Common law jurisdictions.

Australia.

The High Court of Australia is the supreme court in the Australian court hierarchy and the final court of appeal in Australia. It has both original and appellate jurisdiction, the power of judicial review over laws passed by the Parliament of Australia and the parliaments of the states, and the ability to interpret the Constitution of Australia and thereby shape the development of federalism in Australia.  The

Bangladesh.

The Supreme Court of Bangladesh is created by the provisions of the Constitution of Bangladesh, 1972. There are two Divisions of the Supreme Court, i.e. (a) Appellate Division and (b)

Hong Kong.

In Hong Kong, the Supreme Court of Hong Kong (now known as the High Court of Hong Kong) was the final court of appeal during its colonial times which ended with transfer of sovereignty in 1997. The final adjudication power, as in any other British Colonies, rested with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) in London, United Kingdom. Now the power of final adjudication is vested in the Court of Final Appeal created in

Ireland.

The Supreme Court is the highest court in the Republic of Ireland. It has authority to interpret the constitution, and strike down laws and activities of the state that it finds to be unconstitutional. It is also the highest authority in the interpretation of the

Israel.

Israel's Supreme Court is at the head of the court system in the State of Israel. It is the highest judicial instance. The Supreme Court sits in Jerusalem. The area of its jurisdiction is the entire State. A ruling of the Supreme Court is binding upon every court, other than the Supreme Court itself. The Israeli supreme court is both an appellate court and the high court of justice. As an appellate court, the Supreme Court considers cases on appeal (both criminal and civil) on judgments and other decisions of the District Courts. It also considers appeals on judicial and quasi-judicial decisions of various kinds, such as matters relating to the legality of Knesset elections and disciplinary rulings of the Bar Association. As the High Court of Justice (Hebrew: Beit Mishpat Gavoha Le'Zedek בית משפט גבוה לצדק; also known by its initials as Bagatz בג"ץ), the Supreme Court rules

Nauru.

In Nauru, there is no single highest court for all types of cases. The Supreme Court has final jurisdiction on constitutional matters, but any other case may be appealed

New Zealand.

In New Zealand, the right of appeal to the Privy Council was abolished following the passing of the Supreme Court Act (2003). A right of appeal to the Privy Council remains for criminal cases which were decided before the Supreme Court was created, but it is likely that the successful appeal by Mark Lundy to the Privy Council in 2013 will be the last appeal to the Board from New

Pakistan.

The Supreme Court has been the apex court for Pakistan since the declaration of the republic in 1956 (previously the Privy Council had that function). The Supreme Court has the final say on matters of constitutional law, federal law or on matters of mixed federal and provincial competence. It can hear appeals on matters of provincial competence only if a matter of a constitutional nature is

United Kingdom.

The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the ultimate court for criminal and civil matters in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and for civil matters in Scotland. (The supreme court for criminal matters in Scotland is the High Court of Justiciary.) The Supreme Court was established by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 with effect from 1 October 2009, replacing and assuming the judicial functions of the House of Lords. Devolution issues under the Scotland Act 1998, Government of Wales Act and Northern Ireland Act were also transferred to the new Supreme Court by the Constitutional Reform

United States.

The Supreme Court of the United States, established in 1789, is the highest federal court in the United States, with powers of judicial review first asserted in "Calder v. Bull" (1798) in Justice Iredell's dissenting opinion. The power was later given binding authority by Justice Marshall in "Marbury v. Madison" (1803). There are currently nine seats on the US Supreme Court.  Each U.S. state has its own state supreme court, which is the highest authority interpreting that state's law and administering that state's judiciary. Two states, Oklahoma and Texas, each have two separate highest courts that hear criminal and civil appellate matters.  In Texas, the state's Court of Criminal Appeals hears criminal appeals and has sole authority to grant the writ of habeas corpus to a person who has been convicted of a felony, but the Texas Supreme Court also hears appeals in juvenile delinquency matters in additional to civil cases as conventionally defined. Although juvenile cases fall under the Texas Family Code and are classified as civil proceedings, they are "quasi-criminal" in nature. "In re M.A.F.," 966 S.W.2d 448, 450

Civil law jurisdictions.

The Roman law and the Corpus Juris Civilis are generally held to be the historical model for civil law. From the late 18th century onwards, civil law jurisdictions began to codify their laws, most of all in civil codes.

Argentina.

The Supreme Court functions as a last resort tribunal. Its rulings cannot be appealed. It also

Austria.

In Austria, the Austrian Constitution of 1920 (based on a draft by Hans Kelsen) introduced judicial review of legislative acts for their constitutionality. This function is performed by the Constitutional Court ("Verfassungsgerichtshof"), which is also charged

Brazil.

In Brazil, the Supreme Federal Tribunal ("Supremo Tribunal Federal") is the highest court. It is both the constitutional court and the court of last resort in Brazilian law. It only reviews cases that may be unconstitutional or final "habeas corpus" pleads for criminal cases. It also judges, in original jurisdiction, cases involving members of congress, senators, ministers of state, members of the

Croatia.

In Croatia, the supreme jurisdiction is given to the Supreme Court, which secures a uniform application of laws. The Constitutional Court exists

Denmark.

In Denmark, all ordinary courts have original jurisdiction to hear all types of cases, including cases of a constitutional or administrative

France.

In France, supreme appellate jurisdiction is divided among three judicial bodies:  When there is jurisdictional dispute between judicial and administrative courts: the Court of Arbitration ("Tribunal des conflits"), which is empanelled half from the Court of Cassation and half from the Council of State and presided over by the Minister of Justice, is called together to settle the dispute or hand down a final decision.  The High Court ("Haute Cour") exists only to impeach the President

Germany.

In Germany, there is no "de jure" single supreme court. Instead, cases are handled by numerous federal courts, depending on their nature.  Final interpretation of and recommendations for amendments to the German Constitution, the "Grundgesetz", is the task of the "Bundesverfassungsgericht" (Federal Constitutional Court), which is the "de facto" highest German court, as it can declare both federal and state legislation ineffective. In addition, it has the power to overrule decisions of all other federal courts, despite not being a court of appeals in and of itself in the German court system. It is also the only court possessing the power and authority to outlaw political parties, should their manifests or activism

Iceland.

The Supreme Court of Iceland (, lit. "Highest Court of Iceland") was founded under Act No. 22/1919 and held its first session on

Italy.

Italy follows the French system of different supreme courts.  The Italian court of last resort for most disputes is the "Corte

Japan.

In Japan, the Supreme Court of Japan is called (Saikō-Saibansho; called 最高裁 Saikō-Sai for short), located in Chiyoda, Tokyo, and is the highest court in Japan. It

Luxembourg.

In Luxembourg, challenges on the conformity of the law to the Constitution are brought before the "Cour Constitutionnelle" (Constitutional Court). The most used and common procedure

Macau.

The supreme court of Macau

Mexico.

The Supreme Court of Justice of

Netherlands.

In the Netherlands, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands is the highest court. Its decisions, known as "arresten", are absolutely final. The court is banned from testing legislation against the constitution, pursuant to the principle of the sovereignty of the States-General; the court can, however,

Nigeria.

The Supreme Court is

Philippines.

While the Philippines is generally considered a civil law nation, its Supreme Court is heavily modeled after the American Supreme Court. This can be attributed to the fact that the Philippines was colonized by both Spain and the United States, and the system of laws of both nations strongly influenced the development of Philippine laws and jurisprudence. Even as

People's Republic of China.

In the judicial system of mainland China the highest court of appeal is the Supreme People's Court. This supervises the

Portugal.

In Portugal, there are several supreme courts, each with a specific jurisdiction:  Until 2003, a fifth supreme court also existed for the

Republic of China.

In the Republic of China (Taiwan), there are three different courts of last resort:  The Council of Grand Justices, consisting of 15 justices and

Scotland.

Founded by papal bull in 1532, the Court of Session is the supreme civil court of Scotland, and

Spain.

Spanish Supreme Court is the highest court for all cases in Spain (both private and public). Only those cases related to human rights can be appealed at the Constitutional Court (which also decides

Sweden.

In Sweden, the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court respectively function as the highest courts of the land. The Supreme Administrative Court considers cases concerning disputes between individuals and administrative organs, as well as disputes among administrative organs, while the Supreme Court considers all other cases. The judges are appointed by the Government. In most cases, the Supreme Courts will only grant leave to appeal

Switzerland.

In Switzerland, the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland is the final court of appeals. Due to Switzerland's system of direct democracy, it has no authority to review the constitutionality of

Sri Lanka.

In Sri Lanka, the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka was created in 1972 after the adoption of a new Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and is empowered to exercise its powers, subject to the provisions of the Constitution. The court rulings take precedence over all lower Courts. The

South Africa.

In South Africa, a "two apex" system existed from 1994 to 2013. The Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA) was created in 1994 and replaced the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of South Africa as the highest court

Thailand.

Historically, citizens appealed directly to the King along his route to places out of the Palace. A Thai King would adjudicate all disputes. During the reign of King Chulalongkorn, an official department for appeals was set up,

Turkey.

The Supreme Court, is one of Turkey's four highest judicial authority. Judicial justice is the final review authority of the decisions and judgments issued by the courts of first instance and that the law does

United Arab Emirates.

In the United Arab Emirates, the Federal Supreme Court of the United Arab Emirates was created in 1973 after the adoption of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and is empowered

Mixed-system jurisdictions.

Canada.

Canada is a bi-jural country. Nine of the provinces use the common law, while the province of Quebec uses the civil law. Federal public law is based on the common law, but federal statute law must take into account both legal systems.  The Supreme Court of Canada was established in 1875. It is defined by the "Constitution Act, 1867" and by the "Supreme Court Act" as a "General Court of Appeal." As a result, it can hear appeals on any legal issues considered by lower courts, on issues of constitutional law, federal law and provincial law. It can hear appeals involving the common law and the civil law, and has full authority to rule on those issues. The Court can hear appeals from the courts of appeal from the provinces and territories, and also appeals from the Federal Court of Appeal. The court's decisions

India.

The law of India is a hybrid of common law, civil law, customary law, and religious principles. The Supreme Court of India was created on January 28, 1950 after adoption of the Constitution. Article 141 of the Constitution of India states that

Indonesia.

Law of Indonesia at the national level is based on a combination of civil law from the tradition of Roman-Dutch law and customary law from the tradition of Adat. Law in regional jurisdictions can vary from province to province, including even Sharia law, for example Islamic criminal law in Aceh, though even at the national level, individual justices can cite sharia or other forms of non-Dutch law in their legal opinions.  The Supreme Court of Indonesia is the main judicial arm of the state, functioning

Soviet-model jurisdictions.

In most nations with constitutions modelled after the Soviet Union, the legislature was given the power of being the "court of last resort". In the People's Republic of China, the final power to interpret the law is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC). This power includes the power to interpret the basic laws of Hong Kong and Macau, the constitutional documents of the two special administrative regions which are common law and Portuguese-based legal system jurisdictions respectively. This power is a legislative power and not a judicial one in that an interpretation by the NPCSC does not affect cases which have already been decided.

The supreme court is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts in many legal jurisdictions. Other descriptions for such courts include court of last resort, apex court, and high (or final) court of appeal. Broadly speaking, the decisions of a supreme court are not subject to further review by any other court. Supreme courts typically function primarily as appellate courts, hearing appeals from decisions of lower trial courts, or from intermediate-level appellate courts.

Nejvyšší soud je označení soudního orgánu, který v jednotlivých státech plní různé funkce – zpravidla se jedná o orgán, který rozhoduje v poslední instanci a proti jehož rozhodnutí už není přípustný opravný prostředek. Tím pak plní důležitou roli při sjednocování judikatury dané země.


Lack of velars.

The velar consonant is the most common consonant in human languages. The only languages recorded to lack velars (and any dorsal consonant at all) may be Xavante, Tahitian, and (phonologically but not phonetically) several Skou languages (Wutung, a dialect of Vanimo, and Bobe). In Piraha, men may lack the only velar consonant.  Other languages lack simple velars. An areal feature of the indigenous languages of the Americas of the coastal regions of the Pacific Northwest is that historical *k was palatalized. When such sounds remained stops, they were transcribed in Americanist phonetic notation, presumably corresponding to IPA, but in others, such as the Saanich dialect of Coastal Salish, Salish-Spokane-Kalispel, and Chemakum, *k went further and affricated to. Likewise, historical *k’ has become and historical *x has become ; there was no *g or *ŋ. In the Northwest Caucasian languages, historical * has also become palatalized, becoming in Ubykh and in most Circassian varieties. In both regions the languages retain a labialized velar series (e.g. in the Pacific Northwest) as well as uvular consonants. In the languages of those families that retain plain velars, both the plain and labialized velars are "pre-velar", perhaps to make them more distinct from the uvulars which may be "post-velar". Prevelar consonants are susceptible to palatalization. A similar system, contrasting with and leaving marginal at best, is reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European.  Apart from the voiced stop, no other velar consonant is particularly common, even the and that occur in English. Of course, there can be no phoneme in a language that lacks voiced stops, like Mandarin Chinese, but it is sporadically missing elsewhere. Of the languages surveyed in the "World Atlas of Language Structures", about 10% of languages that otherwise have are missing.  Pirahã has both a and a phonetically. However, the does not behave as other consonants, and the argument has been made that it is phonemically, leaving Pirahã with only as an underlyingly velar consonant.  Hawaiian does not distinguish from ; tends toward at the beginning of utterances, before, and is variable elsewhere, especially in the dialect of Niihau and Kauai. Since Hawaiian has no, and varies between and, it is not clearly meaningful to say that Hawaiian has phonemic velar consonants.  Several Khoisan languages have limited numbers or distributions of pulmonic velar consonants. (Their click consonants are articulated in the uvular or possibly velar region, but that occlusion is part of the airstream mechanism rather than the place of articulation of the consonant.) Khoekhoe, for example, does not allow velars in medial or final position, but in Juǀ'hoan velars are rare even in initial position.

consonants.

Normal velar consonants are "dorso-velar": The dorsum (body) of the tongue rises to contact the velum (soft palate) of the roof of the mouth. In disordered speech there are also "velo-dorsal" stops, with the opposite articulation: The velum lowers to contact the tongue, which remains static. In the extensions to the IPA for disordered speech, these are transcribed by reversing the IPA letter for a velar consonant, e.g. ⟨⟩ for a voiceless velodorsal stop.

Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth (known also as the velum).

Velára, též zadopatrová souhláska, je zvuk, který je při řeči tvořen přiblížením nebo kontaktem hřbetu jazyka s měkkým (zadním) patrem (lat. "palatum velum" = měkké patro).


Biography.

Constantine was born in Constantinople, as the eighth of ten children to Manuel II Palaiologos and Helena Dragaš, the daughter of the Serbian magnate Constantine Dragaš. He was extremely fond of his mother and added her surname (Dragases) next to his own dynastic one when he ascended the imperial throne. He spent most of his childhood in Constantinople under the supervision of his parents. Almost nothing is known of his physical appearance or his character. The surviving contemporary images are highly stylized and include a seal now in Vienna (of unknown provenance, probably from an imperial chrysobull), a few coins, and his portrait among the other Byzantine emperors in the Biblioteca Estense copy of the history of Zonaras. In the latter he is shown with a rounded beard, in noted contrast to his forked-bearded relatives, but it is unclear whether that reflects his actual appearance. Likewise his character, and the image he is known with to posterity, are heavily skewed by the accounts composed after his death; they portray his life with a view to his final fate, and are thus highly eulogizing in nature.  He was governor of Selymbria for a time, until surrendering the role to his brother Theodore in 1443. During the absence of his older brother John at the Council of Florence in Italy, Constantine served as his regent in Constantinople (1437–1440).

Despot of the Morea.

Constantine became the ruler of the Despotate of the Morea (the medieval name for the Peloponnesus) in October 1443. He ruled from the fortress and palace in Mistra, a fortified town also called Sparta or Lacedaemon due to its proximity to the ancient city. Mistra was a center of arts and culture rivalling Constantinople. Twenty years before, Constantine had aided his brother John in consolidating Byzantine control over the Morea, campaigning against the Latin princes of the Principality of Achaea who still held parts of it, and except for the Venetian possessions of Modon, Coron, and Nauplion, the entire peninsula came under Byzantine control.  After establishing himself as despot, Constantine strengthened the defences of the Morea by reconstructing a wall across the Isthmus of Corinth called the "Hexamilion" ("Six-mile-wall"), on the suggestion of Constantine's famous teacher, Plethon.  In summer 1444, Constantine marched out of the Morea, invading the Latin Duchy of Athens. He swiftly conquered Thebes and Athens, forcing its Florentine duke, Nerio II Acciaioli, a vassal of the Ottoman Sultan, to pay him tribute. The Turkish response was inevitable. Two years later, the Sultan Murad II, who had come out of retirement, led an army of 50,000–60,000 soldiers into Greece to put an end to the pretensions of Constantine. His purpose was not to conquer Morea but rather to teach the Greeks and their Despots a punitive lesson. The Ottoman army reached the Hexamilion on 27 November 1446. Constantine attempted to parlay with the Sultan, but, according to the historian Laonikos Chalkokondyles, his terms "were not moderate, for he demanded that the Isthmos be allowed to stand as it was for him and that he get to keep all the sultan's lands beyond it that he had subjected".  Constantine and his brother Thomas braced for the attack at the Hexamilion. While the wall could hold against medieval attacks, Sultan Murad used bombards to supplement the usual siege engines and scaling ladders; the bombards breached the wall on 10 December 1446. Murad's janissaries poured through the opening, and the defenders panicked and fled. Constantine and Thomas attempted to rally their soldiers, and failing, barely escaped to Mistra. Murad split his forces, giving one part to his advisor Turahan while leading the other part along the southern shore of the Gulf of Corinth, plundering and destroying as his troops advanced. While neither Patras or Mistra fell to the Ottoman troops, the province was devastated; an estimated 60,000 people were taken prisoner by the Sultan's forces and sold to the slave markets of Turkey. Constantine and his brother Thomas were forced to make themselves vassals of the Ottoman sultan and pay tribute.

Marriages.

Constantine XI married twice. The first time was on 1 July 1428 to Theodora Tocco, niece of Carlo I Tocco of Epirus. She died while giving birth to a stillborn daughter in November 1429. His second marriage was on 27 July 1441 to Caterina Gattilusio, daughter of Dorino of Lesbos, who died in August 1442 after suffering a miscarriage. He had no children by either marriage. After his coronation in 1449, Constantine XI sent a commission under George Sphrantzes asking Mara Branković, daughter of the Serbian Despot Đurađ Branković and Byzantine princess Irene Kantakouzene, to marry him. By then Mara was the widow of Murad II; she had been allowed to return to her parents in Serbia after the death of Murad. The proposal was welcomed by her father Đurađ Branković, but it foundered on the objection of Mara herself who had vowed that "if God ever released her from the hands of the infidel she would lead a life of celibacy and chastity for the rest of her days". Accordingly, the courtship failed and Sphrantzes took steps to arrange for a marriage with a princess either from the Empire of Trebizond or the Kingdom of Georgia. The choice eventually fell to an unnamed Georgian princess, daughter of George VIII. He started official negotiations with the Georgian king, who had sent an ambassador to Constantinople for that reason. It was agreed that the next spring, Sphrantzes would sail for Georgia to bring the bride to Constantinople, but Constantine's plans were overtaken by the events of 1453.

Reign as emperor.

Despite the foreign and domestic difficulties during his reign, which culminated in the fall of Constantinople and of the Byzantine Empire, contemporary sources generally speak respectfully of the Emperor Constantine. When his brother, Emperor John VIII Palaiologos, died childless, a dispute erupted between Constantine and his brother Demetrios Palaiologos over the throne. Demetrios drew support by opposing the union of the Orthodox and Catholic churches. The Empress Helena, acting as regent, supported Constantine. They appealed to the Ottoman Sultan Murad II to arbitrate the disagreement.  Murad decided in favor of Constantine, and on 6 January 1449 Constantine was crowned in the cathedral at Mistra by the local bishop. It was rare, but not unprecedented, for an emperor to be crowned in a provincial city. Michael VIII Palaiologos, founder of the dynasty of Palaiologos, had been crowned at Nicaea, Asia Minor. John Cantacuzene was crowned at Adrianople, Thrace. Both held a second coronation ceremony at Constantinople, performed by the patriarch.  Constantine was the exception. The patriarch at the time, Gregory III, was a unionist, (see East–West Schism) shunned by most of his clergy. Constantine knew that to receive his crown from Gregory would add fuel to the existing fires of religious discord in the capital. He sailed from Greece on a Aragonese ship and arrived in Constantinople on 12 March 1449.  Sultan Murad died in 1451, succeeded by his 19-year-old son Mehmed II, who was obsessed with the conquest of Constantinople. Constantine responded by threatening to release Prince Orhan, who was a contender to the Ottoman throne, unless Mehmed met some of his demands. As a result, Mehmed considered Constantine to have broken the truce. The following winter of 1451–52, Mehmed built Rumelihisarı, a hill fortress on the European side of the Bosporus, just north of the city, cutting the communication with the Black Sea to the east. This complemented the Anadoluhisarı fortress on the Anatolian (Asian) side of the Bosporus, built between 1393 and 1394 by Sultan Bayezid I. For Constantine that was a clear prelude for a siege, and he immediately started organizing his defence.  Constantine managed to raise funds to stockpile food for the upcoming siege and to repair the old Theodosian walls, but the poor state of the Byzantine economy did not allow him to raise the necessary army to defend the city against the massive Ottoman army. Desperate for any type of military assistance, Constantine XI appealed to the West, reaffirming the union of Eastern and Roman Churches signed at the Council of Florence, a condition the Catholic Church imposed before any help would be provided. The union had been overwhelmingly criticized by the strong anti-union (""anthenotikoi"") bloc of his subjects. His "megas doux" Loukas Notaras, Constantine's chief minister and military commander, is alleged to have said, "Better to see the turban of the Turks reigning in the center of the City than the Latin mitre." Finally, although some troops did arrive from the mercantile city states in the north of Italy, the Western contribution was negligible compared to the needs, given the Ottoman strength. Constantine also sought assistance from his brothers in Morea, but any help was forestalled by an Ottoman invasion of the peninsula in 1452, executed to tie down the soldiers there.  The siege of the city began in the winter of 1452. Constantine faced the siege defending his city of less than 50,000 people with an army only numbering 7,000 men. Confronting the Byzantine forces was an Ottoman army numbering around 10 times that, backed by state-of-the-art siege equipment provided by a very competent Hungarian arms maker named Orban.

Fall of Constantinople and death.

Before the beginning of the siege, Mehmed II made an offer to Constantine XI. In exchange for the surrender of Constantinople, the emperor's life would be spared and he would continue to rule in Mistra. As preserved by George Sphrantzes, Constantine replied:  Constantine led the defence of the city and took an active part in the fighting alongside his troops in the land walls. At the same time, he used his diplomatic skills to maintain the necessary unity between the Genoese, Venetian, and Greek troops.  Constantine died the day the city fell, 29 May 1453. There were no known surviving eyewitnesses to the death of the Emperor and none of his entourage survived to offer any credible account of his death. According to Michael Critobulus (writing later in Mehmed's service), he remarked, "The city is fallen and I am still alive." Then he tore off his imperial ornaments so as to let nothing distinguish him from any other soldier and led his remaining troops in a last charge where he was killed.  Mehmed sent soldiers to search amongst the dead for his body. The first body that was believed to be the emperor's, a body that had silk stockings with an eagle embroidered in it, was decapitated and marched around the ruined capital. However, it failed to gather any recognition from the citizens of Constantinople.

Legacy.

A legend tells that when the Ottomans entered the city, an angel rescued the emperor, turned him into marble and placed him in a cave under the earth near the Golden Gate, where he waits to be brought to life again to conquer the city back for Christians.  While serving as ambassador to Russia in February 1834, Ahmed Pasha presented Tsar Nicholas with a number of gifts, including a jewel-encrusted sword supposedly taken from Constantine XI's corpse.  Constantine XI's legacy was used as a rallying cry for Greeks during their war for Independence with the Ottoman Empire. Today the Emperor is considered a national hero in Greece.  During the Balkan Wars and the Greco-Turkish War, under the influence of the "Megali Idea", the name of the then-Greek king, Constantine, was used in Greece as a popular confirmation of the prophetic myth about the Marble King who would liberate Constantinople and recreate the lost Empire.  Constantine Palaiologos' legacy is still a popular theme in Greek culture. The well known contemporary composers Apostolos Kaldaras and Stamatis Spanoudakis have written elegies for the Marble King.

Regnal number.

Regnal numbers, used in many monarchies since medieval times to differentiate among rulers with the same name in the same office reigning over the same territory, were never used in the Roman Empire. Despite the increase in emperors with the same name during the Middle Ages, such as the several Michaels and Constantines, the practice was never introduced. Instead, the Byzantines used nicknames and patronymics to distinguish rulers of the same name. Thus, the numbering of Byzantine emperors is a purely historiographical invention, created by historians beginning with Edward Gibbon in his "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire".  The name Constantine was particularly common among emperors, showing their connection to the founder of Constantinople and the first Christian Roman Emperor, Constantine the Great. Whilst modern historiography generally recognizes eleven emperors by the name Constantine, numbering Constantine Palaiologos as "Constantine XI", older works have occasionally numbered him differently, with Gibbon numbering him "Constantine XII", after counting Constantine Laskaris (1204–05) as well. Particular confusion in the correct number of Constantines arises in that there are two different Roman Emperors numbered as "Constantine III", the Western Constantine III of the early fifth century and Constantine III of the seventh century. Additionally, the emperor commonly known as Constans II actually reigned under the name Constantine, and has sometimes been referred to as Constantine III.  Counting emperors and members of the imperial families, including those that did not actually wield real power, the total number of imperial Constantines would be 22. Some scholars have suggested that the most appropriate way to number the emperors would be to count and number those who were proclaimed and acknowledged as "Augusti" (Emperors) or an equivalent title such as "basileus", featuring all who held supreme power in the Byzantine Empire either alongside a relative or by themselves. Counting comprehensively those who were officially recognized as rulers under the name Constantine, including those that only ruled nominally as co-emperors but with the supreme title, the total number of emperors named Constantine would be 18. By counting and numbering all previous co-emperors with that name, including Constantine (son of Leo V), Constantine (son of Basil I), Constantine Lekapenos and Constantine Doukas, Constantine Palaiologos would most appropriately be numbered as "Constantine XVIII". The same practice, though not recognizing the same amount of co-emperors, have in the past produced numberings for Constantine Palaiologos such as "XIII", "XIV" and "XV".  Scholars commonly do not number co-emperors as the extent of their rule was mostly nominal and, unless they inherited the throne later, did not hold independent supreme power as "basileus autokrator". By counting the western Constantine III, Constans II and Constantine Laskaris, all emperors reigning with supreme power under the name of Constantine, the numbering of Constantine Palaiologos would be "Constantine XIV".

Unofficial saint.

Some Eastern Orthodox and Greek-Catholics consider Constantine XI a saint (or a "national martyr" or "ethnomartyr", Greek: ). However, he has not been officially canonized by either Church, partly due to controversy surrounding his personal religious beliefs and partly because death in battle is not normally considered a form of martyrdom by the Orthodox Church. According to Catholicism and Orthodoxy, martyrs are those who voluntarily accept death for their faith, typically in a situation where they have the option to give up Christianity and live, but choose death instead.

Constantine XI Dragases Palaiologos, Latinized as Palaeologus (; 8 February 1405 – 29 May 1453) was the last reigning Byzantine emperor, ruling as a member of the Palaiologos dynasty from 1449 to his death in battle at the fall of Constantinople in 1453.

Svatý Konstantin XI. Palaiologos Dragaš (Dragases) (8. února 1405 – 29. května 1453) byl posledním byzantským císařem a posledním legitimním římským císařem (1449–1453). Byl synem císaře Manuela II. a císařovny Heleny Dragaš, a bratrem císaře Jana VIII.


Background.

The Sopron Congress was called against a background of social unrest, including civil revolt, religious friction and continuing threat of invasion from Turkey. The Emperor therefore determined that it was necessary to make concessions to his Protestant population to secure its loyalty.  However, severe restrictions were placed on the Protestant congregations. No more than two churches could be built in each administrative region (county)— in areas of strategic importance, the limit was one church — and buildings had to be outside city walls. Further regulations determined siting, and building procedures. As a consequence, the articular churches were all built of wood, mostly in the period 1681-1730. There were originally 38 such churches, nearly all located in the region of today's Slovakia.  Many of the churches displayed extraordinary ingenuity in their construction. They were typically decorated within by painting, often of a trompe l'oeil nature giving the impression of marble columns or drapery.

The articular churches today.

Five articular churches survive today in Slovakia. Perhaps the most well-known is the church in Kežmarok, built between 1718 and 1730 under the direction of Juraj Müttermann, replacing an earlier structure of 1687. Others are at Leštiny (1689, restored 1860s), Hronsek (1725-6, a wood-framed structure now without internal wall-paintings), Istebné (built between 1686 and 1731) and Svätý Kríž (about 1693). The latter church was originally located at the village of Paludza, which was submerged in the Liptovská Mara reservoir in the late 1970s. Between 1974 and 1977 the church was carefully dismantled and restored before being rebuilt in Svätý Kríž, where it was reconsecrated in 1982. The churches in Kežmarok, Leštiny and Hronsek are now part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site called Wooden churches of the Slovak Carpathians, declared in 2008.  The articular church at Spišská Nová Ves was dismantled in 1924, but some of its decorations, including a 17th-century retable depicting the mines and miners who brought the Spiš region much of its wealth, are preserved in the museum at Spišská Sobota.

Articular churches are wooden churches for Evangelical congregations in Slovakia erected under the terms of the Congress of Sopron of 1681. At this congress, summoned by the Habsburg Emperor Leopold I, permission was for the first time granted for followers of the Augsburg and Calvinist confessions to erect and maintain churches within the Emperor's dominions within the Kingdom of Hungary. As this permission was contained in Articles (i.e. clauses) 25 and 26 of the Congress's deliberations, the term 'articular' was applied to them.

Artikulární dřevěné kostely jsou protestantské kostely na Slovensku z konce 17. století a 18. století. Svolení ke stavbě kostelů si na císaři Leopoldovi I. vynutili povstalci Thökölyho povstání na sněmu v Šoproni roku 1678. Svolení ke stavbě 38 protestantských kostelů bylo zakotveno ve sněmovních zákonných článcích (artikulech) č. 25 a 26, odtud pochází i jejich název.


TGS ("Turbine à gaz spéciale") Prototype – XR 8575 Trainset.

In 1967, the SNCF converted a 2-car X 4300 Class diesel multiple unit train originally built by ANF Industrie (Ateliers Construction du Nord de la France) starting in 1963 (either train number X4375 or X4365), into the prototype experimental Turbotrain TGS ("Turbine à gaz spéciale"). The new gas-turbine engine was installed into the trailer car of this 2-car set; the original diesel power-car was fitted with a new cab but retained its original diesel motor and transmission.  Trials started on 25 April 1967. The TGS reached on 15 October 1971.

Class T 1000 ETG (Élément à Turbine à Gaz) Trains.

This is the first-generation of production Turbotrains. These ETG (Elément à Turbine à Gaz) trains were four carriage trainsets which offered 188 seats and possessed one diesel engine and one gas turbine engine. The gas-turbine engine was an 820 kW Turbomeca Turmo IIIF3 gas-turbine Voith hydraulic (derived from a helicopter turbine) and the diesel was a 320 kW Saurer SDHR diesel-mechanical. These trains reached. The ETGs entered service in 1971 on the Paris-Caen-Cherbourg. A total of 14 of these four-car trainsets were manufactured from 1969–1972 by ANF. These trains were maintained at the Venissieux trainshed in Lyon for "many years", but were moved to the Lyon Vaise depot in the 1980s. Electrification of the Grenoble line caused some trainsets to be shifted to work in Clermont Ferrand and Metz.

Class T 2000 RTG (Rame à Turbine à Gaz) Trains.

These trains had five carriages with 280 seats and were built between 1972 and 1976 by ANF and MTE (Societe de Materiel de Traction Electrique). Forty-one RTG trainsets were manufactured for SNCF service. These trains were equipped with one Turmo IIIF1 gas turbine in the even-numbered cabs and one Turmo XII gas turbine in the odd-numbered cabs, reaching. Normally, the even-numbered engine was shut down once the train reached cruising speeds. The RTG entered service in 1973 on the Strasbourg-Lyon and Lyon-Nantes lines, it subsequently entered service on the Paris-Caen-Cherbourg and Paris-Deauville-Dives-Cabourg lines in 1975. The electrification of the Paris-Caen-Cherbourg line in 1996 moved the RTGs onto the Lyon-Bordeaux line until 2005.  In later years, the SNCF RTG trainsets were modified to allow two RTG trains to be operated together by one driver as a multiple-unit train.

Export models.

Six examples of the RTG were built by ANF for Amtrak and were dubbed Turboliners in the United States. These RTG Turboliners were first imported into the United States in 1973 and "impressed with their reliability" and proliferated with further orders from France and license-production in the United States by Rohr.  The Egyptian National Railways purchased three enlarged 10-car turbotrains manufactured by ANF for a planned service on the 208 km route between Cairo and Alexandria. However, the trackage is not suitable for such speeds, and the trains have been restricted to maximum and in the vicinity of Cairo.  Four units of Turbotrains were introduced in Iran in 1974 with max speed of between Tehran-Mashhad that later in 2008 were converted to DMUs by substitution of diesel engines instead of turbines.

TGV 001 Experimental High-Speed Train.

This experimental Turbotrain TGV 001 set the world speed record for gas turbine-powered rail vehicles with on 8 December 1972.  This TGV 001 was a five-car trainset which possessed four gas-turbine engines with a total output of and all axles motored. This train was extensively tested over more than running at over, of which almost half were covered at more than and a peak of. The research program from this prototype, and from the Z7001 Zebulon electric test train, provided data used for the design of the later electric TGV trains.  The TGV 001 prototype was retired in January 1978; one power-car (TDu 001) from this trainset is preserved and is located on the A4 highway exit number 50 Bischheim near Strasbourg in Alsace, France. The other power-car (TDu 002) is preserved and located ont the A36 highway exit number 13 (Belfort-Glacis du Château) near Belfort in the Territoire de Belfort, France.

Public Reaction.

The RTGs were well loved by the public and it is with regret and nostalgia that the Turbotrain was replaced by Corail trains.  One RTG is kept in running condition at the French National Railway Museum in Mulhouse.

The Turbotrain was any of several French high-speed, gas turbine trains. The earliest Turbotrain entered service in 1967, for use on France's SNCF intercity lines. There were four versions in total, with the last exiting service in 2005, and it is the Turbotrain that made advances possible for the TGV.

Turbotrain byl prvním francouzským vysokorychlostním vlakem s pohonem spalovací turbínou. Jeho vznik se datuje do roku 1967. Byl určen pro meziměstské spoje SNCF ve Francii. Postupně vznikly čtyři verze tohoto vlaku, poslední byly vyřazeny z provozu v roce 2005. Turbotrain se stal předchůdcem vysokorychlostních vlaků TGV.


Background.

Origins and publication.

Christopher Paolini started reading fantasy books when he was 10 years old. At the age of 14, as a hobby, he started writing the first novel in a series of four books, but he could not get beyond a few pages because he had "no idea" where he was going. He began reading everything he could about the "art of writing", and then plotted the whole Inheritance Cycle book series. After a month of planning out the series, he started writing the draft of "Eragon" by hand. It was finished a year later, and Paolini began writing the "real" version of the book. After another year of editing, Paolini's parents saw the final manuscript. They immediately saw its potential and decided to publish the book through their small, home-based publishing company, Paolini International. Paolini created the cover art for this edition of "Eragon", which featured Saphira's eye on the cover. He also drew the maps inside the book.  Paolini and his family toured across the United States promoting the book. He gave over 135 talks at bookshops, libraries, and schools, many with Paolini dressed up in a medieval costume; but the book did not receive much attention. Paolini said he "would stand behind a table in my costume talking all day without a break – and would sell maybe forty books in eight hours if I did really well. [...] It was a very stressful experience. I couldn't have gone on for very much longer." In the summer of 2002, American novelist Carl Hiaasen was on vacation in one of the cities that Paolini gave a talk in. While there, Hiaasen's stepson bought a copy of "Eragon" that he "immediately loved". He showed it to Hiaasen, who brought the book to the attention of the publishing house Alfred A. Knopf. Michelle Frey, executive editor at Knopf, contacted Paolini and his family to ask if they were interested in having Knopf publish "Eragon". The answer was yes, and after another round of editing, Knopf published "Eragon" in August 2003, with a new cover, drawn by John Jude Palencar.

Inspiration and influences.

Paolini cites old myths, folk tales, medieval stories, the epic poem "Beowulf", and authors J. R. R. Tolkien and Eric Rücker Eddison as his biggest influences in writing. Other literary influences include David Eddings, Andre Norton, Brian Jacques, Anne McCaffrey, Raymond E. Feist, Mervyn Peake, Ursula K. Le Guin, Frank Herbert, Philip Pullman, and Garth Nix.  The ancient language used by the elves in "Eragon" is based "almost entirely" on Old Norse, German, Anglo Saxon, and Russian myth. Paolini commented: "[I] did a god-awful amount of research into the subject when I was composing it. I found that it gave the world a much richer feel, a much older feel, using these words that had been around for centuries and centuries. I had a lot of fun with that." Picking the right names for the characters and places was a process that could take "days, weeks, or even years". Paolini said: "if I have difficulty choosing the correct moniker, I use a placeholder name until a replacement suggests itself." He added that he was "really lucky" with the name Eragon, "because it's just dragon with one letter changed." Also, Paolini commented that he thought of both parts of the name "Eragon" - "era" and "gone" - as if the name itself changes the era in which the character lives. He thought the name fit the book perfectly, but some of the other names caused him "real headaches".  The landscape in "Eragon" is based on the "wild territory" of Paolini's home state, Montana. He said in an interview: "I go hiking a lot, and oftentimes when I'm in the forest or in the mountains, sitting down and seeing some of those little details makes the difference between having an okay description and having a unique description." Paolini also said that Paradise Valley, Montana is "one of the main sources" of his inspiration for the landscape in the book ("Eragon" takes place in the fictional continent Alagaësia). Paolini "roughed out" the main history of the land before he wrote the book, but he did not draw a map of it until it became important to see where Eragon was traveling. He then started to get history and plot ideas from seeing the landscape depicted.  Paolini chose to have Eragon mature throughout the book because, "for one thing, it's one of the archetypal fantasy elements". He thought Eragon's growth and maturation throughout the book "sort of mirrored my own growing abilities as a writer and as a person, too. So it was a very personal choice for that book." Eragon's dragon, Saphira, was imagined as "the perfect friend" by Paolini. He decided to go in a more "human direction" with her because she is raised away from her own species, in "close mental contact" with a human. "I considered making the dragon more dragon-like, if you will, in its own society, but I haven't had a chance to explore that. I went with a more human element with Saphira while still trying to get a bit of the magic, the alien, of her race." Paolini made Saphira the "best friend anyone could have: loyal, funny, brave, intelligent, and noble. She transcended that, however, and became her own person, fiercely independent and proud." Saphira's blue tinted vision was in turn inspired by Paolini's own color-blindness.  Paolini deliberately included archetypal elements of a fantasy novel like a quest, a journey of experience, revenge, romance, betrayal, and a "unique" sword. The book is described as a fantasy, and "Booklist" observed: "Paolini knows the genre well—his lush tale is full of recognizable fantasy elements and conventions". "Kirkus Reviews" called the book a "high fantasy"; other reviewers have compared it to other books of the fantasy genre, such as "Star Wars" and "Lord of the Rings", and in some instances stated "Eragon"s plot is too similar to those other fantasy novels.

Plot summary.

A shade named Durza, along with a group of urgals, ambushes a party of three elves. After he and the urgals kill the other elves, Durza attempts to steal an egg carried by one of the female elves, but is foiled when she causes it to vanish. Infuriated, he renders her unconscious with a ball of fire and abducts her.  Eragon is a fifteen-year-old boy who has lived with his uncle Garrow and cousin Roran on a farm near the village of Carvahall, ever since his mother Selena, Garrow's sister, left him there right after his birth. While hunting in the Spine, Eragon is surprised to see the blue dragon egg, which he believes to be a stone, appear in front of him. A few months later, Eragon witnesses a baby dragon hatch from the egg. Eragon names the dragon Saphira, after a name the old village storyteller Brom mentions. He raises the dragon in secret until two of King Galbatorix's servants, the Ra'zac, come to Carvahall. Eragon and Saphira manage to escape by hiding in the Spine, but Garrow is fatally wounded and the house and farm are burned down by the Ra'zac. Once Garrow dies, Eragon is left with no reason to stay in Carvahall, so he goes after the Ra'zac with his newly hatched dragon, seeking vengeance for the destruction of his home and his uncle's death. He is accompanied by Brom, who provides Eragon with the sword Zar'roc and insists on helping him and Saphira.  Eragon becomes a Dragon Rider, an ancient warrior charged with promoting peace in Alagaësia, through his bond with Saphira. He is the only known Rider in Alagaësia other than King Galbatorix, who, with the help of the now-dead Forsworn, a group of thirteen dragon riders loyal to Galbatorix, killed every other Rider a hundred years ago. On the journey, Brom teaches Eragon sword fighting, magic, the ancient elvish language, and the ways of the Dragon Riders. Their travels bring them to the city of Teirm, where they meet with Brom's friend Jeod. Eragon's fortune is told by the witch Angela, and her companion, the werecat Solembum, gives Eragon some mysterious advice. With Jeod's help, they are able to track the Ra'zac to the southern city of Dras-Leona. Although they manage to infiltrate the city, Eragon encounters the Ra'zac in a cathedral and he and Brom are forced to flee. Later that night, their camp is ambushed by the Ra'zac. A stranger named Murtagh rescues them, but Brom is mortally wounded. Saphira watches over Brom as the night progresses, yet when morning comes they realize there is nothing they can do to save him. Brom gives Eragon his blessing, reveals that he was also once a Dragon Rider and that his dragon's name was Saphira, and dies. Saphira then encases Brom in a tomb made of diamond.  Murtagh becomes Eragon's new companion and they travel to the city Gil'ead to find information on how to find the Varden, a group of rebels who want to see the downfall of Galbatorix. While stopping near Gil'ead, Eragon is captured and imprisoned in the same jail that holds a woman he has been having dreams about. As she is being dragged past she is revealed as an elf when her pointed ears are uncovered. Murtagh and Saphira stage a rescue, and Eragon escapes with the unconscious elf. During the escape, Eragon and Murtagh battle with Durza. Murtagh shoots Durza between the eyes with an arrow, and the Shade disappears in a cloud of mist. Having escaped, they run off. Eragon succeeds in communicating with the elf, whose name is revealed as Arya, and learns the location of the Varden. After some arguing, Murtagh decides to still travel with Eragon to the Varden but is still wary of them.  An army of Kull (Urgals who can grow up to 8 feet) reach Eragon right outside the Varden's entrance, but are driven off with the help of the Varden, who escort Eragon, Saphira, Murtagh, and Arya to Farthen Dûr, the mountain hideout of the Varden. When they arrive in Farthen Dûr, Eragon is led to the leader of the Varden, Ajihad. Ajihad imprisons Murtagh after he refuses to allow his mind to be read to determine if he is a friend or a foe to the Varden. Eragon is told by Ajihad that Durza was not destroyed by Murtagh's arrow, because the only way to kill a Shade is with a stab through the heart. Orik, nephew of the dwarf King Hrothgar, is appointed as Eragon and Saphira's guide. Orik shows them a place to stay and introduces them to Hrothgar. Eragon also meets Ajihad's daughter, Nasuada, and Ajihad's right-hand man, Jörmundur. He also runs into Angela and Solembum, who have arrived in Tronjheim, and visits Murtagh in his prison. He is tested by two magicians, The Twins, as well as Arya.  Eragon and the Varden are then attacked by the Kull, as well as the rest of the Urgal army. Eragon personally battles Durza again, and succeeds in stabbing him in the heart with Zar'roc, but Durza slashes a deep cut like Murtagh's on his back. He then passes out, and is visited telepathically by a stranger while he is unconscious, who tells Eragon to visit him in the Elven capital, Ellesméra.

Reception.

"Eragon" received generally mixed reviews and was criticized for its derivative nature. Liz Rosenberg of "The New York Times Book Review" criticized "Eragon" for having "clichéd descriptions", "B-movie dialogue", "awkward and gangly prose." However, she concluded the review by noting that "for all its flaws, it is an authentic work of great talent". "School Library Journal" wrote that in "Eragon" "sometimes the magic solutions are just too convenient for getting out of difficult situations". Common Sense Media called "Eragon"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s dialogue "long-winded" and "clichéd", with a plot "straight out of "Star Wars" by way of "The Lord of the Rings", with bits of other great fantasies thrown in here and there." The website did concede that the book is a notable achievement for such a young author, and that it would be "appreciated" by younger fans.  Favorable reviews of "Eragon" often focused on the book's characters and plot. IGN's Matt Casamassina called the book "entertaining", and added that "Paolini demonstrates that he understands how to hold the reader's eyes and this is what ultimately separates "Eragon" from countless other me-too fantasy novels." Chris Lawrence of About.com thought the book had all the "traditional ingredients" that make a fantasy novel "enjoyable". The book was a "fun read" for him because it is "quick and exciting" and "packed" with action and magic. Lawrence concluded his review by giving the book a rating of 3.8/5, commenting that "the characters are interesting, the plot is engrossing, and you know the good guy will win in the end."  "Eragon" was the third best-selling children's hardback book of 2003, and the second best-selling children's paperback of 2005. It placed on the "New York Times" Children's Books Best Seller list for 121 weeks. In 2006, the novel was awarded with a Nene Award by the children of Hawaii. It won the Rebecca Caudill Young Reader's Book Award and the Young Reader's Choice Award the same year.

Adaptations.

Film.

A film adaptation of "Eragon" was released in the United States on December 15, 2006. Plans to create the film were first announced in February 2004, when 20th Century Fox purchased the rights to "Eragon". The film was directed by first-timer Stefen Fangmeier, and written by Peter Buchman. Edward Speleers was selected for the role of Eragon. Over the following months, Jeremy Irons, John Malkovich, Chris Egan and Djimon Hounsou were all confirmed as joining the cast. Principal photography for the film took place in Hungary and Slovakia.  The film received mostly negative reviews, garnering a 16% approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes; the tenth worst of 2006. "The Seattle Times" described it as "technically accomplished, but fairly lifeless and at times a bit silly". "The Hollywood Reporter" said the world of "Eragon" was "without much texture or depth". The story was labelled "derivative" by "The Washington Post", and "generic" by the "Las Vegas Weekly". "Newsday" stressed this point further, asserting that only "nine-year-olds with no knowledge whatsoever of any of the six "Star Wars" movies" would find the film original. The acting was called "lame" by the "Washington Post," as well as "stilted" and "lifeless" by the "Orlando Weekly". The dialogue was also criticized: MSNBC labelled it "silly"; the "Las Vegas Weekly" called it "wooden". Positive reviews described the film as "fun" and "the stuff boys' fantasies are made of". The CGI work was called "imaginative" and Saphira was called a "magnificent creation". Paolini stated he enjoyed the film, particularly praising the performances of Jeremy Irons and Ed Speleers.  "Eragon" grossed approximately $75 million in the United States and $173.9 million elsewhere, totaling $249 million worldwide. It is the fifth highest-grossing film with a dragon at its focal point, and the sixth highest-grossing film of the sword and sorcery subgenre. "Eragon" was in release for seventeen weeks in the United States, opening on December 15, 2006 and closing on April 9, 2007. It opened in 3,020 theaters, earning $8.7 million on opening day and $23.2 million across opening weekend, ranking second behind "The Pursuit of Happyness". Eragon's $75 million total United States gross was the thirty-first highest for 2006. The film earned $150 million in its opening weekend across 76 overseas markets, making it the #1 film worldwide. The film's $249 million total worldwide gross was the sixteenth highest for 2006.

Video game.

A video game adaptation of "Eragon" based primarily on the film, released in North America on November 14, 2006. The game is a third-person video game released for PlayStation 2, Xbox, Xbox 360 and Microsoft Windows, developed by Stormfront Studios. Also released are unique versions of Eragon for the Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, PlayStation Portable, and mobile phone handheld gaming systems, primarily developed by Amaze Entertainment. The console and PC versions of the game are very similar, focusing on the same style of gameplay. However, the Xbox 360 edition features two exclusive levels. One is on foot as Eragon, and Saphira is controlled in the second mission.  The game has received generally negative reviews usually receiving press averages around the 4-6 out of 10 region (or the equivalent), (45-55 out of 100) according to review aggregator sites Metacritic and GameRankings. The combined sales in North America were over 400,000 copies.  The majority of the game is taken up by third-person combat, usually on foot. Some missions permit the player to use the dragon Saphira in combat. The gameplay mechanics within these levels are largely similar to those in ground-based levels, with the exception of some different attack moves (such as tail attacks). Protagonist Eragon sits on Saphira's back during these sections, and can be made to fire magic arrows. The player has no choice as to whether or not they use Saphira. Similarly, the player cannot use Saphira in ground-based levels: they can call for her and she will swoop past, but it is not possible to use this feature to ride Saphira. There is a multiplayer co-op mode which allows two people to play through the main storyline. It is possible to switch from playing a one-player game to a two-player game at any time. There are no Internet multiplayer options.

Eragon is the first book in "The Inheritance Cycle" by American fantasy writer Christopher Paolini. Paolini, born in 1983, wrote the novel while still in his teens. After writing the first draft for a year, Paolini spent a second year rewriting and fleshing out the story and characters. His parents saw the final manuscript and in 2001 decided to self-publish "Eragon;" Paolini spent a year traveling around the United States promoting the novel. The book was discovered by novelist Carl Hiaasen, who got it re-published by Alfred A. Knopf. The re-published version was released on August 26, 2003.

Vlámský Brabant (nizozemsky ', francouzsky ') je jedna z pěti provincií, které tvoří Vlámský region v Belgii. Sousedí na severu s provincií Antverpy, na západě s provincií Limburk, na jihu s provinciemi Lutych, Valonský Brabant a Henegavsko a na západě s provincií Východní Flandry. Vlámský Brabant má hranice rovněž s Bruselským regionem, který ze všech stran obklopuje.


Algorithm.

A linear search sequentially checks each element of the list until it finds an element that matches the target value. If the algorithm reaches the end of the list, the search terminates unsuccessfully.

Basic algorithm.

Given a list of elements with values or records, and target value, the following subroutine uses linear search to find the index of the target in.

With a sentinel.

The basic algorithm above makes two comparisons per iteration: one to check if equals "T", and the other to check if still points to a valid index of the list. By adding an extra record to the list (a sentinel value) that equals the target, the second comparison can be eliminated until the end of the search, making the algorithm faster. The search will reach the sentinel if the target is not contained within the list.

In an ordered table.

If the list is ordered such that, the search can establish the absence of the target more quickly by concluding the search once exceeds the target. This variation requires a sentinel that is greater than the target.

Analysis.

For a list with "n" items, the best case is when the value is equal to the first element of the list, in which case only one comparison is needed. The worst case is when the value is not in the list (or occurs only once at the end of the list), in which case "n" comparisons are needed.  If the value being sought occurs "k" times in the list, and all orderings of the list are equally likely, the expected number of comparisons is  For example, if the value being sought occurs once in the list, and all orderings of the list are equally likely, the expected number of comparisons is formula_2. However, if it is "known" that it occurs once, then at most "n" - 1 comparisons are needed, and the expected number of comparisons is  (for example, for "n" = 2 this is 1, corresponding to a single if-then-else construct).  Either way, asymptotically the worst-case cost and the expected cost of linear search are both O("n").

Non-uniform probabilities.

The performance of linear search improves if the desired value is more likely to be near the beginning of the list than to its end. Therefore, if some values are much more likely to be searched than others, it is desirable to place them at the beginning of the list.  In particular, when the list items are arranged in order of decreasing probability, and these probabilities are geometrically distributed, the cost of linear search is only O(1).

Application.

Linear search is usually very simple to implement, and is practical when the list has only a few elements, or when performing a single search in an un-ordered list.  When many values have to be searched in the same list, it often pays to pre-process the list in order to use a faster method. For example, one may sort the list and use binary search, or build an efficient search data structure from it. Should the content of the list change frequently, repeated re-organization may be more trouble than it is worth.  As a result, even though in theory other search algorithms may be faster than linear search (for instance binary search), in practice even on medium-sized arrays (around 100 items or less) it might be infeasible to use anything else. On larger arrays, it only makes sense to use other, faster search methods if the data is large enough, because the initial time to prepare (sort) the data is comparable to many linear searches.

In computer science, a linear search or sequential search is a method for finding an element within a list. It sequentially checks each element of the list until a match is found or the whole list has been searched.

Lineární vyhledávání (také známé jako sekvenční vyhledávání) je vyhledávací algoritmus vhodný na nalezení určité hodnoty v seznamu. Funguje na principu procházení všech prvků seznamu. Lineární vyhledávání má časovou složitost O(N). V případě náhodného rozložení je průměrně potřeba N/2 porovnání. Nejlepší případ nastane tehdy, když se hledaná hodnota nachází na prvním místě v seznamu, v tomto případě je potřeba pouze jedno porovnání. Nejhorší případ nastane tehdy, když se hodnota v seznamu vůbec nevyskytuje; v tom případě je potřeba N porovnání.


History.

Oulipo was founded on November 24, 1960, as a subcommittee of the Collège de 'Pataphysique and titled "Séminaire de littérature expérimentale". At their second meeting, the group changed its name to "Ouvroir de littérature potentielle", or Oulipo, at Albert-Marie Schmidt's suggestion. The idea had arisen two months earlier, when a small group met in September at Cerisy-la-Salle for a colloquium on Queneau's work. During this seminar, Queneau and François Le Lionnais conceived the society.  During the subsequent decade, Oulipo (as it was commonly known) was only rarely visible as a group. As a subcommittee, they reported their work to the full Collège de 'Pataphysique in 1961. In addition,'devoted an issue to Oulipo in 1964, and Belgian radio broadcast one Oulipo meeting. Its members were individually active during these years and published works which were created within their constraints. The group as a whole began to emerge from obscurity in 1973 with the publication of ', a collection of representative pieces. Martin Gardner helped to popularize the group in America when he featured Oulipo in his February 1977 Mathematical Games column in Scientific American. In 2012 Harvard University Press published a history of the movement, "Many Subtle Channels: In Praise of Potential Literature", by Oulipo member Daniel Levin Becker.  Oulipo was founded by a group of men in 1960 and it took 15 years before the first woman was allowed to join; this was Michèle Métail who became a member in 1975 and has since distanced herself from the group. Since 1960 only six women have joined Oulipo, with Clémentine Mélois last to join in June 2017.

Oulipian works.

Some examples of Oulipian writing:

Constraints.

Some Oulipian constraints:

Members.

Founding members.

The founding members of Oulipo represented a range of intellectual pursuits, including writers, university professors, mathematicians, engineers, and "pataphysicians":

Oulipo (, short for ; roughly translated: ""workshop of potential literature"", stylized "OuLiPo") is a loose gathering of (mainly) French-speaking writers and mathematicians who seek to create works using constrained writing techniques. It was founded in 1960 by Raymond Queneau and François Le Lionnais. Other notable members have included novelists Georges Perec and Italo Calvino, poets Oskar Pastior, Jean Lescure and poet/mathematician Jacques Roubaud.

OuLiPo (psáno rovněž "Oulipo") je experimentální literární skupina založená 24. listopadu 1960. Jejími zakladateli byli Raymond Queneau a François Le Lionnais.


Purpose.

Socionics provides a means of predicting the character of relations and degree of business compatibility, information sharing and psychological compatibility of people before their joining in one collective group, i.e. to solve the "inverse task" of sociometry.  According to Aleksandr Bukalov and Betty Lou Leaver, socionics uses Jungian typology, informational model of psyche, and theory of information metabolism for political and sociological analysis.  According to G. Fink and B. Mayrhofer, socionics is considered one of the four most popular models of personality (including cybernetic theory Maruyama, five-factor model, Big Five" and typology Myers–Briggs Type Indicator), deserving special attention because of its importance in the study of personality.  According to J. Horwood, and A. Maw socionics is a science developed by Ausra Augustinaviciute in the 1970s. Augustinaviciute and her colleagues worked with Carl Jung's personality typologies to

History.

The basic structure of socionics was established in the 1960s and 1970s by Aušra Augustinavičiūtė, along with a group of enthusiasts who met in Vilnius, Lithuania. What resulted from their discussions and Augustinavičiūtė's personal investigations was an information model of the psyche and of interpersonal interaction based on Jung's typology but with eight psychic functions rather than four. Augustinavičiūtė's first works on socionics were published between 1978 and 1980.

Relation to the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator.

According to Betty Lou Leaver, Madeline Ehrman, and Boris Shekhtman, like the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), socionics is a sixteen-type derivative of Jung's work. Unlike MBTI, which is widely criticized for the lack of validity and utility, the socionics model, which is in some use in Eastern and Western Europe, as well as throughout Eurasia, Central Asia, and the Baltic nations, strives to stay very close to the original descriptions and type labels suggested by Carl Jung. According to Betty Lou Leaver, "today's concepts of personality emanate most frequently from the work of Carl Jung, whose theories and research have blossomed into a juncture of philosophical and sociological inquiry. This field of inquiry has been called socionics."  According to Sergei Moshenkov and Tung Tang Wing, "MBTI and Socionics are

Current status.

Currently, socionic methods are widely used in academic and applied research. According to the catalog DisserCat from 1996 to 2011 in Russia, Ukraine and other countries were defended more than 800 doctoral theses, using methods and analytic

Organizations.

There are several socionics organizations. The International Institute of Socionics (IIS) was established in 1991 in Kiev, Ukraine, and for years has held the most prominent annual international socionics conference. The institute pursues the continued development of socionics theory, renders commercial consulting services, and since 1994 has released a bimonthly journal "Socionics, Mentology, and Personality Psychology" (six issues a year). Topics in the journal usually range anywhere from studies and applications of the primary principles of socionics to speculative extensions of the theory. The director and founder of the institute is Dr. Aleksandr Bukalov. In 2006 the institute established an International Academic Board to issue bachelors, masters, and PhD degrees in socionics.  The Scientific Research Socionics Institute is located in Moscow, Russia, and is led by Tatyana Prokofieva. The

Socionics as an academic discipline.

Through the work of the International Institute of Socionics and other schools of socionics, there are four peer-reviewed journals and an annual International conference on socionics. A.V. Bukalov and O.B. Karpenko note that socionics is taught in more than 150 universities in Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and other CIS countries, as well as in Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Romania, either as a separate course, or, in view of the applicability of the various methods of socionics Humanities, as part of educational courses on Sociology, Pedagogy, Social Psychology, Management and Psychology of Management, human resource management, Conflictology, social services and Tourism, Computer Science and Programming, Philosophy, Neurology, Journalism, Library Science, Social Work, Didactics and others, including Engineering disciplines.  Some universities in Russia (including Altai State Technical University, Bashkir State University, Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University, and Saint Petersburg State University) Ukraine, Bulgaria, Romania have published or commissioned a number of textbooks and monographs on socionics, or on psychology, pedagogy and management, which socionics and its methods are devoted to specific topics.  There are new areas of research, such as educational socionics, sociological socionics, aviation socionics, library socionics, technical socionics, linguistic socionics, penitentiary socionics, and socionics in other subject areas.  Socionics

Propagation of socionics.

In Ukraine, Russia, Belarus, Latvia, Lithuania, Kazakhstan, Armenia, Georgia, Bulgaria, and Central Asia, socionics has grown significantly in popularity. A number of organizations which periodically hold conferences in Kiev, Moscow, St. Petersburg, and other cities.  Socionics was first introduced in English in the mid-1990s when Sergei Ganin created Socionics.com. Since 1997, there is a resource of the International Institute of Socionics, Socionic.info. Dmitri Lytov, creator of the multi-language socionics resource, Socioniko.net, presented

Practical applications.

Socionists have devised humanitarian, political, and information technologies that have been applied to various fields of human activity. Socionic techniques have been applied at more than 120 enterprises from Russia, Ukraine, Germany, and the Baltics by members of the International Institute of

Socionics technologies in management, staff recruitment and team building.

Management is the area concerned with the application of both theoretical and practical socionics methods and S-technologies. Socionics methods and techniques were successfully implemented by the fellow consultants of International Institute of Socionics and their colleagues in management, reorganization, and team building in more than 150 firms, banks and companies in Germany, Latvia, Russia, Ukraine and other countries, included 30 enterprises of the Russian gas concern "Gazprom" in the North of Russia. Management of Deutsche Bank is using socionics methods to evaluate potential of its future employees.  Prof. J. Horwood and Prof. A. Maw socionics used to form the surgical ambulances  In recent decades interest to socionics tools in German, Russian, Ukrainian and other companies has grown dramatically. Socinics model has been implemented in enterprises of the world's largest aluminium company Rusal for evaluating

Family socionics.

Socionics allocates 16 types of the relations — from most attractive and comfortable up to disputed. The understanding of a nature of these relations helps to solve a number of problems of the interpersonal relations, including aspects of psychological and sexual compatibility. The researches

Nuclear power plants' security.

Security management of dangerous chemical or nuclear enterprises requires special methods of recruitment and work. To provide high security level on nuclear power plants by optimizing the human factor defined a number of ergonomic factors which have an influence on a person in a modern management system: the intensity of work, time factor, isolation of workplace that causes tight interpersonal contacts; monotony of work; lack of physical activity; negative external influences (noise, vibration, etc.).  Each of these factors and especially their combination leads to extreme modes and related stresses (not to mention other circumstances that faced operational staff of plants). However, those approaches are difficult to implement because of financial and timing loss. Except factors caused by external operational activity there are

Pedagogical socionics.

The concepts and methods of socionics are widely used in pedagogy, this collaboration creates a new scientific branch – pedagogical socionics.  Pletuhina noted that the parent, trainer or teacher, who knows the theory of socionics, who also understands an idea of the "image of a socionics type" and who can determine the child's personality type with a sufficient degree of probability can use those opportunities of the individual approaches that socionics provides to raise and

Socionics in astronautics.

In Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center which located in Star City, Russia socionics methods are successfully used since 1992 for training Russian astronauts and international astronauts' crews and preparing them to spaceflights. Interpersonal issues and effective collaboration are extremely important in extreme conditions while working in a close space and are vital for successful spaceflight. In Star City conducted

Aviation socionics.

Socionics methods appeared helpful for aviation due to the safety of flights, passengers and crew members. This reasons leads to development of such branch as aviation socionics, which is a part of training process for crew members of aircraft.  According to order of the Ministry of transport of Russian Federation Flight Standards Department approved a default application "Training of pilots in the field of human factor", which expects basic socionics knowledge not only among pilots and other crew members, but also prognosing interaction in air crews by socionics methods, including such topics: "Topic

Jung's psychological types.

Carl Jung describes four "psychological functions" that are capable of becoming applicable psychically, but to differing degrees in individuals:  In addition to these four types, Jung defines a polarity between introverted and extraverted personalities. This distinction is based on how people invest energy: either into the inner, subjective, psychical world (usually called "Seele", soul, by Jung), or toward their outer, objective, physical

Information metabolism elements (often confused with memetics).

In socionics, Jung's cognitive functions are always either introverted (focused on refining quality) or extroverted (focused on increasing quantity), and are referred to as "information metabolism elements" (IM Elements). These are said to process "information aspects". To understand what an information aspect is, it is necessary to understand information metabolism as Augustinavičiūtė understood it.  Augustinavičiūtė states that the human mind uses eight elements of information metabolism (mental functions) to perceive the world, and each of these eight elements reflect one particular aspect of objective reality. In her works she describes aspects of the world based on physical quantities such as potential and kinetic energy,

The 16 types.

Socionics divides people into 16 different types, called sociotypes. They are most commonly referred to by their two strongest functions, which in socionics are called the "leading" function (Jung's dominant) and the "creative" function (Jung's auxiliary). The creative function is opposite to the leading function in extraversion and rationality. For example, if the dominant function is introverted logic (a rational and introverted function), the secondary function must be irrational and extraverted, which means it must be either extraverted sensing or extraverted intuition.  Aušra Augustinavičiūtė usually used names like "sensory-logical introvert" (SLI) to refer to the types. In SLI the leading function is introverted sensation and the creative function is extraverted logic. She also introduced the practice of referring to types by the name of a famous person of the type (although types of these persons are not universally agreed upon, with the old name "Napoleon" for the SEE being replaced by "Caesar" after being deemed an inaccurate type assignment). For example, she called the SLI "Gabin" and the SEI "Dumas". Also sometimes names such as "Craftsman" or "Mediator" are used to express the social role of the type—a convention introduced by socionist Viktor Gulenko in 1995. Given the formal similarities present between Socionics and the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) abbreviations frequently used in English, some prefer to distinguish socionic type names from Myers–Briggs' names by writing the last letter (J or P) in lower case (for example, ENTp, ESFj)—a practice introduced by Sergei Ganin. This is because the relationship between socionics and Myers–Briggs and Keirseyan types is controversial.  Dmitri Lytov and Marianna Lytova state that "main spheres of application of socionics are almost the same as for the Myers–Briggs Type Theory", and that observed differences in correlation "represent characteristic stereotypes of the socionics and the Keirsey typology. Others state that MBTI and socionics "correlate in roughly 30% of cases," and that "there are many subtle differences". J and P in Socionics and Myers–Briggs are completely different: in Myers–Briggs, J and P stands for the "first extraverted function" (J—extraverted thinking or feeling, P—extraverted sensing or intuition); in Socionics, J and P stands for the "first function" (J—rational (thinking and feeling), P—irrational (sensing and intuition)). This formal conversion is carried out in accordance with the.  In dividing the socion according to the four Jungian dichotomies, from this is formed 16 socionic types. The following tables provide a list of types with the names most commonly used in socionics:  Among socionists, the prevailing view is that sociotypes are inborn and genetically determined, although the content of different functions and dimensions may vary. Some socionists believe that sociotypes may temporarily change while in altered states of consciousness or under great stress.  Vladimir Ermak first introduced two important concepts of modern socionics further confirmed by Elena Udalova research. The first one is the growth dynamics which means that every horizontal block of two functions (see below) is filling in the certain age, from bottom to top, with the roughly 7-year interval, so that the lowest block is done before 7, the next is complete before 14, the weak part of the mental track is done before 21, and the top block finally leads after that. Due to this process, a child, or a teenager, may demonstrate faces of other sociotypes according to the active horizontal block. Besides, being introduced to the unknown people, or in stressful situations, people again may demonstrate adaptive or protective behaviour directed by the appropriate blocks (see below).  The second concept is so called functional dimensions. It was introduced by Aleksandr Bukalov. He defined the first dimension as the personal experience (Ex), the second dimension as social norms (Nr), the third dimension as the current situation (St), and the fourth dimension as the globality, or time perspective (Tm). This concept is useful because it best illustrates the difference in cognitive power (imagine measuring capability of 2D v. 3D measuring tool) and roughly describes abilities of each function to process and generate information. Still, definitions of dimensions require further research and clarification. For example, the vulnerable function tends to lose knowledge which haven't been used.

Model A.

Aušra Augustinavičiūtė developed a model of personality called "Model A", which includes eight functional positions. Every human has every function, and can perceive and process any available information aspect by them; however, depending on where the metabolizing function for an aspect is located in a type's functional ordering, the actual quality of the produced information and the means of its use may vary. The following diagram is an example of the positions of the functions in Model A (numbers of functions are in Viktor Gulenko's notation). The numbering of the functions is semi-arbitrary, and is intended to represent on the one hand the smooth flow of information from function 1 to 4 (the so-called "mental" track), and the mirroring of that flow by the other four. (the so-called "vital" track)  For example, the ILE type has the following version of Model A:

Nature of functional positions.

Note that Model A provides the justification for the type names. The socionic name is leading-creative-extra/introversion. For

Blocks of the psyche.

According to Augustinavičiūtė, the functions are paired in four blocks. They are, in order: the ego block, the super-ego block, the super-id block, and the id block. The ego block contains the leading (1) and creative (2) functions, the super-ego block contains the role (3) and vulnerable (4) functions, the super-id block contains the suggestive (5) and mobilizing

Intertype relations.

Socionics postulates that the way information is communicated between different types results in different interaction styles, called intertype relations. Each intertype relation has its bad and good qualities, though duality is generally considered to be the most psychologically comfortable as a long-term relationship. In total there are 16 relationship roles for each type (14 when not counting the split roles in the supervision and benefit relationship). All relations beside Request and Supervision are symmetric. Request and Supervision relations are asymmetric and have 2 roles: Request – Requester and Request recipient, Supervision – Supervisor and Supervisee. Each cell in the table shows who the type in the left column is to the type in the top row.  Key: Du – Duality; Ac – Activation; Sd – Semi-duality; Mg – Mirage; Mr – Mirror; Id – Identity; Cp – Cooperation; Cg – Congenerity; QI – Quasi-Identity; Ex – Extinguishment; Se – Super-ego; Cf – Conflict; Rq+ – Requester; Rq- – Request recipient; Sv+ – Supervisor; Sv- – Supervisee

Duality.

Duality is a fundamental concept in Socionics. Dual relations are characterized by mutual benefit and support, and are generally viewed as optimal for friendship, intimacy, and marriage (though sociotype is not the only factor influencing this). The eight dual pairs are as follows:  In dual relations, the leading function of one partner is the suggestive function of the other, and the creative function of one partner is the mobilizing function of the other. Thus, the ego functions (the strongest and most socialized) of each correspond to the super-id functions of the

Activation.

Activation relations occur between two members of the same quadra who share either introversion or extraversion. This relations can resemble duality since the super-id functions are both present in the ego functions of the other partner. However, these

Semi-duality.

Relations of semi-duality are similar to relations of duality. Semi-duality occurs between partners who lead (by leading function) each other's dual-seeking (5th) functions but lack each other's creative functions (to assist their mobilizing functions). As a result, both partners often perceive elements of duality from the relationship but feel

Mirage.

Mirage relations occur between partners whose creative functions are the other partners' mobilizing functions, but whose dual seeking (5th) functions are the other partners'

Mirror.

Mirror relations occur between types who share the same ego functions, yet place different emphases on them; the dominant function of one partner is the creative function of the other. Mirror relations are characterized by similar actions and motivations between partners, and mutual understanding. Interactions usually result in a drawn out dialogue, as each partner seems to keep

Identity.

Relations of Identity describe relations between two individuals of the same type. Often, both partners will have similar perceptions of situations and problems, and will take similar actions. Partners usually understand the motivations behind the other's

Cooperation.

Cooperation relations occur between partners who have the same creative function but differing dominant functions. As a result, partners may often perform similar activities or have similar fields of

Congenerity.

People in congenerity (aka kindred, or comparative) relations have the same dominant function but different creative functions. They often see each other as interesting people and can see

Quasi-identity.

Relations of Quasi-identity are characterized by mutual misunderstanding. One partner's ego functions are the other partner's demonstrative and observant functions. As quasi-identicals have opposite functions, they will often have similar interests (id block and ego blocks contain the same functions) and become involved in similar activities,

Extinguishment.

Extinguishment relations occur between types confident in the same area of the psyche but who place different emphases on each function. These relations often consist of similar

Super-ego.

Super-ego relations occur between types whose ego functions are the other partners' super-ego functions. Super-ego relations are generally characterized by differing values, discomfort, and mutual misunderstanding.

Conflict.

Relations of Conflict are, unsurprisingly, characterized by constantly escalating conflict. Conflictors are the types with the most dissimilar values, and they rarely understand anything regarding each other's motivations or lifestyles. Conflictors may take for granted as truths what their

Request.

Relations of request are asymmetrical relations; one type requests another. The request recipient's dual seeking function is the requester's creative function, and as a result the request recipient

Supervision.

Relations of supervision are asymmetrical; one type supervises another. Relations of supervision are characterized by the supervisor's attempt to introduce his base function into the supervisee's life. The supervisor often perceives the supervisee as an interesting person and understands the supervisee's lifestyle,

Groups of types.

Quadras.

A "quadra" is a group of four types in which only identity, dual, activity, and mirror relations occur. Quadras are distinguished by offering the greatest degree of psychological comfort among all groups containing four types. The feeling of comfort and harmony produced by the quadra is due to the fact that all types in the quadra seek to give expression to the shared set of information elements in their ego and super-id blocks and to de-emphasize the information elements in their super-ego and

Clubs.

Clubs are groups that reflect spheres

Temperaments.

"Viktor Gulenko"'s hypothesis of the existence of four temperaments in socionics is as follows.  Beside Gulenko's, there

Other models.

In addition to Model A, two other models are in wide use by socionists. Model B, created by Aleksandr Bukalov, is designed to reconcile the socionics standpoint with the so-called "Model J" (Jung's outlook) and uses sixteen functional components instead of eight. The model uses the same eight functions as Model A, but further differentiates them by attributing positive and negative polarities to each. Model B also refines Model A's strong/weak concept by attributing vectors of dimensionality to each function. This allows it to describe with precision why some functions are relied on more than others.  The four dimensions are  Experience is the lowest dimension; globality is the highest. The importance of the dimension system lies in its clarification of the differences between strong and weak functions. Although any type may learn information specific to any function with adequate study, only the strong functions have the vectors of situation which are required to create new knowledge. The types are thus reliant on each other in their search for understanding.

Model T.

In 2006, Viktor Talanov sought to identify cognitive correlates for functions. Recent advances in cognitive psychology have facilitated understanding of information processing at the cognitive level. Introversion has been

Methods of type identification.

Socionists often use several methods when determining a personality type.  Nonverbal behavior (also called "image method") is a particularly popular method popularized by Aušra Augustinavičiūtė, but rarely used as basic method, more as auxiliary. It

Development of socionics.

Academics.

Currently socionics has wide academic recognition and is taught in over 150 universities in Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and other CIS countries, Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Romania. Its methods are used in a variety of humanitarian and technical disciplines, as evidenced by more than 800 doctoral theses. International Institute of Socionics and

Empiricism.

The problems of socionics, its methodology and prospects for development

Criticism.

The opinion of scientific community about socionics is not uniform. Socionic analysts and theorists see it as "the fusion of science and technology that makes it possible to predict behavior and activity style of an individual, group of people, and society as a whole" and "the science that discovered the laws of human compatibility". Psychophysiologist Sergey Bogomaz considered socionics post-Jungian typology which is more promising than MBTI due to the inclusion of greater number of typological features and the formulation of prerequisites for the study of intertype relationships. He have found the theory of intertype relationships a valuable contribution of Aušra Augustinavičiūtė to Jungian psychology.  Philosopher L. M. Monastirsky identified the use of speculative categories as the first shortcoming of socionics. Secondly, he stated that it lacks clearly defined typing method and each socionics school defines methods of their own. At the same time Monastirsky, recognizing the potential of socionics, proposed to turn to the concept of a socionic type for carrying out some research in the field of the methodology of science. An important issue in the field of socionics is the problem of convergence between type diagnoses of different analysts. Vladimir Ermak showed that ignorance of model A of the type of information metabolism leads to numerous mistakes in the definition of a socionic type. In the early 2000s, socionic analysts to develop more rigorous approaches to type diagnosis.

Socionics, in psychology and sociology, is a theory of information processing and personality type, distinguished by its information model of the psyche (called "Model A") and a model of interpersonal relations. It incorporates Carl Jung's work on "Psychological Types" with Antoni Kępiński's theory of information metabolism. Socionics is a modification of Jung's personality type theory that uses eight psychic functions, in contrast to Jung's model, which used only four. These functions are supposed to process information at varying levels of competency and interact with the corresponding function in other individuals, giving rise to predictable reactions and impressions—a theory of intertype relations.

Socionika je typologie osobnosti navazující na výzkumy Carla Gustava Junga. Autorem socioniky je litevská psycholožka Aušra Augustinavičiute, která prohloubila Jungovy výzkumy ještě do větší hloubky a lidské psychice dala patřičný systém.