čínsky mluvících států.


Biography.

He was very interested in dreams, and in 1909 published a paper detailing his research into the hypnagogic state (the mental state in which the individual is between waking and sleeping). Silberer's contention was that the hypnagogic state is "autosymbolic", meaning that the images and symbols perceived in the hypnagogic state are representative (i.e. symbolic) of the physical or mental state of the perceiver. He concluded that two "antagonistic elements" were required for autosymbolic phenomena to manifest: drowsiness and an effort to think.  In 1914, Silberer wrote a book on the relationship between modern psychology, mysticism and esoteric traditions (particularly Western, Christian ones such as Hermeticism, Alchemy, Rosicrucianism and Freemasonry): "Probleme der Mystik und ihrer Symbolik" ("Problems of Mysticism and its Symbolism"). Many of the insights Silberer offered, especially into the link between alchemical imagery and modern psychology were similar to those first introduced by Carl Jung in his book "The Psychology of The Unconscious" in 1911. (This book was later retitled "Symbols of Transformation"). Jung further developed these insights in his seminal work "Psychology and Alchemy," in 1944, crediting Silberer for his research. Both Jung and Silberer had included psychic phenomena that Freud had excluded in favor of his theories of sexuality as the predominant factor and cause of psychic disturbances. Freud and his associates coldly and cruelly rejected Jung and Silberer, hindering a greater understanding of our psyche and the treatment of psychic disturbances. Rather than fully understand the causes of disturbances, most patients are treated with medication, suppressing the symptoms which can resurface with greater force. Silberer committed suicide almost 9 years later after the split with Freud by hanging himself January 12, 1923. Jung described in his autobiography "Memories, Dreams and Reflections," the effect Freud's censure had and how it precipitated a major upheaval of his psyche that nearly overwhelmed him as he believed it had for his friend.

"Problems of Mysticism and its Symbolism".

"Problems of Mysticism and its Symbolism" was Silberer's "magnum opus". Taking as his starting point a Rosicrucian text known as the "Parabola Allegory", an alchemical writing with many parallels to the "Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz", he explores the ability of Freudian analysis to interpret it. Having conducted a detailed Freudian interpretation of the allegory Silberer then compares this method to the wider symbolic methods of alchemy, hermeticism, Rosicrucianism and other mystical traditions and texts such as Kundalini Yoga, the "Bhagavad Gita" and the writings of English mystic Jane Leade. Silberer's vision is syncretic, the range of his reading extraordinary as he unites the esoteric traditions of the world into the concept of introversion: the descent of the individual into the soul/psyche from which immense psychic and spiritual treasures can be drawn.  The thesis of the book is that while Freudian analysis can provide certain insights it does not go far enough in interpreting the inner psychological and spiritual meanings of dreams, mental processes or creative output – a view which Jung also eventually took up, precipitating his own subsequent split with Freud. Silberer seeks to fuse Freudian ideas with mystical thought processes to create a 'Royal Art' which is, in effect, the spiritual transmutation of the soul as propounded in the different mystical traditions of the world. In a very real sense "Problems Of Mysticism And Its Symbolism" ceases at one point to be a purely scientific work of psychological study and becomes a work of mysticism in its own right (in the final chapter Silberer talks openly about 'the perfecting [of] mankind' being the aim of the Work).

Herbert Silberer (February 28, 1882 – January 12, 1923) was a Viennese psychoanalyst involved with the professional circle surrounding Sigmund Freud which included other pioneers of psychological study as Carl Gustav Jung, Alfred Adler and others. He had a background in athletics and sports journalism.

Herbert Silberer (28. února 1882 – 12. ledna 1923) byl rakouský psychoanalytik zapojený do profesního kruhu obklopujícího Sigmunda Freuda, který zahrnoval další průkopníky psychologické studie jako Carl Gustav Jung, Alfred Adler a další. Měl zázemí v atletice a sportovní žurnalistice.


History.

Macon was founded on the site of the Ocmulgee Old Fields, where the Creek Indians lived in the 18th century. Their predecessors, the Mississippian culture, built a powerful chiefdom (950–1100 AD) based on the practice of agriculture. The Mississippian culture constructed earthwork mounds for ceremonial, burial, and religious purposes. The areas along the rivers in the Southeast had been inhabited by indigenous peoples for 13,000 years before Europeans arrived.  Macon developed at the site of Fort Benjamin Hawkins, built in 1809 at the fall line of the Ocmulgee River to protect the community and to establish a trading post with Native Americans. The fort was named in honor of Benjamin Hawkins, Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Southeast territory south of the Ohio River for over 20 years. He lived among the Creek and was married to a Creek woman. This was the most inland point of navigation on the river from the Low Country. President Thomas Jefferson forced the Creek to cede their lands east of the Ocmulgee River and ordered the fort built. (Archeological excavations in the 21st century found evidence of two separate fortifications.)  Fort Hawkins guarded the Lower Creek Pathway, an extensive and well-traveled American Indian network later improved by the United States as the Federal Road from Washington, D.C., to the ports of Mobile, Alabama and New Orleans, Louisiana. A gathering point of the Creek and U.S. cultures for trading, it was also a center of state militia and federal troops. The fort served as a major military distribution point during the War of 1812 against Great Britain and also during the Creek War of 1813. Afterward, the fort was used as a trading post for several years and was garrisoned until 1821. It was decommissioned about 1828 and later burned to the ground. A replica of the southeast blockhouse was built in 1938 and still stands today on a hill in east Macon. Part of the fort site is occupied by the Fort Hawkins Grammar School. In the 21st century, archeological excavations have revealed more of the fort's importance, and stimulated planning for additional reconstruction of this major historical site. As many Europeans had already begun to move into the area, Fort Hawkins was renamed "Newtown." After the organization of Bibb County in 1822, the city was chartered as the county seat in 1823 and officially named Macon. This was in honor of the North Carolina statesman Nathaniel Macon, because many of the early residents of Georgia hailed from North Carolina. The city planners envisioned "a city within a park" and created a city of spacious streets and parks. They designated for Central City Park, and passed ordinances requiring residents to plant shade trees in their front yards.  The city thrived due to its location on the Ocmulgee River, which enabled shipping to markets. Cotton became the mainstay of Macon's early economy, based on the enslaved labor of African Americans. Macon was in the Black Belt of Georgia, where cotton was the commodity crop. Cotton steamboats, stage coaches, and later, in 1843, a railroad increased marketing opportunities and contributed to the economic prosperity of Macon. In 1836, the Georgia Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church founded Wesleyan College in Macon. Wesleyan was the first college in the United States chartered to grant degrees to women. In 1855, a referendum was held to determine a capital city for Georgia. Macon came in last with 3,802 votes.  During the American Civil War, Macon served as the official arsenal of the Confederacy manufacturing percussion caps, friction primers, and pressed bullets. Camp Oglethorpe, in Macon, was used first as a prison for captured Union officers and enlisted men. Later it held officers only, up to 2,300 at one time. The camp was evacuated in 1864.  Macon City Hall, which served as the temporary state capitol in 1864, was converted to a hospital for wounded Confederate soldiers. The Union General William Tecumseh Sherman spared Macon on his march to the sea. His troops had sacked the nearby state capital of Milledgeville, and Maconites prepared for an attack. Sherman, however, passed by without entering Macon.  The "Macon Telegraph" wrote that, of the 23 companies which the city had furnished the Confederacy, only enough men survived and were fit for duty to fill five companies by the end of the war. The human toll was very high.  The city was taken by Union forces during Wilson's Raid on April 20, 1865.  In the twentieth century, Macon grew into a prospering town in Middle Georgia. It began to serve as a transportation hub for the entire state. In 1895, the New York Times dubbed Macon "The Central City," in reference to the city's emergence as a hub for railroad transportation and textile factories. Terminal Station was built in 1916.  In 1994 Tropical Storm Alberto made in Florida bringing of rain, which resulted in major flooding in Georgia. Macon was one of the cities to suffer the worst flooding.  On May 11, 2008, an EF2 tornado touched down in nearby Lizella. The tornado then moved northeast to the southern shore of Lake Tobesofkee then continued into Macon and lifted near Dry Branch in Twiggs County. The tornado produced sporadic areas of major damage. Widespread straight-line wind damage was also produced along and south of the track of the tornado. The most significant damage was in Macon along Eisenhower Parkway and Pio Nono Avenue where two businesses were destroyed and several others were heavily damaged. Middle Georgia State College was also damaged by the tornado, snapping or uprooting around 50% of the campus trees and doing significant damage to several buildings on campus, with the gymnasium sustaining the worst damage. This tornado varied in intensity from EF0 to EF2 with the EF2 damage and winds up to occurring near the intersection of Eisenhower Parkway and Pio Nono Avenue. Total path length was with a path width of.  In 2012, voters in Macon and Bibb County approved a new consolidated government between the city and county, making the city's new boundary lines the same as the county's and reversing the annexation of a small portion of the city that once lay in Jones County.

Consolidation.

On July 31, 2012, voters in Macon (57.8 percent approval) and Bibb County (56.7 percent approval) passed a referendum to merge the governments of the city of Macon and most of unincorporated Bibb County, based on the authorization of House Bill 1171, passed by the Georgia General Assembly earlier in the year; four previous consolidation attempts (in 1933, 1960, 1972, and 1976) had failed.  Under the consolidation, the governments of Macon and Bibb County were replaced with a single mayor and a nine-member countywide commission elected to office by county districts. A portion of Macon that extends into nearby Jones County was disincorporated from Macon. Robert Reichert is the first mayor of Macon-Bibb after the election in September 2013 and a runoff with C. Jack Ellis in October.

Geography.

The Ocmulgee River is a major river that runs through the city. Macon is one of Georgia's three major Fall Line Cities, along with Augusta and Columbus. The Fall Line is where the hilly lands of the Piedmont plateau meet the flat terrain of the coastal plain. As such, Macon has a varied landscape of rolling hills on the north side and flat plains on the south. The fall line, where the altitude drops noticeably, causes rivers and creeks in the area to flow rapidly toward the ocean. In the past, Macon and other Fall Line cities had many textile mills powered by the rivers.  Macon is located at (32.834839, −83.651672).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and (0.82%) is water.  Macon is approximately above sea level.

Climate.

Macon has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfa"). The normal monthly mean temperature ranges from in January to in July. On average, there are 4.8 days with + highs, 83 days with + highs, and 43 days with a low at or below freezing; the average window for freezing temperatures is November 7 thru March 22, allowing a growing season of 228 days. The city has an average annual precipitation of. Snow is occasional, with about half of the winters receiving trace amounts or no snowfall, averaging ; the snowiest winter was 1972−73 with.

Demographics.

Macon is the largest principal city of the Macon-Warner Robins-Fort Valley CSA, a Combined Statistical Area that includes the Macon metropolitan area (Bibb, Crawford, Jones, Monroe, and Twiggs counties) and the Warner Robins metropolitan area (Houston, Peach, and Pulaski counties), which had a combined population of 411,898 at the 2010 census.  As of the official 2010 U.S. Census, the population of Macon was 91,351. In the last official census, in 2000, there were 97,255 people, 38,444 households, and 24,219 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,742.8 people per square mile (672.9/km). There were 44,341 housing units at an average density of 794.6 per square mile (306.8/km). The racial makeup of the city was 67.94% African American, 28.56% White, 0.02% Native American, 0.65% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.46% from other races, and 0.77% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.48% of the population.  There were 38,444 households out of which 30.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 33.0% were married couples living together, 25.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.0% were non-families. 31.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.08.  In the city, the population was spread out with 26.9% under the age of 18, 11.3% from 18 to 24, 27.5% from 25 to 44, 20.0% from 45 to 64, and 14.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 79.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 72.8 males.

Economy.

Personal income.

According to the 2010 Census, the median household income in the city was $28,366, as compared with the state average of $49,347. The median family income was $37,268. Full-time working males had a median income of $34,163 versus $28,082 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,010. About 24.1% of families and 30.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 43.6% of those under age 18 and 18.4% of those over 65.

Retail.

Malls include: The Shoppes at River Crossing, Macon Mall, and Eisenhower Crossing. Traditional shopping centers are in the downtown area, and Ingleside Village.

Military.

Robins Air Force Base, the largest single-site industrial complex in the state of Georgia, is just 10 miles south of Macon on Highway 247 next to the city of Warner Robins.  The headquarters of the 48th Infantry Brigade Combat Team, Georgia Army National Guard is located in Macon.

Arts and culture.

Musical heritage.

Macon is the birthplace or hometown of musicians Emmett Miller, The Allman Brothers Band, Randy Crawford, Mark Heard, Lucille Hegamin, Otis Redding, Little Richard, Mike Mills, and Bill Berry of R.E.M., as well as more recent artists like violinist Robert McDuffie and country artist Jason Aldean. September Hase, an alternative rock band, was discovered in Macon. Capricorn Records, run by Macon natives Phil Walden and briefly Alan Walden, made the city a hub for Southern rock music in the late 1960s and 1970s. Composer Ben Johnston was also born in Macon.  The Macon Symphony Orchestra, a youth symphony, and the Middle Georgia Concert Band perform at the Grand Opera House in downtown Macon.

Sports.

Macon is home to the Mercer Bears, who compete at the NCAA Division I level in sports that include soccer (men's and women's), football, baseball, basketball (men's and women's), tennis, and lacrosse. Central Georgia Technical College also competes in men's and women's basketball. Wesleyan College, an all-female school, has teams in basketball, soccer, cross country, tennis, softball, and volleyball.

Parks and recreation.

The city maintains several parks and community centers.

Government.

The first Mayor, Robert Reichert is the present mayor after being re-elected in 2016. Mayor Reichert is a former member of the Georgia House of Representatives District 126.  The city council is, to date, the only city council in Georgia to conduct partisan elections, with the city council leaning mostly to the Democratic Party.  On March 15, 2019, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission charged the former County Manager, Dale M. Walker, with fraud.

Education.

Colleges and universities.

Approximately 30,000 college students live in the greater Macon area. Mercer, Middle Georgia State University, and Wesleyan College have the largest populations of "traditional" college students.

Media.

Macon has a substantial number of local television and radio stations. It is also served by two local papers.

Infrastructure.

Transportation.

Highways.

Interstates:  U.S. Routes:  State Routes:

Mass Transit.

The Macon Transit Authority (MTA) is Macon's public-transit system, operating the Public Transit City Bus System throughout Macon-Bibb County. Most commuters in Macon and the surrounding suburbs use private automobiles as their primary transportation. This results in heavy traffic during rush hour and contributes to Macon's air pollution. The MTA has a total of 10 city bus routes and an express bus that serves suburban Warner Robins just south of the city.  Macon Transit Authority has a tourist trolley system. The trolleys have offered tours of the downtown Macon area since 1999. The tours consist of all of the major historical sites such as the Georgia Music Hall of Fame, the Hay House, and the Tubman Museum. There are three trolleys holding up to 39 passengers.

Intercity bus and rail.

Greyhound Lines provides intercity bus service.  Macon grew as a center of rail transport after the 1846 opening of the Macon and Western Railroad. Two of the most note-worthy train companies operating through the city were the Central of Georgia Railway and the Southern Railway. The city continued to be served by passenger trains until the 1960s and early 1970s. The Frisco Railroad's "Kansas City-Florida Special" served the city until 1964. The Southern's "Royal Palm" ran from Cincinnati, through Macon, to Miami, Florida until 1966. (A truncated route served to Valdosta, Georgia until 1970.) The Central of Georgia's "Nancy Hanks" ran through Macon, from Atlanta to Savannah until 1971. Macon is included in the proposed Georgia Rail Passenger Program to restore inter-city rail service.

Sister cities.

Macon has six sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International, Inc. (SCI):

Bibliography.

Published in 19th century Published in 20th century  Published in 21st century

Macon (), officially Macon–Bibb County, is a consolidated city-county in the U.S. state of Georgia. Macon lies near the state's geographic center, about southeast of Atlanta—hence the city's nickname, "The Heart of Georgia".

Macon, oficiálně Macon–Bibb County je město nacházející se ve federálním státě Georgie ve Spojených státech amerických. Leží blízko geografického středu federálního státu, zhruba 137 kilometrů jihovýchodně od Atlanty. Dle údajů z roku 2018 mělo město 153 095 obyvatel.


History.

Originally only vacant abbeys, or such as were temporarily without an actual superior, were given in commendam, in the latter case only until an actual superior was elected or appointed. Pope Gregory the Great (590–604) on various occasions gave vacant abbeys "in commendam" to bishops who had been driven from their episcopal sees by invading barbarians or whose own churches were too poor to furnish them a decent livelihood.  The practice began to be seriously abused in the eighth century when the Anglo-Saxon and Frankish kings assumed the right to set commendatory abbots over monasteries that were occupied by religious communities. Often these commendatory abbots were laymen, vassals of the kings, or others who were authorized to draw the revenues and manage the temporal affairs of the monasteries in reward for military services. The practice was especially widespread during the reigns of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, Philip I of France, William the Conqueror, William Rufus, Henry I and Henry II of England. Such a system often proved disastrous for monastic discipline, as the commendatory “abbot” of the community was rarely a monk, nor was he often even present in the monastery.  Such a system divided the revenues of the monastery between the "mensa abbatialis" (the “abbot’s table”) and the "mensa conventualis" (the “monk’s table”) The commendatory abbot would take his portion, thereby reducing the resources of the monks. It was a common arrangement that the commendatory abbot would retain two thirds of the revenue for his own use and leave the remaining third for the support of the abbey. The commendatory bishop was bound to defray the expenses of the community, to keep the buildings in repair, to furnish the ornaments for divine service, and to give suitable alms. Nonetheless, many did not and buildings fell into disrepair and new members could even be turned away on account of a simple lack of funds.  After the eighth century various attempts were made by popes and councils to regulate the appointment of commendatory abbots. At the Concordat of Worms in 1122, when the Investiture Controversy was settled in favour of the church, the appointment of laymen as commendatory abbots was abolished. The practice again increased during the Avignon Papacy (1309–1377) and especially during the Papal Schism (1378–1417), when the papal claimants gave numerous abbeys "in commendam" in order to increase the number of their adherents. Boniface VIII (1294–1303) decreed that a benefice with the cure of souls attached should be granted "in commendam" only in great necessity or when evident advantage would accrue to the Church, but never for more than six months. Clement V (1305–1314) revoked benefices which had been granted by him "in commendam" earlier. The Council of Trent determined that vacant monasteries should be bestowed only on pious and virtuous regulars, and that the motherhouse of an order, and the abbeys and priories founded immediately from it, should no longer be granted "in commendam". The succeeding bull "Superna" of Gregory XIII and the constitution "Pastoralis" of Innocent X greatly checked "in commendam" appointments but did not abolish them entirely. In spite of various efforts to reform such a system, it continued to plague the monastic orders throughout the centuries.  Especially in France, they continued to flourish to the detriment of the monasteries; for example Cluny Abbey. On the eve of the French Revolution of 1789, of the two-hundred-thirty-seven Cistercian institutions in France, only thirty-five were governed by regular Cistercian abbots.  Finally the French Revolution and the general secularization of monasteries in the beginning of the eighteenth century reduced the significance of commendatory abbots along with the significance of monasteries in general. Since that time commendatory abbots have become very rare, and the former abuses have been abolished by careful regulations. There are still a few commendatory abbots among the cardinals; Pope Pius X himself was Commendatory Abbot of the Benedictine monastery at Subiaco near Rome.

Authority.

If the monastery is occupied by a religious community where there is a separate "mensa abbatialis", i.e. where the abbot and the convent have each a separate income, the commendatory abbot, who must then be an ecclesiastic, has jurisdiction "in foro externo" over the members of the community and enjoys all the rights and privileges of an actual abbot.  Under the title of Claustral Prior a regular superior was appointed to supervise the internal discipline of the house. If there is no separate "mensa abbatialis", the power of the commendatory abbot extends only over the temporal affairs of the monastery. In case of vacant monasteries the commendatory abbot generally has all the rights and privileges of an actual abbot.

A commendatory abbot () is an ecclesiastic, or sometimes a layman, who holds an abbey "in commendam", drawing its revenues but not exercising any authority over its inner monastic discipline. If a commendatory abbot is an ecclesiastic, however, he may have limited jurisdiction.

Opat-komendátor byl titul duchovního správce v katolické církvi, který "in commendam" administroval klášter. Mohl, ale nemusel být členem daného řádu. Pokud nebyl takový správce nositel kněžského svěcení, jednalo se o "opata-laika". Aktuální Kodex kanonického práva již titul "opata-komendátora" nezná. V případech, kdy je nutná nestandardní forma administrace, se využívá zejména titul "apoštolský administrátor".


Race summary.

With James Hunt's Hesketh having won the non-championship International Trophy three weeks previously, the 1974 season was turning out to be one of the most open ever, with five drivers from four teams having won the first five races (also including the non-championship Race of Champions), and a driver who had not won at all - Clay Regazzoni - leading the Drivers' Championship.  The Spanish Grand Prix marked the debuts of the Trojan and Amon teams, as well as Liechtensteiner driver Rikky von Opel. Jorge de Bagration, a local driver of Georgian royal descent, was to have taken part in the race, driving a Surtees TS16 with sponsorship from department store El Corte Inglés, but missed out due to a very unusual set of circumstances: the outgoing president of the Spanish Motor Sport Federation cleared his office, taking with him all paper files including the official entry list for the race; a replacement list was hurriedly drawn up that omitted de Bagration, whose sponsorship had just fallen through. Despite this, de Bagration should still have been included on the replacement list, regardless whether or not he would have been able to race.  Niki Lauda took pole from Ronnie Peterson in a qualifying session disrupted by a large accident to Patrick Depailler, but it was Peterson who led from the start as rain began to fall. Jacky Ickx moved into the podium places, taking 3rd place on lap 19.  As the track dried, cars dived into the pits for replacement tyres. Ferrari got Lauda in and out for a total pit stop time of 35 seconds, enabling him to take the lead. The race ended at the two-hour mark, six laps short of the scheduled 90, with Lauda leading Regazzoni home in a Ferrari 1-2 and no other driver on the lead lap. Arturo Merzario lost out on a solid points finish when the hit the wall in 4th. Emerson Fittipaldi held off a strong challenge from Hans-Joachim Stuck, whilst Jody Scheckter claimed his first points.

The 1974 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 28 April 1974 at the Circuito Permanente del Jarama near Madrid, Spain. It was race 4 of 15 in both the 1974 World Championship of Drivers and the 1974 International Cup for Formula One Manufacturers.

Grand Prix Španělska 1974 (oficiálně XX Gran Premio de España) se jela na okruhu Circuito del Jarama v Madridu ve Španělsku dne 28. dubna 1974. Závod byl čtvrtým v pořadí v sezóně 1974 šampionátu Formule 1.


Department of Conservation (New Zealand)

Function.

Overview.

The department was formed on 1 April 1987, as one of several reforms of the public service, when the "Conservation Act 1987" was passed to integrate some functions of the Department of Lands and Survey, the Forest Service and the Wildlife Service. This act also set out the majority of the department's responsibilities and roles.  As a consequence of Conservation Act all Crown land in New Zealand designated for conservation and protection became managed by the Department of Conservation. This is about 30% of New Zealand's land area or about 8 million hectares of native forests, tussocklands, alpine areas, wetlands, dunelands, estuaries, lakes and islands, national forests, maritime parks, marine reserves, nearly 4000 reserves, river margins, some coastline, and many offshore islands. All of the land under its control is protected for either conservation, ecological, scenic, scientific, historic or cultural reasons, and for recreation.  Providing for recreation is a major part of its core work, and this covers the management of family picnic sites, as well as maintaining rugged backcountry tracks and over 1000 accompanying backcountry huts that are used by hunters and recreational trampers. DOC also administers the Nature Heritage Fund, and is responsible for rural fire control.  In addition to its work managing land and providing for recreation in New Zealand, DOC works to preserve its natural heritage. This includes preservation of historic sites on public conservation land, saving native threatened species, managing threats like pests and weeds, environmental restoration, caring for marine life, and assisting landowners to effectively preserve natural heritage.  The methods of achieving these goals have resulted in controversy, where some people claim that the Department of Conservation is overly biased towards environmentalists at the expense of New Zealand's economy. This is particularly a concern amongst some farmers and other industries that are major users of neighbouring land, many of whom have been affected by decisions of the department. However, these criticised DOC efforts have also been lauded for achieving some success, for both conservationists and farmers, having led to a significant drop in possum populations during the last decades.  The DOC was floated as the agency to supervise the construction of the proposed New Zealand Cycleway, though this is now being managed primarily by the Ministry of Tourism, in coordination with the DOC where appropriate.  After a number of years of falling budgets, in 2013 the department announced it would be slashing 140 jobs and narrowing its 11-region structure into six.

Headquarters.

The Department of Conservation moved into a new headquarters, Conservation House, on Manners Street, Wellington in 2006. It is the first green building in New Zealand to be given a 5-star rating, having won numerous environmental awards, including a top 10 placing by Grist Magazine. The site was originally a cinema complex operated by the Hoyts Group from the mid-1980s until the early 2000s, when it closed down in the face of stiff competition.

Conservation land.

New Zealand has 13 national parks, and a wide number of other conservation lands with varying levels of environmental protection, called the "conservation estate" in total. About one third of this estate, generally the land considered most valuable, has been protected from mining since 1997 via being listed in Schedule 4 of the Crown Minerals Act 1991 (though recent (2010) moves by the Fifth National Government have proposed exemption some areas from Schedule 4).  While much of the conservation land not protected as national parks or Schedule 4 land is much more damaged or human-modified than the core conservation areas, these areas serve as boundary and species buffer zones.

Incidents.

Cave Creek disaster.

In 1995, 14 people died when a viewing platform maintained by the Department of Conservation collapsed. Immediately following the tragedy, all of the department's 106 viewing platforms throughout New Zealand were checked. Fifteen platforms were closed for repairs.  A Commission of Inquiry that followed the tragedy revealed that the department had acted illegally and negligently in constructing the viewing platform. The commission also stated that the department was seriously underfunded for the tasks with which it was delegated, resulting in a culture of sub-standard safety procedures having been used for the building and maintenance of some of its facilities.  Many people in New Zealand criticised the government for the department's situation, and Denis Marshall, the presiding Minister of Conservation at the time, eventually resigned over the incident. Since the inquiry, radical changes have been made to the department's procedures to prioritise safety, including the implementation of a comprehensive asset management system to catalogue, track and trigger regular inspections of all significant structures and facilities managed by the department.

Raoul Island eruption.

In March 2006, a volcanic eruption at the Green Lake of Raoul Island, administered by the Department of Conservation, was believed to have killed DOC worker Mark Kearney. At the exact time of the eruption, Mr Kearney is thought to have been taking temperature measurements of the lake as part of a programme for monitoring volcanic activity. Five other DOC workers, who were also living on the island, were forced to evacuate back to New Zealand shortly after the eruption. Searches for Mr Kearney, which have been inhibited by the island's remote location and the risks of further volcanic activity, have since failed to find any signs of him.

Threatened species ambassador.

The current Department of Conservation Threatened Species Ambassador is Nicola Toki.

The Department of Conservation (DOC) (Māori: "Te Papa Atawhai") is the public service department of New Zealand charged with the conservation of New Zealand's natural and historical heritage.

Department of Conservation (zkráceně DOC, ) je oddělení veřejné správy Nového Zélandu, které zaštiťuje ochranu přírodních a historických památek. Celková plocha veřejné půody, kterou DOC spravuje, je 8 milionu hektarů (asi 30 % plochy země). Tyto plochy jsou spravovány a chráněny za účelem konzervace habitatů a z ekologických, vědeckých, historických, kulturních nebo rekreačních důvodů.


Life.

Born in Scotland, she was the third daughter of James I of Scotland and Joan Beaufort. Joan had two younger brothers, including the future King of Scotland, James II, and five sisters. She had “the misfortune to be deaf and dumb”, and was known as "muta domina" or “the mute lady”. Joan was reported to have used sign language to communicate, even in public (although it was considered at that time to be impolite).  Joan was originally contracted to marry The 3rd Earl of Angus on 18 October 1440, but he died (without issue) in 1446 before the marriage could take place. In 1445 she was sent to France and did not return home to Scotland until 1457. She had been promised in marriage to the Dauphin of France but the marriage did not take place, probably due to her inability to articulate. Joan married The 4th Baron Dalkeith before 15 May 1459, who at the time of their marriage was raised to the peerage as the first Earl of Morton. They were granted a dispensation on 7 January 1463-4 for being consanguineous in the second and third degrees. Joan and her husband James were both aware of their close relationships but were persuaded to marry by her brother King James II of Scotland and applied for the dispensation to legitimize their marriage. The Countess Joanna died in 1493, predeceasing her husband, James, by four months.

The Morton Monument.

The Earl and Countess of Morton were buried together in the choir of the parish church of St. Nicholas Buccleuch, known as the Dalkeith Collegiate Church, in Dalkeith, south of Fife and east of Edinburgh, in Midlothian, Scotland. Known as the Morton Monument, their tombs are covered with their stone effigies, complete with their armorial bearings. This is believed to be the world’s oldest image of a known deaf person. The choir is now in the ruins, leaving the tombs out in the open, where, in a few centuries, the elements have erased their faces. Their hands, pressed together in prayer, were likely to have been destroyed during the Reformation. Today, as one of the visitors remarked, “[o]nce crisply carved and detailed with heraldic devices”, the tombs have “the look of sand sculptures after the tide has washed in and retreated”. Due to their historical value, in 2005 a team of volunteers and preservationists created a protective canopy over their effigies.

Family.

Together Joan and her husband James had four children:

Joan Stewart, Countess of Morton, also called Joanna (c. 1428 – 22 June 1493), was the daughter of James I, King of Scotland, and the wife of James Douglas, 1st Earl of Morton. She was known, in Latin, as the "muta domina" [mute lady] of Dalkeith.

Jana Skotská (také "Johana"; 1428 – 22. června 1493) byla dcerou skotského krále Jakuba I. a manželkou Jakuba Douglase, 2. hraběte z Mortonu. V latině je známá jako "muta domina" [němá dáma] z Dalkeith.


Naval career.

Born the son of Richard Troubridge, a baker, Troubridge was educated at St Paul's School, London. He entered the Royal Navy on 8 October 1773 and, together with Horatio Nelson, served in the East Indies in the frigate "Seahorse". Promoted to lieutenant on 1 January 1781, he took part in the Battle of Sadras in February 1782 during the American Revolutionary War and the Battle of Trincomalee in September 1782 during the Anglo-French War. His first command was the sloop "Lizard" in October 1782.  Promoted to post-captain on 1 January 1783, Troubridge was given command of the frigate "Active" and was present at the Siege of Cuddalore in June 1783. After that he transferred to the third-rate "Defence". In 1785 Troubridge returned to England in the "Sultan" as flag-captain to Admiral Sir Edward Hughes. He was appointed to the frigate in 1790. Appointed to command the frigate "Castor" in May 1794, he and his ship were captured by the French while escorting a convoy, but he was liberated soon afterwards. On his return he was appointed to command "Culloden", a third-rate ship of the line, in which he fought at the Battle of the Hyères Islands, led an unsuccessful pursuit of a French squadron in the Aegean Sea, and led the line at the Battle of Cape St Vincent, being commended for his courage and initiative by Admiral Sir John Jervis. In July 1797 he assisted Nelson in the unsuccessful attack on Santa Cruz de Tenerife. In August 1798, when getting into position for the attack on the French fleet, "Culloden" ran aground on a shoal near the entrance to Aboukir Bay and was consequently unable to take any part in the Battle of the Nile. At Nelson's request, however, he was awarded the gold medal commemorating the victory.  Troubridge then served in the Mediterranean and was created a baronet on 30 November 1799. In February 1801 he joined the Board of Admiralty as First Naval Lord. Promoted to a rear-admiral on 21 April 1804, Troubridge was appointed to command the eastern half of the East Indies Station, and he went out in with his resignation from the Admiralty Board becoming effective in May 1804. On his arrival the area of command was changed to that of the Cape Station. He left Madras in January 1807 for the Cape of Good Hope, but off the coast of Madagascar, "Blenheim", an old and damaged ship, foundered in a cyclone and the admiral and all others on board perished.

Rear Admiral Sir Thomas Troubridge, 1st Baronet (c. 1758 – 1 February 1807) was a Royal Navy officer. As a junior officer he saw action at the Battle of Sadras in February 1782 during the American Revolutionary War and the Battle of Trincomalee in September 1782 during the Anglo-French War. He commanded the third-rate "Culloden" at the Battle of Cape St Vincent in February 1797 during the French Revolutionary Wars. He went on to be First Naval Lord and then served as Commander-in-Chief, East Indies, during the Napoleonic Wars.

Sir Thomas Troubridge ("Sir Thomas Troubridge, 1st Baronet Troubridge of Longstock") (1758, Londýn – 1. února 1807, Madagaskar) byl britský admirál. V královském námořnictvu sloužil od roku 1773 a většinu své kariéry na moři strávil po boku admirála Nelsona. Vyznamenal se za napoleonských válek, v roce 1799 byl povýšen do šlechtického stavu a v roce 1805 dosáhl hodnosti kontradmirála. Zahynul při ztroskotání své vlajkové lodi u břehů Madagaskaru.


Background.

Recent governmental activity in the area of ITS — is further motivated by an increasing focus on homeland security. Many of the proposed ITS systems also involve surveillance of the roadways, which is a priority of homeland security. Funding of many systems comes either directly through homeland security organisations or with their approval. Further, ITS can play a role in the rapid mass evacuation of people in urban centers after large casualty events such as a result of a natural disaster or threat. Much of the infrastructure and planning involved with ITS parallels the need for homeland security systems.  In the developing world, the migration from rural to urbanized habitats has progressed differently. Many areas of the developing world have urbanised without significant motorisation and the formation of suburbs. A small portion of the population can afford automobiles, but the automobiles greatly increase congestion in these multimodal transportation systems. They also produce considerable air pollution, pose a significant safety risk, and exacerbate feelings of inequities in the society. High population density could be supported by a multimodal system of walking, bicycle transportation, motorcycles, buses, and trains.  Other parts of the developing world, such as China, India and Brazil remain largely rural but are rapidly urbanising and industrialising. In these areas a motorised infrastructure is being developed alongside motorisation of the population. Great disparity of wealth means that only a fraction of the population can motorise, and therefore the highly dense multimodal transportation system for the poor is cross-cut by the highly motorised transportation system for the rich.

Intelligent transportation technologies.

Intelligent transport systems vary in technologies applied, from basic management systems such as car navigation; traffic signal control systems; container management systems; variable message signs; automatic number plate recognition or speed cameras to monitor applications, such as security CCTV systems; and to more advanced applications that integrate live data and feedback from a number of other sources, such as parking guidance and information systems; weather information; bridge de-icing (US deicing) systems; and the like. Additionally, predictive techniques are being developed to allow advanced modelling and comparison with historical baseline data. Some of these technologies are described in the following sections.

Wireless communications.

Various forms of wireless communications technologies have been proposed for intelligent transportation systems. Radio modem communication on UHF and VHF frequencies are widely used for short and long range communication within ITS.  Short-range communications of 350 m can be accomplished using IEEE 802.11 protocols, specifically WAVE or the dedicated short range communications (DSRC) standard being promoted by the Intelligent Transportation Society of America and the United States Department of Transportation. Theoretically, the range of these protocols can be extended using mobile ad hoc networks or mesh networking.  Longer range communications have been proposed using infrastructure networks such as WiMAX (IEEE 802.16), Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), or 3G. Long-range communications using these methods are well established, but, unlike the short-range protocols, these methods require extensive and very expensive infrastructure deployment. There is lack of consensus as to what business model should support this infrastructure.  Auto insurance companies have utilised ad hoc solutions to support eCall and behavioural tracking functionalities in the form of Telematics 2.0.

Computational technologies.

Recent advances in vehicle electronics have led to a move towards fewer, more capable computer processors on a vehicle. A typical vehicle in the early 2000s would have between 20 and 100 individual networked microcontroller/programmable logic controller modules with non-real-time operating systems. The current trend is toward fewer, more costly microprocessor modules with hardware memory management and real-time operating systems. The new embedded system platforms allow for more sophisticated software applications to be implemented, including model-based process control, artificial intelligence, and ubiquitous computing. Perhaps the most important of these for intelligent transportation systems is artificial intelligence.

Floating car data/floating cellular data.

"Floating car" or "probe" data collected other transport routes. Broadly speaking, four methods have been used to obtain the raw data: Floating car data technology provides advantages over other methods of traffic measurement:

Sensing.

Technological advances in telecommunications and information technology, coupled with ultramodern/state-of-the-art microchip, RFID (Radio Frequency Identification), and inexpensive intelligent beacon sensing technologies, have enhanced the technical capabilities that will facilitate motorist safety benefits for intelligent transportation systems globally. Sensing systems for ITS are vehicle- and infrastructure-based networked systems, i.e., intelligent vehicle technologies. Infrastructure sensors are indestructible (such as in-road reflectors) devices that are installed or embedded in the road or surrounding the road (e.g., on buildings, posts, and signs), as required, and may be manually disseminated during preventive road construction maintenance or by sensor injection machinery for rapid deployment. Vehicle-sensing systems include deployment of infrastructure-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure electronic beacons for identification communications and may also employ video automatic number plate recognition or vehicle magnetic signature detection technologies at desired intervals to increase sustained monitoring of vehicles operating in critical zones of world.

Inductive loop detection.

Inductive loops can be placed in a roadbed to detect vehicles as they pass through the loop's magnetic field. The simplest detectors simply count the number of vehicles during a unit of time (typically 60 seconds in the United States) that pass over the loop, while more sophisticated sensors estimate the speed, length, and class of vehicles and the distance between them. Loops can be placed in a single lane or across multiple lanes, and they work with very slow or stopped vehicles as well as vehicles moving at high speed.

Video vehicle detection.

Traffic-flow measurement and automatic incident detection using video cameras is another form of vehicle detection. Since video detection systems such as those used in automatic number plate recognition do not involve installing any components directly into the road surface or roadbed, this type of system is known as a "non-intrusive" method of traffic detection. Video from cameras is fed into processors that analyse the changing characteristics of the video image as vehicles pass. The cameras are typically mounted on poles or structures above or adjacent to the roadway. Most video detection systems require some initial configuration to "teach" the processor the baseline background image. This usually involves inputting known measurements such as the distance between lane lines or the height of the camera above the roadway. A single video detection processor can detect traffic simultaneously from one to eight cameras, depending on the brand and model. The typical output from a video detection system is lane-by-lane vehicle speeds, counts, and lane occupancy readings. Some systems provide additional outputs including gap, headway, stopped-vehicle detection, and wrong-way vehicle alarms.

Bluetooth detection.

Bluetooth is an accurate and inexpensive way to transmit position from a vehicle in motion. Bluetooth devices in passing vehicles are detected by sensing devices along the road. If these sensors are interconnected they are able to calculate travel time and provide data for origin and destination matrices. Compared to other traffic measurement technologies, Bluetooth measurement has some differences:  Since Bluetooth devices become more prevalent on board vehicles and with more portable electronics broadcasting, the amount of data collected over time becomes more accurate and valuable for travel time and estimation purposes, more information can be found in.  It is also possible to measure traffic density on a road using the audio signal that consists of the cumulative sound from tire noise, engine noise, engine-idling noise, honks and air turbulence noise. A roadside-installed microphone picks up the audio that comprises the various vehicle noise and audio signal processing techniques can be used to estimate the traffic state. The accuracy of such a system compares well with the other methods described above.

Radar Detection.

Radars are mounted on the side of the road to measure traffic flow and for stopped and stranded vehicle detection purposes. Like video systems, radar learns its environment during set up so can distinguish between vehicles and other objects. Traffic flow radar uses a "side-fire" technique to look across all traffic lanes in a narrow band to count the number of passing vehicles and estimate traffic density. For stopped vehicle detection (SVD) and automatic incident detection, 360 degree radar systems are used as they scan all lanes along large stretches of road. Radar is reported to have better performance over longer ranges than other technologies. SVD radar will be installed on all Smart motorways in the UK.

Information fusion from multiple traffic sensing modalities.

The data from the different sensing technologies can be combined in intelligent ways to determine the traffic state accurately. A data fusion based approach that utilizes the road side collected acoustic, image and sensor data has been shown to combine the advantages of the different individual methods.

Intelligent transportation applications.

Emergency vehicle notification systems.

In 2015, the EU passed a law required automobile manufacturers to equip all new cars with eCall, a European initiative that assists motorists in the case of a collision. The in-vehicle eCall is generated either manually by the vehicle occupants or automatically via activation of in-vehicle sensors after an accident. When activated, the in-vehicle eCall device will establish an emergency call carrying both voice and data directly to the nearest emergency point (normally the nearest E1-1-2 public safety answering point, PSAP). The voice call enables the vehicle occupant to communicate with the trained eCall operator. At the same time, a minimum set of data will be sent to the eCall operator receiving the voice call.  The minimum set of data contains information about the incident, including time, precise location, the direction the vehicle was traveling, and vehicle identification. The pan-European eCall aims to be operative for all new type-approved vehicles as a standard option. Depending on the manufacturer of the eCall system, it could be mobile phone based (Bluetooth connection to an in-vehicle interface), an integrated eCall device, or a functionality of a broader system like navigation, Telematics device, or tolling device. eCall is expected to be offered, at earliest, by the end of 2010, pending standardization by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute and commitment from large EU member states such as France and the United Kingdom.  The EC funded project SafeTRIP is developing an open ITS system that will improve road safety and provide a resilient communication through the use of S-band satellite communication. Such platform will allow for greater coverage of the Emergency Call Service within the EU.

Automatic road enforcement.

A traffic enforcement camera system, consisting of a camera and a vehicle-monitoring device, is used to detect and identify vehicles disobeying a speed limit or some other road legal requirement and automatically ticket offenders based on the license plate number. Traffic tickets are sent by mail. Applications include:

Variable speed limits.

Recently some jurisdictions have begun experimenting with variable speed limits that change with road congestion and other factors. Typically such speed limits only change to decline during poor conditions, rather than being improved in good ones. One example is on Britain's M25 motorway, which circumnavigates London. On the most heavily traveled section (junction 10 to 16) of the M25 variable speed limits combined with automated enforcement have been in force since 1995. Initial results indicated savings in journey times, smoother-flowing traffic, and a fall in the number of accidents, so the implementation was made permanent in 1997. Further trials on the M25 have been thus far proven inconclusive.

Collision avoidance systems.

Japan has installed sensors on its highways to notify motorists that a car is stalled ahead.

Cooperative systems on the road.

Communication cooperation on the road includes car-to-car, car-to-infrastructure, and vice versa. Data available from vehicles are acquired and transmitted to a server for central fusion and processing. These data can be used to detect events such as rain (wiper activity) and congestion (frequent braking activities). The server processes a driving recommendation dedicated to a single or a specific group of drivers and transmits it wirelessly to vehicles. The goal of cooperative systems is to use and plan communication and sensor infrastructure to increase road safety. The definition of cooperative systems in road traffic is according to the European Commission:  World Congress on Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS World Congress) is an annual trade show to promote ITS technologies. ERTICO– ITS Europe, ITS America and ITS AsiaPacific sponsor the annual ITS World Congress and exhibition. Each year the event takes place in a different region (Europe, Americas or Asia-Pacific). The first ITS World Congress was held in Paris in 1994.

Smart transportation – new business models.

New mobility and smart transportation models are emerging globally. Bike sharing, car sharing and scooter sharing schemes like Lime or Bird are continuing to gain popularity; electric vehicle charging schemes are taking off in many cities; the connected car is a growing market segment; while new, smart parking solutions are being used by commuters and shoppers all over the world. All these new models provide opportunities for solving last mile issues in urban areas.

ITS in the connected world.

Mobile operators are becoming a significant player in these value chains (beyond providing just connectivity). Dedicated apps can be used to take mobile payments, provide data insights and navigation tools, offer incentives and discounts, and act as a digital commerce medium.

Payments and billing flexibility.

These new mobility models call for high monetization agility and partner management capabilities. A flexible settlements and billing platform enables revenues to be shared quickly and easily and provides an overall better customer experience. As well as a better service, users can also be rewarded by discounts, loyalty points and rewards, and engaged via direct marketing.

Europe.

The Network of National ITS Associations is a grouping of national ITS interests. It was officially announced 7 October 2004 in London. The secretariat is at ERTICO – ITS Europe.  ERTICO – ITS Europe is a public/private partnership promoting the development and deployment of ITS. They connect public authorities, industry players, infrastructure operators, users, national ITS associations and other organisations together. The ERTICO work programme focuses on initiatives to improve transport safety, security and network efficiency whilst taking into account measures to reduce environmental impact.

United States.

In the United States, each state has an ITS chapter that holds a yearly conference to promote and showcase ITS technologies and ideas. Representatives from each Department of Transportation (state, cities, towns, and counties) within the state attend this conference.

An intelligent transportation system (ITS) is an advanced application which aims to provide innovative services relating to different modes of transport and traffic management and enable users to be better informed and make safer, more coordinated, and'smarter' use of transport networks.

Inteligentní dopravní systém "(Intelligent transportation system, ITS)" je systém, jehož záměrem je poskytovat inovativní služby, které se vztahují na různé dopravní prostředky a dopravní management a poskytují uživatelům lepší informovanost, bezpečnost, koordinovanost a zejména “chytřejší” využívání dopravních sítí.


Life.

Adam was the second son of Alexander Duncan, Baron of Lundie, Angus, (d. May 1777) Provost of Dundee, and his wife (and first cousin once removed) Helen, daughter of John Haldane of Gleneagles. He was born at Dundee. In 1746, after receiving his education in Dundee, he entered the Royal Navy on board the sloop "Trial", under Captain Robert Haldane, with whom, in and afterwards in, he continued till the peace in 1748. In 1749 he was appointed to, then commissioned for service in the Mediterranean, by the Hon. Augustus Keppel (afterwards Viscount Keppel), with whom he was afterwards in on the coast of North America, and was confirmed in the rank of lieutenant on 10 January 1755.

Seven Years War.

In August 1755 he followed Keppel to, and in January 1756 to "Torbay", in which he continued till his promotion to commander's rank on 21 September 1759, and during this time was present in the expedition to Basque Roads in 1757, at the reduction of Gorée in 1758, and in the blockade of Brest in 1759, up to within two months of the Battle of Quiberon Bay, from which his promotion just excluded him.  From October 1759 to April 1760 he had command of "Royal Exchange", a hired vessel employed in petty convoy service with a miscellaneous ship's company, consisting to a large extent of boys and foreigners, many of whom (he reported) could not speak English, and all impressed with the idea that as they had been engaged by the merchants from whom the ship was hired they were not subject to naval discipline. It would seem that a misunderstanding with the merchants on this point was the cause of the ship's being put out of commission after a few months.  As a commander Duncan had no further service, but on 25 February 1761 he was posted and appointed to, fitting for Keppel's broad pennant. In her he had an important share in the reduction of Belle Île in June 1761, and of Havana in August 1762. He returned to Britain in 1763, and, notwithstanding his repeated request, had no further employment for many years.

Peacetime.

During this time he lived principally at Dundee, and married on 6 June 1777 Henrietta, daughter of Robert Dundas of Arniston, Lord President of the Court of Session. It would seem that his alliance with this influential family obtained him the employment which he had been vainly seeking during fifteen years. Towards the end of 1778 he was appointed to, from which he was almost immediately moved into.  In January 1779 he sat as a member of the court-martial of Admiral Keppel for the poor performance of the Channel Fleet during the First Battle of Ushant. During the course of the trial Duncan objected several times to stop the prosecutor in irrelevant and in leading questions, or in perversions of answers. The Admiralty was therefore desirous that he should not sit on the court-martial of Sir Hugh Palliser for failure to obey orders during the same battle. The court-martial was set for April. The day before the assembling of the court the admiralty sent down orders for "Monarch" to go to St. Helens. Her crew, however, refused to weigh the anchor until they were paid their advance; and as this could not be done in time, "Monarch" was still in Portsmouth harbour when the signal for the court-martial was made; so that, sorely against the wishes of the admiralty, Duncan sat on this court-martial also. During the summer of 1779 "Monarch" was attached to the Channel fleet under Sir Charles Hardy; in December was one of the squadron with which Rodney sailed for the relief of Gibraltar, and had a prominent share in the action off St. Vincent on 16 January 1780. On returning to Britain Duncan quit "Monarch", and had no further command till after the change of Ministry in March 1782, when Keppel became first lord of the admiralty. He was then appointed to of 90 guns, and commanded her during the year in the Grand Fleet under Howe, at the relief of Gibraltar in October, and the encounter with the allied fleet off Cape Spartel. He afterwards succeeded Sir John Jervis in command of, and after the peace commanded as guardship at Portsmouth for three years. He attained flag rank on 24 September 1787, became vice admiral 1 February 1793, and was promoted to admiral 1 June 1795. In February 1795 he was appointed Commander-in-Chief, North Sea, and hoisted his flag on board.

In action with the Dutch.

During the first two years of Duncan's command the work was limited to enforcing a rigid blockade of the enemy's coast, but in the spring of 1797 it became more important from the knowledge that the Dutch fleet in the Texel was getting ready for sea.  The situation was one of extreme difficulty, for the mutiny which had paralysed the fleet at the Nore broke out also amongst the crews under Duncan, and kept him for some weeks in enforced inactivity. Duncan's personal influence and some happy displays of his vast personal strength held the crew of "Venerable" to their duty; but with one other exception, that of, the ships refused to quit their anchorage at Yarmouth, leaving "Venerable" and "Adamant" alone to keep up the pretence of the blockade.  Fortunately the Dutch were not at the time ready for sea; and when they were ready and anxious to sail, with thirty thousand troops, for the invasion of Ireland, a persistent westerly wind detained them in harbour till they judged that the season was too far advanced. For political purposes, however, the French Revolutionaries who controlled the government in Holland (despite the contrary opinion of their admiral, De Winter), ordered him to put to sea in the early days of October.  Duncan, with the main body of the fleet, was at the time lying at Great Yarmouth revictualling, the Texel being watched by a small squadron under Captain Henry Trollope in, from whom he received early information of the Dutch being at sea. He at once weighed anchor, and with a fair wind approached the Dutch coast, saw that the fleet was not returned to the Texel, and steering towards the south sighted it on the morning of 11 October about seven miles from the shore and nearly halfway between the villages of Egmont and Camperdown. The wind was blowing straight on shore, and though the Dutch forming their line to the north preserved a bold front, it was clear that if the attack was not made promptly they would speedily get into shoal water, where no attack would be possible. Duncan at once realised the necessity of cutting off their retreat by getting between them and the land. At first he was anxious to bring up his fleet in a compact body, for his numbers were at best equal to those of the Dutch; but seeing the absolute necessity of immediate action, without waiting for the ships astern to come up, without waiting to form line of battle, and with the fleet in very irregular order of sailing, in two groups, led respectively by himself in "Venerable" and Vice-admiral Richard Onslow in "Monarch", he made the signal to pass through the enemy's line and engage to leeward.  It was a bold departure from the absolute rule laid down in the "Fighting Instructions," still new, though warranted by the more formal example of Howe on 1 June 1794; and on this occasion, as on the former, was crowned with complete success. The engagement was long and bloody; for though Duncan, by passing through the enemy's line, had prevented their untimely retreat, he had not advanced further in tactical science, and the battle was fought out on the primitive principles of ship against ship, the advantage remaining with those who were the better trained to the great gun exercise, though the Dutch inflicted great loss on the Royal navy.  It had been proposed to De Winter to make up for the want of skill by firing shell from the lower deck guns, and some experiments had been made during the summer which showed that the idea was feasible. However, want of familiarity with an arm so new and so dangerous presumably prevented its being acted on in the battle.

Rewards.

The news of the victory was received in Britain with the warmest enthusiasm. It was the first certain sign that the mutinies of the summer had not destroyed the power and the prestige of the Royal Navy. Duncan was at once (21 October) raised to the peerage as Viscount Duncan, of Camperdown, and Baron Duncan, of Lundie in the Shire of Perth (with which came the lands now known as Camperdown Park in Dundee), and there was a strong feeling that the reward was inadequate. Even as early as 18 October his aunt, Lady Mary Duncan, wrote to Henry Dundas, at that time secretary of state for war: "Report says my nephew is only made a Viscount. Myself it is nothing, but the whole nation thinks the least you can do is to give him an English earldom.... Am sure were this properly represented to our good king, who esteems a brave, religious man like himself, would be of my opinion....". It was not, however, till 1831, many years after Duncan's death, that his son, then bearing his title, was raised to the dignity of an earl, and his other children to the rank and precedence of the children of an earl.  Duncan was awarded the Large Naval Gold Medal and an annual pension of £3,000, to himself and the next two heirs to his title - this was the biggest pension ever awarded by the British government. Additionally, he was given the freedom of several cities, including Dundee and London.

Death.

Duncan continued in command of the North Sea fleet until 1801, but without any further opportunity of distinction. Three years later, 4 August 1804, he died quite suddenly, aged seventy-three, at the inn at Cornhill, a village on the border, where he had stopped for the night on his journey to Edinburgh (ib. 252) and was buried in Lundie west of Dundee.

Character.

Duncan was of size and strength almost gigantic. He is described as in height, and of corresponding breadth. When a young lieutenant walking through the streets of Chatham, his grand figure and handsome face attracted crowds of admirers, and to the last he is spoken of as singularly handsome.  Nelson wrote to Duncan's son, Henry, a fellow Royal Navy officer, on 4 October 1804, including a newspaper with the account of Duncan's death, "There is no man who more sincerely laments the heavy loss you have sustained than myself; but the name of Duncan will never be forgot by Britain, and in particular by its navy, in which service the remembrance of your worthy father will, I am sure, grow up in you. I am sorry not to have a good sloop to give you, but still an opening offers which I think will insure your confirmation as a commander".

Family.

Duncan's uncle was Sir William Duncan, physician-extraordinary to King George III and first of the Duncan baronets. On 6 June 1777 Duncan married Henrietta (1749–1832), daughter of Robert Dundas of Arniston, Lord President of the Court of Session. On his death Duncan left a family of four daughters and two sons. His eldest son succeeded to the peerage and later became Earl of Camperdown; the second son, Henry, died a captain in the navy and K.C.H. in 1835.  His sister Margaret was mother to James Haldane Tait who served under him several times and rose to the rank of Rear Admiral.  Henrietta and her children are buried in Canongate Kirkyard in Edinburgh east of the church.

Heraldry.

The paternal arms of the 1st Viscount were: "Gules, two cinquefoils in chief and a bugle horn in base argent stringed azure" (Clan Duncan). In the centre of his paternal coat the 1st Viscount was granted an augmentation of honour: "Pendant by a ribbon argent and azure from a naval crown or a gold medal thereon two figures the emblems of Victory and Britannia; Victory alighting on the prow of an antique vessel, crowning Britannia with a wreath of laurel; and below the word "Camperdown""  Crest: "A first rate ship of war, with masts broken, rigging torn and in disorder, floating on the sea, all proper and over, the motto "Disce Pati"" ("learn to suffer").  Supporters: "On the dexter side an Angel, mantle purpure; on the head a celestial crown; the right hand supporting an anchor proper; in the left a palm branch Or. On the sinister a sailor, habited and armed proper; his left hand supporting a staff, thereon hoisted a flag azure; the Dutch colours, wreathed about the middle of the staff. Motto: "Secundis Dubiisque Rectus""

Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Duncan (1 July 17314 August 1804) was a British admiral who defeated the Dutch fleet off Camperdown (north of Haarlem) on 11 October 1797. This victory is considered one of the most significant actions in naval history.

Adam Duncan, 1. vikomt Camperdown ("Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Camperdown, 1st Baron Duncan") (1. července 1731, Dundee, Skotsko – 4. srpna 1804, Cornhill-on-Tweed, Anglie) byl britský admirál. U námořnictva sloužil od svých patnácti let, vyznamenal se během sedmileté války, kdy dosáhl hodnosti kapitána, poté žil řadu let v soukromí. Znovu vynikl během válek s Francií a v roce 1795 dosáhl hodnosti admirála. Aktivní službu v Royal Navy zakončil jako vrchní velitel v Severním moři (1795–1800). V závěru své kariéry proslul strategicky významným vítězstvím v bitvě u Camperduinu (11. října 1797). V této bitvě použil taktiku zopakovanou o několik let později u Trafalgaru. V roce 1797 byl povýšen na vikomta a vstoupil do Sněmovny lordů. Jeho potomstvo později získalo titul hraběte a hlavní rodové sídlo ve Skotsku bylo pojmenováno podle vítězné bitvy ("Campedown House").


Life and career.

Piso was born in Leiden to church organist Hermann Pies and Cornelia van Liesvelt. He studied in Leiden and received a degree in medicine from Caen in 1633 and settled in Amsterdam as a doctor. In 1637, he was offered a position in the Dutch West India Company as a physician to Count Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen (1604-1679), governor of Dutch Brazil. He left for Brazil along with the astronomer Georg Markgraf or Georg Marcgrave (1610-1644)and the painters Albert Eckhout and Frans Post. There, he recommended the consumption of fresh fish, vegetables, and fruits after discovering that soldiers and seamen suffered from physical problems including night blindness resulting from malnutrition. Piso identified Brazilian lemons as being particularly effective in overcoming scurvy. In 1644, Piso returned along with the Count to the Netherlands. Piso lived in Leiden and then moved to Amsterdam, where he was a part of the scientific community. In 1655, he became inspector of the Amsterdam Medical College, and later its dean.  Together with Georg Marcgrave, and originally published by Joannes de Laet, Piso wrote the "Historia Naturalis Brasiliae" (1648), an important early Western insight into Brazilian flora and fauna. He also published as part of this work four parts titled "De medicina Brasiliense" in which he examined tropical diseases and indigenous therapies (including the use of ipecacuanha-root and leaves of the jaborandi), Piso collected plants and animals in Brazil. In 1658, he published another work, which is a second edition of the "Historia" titled "De Indiae Utriusque re naturali et medica." He was the sole author of this and he is said to have tried to undermine Markgraf's work, and many careless errors, leading to criticism from Markgraf's brother and even Linnaeus.  He is buried near Rembrandt in the Westerkerk in Amsterdam.

Willem Piso (in Dutch Willem Pies, in Latin Guilielmus Piso or Gulielmi Pisonis, also called Guilherme Piso in Portuguese) (1611 in Leiden – November 28, 1678 in Amsterdam) was a Dutch physician and naturalist who participated as an expedition doctor in Dutch Brazil from 1637 – 1644, sponsored by count Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen and the Dutch West India Company. Piso became one of the founders of tropical medicine. A minor planet, 11240 Piso, and the plant genus "Pisonia" are named for him.

Willem Piso (také Willem Pies; 1611 Leiden – 26. listopadu 1678 Amsterdam) byl nizozemský lékař a botanik. Ve svých 26 letech se jako osobní lékař Johanna Moritze hraběte z Nassau-Siegenu zúčastnil mezi roky 1637 a 1644 společně s nizozemskými malíři Albertem Eckhoutem a Fransem Postem, kartografem a astronomem Georgem Marggrafem, historiografem Casparem van Baerlem a architektem Pietrem Postem vědecké a mírové expedice do Brazílie, která byla zaštiťována Nizozemskou západoindickou společností. Společně s Marggrafem vydal v roce 1648 spis o brazilské přírodě "Historia Naturalis Brasiliae".


Notation.

In organic chemistry, a radical ion is typically indicated by a superscript dot followed by the sign of the charge: formula_1 and formula_2. In mass spectrometry, the sign is written first, followed by the superscripted dot: formula_3 and formula_4.

Radical anions.

Many aromatic compounds can undergo one-electron reduction by alkali metals. For example, the reaction of naphthalene with sodium in an aprotic solvent yields the naphthalene radical anion - sodium ion salt. In an ESR spectrum this compound shows up as a quintet of quintets (25 lines). In the presence of a proton source the radical anion is protonated and effectively hydrogenated as in the Birch reduction.  The electron is transferred from the alkali metal ion to an unoccupied antibonding p-p п* orbital of the aromatic molecule. This transfer is usually only energetically favorable if the aprotic solvent efficiently solvates the alkali metal ion. Effectiveness for this is in the order diethyl ether < THF < 1,2-dimethoxyethane < HMPA. In principle any unsaturated molecule can form a radical anion, but the antibonding orbitals are only energetically accessible in more extensive conjugated systems. Ease of formation is in the order benzene < naphthalene < anthracene < pyrene, etc. On addition of a proton source, the structure of the resulting hydrogenated molecule is defined by the charge distribution of the radical anion. For instance, the anthracene radical anion forms mainly (but not exclusively) 9,10-dihydroanthracene.  An example of a non-carbon radical anion is the superoxide anion, formed by transfer of one electron to an oxygen molecule.  A very effective way to remove any traces of water from THF is by reflux with sodium wire in the presence of a small amount of benzophenone. Benzophenone is reduced to the ketyl radical anion by sodium which gives the THF solution an intense blue color. However, any trace of water in THF will further reduce the ketyl to the colourless alcohol. In this way, the color of the THF signals the dryness and the distilled THF contains less than 10 ppm of water. This treatment also effectively removes any peroxides in the THF. Radical anions of this type are also involved in the Acyloin condensation.  Cyclooctatetraene is reduced by elemental potassium all the way to the dianion because the 10 electron system is aromatic. Quinone is reduced to a semiquinone radical anion. Semidiones are derived from the reduction of dicarbonyl compounds.

Radical cations.

Cationic radical species are much less stable. They appear prominently in the mass spectrometry. When a gas-phase molecule is subjected to electron ionization one electron is abstracted by an electron in the electron beam to create a radical cation M. This species represents the molecular ion or parent ion. A typical mass spectrum shows multiple signals because the molecular ion fragments into a complex mixture of ions and uncharged radical species. For example, the methanol radical cation fragments into a methenium cation CH and a hydroxyl radical. In naphthalene the unfragmented radical cation is by far the most prominent peak in the mass spectrum. Secondary species are generated from proton gain (M+1) and proton loss (M-1).  Some compounds containing the dioxygenyl cation can be prepared in bulk.

Organic conductors.

Radical cations figure prominently in the chemistry and properties of conducting polymers. Such polymers are formed by the oxidation of heterocycles to give radical cations, which condense with the parent heterocycle. For example, polypyrrole is prepared by oxidation of pyrrole using ferric chloride in methanol: Once formed, these polymers become conductive upon oxidation. Polarons and bipolarons are radical cations encountered in doped conducting polymers.

A radical ion is a free radical species that carries a charge. Radical ions are encountered in organic chemistry as reactive intermediates and in mass spectrometry as gas phase ions. Positive radical ions are called radical cations whereas negative radical ions are called radical anions.

Radikálový ion je radikál, který má elektrický náboj. Radikálové ionty vznikají jako meziprodukty organických reakcí a objevují se v hmotnostní spektrometrii jako ionty v plynné fázi. Podle znaménka náboje se rozlišují kladně nabité radikálové kationty a záporně nabité radikálové anionty.