Origins.

Gopher system was released in mid-1991 by Mark P. McCahill, Farhad Anklesaria, Paul Lindner, Daniel Torrey, and Bob Alberti of the University of Minnesota in the United States. Its central goals were, as stated in RFC 1436:  Gopher combines document hierarchies with collections of services, including WAIS, the Archie and Veronica search engines, and gateways to other information systems such as File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Usenet.  The general interest in campus-wide information systems (CWISs) in higher education at the time, and the ease of setup of Gopher servers to create an instant CWIS with links to other sites' online directories and resources were the factors contributing to Gopher's rapid adoption.  The name was coined by Anklesaria as a play on several meanings of the word "gopher". The University of Minnesota mascot is the gopher, a gofer is an assistant who "goes for" things, and a gopher burrows through the ground to reach a desired location.

Decline.

The World Wide Web was in its infancy in 1991, and Gopher services quickly became established. By the late 1990s, Gopher had ceased expanding. Several factors contributed to Gopher's stagnation:  Gopher remains in active use by its enthusiasts, and there have been attempts to revive Gopher on modern platforms and mobile devices. One attempt is The Overbite Project, which hosts various browser extensions and modern clients.

Technical details.

The conceptualization of knowledge in "Gopher space" or a "cloud" as specific information in a particular file, and the prominence of the FTP, influenced the technology and the resulting functionality of Gopher.

Gopher characteristics.

Gopher is designed to function and to appear much like a mountable read-only global network file system (and software, such as gopherfs, is available that can actually mount a Gopher server as a FUSE resource). At a minimum, whatever a person can do with data files on a CD-ROM, one can do on Gopher.  A Gopher system consists of a series of hierarchical hyperlinkable menus. The choice of menu items and titles is controlled by the administrator of the server. Similar to a file on a Web server, a file on a Gopher server can be linked to as a menu item from any other Gopher server. Many servers take advantage of this inter-server linking to provide a directory of other servers that the user can access.

Protocol.

The Gopher protocol was first described in RFC 1436. IANA has assigned TCP port 70 to the Gopher protocol.  The protocol is simple to negotiate, making it possible to browse without using a client. A standard gopher session may therefore appear as follows:  Here, the client has established a TCP connection with the server on port 70, the standard gopher port. The client then sends a string followed by a carriage return followed by a line feed (a "CR + LF" sequence). This is the selector, which identifies the document to be retrieved. If the item selector were an empty line, the default directory would be selected. The server then replies with the requested item and closes the connection. According to the protocol, before the connection is closed, the server should send a full-stop (i.e., a period character) on a line by itself. However, as is the case here, not all servers conform to this part of the protocol and the server may close the connection without returning the final full-stop.  In this example, the item sent back is a gopher menu, a directory consisting of a sequence of lines each of which describes an item that can be retrieved. Most clients will display these as hypertext links, and so allow the user to navigate through gopherspace by following the links.  All lines in a gopher menu are terminated by "CR + LF", and consist of five fields: the "item type" as the very first character (see below), the "display string" (i.e., the description text to display), a "selector" (i.e., a file-system pathname), "host name" (i.e., the domain name of the server on which the item resides), and "port" (i.e., the port number used by that server). The item type and display string are joined without a space; the other fields are separated by the tab character.  Because of the simplicity of the Gopher protocol, tools such as netcat make it possible to download Gopher content easily from the command line: The protocol is also supported by cURL as of 7.21.2-DEV.

Search request.

The selector string in the request can optionally be followed by a tab character and a search string. This is used by item type 7.

Source code of a menu.

Gopher menu items are defined by lines of tab-separated values in a text file. This file is sometimes called a "gophermap". As the source code to a gopher menu, a gophermap is roughly analogous to an HTML file for a web page. Each tab-separated line (called a "selector line") gives the client software a description of the menu item: what it is, what it's called, and where it leads. The client displays the menu items in the order that they appear in the gophermap.  The first character in a selector line indicates the "item type", which tells the client what kind of file or protocol the menu item points to. This helps the client decide what to do with it. Gopher's item types are a more basic precursor to the media type system used by the Web and email attachments.  The item type is followed by the "user display string" (a description or label that represents the item in the menu); the selector (a path or other string for the resource on the server); the "hostname" (the domain name or IP address of the server), and the network port.  For example: The following selector line generates a link to the "/home" directory at the subdomain gopher.floodgap.com, on port 70. The item type of indicates that the resource is a Gopher menu. The string "Floodgap Home" is what the user sees in the menu.  In addition to selector lines, a gophermap may contain "comment lines". Comment lines are not for code comments; rather, they are lines of text sent to the client to display alongside the menu items, such as for a menu description or welcome message. A comment line contains no tab characters.

Item types.

In a Gopher menu's source code, a one-character code indicates what kind of content the client should expect. This code may either be a digit or a letter of the alphabet; letters are case-sensitive.  The technical specification for Gopher, RFC 1436, defines 14 item types. A one-character code indicates what kind of content the client should expect. Item type is an error code for exception handling. Gopher client authors improvised item types (HTML), (informational message), and (sound file) after the publication of RFC 1436. Browsers like Netscape Navigator and early versions of Microsoft Internet Explorer would prepend the item type code to the selector as described in RFC 4266, so that the type of the gopher item could be determined by the url itself. Most gopher browsers still available, use these prefixes in their urls.

URL links.

Historically, to create a link to a Web server, "GET /" was used as a pseudo-selector to emulate an HTTP GET request. John Goerzen created an addition to the Gopher protocol, commonly referred to as "URL links", that allows links to any protocol that supports URLs. For example, to create a link to http://gopher.quux.org/, the item type is, the display string is the title of the link, the item selector is "<nowiki>URL:http://gopher.quux.org/</nowiki>", and the domain and port are that of the originating Gopher server (so that clients that do not support URL links will query the server and receive an HTML redirection page).

Related technology.

The master Gopherspace search engine is Veronica. Veronica offers a keyword search of all the public Internet Gopher server menu titles. A Veronica search produces a menu of Gopher items, each of which is a direct pointer to a Gopher data source. Individual Gopher servers may also use localized search engines specific to their content such as Jughead and Jugtail.  GopherVR is a 3D virtual reality variant of the original Gopher system.

Client software.

Web browsers.

Browsers that do not natively support Gopher can still access servers using one of the available Gopher to HTTP gateways.  Gopher support was disabled in Internet Explorer versions 5.x and 6 for Windows in August 2002 by a patch meant to fix a security vulnerability in the browser's Gopher protocol handler to reduce the attack surface which was included in IE6 SP1; however, it can be re-enabled by editing the Windows registry. In Internet Explorer 7, Gopher support was removed on the WinINET level.

Gopher browser extensions.

For Mozilla Firefox and SeaMonkey, Overbite extensions extend Gopher browsing and support the current versions of the browsers (Firefox Quantum v ≥57 and equivalent versions of SeaMonkey): OverbiteWX includes support for accessing Gopher servers not on port 70 using a whitelist and for CSO/ph queries. OverbiteFF always uses port 70.  For Chromium and Google Chrome, Burrow is available. It redirects <nowiki>gopher://</nowiki> URLs to a proxy. In the past an Overbite proxy-based extension for these browsers was available but is no longer maintained and does not work with the current (>23) releases.  For Konqueror, Kio gopher is available.

Gopher clients for mobile devices.

Some have suggested that the bandwidth-sparing simple interface of Gopher would be a good match for mobile phones and personal digital assistants (PDAs), but so far, mobile adaptations of HTML and XML and other simplified content have proven more popular. The PyGopherd server provides a built-in WML front-end to Gopher sites served with it.  The early 2010s saw a renewed interest in native Gopher clients for popular smartphones: Overbite, an open source client for Android 1.5+ was released in alpha stage in 2010. PocketGopher was also released in 2010, along with its source code, for several Java ME compatible devices. Gopher Client was released in 2016 as a proprietary client for iPhone and iPad devices and is currently maintained.

Other Gopher clients.

Gopher popularity was at its height at a time when there were still many equally competing computer architectures and operating systems. As a result, there are several Gopher clients available for Acorn RISC OS, AmigaOS, Atari MiNT, CMS, DOS, classic Mac OS, MVS, NeXT, OS/2 Warp, most UNIX-like operating systems, VMS, Windows 3.x, and Windows 9x. GopherVR was a client designed for 3D visualization, and there is even a Gopher client in MOO. The majority of these clients are hard-coded to work on TCP port 70.

Gopher to HTTP gateways.

Users of Web browsers that have incomplete or no support for Gopher can access content on Gopher servers via a server gateway or proxy server that converts Gopher menus into HTML; known proxies are the Floodgap Public Gopher proxy and Gopher Proxy. Similarly, certain server packages such as GN and PyGopherd have built-in Gopher to HTTP interfaces. Squid Proxy software gateways any gopher:// URL to HTTP content, enabling any browser or web agent to access gopher content easily.

Server software.

Because the protocol is trivial to implement in a basic fashion, there are many server packages still available, and some are still maintained.

The Gopher protocol is a communications protocol designed for distributing, searching, and retrieving documents in Internet Protocol networks. The design of the Gopher protocol and user interface is menu-driven, and presented an alternative to the World Wide Web in its early stages, but ultimately fell into disfavor, yielding to the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). The Gopher ecosystem is often regarded as the effective predecessor of the World Wide Web.

Gopher je v informatice označení pro předchůdce hypertextového WWW a též označení pro protokol, který slouží pro komunikaci mezi Gopher klientem a serverem.


History of construction.

The first highway planned along part of this route was a "Reichsautobahn" initiated by Nazi Germany to connect Berlin with Poznań (Posen). The construction of this highway, accelerated after Poznań was incorporated into Germany following the Invasion of Poland in 1939, was interrupted by the war and never finished, but traces of its earthworks were clearly visible on satellite photographs for decades afterwards, especially between the border with Germany and Nowy Tomyśl. Most of these traces have now disappeared as the modern motorway was built largely following the same route. A short stretch of the uncompleted highway between the border and Rzepin was finished as a dual carriageway road after 1945, in effect forming an extension of the German A 12 highway (opened as a "Reichsautobahn" in the 1930s). Except for this stretch, the construction work was not continued in the decades after the war.  New plans to build the A2 motorway were seriously formulated in communist Poland in the 1970s, possibly with the goal of completing it in time for the Moscow Olympics in 1980. Because of the economic crisis which hit the country in the late 1970s and continued throughout the 1980s, only a section from Września to Konin was opened in the 1980s. Construction of another stretch (between Łódź and Warsaw) was started and then abandoned, leaving an interesting ruin informally named "Olimpijka", which was in turn demolished around 2010 when building of the motorway resumed.  Intensive construction of the motorway started only in 2001 after the fall of communism in Poland in 1989. Out of the planned total length of, have been completed. A section of about (Nowy Tomyśl – Poznań – Września – Konin) has been fully open since 2004. This section is a toll road, with the exception of a short stretch through Poznań which serves as that city's bypass (between the interchanges at Głuchowo and Kleszczewo). An additional section from Konin to Stryków near Łódź was opened on 26 July 2006. A short bypass of Stryków, consisting of a 2 km extension of the A2 and a provisional single carriageway section of future motorway A1, was opened in December 2008, to ease the heavy traffic in that town generated when the motorway reached it.  As of winter 2009/2010, the plan was to finish the whole section between the border with Germany and Warsaw by the Spring of 2012, giving the Polish capital its first motorway connection to the European motorway network in time for the Euro 2012 football championships. That ambitious goal was jeopardised due to various difficulties encountered in finalizing the construction contracts and the delays that resulted. The section from Stryków to Warsaw was to be built in a public-private partnership, but the negotiations between the government and private companies interested in participating collapsed in February 2009 due to disputes over financing terms. It was then decided that this section of the motorway would be built using public funds alone. The new bidding process was started on 27 March, and the contracts for design and construction of the road were signed on 28 September. The section had been divided into 5 parts and so construction work began in 2010. The contractors were required to have the motorway open to traffic in time for Euro 2012. This goal was an ambitious one and ultimately proved challenging, given the possibility of unexpected delays during construction and the fact that the Chinese consortium abandoned the project less than a year later, so that new contractors had to be selected to replace it. The goal was to have this motorway stretch provisionally opened to traffic in time for Euro 2012, even if it's not fully completed, with various restrictions such as a lower speed limit to ensure safety. For a while it was not clear whether even this limited goal would be reached, but the motorway opened to traffic in June 2012 after very intensive construction work in the final few months.  In November 2011 construction of the stretch to the German border from Nowy Tomyśl had been completed. The road was opened to public traffic on 1 December. Toll plazas on this stretch of the highway weren't opened until May 2012 so use of the western section of the A2 was free of charge until then.  In May 2013, Interchange with S3 (Jordanowo) was opened to traffic. First stretch is between the interchange with the A2 motorway and the "Świebodzin North" interchange. In June 2013 S3 was extended further and opened to traffic to reach from the "Świebodzin South" interchange to the existing stretch of the S3 expressway at Sulechów. In July 2013 the elevated bypass of Świebodzin between the interchanges "Świebodzin North" and "Świebodzin South" fully opened to traffic thus fully extending the S3 from Szczecin to Sulechów.

Guarantee scandal.

After COVEC withdrew from completing its construction of the A2, Bank of China was to pay a performance guarantee to the Polish government's roads organization GDDKiA. However, with Export-Import Bank of China, they refused to pay this; only Deutsche Bank honored its obligations under the court decision.

Plans.

The eastern section from Warsaw to the border crossing with Belarus at Kukuryki near Brest (connecting with M1), about in length, is still largely in planning stages. The decision finalizing the route of this section was announced in December 2011, the exception having been a short ( long) section of A2 forming the bypass of Mińsk Mazowiecki which has been under construction since August 2009. It opened to traffic in August 2012. The section between Warsaw and Mińsk Mazowiecki is planned to be opened in 2020. The tenders for section between Mińsk Mazowiecki and Siedlce have been announced in 2019. The remaining section east of Siedlce is said to be planned for completion by 2025.  It is worth noting that the A2 motorway doesn't actually run through Warsaw, as the inhabitants of the districts through which it was to pass have successfully blocked its construction. This outcome was somewhat unusual, since the corridor for the motorway has been reserved by the city planners since the 1970s and kept free of construction. Instead, the traffic will be rerouted through two "express roads" (S2 and S8), of lower standard than the originally planned motorway. Paradoxically, one of these roads (S2) will run along the originally planned motorway corridor, so the residents who protested the construction will still end up with a busy road running through their districts, possibly even more inconvenient than the original road would have been. In the most affected area, the district of Ursynów, the express road will run in a tunnel, which will be built at considerable expense.

Exit list.

Stretch Świecko border crossing – interchange Świecko signed as  Road will continue as → Southern Warsaw Bypass. <br> After bypassing Warsaw, road will continue as

The autostrada A2 in Poland, officially named Autostrada Wolności ("Motorway of Freedom"), is a motorway which runs from the Polish-German border in Świecko/Frankfurt (connecting to A12 autobahn), through Poznań and Łódź to Warsaw and, in the future, to the Polish-Belarusian border in Terespol/Brest (connecting to M1 highway). The motorway is a part of the European route E30 connecting Berlin and Moscow.

Dálnice A2 je polská dálnice, která má po dokončení navazovat od německých hranic (A12) přes Poznaň, Lodž, Varšavu až na běloruskou dálnici M1. Západní část dálnice mezi Varšavou a německými hranicemi byla dokončena v červnu 2012 (celkem byl otevřen 91kilometrový úsek Lodž–Varšava). Východní část mezi Varšavou a běloruskými hranicemi se buduje od roku 2017 a má být hotový v roce 2024.


Life.

Early life.

Caroline Amalie was the daughter of Frederick Christian II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, and Princess Louise Auguste of Denmark, the only daughter of Christian VII and his British wife, Queen Caroline Matilde, whom she was named after. She was born in Copenhagen and lived there until 1807, when she moved with her family to Augustenborg. She was given a conventional education for an upper class female of her time.  In the conflict between her parents, who disagreed politically and personally, she sided with her mother, who retained a close relationship with her brother, the king of Denmark, and the Danish court.

Marriage.

Her mother who introduced her to the heir apparent to the Danish throne, the future Christian VIII, and encouraged them to marry. Reportedly, Caroline Amalie fell in love with Christian, who found her attractive.  Christian had divorced his first spouse Charlotte Fredericka of Mecklenburg-Schwerin in 1810 on grounds of adultery. In 1814, he had just returned to Denmark after his abdication of the Norwegian throne. The same year, Christian and Caroline Amalie were engaged. The wedding took place in 1815.  Between 1816 and 1817, the couple lived in Odense, where Christian served as Governor of Fionia. Between 1818 and 1822, they undertook numerous trips through Europe together. They visited various resorts in an attempt to cure their inability to have children. Christian devoted himself to the sciences, mineralogy and geology in particular. While Christian became celebrated for his scientific interests, Caroline Amalie was a composer who wrote numerous piano pieces.  The personal relationship between Caroline Amalie and Christian was described as harmonious and as an image of the contemporary ideal of marriage. Her acceptance of her spouse's infidelity was regarded as something suitable and appropriate within contemporary gender roles. Her amiable personality made her respected and well liked by the rest of the royal house, and she is described as a good stepmother of her stepson Frederick.

Queen.

In 1839, when King Frederick VI died, Caroline Amalie, as the wife of Christian VIII, became Queen of Denmark. She was considered instrumental in the pro-German party on the matter of the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein.  Early on, Caroline Amalie was active within philanthropy. She founded the poor house "Dronning Caroline Amalies Asyl" in Copenhagen in 1829, the poor house "Dronningens Asyl" in Odense in 1836, the "Kvindelig Plejeforening" for sick and women in childbirth in 1843. Her charitable projects for poor orphans gave her the name "The Poor Children's Mother" and "The Royal Foster mother of the Little Ones". As hereditary princess and later as queen, she used her position to launch the charitable role as a role model for the female members of the nobility and upper classes, which called for upper-class women to be actively involved in society through philanthropy. By doing so, women found a public and political role acceptable to combine with the popular 19th-century role of a Christian wife and mother in Danish society. Her introduction of a new role model for women is considered to have had great impact on Danish society.  Caroline Amalie was a follower of the religious ideas of N. F. S. Grundtvig, whose movement she actively supported, such as the Grundtvigian priests P.O. Boisen and Peder Rørdam. In 1841, she founded an orphanage, "Dronning Caroline Amalies Asylskole", whose school was inspired by the ideas of Grundtvig. She was not described as an intellectual herself, however she regarded it as a duty to introduce the representatives of art and literature at court and act as their supporter.  It is not clear whether or not she ever exerted any influence in state affairs. During the conflict between Denmark and the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, her brothers, Christian August of Augustenborg and Frederick of Nør, came to be in opposition against Christian VIII and Denmark. This caused a difficult situation for Caroline Amalie, who was suspected for conspiring with her brothers against Danish interests, especially by the nationalistic liberals in Copenhagen. This made her unpopular and exposed to some hostility during the last years of Christian's reign.

Queen Dowager.

Caroline Amalie became a widow in 1848 and survived her spouse for more than thirty years. She took up residence at Sorgenfri Castle north of Copenhagen, but due to ill health she preferred to spend winters in southern Europe. She also outlived her stepson by seventeen years. Hence she lived to see Christian IX become king with her niece Louise of Hesse-Kassel as queen.  During her life as a queen dowager, she enjoyed more popularity than she did as queen. She continued with her charitable projects: in 1852, she took over as protector of the charitable women's society "Det Kvindelige Velgørende Selskab" after queen dowager Marie, and in 1863, she encouraged queen Louise to open the deaconess institution.  She died in 1881 and was buried at Roskilde Cathedral next to Christian VIII.

Caroline Amalie of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg (28 June 1796 – 9 March 1881) was queen consort of Denmark as the second spouse of King Christian VIII between 1839 and 1848.

Karolina Amálie Augustenburská (německy "Caroline Amalie von Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg", dánsky "Caroline Amalie") (28. června 1796, Kodaň – 9. března 1881 tamtéž) byla v letech 1839–1848 jako manželka dánského krále Kristiána VIII. dánskou královnou.


History.

The exposition opened on 6 May 1931 in the Bois de Vincennes on the eastern outskirts of Paris. The scale was enormous. It is estimated that from 7 to 9 million visitors came from over the world. The French government brought people from the colonies to Paris and had them create native arts and crafts and perform in grandly scaled reproductions of their native architectural styles such as huts or temples. Other nations participated in the event, including The Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, Japan, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States.  Politically, France hoped the exposition would paint its colonial empire in a beneficial light, showing the mutual exchange of cultures and the benefit of France's efforts overseas. This would thus negate German criticisms that France was "the exploiter of colonial societies [and] the agent of miscegenation and decadence". The exposition highlighted the endemic cultures of the colonies and downplayed French efforts to spread its own language and culture abroad, thus advancing the notion that France was associating with colonised societies, not assimilating them.  The Colonial Exposition provided a forum for the discussion of colonialism in general and of French colonies specifically. French authorities published over 3,000 reports during the six-month period and held over 100 congresses. The exposition served as a vehicle for colonial writers to publicise their works, and it created a market in Paris for various ethnic cuisines, particularly North African and Vietnamese. Filmmakers chose French colonies as the subjects of their works. The Permanent Colonial Museum (today the Cité nationale de l'histoire de l'immigration) opened at the end of the exposition. The colonial service experienced a boost in applications.  26 territories of the empire participated in the Colonial Exposition Issue of postage stamps issued in conjunction with the Exposition.

The Dutch colonial pavilion fire incident.

As one of important colonial power at that time, the Dutch Empire participated in this grandiose colonial exposition in Paris. The Netherlands presented a beautiful cultural synthesis from their colony; the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). However, on 28 June 1931, an enourmous fire burnt down the Dutch pavilion, along with all cultural objects displayed inside.  The Dutch colonial pavilion was located on exhibition lot as wide as 3 hectares and was built based on the combination of many cultural elements of the "Nusantara" (Indonesian archipelago), a combination of Indonesian vernacular architecture. It has walls consisted of 750,000 pieces of ironwood from Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo). As the centerpiece, the front part is decorated with twin 50 metres-tall Balinese Meru towers. The pavilion's roof was done in "tumpang" or "tajug" style, a signature of Javanese mosque, completed with carved wooden door of "kori agung" typical towering portal of "pura" Balinese temple, combined with arched roof of Minangkabau's "atap bagonjong" typical of "rumah gadang". This fusion of Indonesian vernacular architecture presented a splendid and majestic palace-like pavilion.  Many exquisite cultural objects collected from far-flung Indonesian archipelago was displayed in this pavilion. Those objects among others are; statues of Hindu deities from ancient Java, sword and kris heirloom daggers, jewelries lavished with gemstones, wooden carvings and ornaments of Javanese and Balinese houses, batik fabric of Java, songket fabric from Palembang, ulos from Batak lands, ikat weaving of East Indonesia, paintings and ancient maritime maps, etc. Those collections belongs to the "Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen" (now National Museum of Indonesia). All of this magnificent display were reflecting the pride of the Netherlands upon their most precious colony, the Dutch East Indies. Arguing that the culture of their colonial subjects was sophisticated, refined and sublime; thus far from the primitive image displayed by other colonial powers in that exhibition.  Only a few artefacts could be salvaged from the devastating fire; among others are ancient Javanese bronze Shiva statue, which is now kept in Indonesian National Museum. Until now, the cause of this massive fire is still in debate; short circuit, flammable building materials that was a fire hazzard, to the possibility of an arsonist sabotage, all become wild interpretation circulated at that time. The material and cultural lost was surely immense, estimated around almost 80 million franc. It was said that the French government obliged to paid for loss insurance to the Netherlands Indies colonial government. The money was then used for "Bataviaasch Genootschap" museum expansion.

Communist counter-exhibition.

At the request of the Comintern, a smaller counter-exhibition entitled "The Truth on the Colonies", organized by the Communist Party and the CGTU, attracted very few visitors (5000 in 8 months). The first section was dedicated to abuses committed during the colonial conquests, and quoted Albert Londres and André Gide's criticisms of forced labour in the colonies while the second one made a comparison of Soviet "nationalities' policy" to "imperialist colonialism".

Posterity.

Some of these buildings were preserved or moved:

The Paris Colonial Exhibition (or ""Exposition coloniale internationale"", International Colonial Exhibition) was a six-month colonial exhibition held in Paris, France in 1931 that attempted to display the diverse cultures and immense resources of France's colonial possessions.

Mezinárodní koloniální výstava (francouzsky: "Exposition coloniale internationale") byla koloniální výstava s mezinárodní účastí věnovaná kolonialismu, která se uskutečnila v Paříži. Výstava představovala francouzskou koloniální říši a její bohatství. Byla otevřena 6. května 1931 v Bois de Vincennes v jihovýchodní části Paříže na ploše 100 ha a trvala šest měsíců. Výstavu navštívilo 33 miliónů návštěvníků z celého světa.


History.

The "Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe" was founded as the "Alliance of European Conservatives and Reformists" on 1 October 2009, after the ECR political group was founded in the wake of the 2009 European Parliament election, and was officially recognised by the European Parliament in January 2010. Amongst ACRE's eight founding members the largest were the UK Conservative Party, the Polish PiS and the Czech ODS.  ACRE was formally constituted under the chairmanship of Belgian MEP Derk Jan Eppink, who was succeeded by Czech MEP Jan Zahradil. At ACRE's first congress was in Warsaw on 8 June 2010, attended by its founding members, including UK Conservative Party Chairwoman Sayeeda Warsi and Czech Prime Minister Mirek Topolanek. On 25 March 2011, the Civic Conservative Party from Slovakia joined; Iceland's Independence Party in November 2011 (the party's first member from outside the European Union); Georgia's Christian-Democratic Movement in August 2012; Italy's Conservatives and Social Reformers in October 2012; the Conservative Party of Canada became the ACRE's first associate member (later renamed'regional partners') in November 2012; Turkey's ruling Justice and Development Party in November 2013; and the Faroe Islands' People's Party, and Romania's New Republic; and in July 2014, Prosperous Armenia. The Conservative Party of Georgia and New Majority joined on 1 November 2014. At the same time, the ACRE formally affiliated to the European Conservatives Group in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe. In November 2015, the Conservatives and Reformists of Italy were admitted as ACRE members, followed by the Alliance for Progress and Renewal (ALFA) of Germany and M10 party of Romania in March 2016. The Liberal Party of Australia, Istiqlal Party of Morocco, National Party of New Zealand, and Republican Party of the United States joined as further regional partners in 2014, followed by Afek Tounes and Likud Movement in 2015 and 2016.  The "Alliance of European Conservatives and Reformists" officially changed its name to the "Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe" (ACRE) on 6 October 2016.  In December 2018, ACRE was ordered to repay more than half a million euros of EU funds, following an investigation into their spending. This included €250,000 for a three-day conference in Miami and €90,000 for a trade meeting in Kampala. ACRE had previously been asked to return €121,000 given to the Prosperous Armenia party.  More recently the ACRE has seen a shift further towards the hard right with the acceptance of the Brothers of Italy, Forum for Democracy, Vox and Sweden Democrats as members in 2019. All four members are nationalist, right-wing populist and anti-immigration marking a departure from the more moderate positions of the majority of members.

Principles.

ACRE adopted the Reykjavík Declaration at its Council Meeting on 21 March 2014. The declaration defines the principles that underpin ACRE.  The Reykjavík Declaration

Members.

Member parties.

The following parties listed below are members of the ACRE as of 2020.

ECR affiliate groupings.

The ACRE is formally affiliated to groupings in the European Parliament and the Committee of the Regions of the European Union, the Congress of the Council of Europe and the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe and the NATO Parliamentary Assembly.

European Parliament.

The ECR group is the sixth-largest group in the European Parliament. Founded in 2009, before the ACRE was launched, the ECR brings together 62 MEPs from 15 countries. The ECR currently is led by a two Co-Chairmen, Ryszard Legutko of the Polish Law and Justice party and Raffaele Fitto of the Brothers of Italy party.

Committee of the Regions.

Following the creation of the ECR Group in the European Parliament in 2009, and the creation of the ACRE in 2010, the ECR Group in the Committee of the Regions was formed on 10 April 2013 under the leadership of Gordon Keymer CBE and with the support of the ACRE. The Group was officially announced during the 11–12 April 100th Committee of the Regions plenary session.  The ECR Group was the first Group to be formed in the Committee of the Regions during the course of a mandate and was the first ECR Group to be formed outside of the European Parliament.  The President of the Group is Cllr. Gordon Keymer CBE (Leader of Tandridge District Council) and the Vice-Presidents are Dan Jiránek (Mayor of Kladno) and Daiva Matonienė (Deputy Mayor of Šiauliai City Council). Adam Banaszak (Member of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie regional assembly), Cllr. Kay Twitchen OBE (Member of Essex County Council) and Cllr. Judith Pearce (Deputy Leader of Wychavon District Council and Executive board member for Planning, Infrastructure and Housing).

The European Conservatives Group in the European Parliament, founded in 1970 and existing for most of its history as the 'European Democrat Group' became officially affiliated to the ACRE on 29 September 2014. The EC group is led by Samad Seyidov MP, of the New Azerbaijan Party.  As of 23 October 2014, the European Conservatives have the following members:

Congress of the Council of Europe.

The ECR group in the Congress of the Council of Europe brings together representatives in local government from across Europe. It has 31 members, 26 of whom represent parties in the ACRE. The ECR group is led by Halldór Halldórsson of the Icelandic Independence Party.

Youth organisation.

European Young Conservatives.

The European Young Conservatives (EYC) is the ACRE's youth wing. It brings together conservative and political parties from across Europe. As of 2015, the group has a membership of 23 political youth organisations from 22 different countries and territories. Its patron was Margaret Thatcher until her death in 2013. The current chairperson of EYC is Keti Mumalashvili from the Georgian Young Conservatives.

Conservatives and Reformists Initiative.

The Conservatives and Reformists Initiative (CRI) is a flagship project of ACRE, and its partner New Direction – the Foundation for European Reform, launched in Tunis, Tunisia on 14 November 2015 (covered extensively on the Al Jazeera news network).  The CRI aims to strengthen the moderate centre-right in emerging and developing democracies. It runs practical programmes designed to strengthen the organisational capacity of each political party, support party campaign and communications operations, assist with policy development, and provide regional support for like-minded political parties and support elected representatives at all levels, particularly in communications with constituents and the media.  Two CRI Summits have so far been held:

The European Conservatives and Reformists Party (ECR Party), formerly known as Alliance of European Conservatives and Reformists (AECR) (2009–2016) and Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe (ACRE) (2016–2019), is a conservative Eurosceptic European political party with a main focus on reforming the European Union (EU) on the basis of Eurorealism, as opposed to total rejection of the EU (anti-EU-ism). It currently has twenty-four member parties and three further independent members from twenty-one countries, in addition to seven regional partners worldwide.

Strana evropských konzervativců a reformistů (ECR Party) je středo-pravicová anti-federalistická evropská strana, která je členem evropské politické skupiny Evropští konzervativci a reformisté (ECR). Dříve se nazývala Aliance evropských konzervativců a reformistů (AECR, 2009–2016) a Aliance konzervativců a reformistů v Evropě (ACRE, 2016–2019). Navazuje na Hnutí za evropskou reformu. ECR Party vládne ve Velké Británii, Polsku a v několika zemích se na vládě podílí. Prezidenta v žádné zemi nemá.


Early life.

Mordechai Eliyahu was born in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem, the son of Iraqi Jewish Rabbi Salman Eliyahu, a Jerusalem Kabbalist, and his wife Mazal, who was a sister of Yehuda Tzadka. The surname was Hebraicised from Elias. He had an older brother, Naim Ben Eliyahu, a younger sister Rachel, and brother Shimon. Salman was a disciple of the Ben Ish Hai, who was Mazal's great-uncle. The family was poor, so Mordechai improvised ways in which to study, which he often did by candlelight. Salman died when Mordechai was eleven, but not before he instilled in his son a love of Torah and Kabbalah.  In his youth, Eliyahu attended Porat Yosef Yeshiva, and had the opportunity to learn from many great teachers such as Ezra Attiya, Sadqa Hussein, and the Chazon Ish. He would later come into contact with Mordechai Sharabi, Yaakov Mutzafi, and Yitzhak Kaduri. Later in life, he would go on to cultivate a unique relationship with the Lubavitcher Rebbe.

Activism.

As a teenager, Eliyahu teamed up with Shabtai Yudelevitz to conduct Jewish outreach. In 1950–1951, Mordechai was among the leaders of Brit HaKanaim (Hebrew: בְּרִית הַקַנַאִים, lit. Covenant of the Zealots), a radical religious Jewish underground organization which operated against the widespread trend of secularization in the country. They torched cars of people who drove on Shabbat, and butcher shops where non-kosher meat was sold. They once plotted to toss a smoke bomb into the Knesset during a debate on drafting Orthodox women into the IDF. A member of the group was in the audience during the debate with the smoke bomb in his pocket, but lacked the opportunity to activate it.  On May 14, 1951, the group's members were arrested by the Shabak. Mordechai was sentenced to ten months imprisonment for his part in the group's deeds. Later in his life, he stated that even though his opinions did not change, "The path that I chose in the past was mistaken."

Career.

Eliyahu received semicha from Sephardic Chief Rabbi Yitzhak Nissim. The latter requested from him to arrange for the reinterment of the Hida from Livorno, Italy to Israel. On May 17, 1960, the Hida was laid to rest at Har HaMenuchot in Jerusalem.  That year, he was appointed dayan in Beersheba, the youngest one in the country. He was often involved in adjudicating complicated family issues. Eliyahu was a favorite of the Baba Sali, who lived nearby in Netivot. One day, the latter insisted Eliyahu stop whatever he was doing and come visit him for a glass of arak. Not wishing to upset the holy man, Eliyahu accepted the invitation, only to find out later that a disgruntled ex-litigant had gone to the beth din seeking to do him harm.  Four years later, Eliyahu was transferred to the Jerusalem regional beth din, and later was elected to the Supreme Rabbinical Court in Jerusalem, a position he would retain during his term as Chief Rabbi of Israel and afterwards.

Chief Rabbinate.

On March 18, 1983, Eliyahu was appointed "Rishon LeZion" (Chief Rabbi of Israel) at the Yochanan Ben Zakai Synagogue in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem. He served concurrently with Chief Ashkenazi Rabbi Avraham Shapira until their terms expired in 1993.  During Eliyahu's term as Chief Rabbi, one of his focuses was on attempting to reach out to secular Israeli Jews, giving them a better understanding of Jewish customs and their importance. He traveled extensively throughout Israel and the world, often together with Shapira, emphasizing the importance of Jewish education, Shabbat observance, family purity, fighting assimilation, and making aliyah. Eliyahu showed a willingness to go to secular environments in order to connect with other Jews, occasionally lecturing in secular moshavim and kibbutzim.

Opinions.

After stepping down from his official post, Eliyahu remained active, even ramping up his work for the Jewish community in Israel and the diaspora.  Eliyahu worked for the preservation of the Iraqi Jewish rite and the opinions of the Ben Ish Hai, and opposed the attempts of Rabbi Ovadia Yosef to impose a uniform "Israeli Sephardi" rite based on the Shulchan Aruch and his own halachic opinions. He published a prayer book called "Qol Eliyahu", based on this stance.  Eliyahu was one of the spiritual leaders of the Religious Zionist movement, and was an outspoken opponent of the Gaza Disengagement of 2005. He was considered somewhat controversial for his decades-long support of what some characterize as the radical right of the Religious Zionist movement. Eliyahu was a supporter of Rabbi Meir Kahane, and friendly with his family. He officiated at the marriage of Kahane's son, Binyamin Ze'ev Kahane, and delivered the eulogy at Meir Kahane's funeral. He was a long-time supporter of Jonathan Pollard, and became Pollard's spiritual mentor while the latter served in prison, having visited him there several times.  During the Gaza disengagement, Eliyahu made statements interpreted as forbidding Orthodox Jews from participating in or facilitating the expulsion of the Jews from Gaza. Eliyahu later said he did not mean for soldiers to engage in "active refusal".  In January 2005, Eliyahu stated that the 2004 tsunami was (pre-emptive) "divine punishment" for Asian governments supporting Israel's unilateral disengagement plan. In March 2006, three days before the 2006 Israeli legislative election, Eliyahu stated that it was forbidden to vote for any Israeli political party that had backed the disengagement, and stressed that anyone who voted for Kadima was "assisting sinners". Eliyahu stressed the importance of voting for a party committed to religious education and yeshivas, but urged against voting for those religious parties that had supported the disengagement, and called for members of the religious Shas party to repent for supporting the Oslo Accords.  In May 2007, he wrote a letter to Prime Minister Ehud Olmert which suggested "that there was absolutely no moral prohibition against the indiscriminate killing of civilians during a potential massive military offensive on Gaza aimed at stopping the rocket launchings". Shmuel Eliyahu explained that his father opposed a ground troop incursion into Gaza that would endanger IDF soldiers. Also in 2007, in a radio interview given to Haredi radio station "Kol Haemet" on the eve of Holocaust Memorial Day, when asked what was the sin of the six million Jews who perished in the Holocaust, he replied: "Those people were innocent, but Reform started in Germany. Those reformers of religion started in Germany, and because it is said that the wrath of God does not distinguish between the righteous and the evil ones - this was done."  In 2008, at a service to remember the death of 8 Israeli students killed in the Mercaz HaRav massacre, he said: "Even when we seek revenge, it is important to make one thing clear – the life of one yeshiva boy is worth more than the lives of 1,000 Arabs. The Talmud states that if gentiles rob Israel of silver, they will pay it back in gold, and all that is taken will be paid back in folds, but in cases like these, there is nothing to pay back, since as I said – the life of one yeshiva boy is worth more than the lives of 1,000 Arabs".

Personal life.

At the age of 24, Eliyahu married Tzviya, the daughter of his rebbe Nissim David Azran, the founder and rosh yeshiva of Bet Shmuel Yeshiva in Nachlaot, Jerusalem. She bore him three sons; Shlomo, a lawyer; Shmuel Eliyahu, Chief Rabbi of Safed; Yosef Eliyahu, dean of Darchei Hora'ah LeRabbanim; and Merav, a daughter.

Death.

Eliyahu suffered from a heart condition. On August 24, 2009, he collapsed in his home, and was rushed to the hospital while unconscious. He died on June 7, 2010, at Shaare Zedek Medical Center from complications related to his heart condition. He was 81 years old. An estimated 100,000 people attended his funeral in Jerusalem, which began at 10:00 PM on Monday, June 7, 2010. He was interred on Har HaMenuchot adjacent to the Hida.

Legacy.

Eliyahu founded the Heichal Yaakov Synagogue, named for Jacob Safra, and Darchei Hora'ah LeRabbanim yeshiva in the Kiryat Moshe neighborhood of Jerusalem, which is now headed by his son Yosef Eliyahu.

Mordechai Tzemach Eliyahu (, March 3, 1929 – June 7, 2010, on the Hebrew calendar: 21 Adar I, 5689 - 25 Siwan, 5770), was a prominent rabbi, posek, and spiritual leader. He served as the "Rishon LeZion" (Chief Rabbi of Israel) from 1983 to 1993.

Rabi Mordechaj Cemach Elijahu (, žil 3. března 1929 – 7. června 2010) byl rabín, posek a duchovní vůdce. Působil jako sefardský vrchní rabín Izraele v letech 1983 až 1993.


Life and work.

Klemens' father was a saddler and carriage maker from Kladsko. His artistic talent was first displayed by painting pictures on his father's coaches. He became an assistant at a printing shop owned by, a Slovak patriot and cultural figure, who used his influence to promote Klemens' education. In 1837, upon the recommendations of Karel Slavoj Amerling and Father, he was admitted to the Academy of Fine Arts, Prague for a trial period. He studied there from 1838 to 1843, attending science and technology lectures as well as his art classes.  After 1839, Klemens also worked as a teacher at a girls' school operated by Amerling, where he experimented with the educational techniques of Jan Amos Komenský (known as "Comenius"). In 1842, Amerling introduced him to Daguerrotypes in the chemical laboratory at the school. Shortly after, he opened a small photography studio called "Světloobrazárna" (The Light Gallery), in the school's garden. It was only the second such studio in Prague, but financial difficulties forced its closure after a year.  In 1843, Klemens returned to Slovakia, where he devoted himself to geological explorations for coal in Orava and Šariš. He also worked with "", a Slovak cultural organization, where he painted the portraits of many notable Slovak nationalists. From 1847 to 1848, he was back in Prague, auditing lectures on medicine at the University of Prague and chemistry at the Technical University. After Amerling's school was ordered closed for its nationalistic tendencies, Klemens attempted to create his own industrial school, but was thwarted by the chaos resulting from the Revolutions of 1848.  He completed his studies in 1849 and went back to his hometown, using his wife's dowry to establish a workshop for manufacturing zinc oxide with equipment he had designed himself. Once again, his enterprise ended in financial failure and he found work painting altarpieces. He briefly considered emigrating to Russia, but accepted an offer to teach at the Belgrade Lyceum (now the University of Belgrade). However, he stayed for only a short time, claiming that the climate was bad for his family's health.  Returning to Prague, Klemens obtained a secondary school teaching certificate and was qualified to teach chemistry, physics and German grammar. In 1856, he won a competitive exam to teach drawing at the Gymnasium in Žilina and remained there until the school was closed in 1863. He then became a Professor of natural sciences and drawing at the Catholic high school in Banská Bystrica. He retired in 1878.  In his last years, Klemens suffered from kidney stones. He went to Vienna, seeking surgical relief, but died after the operation.

Technical and scientific activities.

In 1865, Klemens came up with a design for a printing machine called the "Samotlač" (self-print). The drawings were sent to an exhibition in London, but the idea was never developed. In the late 1870s, he worked on a propulsive steam engine called the "Žiaroruchu" (roughly translated, "out-motion"), to be used for construction work, and explored the possibility of using exhaust from the machine to inflate balloons that could be used to move heavy machinery. For lack of funds, he failed to create a prototype or obtain a patent, however.  Klemens was a member of Matice česká and a founding member of Matica slovenská. On the basis of his work determining the epicenter of a small earthquake at Žilina in 1858, he was appointed a corresponding member of the "Imperial Geological Institute" in Vienna. He owned one of the largest collections of minerals in Slovakia.

Jozef Božetech Klemens (8 March 1817 in Liptovský Mikuláš – 17 January 1883 in Vienna) was a Slovak portrait painter, sculptor, photographer, inventor and naturalist. He chose his middle name, after an 11th Century painter and sculptor who was the last abbot of Sázava Monastery.

Jozef Božetech Klemens (též Josef Božetěch Clemens) (8. března 1817 Liptovský Mikuláš – 17. ledna 1883 Vídeň) byl malíř, sochař, vynálezce, přírodovědec a fotograf.


History.

Givat Brenner was founded in 1928 by Enzo Sereni and a group of immigrants from Lithuania, Poland and Germany. During World War II, Givat Brenner supplied products such as jam to the British Army, which laid the foundation for its export business.  The establishment of an irrigation equipment factory led to the creation of a foundry. The foundry evolved into a specialized aluminum die-casting company, which has produced, among other things, the housings for emergency phones along the New Jersey Turnpike. In 1938, it opened the first kibbutz sanatorium in the country.

Demographics.

According to a census conducted in 1931 by the British Mandate authorities, Givat Brenner had a population of 155 inhabitants and a total of 5 residential houses. In 1970 the population was 480.

Education.

Givat Brenner Regional School serves the communities of the Brenner Regional Council. The offices of the Regional Council are also located in the Kibbutz.

Economy.

Givat Brenner's plant nursery supplies turf for lawns and parks. The kibbutz grows cotton, avocado, wheat and corn, and maintains a dairy farm. Industrial ventures include a furniture factory, metalwork factory, canned foods plant and an irrigation equipment factory, which gradually shut down for financial reasons. The 'House of Dreams' amusement park was established to offset waning income from the orchards, plant nurseries and factories, but was eventually closed.

Landmarks.

The Treasure Museum, in the heart of the kibbutz, opened on the Givat Brenner's seventieth anniversary. It houses a collection of artifacts and photographs that tell the story of the kibbutz pioneers.

Givat Brenner (, lit. "Brenner Hill"; ), is a kibbutz in the Central District of Israel. Located around two kilometres south of Rehovot, it falls under the jurisdiction of Brenner Regional Council. Founded in 1928, it is named after writer Yosef Haim Brenner, who was killed in the Jaffa riots of 1921. In it had a population of.

Giv'at Brenner ( גִּבְעַת בְּרֶנֶר, doslova „"Brennerův vrch"“, v oficiálním přepisu do angličtiny Giv'at Brenner) je vesnice typu kibuc v Izraeli, v Centrálním distriktu, v Oblastní radě Brenner.


Biography.

Brazauskas was born in Rokiškis, Lithuania. He finished Kaišiadorys High School in 1952 and graduated from Kaunas Polytechnic Institute in 1956 with a degree in civil engineering. He later served as a Conscript sailor in the Soviet Navy, serving as a Fire controlman onboard the Riga-class frigate "Rosomacha" until 1960 In 1967 Brazauskas started working in the Governmental Planning Committee, as a Committee's head's assistant. In 1974, Brazauskas received PhD in Economics.

Family.

He divorced his first wife, Julia, with whom he had two daughters; he married Kristina Butrimienė in 2002.

Political views.

He rose to politics in the 1980s, as the Soviet Union was undergoing radical change. In turn he transformed himself from a Communist Party apparatchik to a moderate reformer. He was seen as cautious by nature, and when confronted by the tide of nationalist feeling in the Soviet Union Brazauskas initially believed that the USSR might be reconstituted as a looser federation of independent, but communist, states. In seeing the tide of an independent democracy, he joined the reformist cause observing in 1990 that "We are realists now, and we cannot be propagating any utopian ideas. It's no secret [that] the Communist Party has a dirty history."  Though he sought to avoid a breach with Moscow in 1989, as leader of Lithuania's Communist Party, he formally severed the party's links with Moscow. This was rare in that no other former Soviet republics dared to take this step. Some believe that this act confirmed the inevitability of the demise of the Soviet Union.

Political career.

He took various positions in the government of Lithuanian SSR and Communist Party of Lithuania since 1965:  In 1988, he became the first secretary of the Communist Party of Lithuania. Under his leadership, the majority of the Communist Party of Lithuania supported the Lithuanian independence movement, broke away from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and transformed itself into social-democratic Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania (now merged into the Lithuanian Social Democratic Party). Brazauskas was Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (head of state) from 15 January until 11 March 1990.  After the 1992 parliamentary elections, he became speaker of the parliament and acting President of Lithuania on 25 November 1992. He then won the presidential election with 60 percent of the vote and was confirmed as President on 25 February 1993. He immediately suspended his membership in the Democratic Labour Party; the Constitution does not allow the president to be a formal member of a political party during his tenure. He decided not to seek reelection, and handed the presidency to his successor, Valdas Adamkus, on 25 February 1998.

Retirement.

Brazauskas said he planned to retire from politics and wanted to be "an ordinary pensioner." During the initial two years in retirement he wrote a book, though it was incomplete. He said he would continue writing it after his second stint in government. He also said he would finish "household work" and that he likes physical work. He added that "I have no estates, but the property I own needs to be put in good order." He wanted to live "in a way that other people live."

Return to politics.

He subsequently returned to politics saying he "always had something to do in life." This time he was Prime Minister from 3 July 2001, appointed by the parliament, until 1 June 2006, when his government resigned as President Valdas Adamkus expressed no confidence in two of the Ministers, formerly Labour Party colleagues of Brazauskas, over ethical principles.  His government resigned on 2006 after the large Labour Party left the governing coalition. Brazauskas decided not to remain in office as acting Prime Minister, and announced that he was finally retiring from politics. He said "I tried to be a pensioner for several years, and I think I was successful. I hope for success this time, as well."  He led the ruling Social Democratic Party of Lithuania for one more year, until 2007, when he passed the reins to Gediminas Kirkilas. He served as the honorary chairman of the party, and remained an influential voice in party politics.

Honours.

Algirdas Brazauskas was honored with the various decorations, among others the Order of Vytautas the Great with the Golden Chain, Grand Cross Order of Vytautas the Great. Days before his death Russian President Dmitry Medvedev awarded Brazauskas with the "Order of Honour" for his significant contribution to cooperation between Russia and Lithuania and good neighbourly relations. Brazauskas was an Honorary Member of The International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation also.

Illness and death.

Brazauskas was diagnosed with lymphatic cancer in December 2008. He died on 26 June 2010 from cancer, aged 77. At the time of his death, he was still considered an influential figure in Lithuanian politics.  Following his death the obituaries wrote of him that he had a "frame to match his indefatigable stature and a calm but commanding presence that could fill any stage." His successor as president, Valdas Adamkus, said that he "dared to decide which side to choose in a critical moment."  Lithuanian President Dalia Grybauskaitė said "The memory of the first directly elected president of Lithuania after it restored its independence, of a strong and charismatic personality, will remain for a long time in the hearts of the Lithuanian people."

Algirdas Mykolas Brazauskas (, 1932 – 2010) was the second President of a newly independent post-Soviet Lithuania from 1993 to 1998 and Prime Minister from 2001 to 2006.

Algirdas Mykolas Brazauskas (22. září 1932, Rokiškis, Litva – 26. června 2010, Vilnius) byl v letech 1993–1998 první litevský prezident zvolený po oddělení Litvy od Sovětského svazu. Poté byl v letech 2001–2006 litevským premiérem.


Characteristics of harmonisation.

Harmonisation is usually not comprehensive but partial, in that it does not seek to create a sole authority of law on a particular subject. This is because measures to harmonise law cannot go further than that which is necessary.  Harmonisation is unsystematic. The directives of the European Union do not focus on or contain comprehensive regulation of the entire law. The directives regulate some very specific issues and they regulate them only for particular situations or circumstances and only for particular types of parties. This is most prevalent in European Union contract law.  Harmonisation generally takes place on two levels of governance, the overarching body and each of the members individually. Taking the European Union, the two levels are the European level and national level. Although both European and national legislators share the legislative responsibilities, neither of these bodies has final responsibility for the whole. Also, there is no superior political authority which has the final say on who is responsible for what, i.e. no overarching authority over the European and national legislators. The European Court of Justice may however determine the extent of harmonisation when determining cases.  Harmonisation is dynamic, in that the instruments of harmonisation aim at change, in particular improving and establishing consistent conditions for the operation of legal principles.

Harmonisation versus unification.

The unification and harmonisation of laws are similar in the sense that both involve approximating several legal systems and both are also oriented towards establishing some level of integration from a previous situation characterized by diversity. On the other hand, unification and harmonisation have different fundamental aims. The former works towards complete unity in substance and detail whereas the latter avoids complete uniformity, and is primarily concerned with approximating the fundamental principles of national laws. In unification, for example, a new law completely replaces the national laws that have existed before. A harmonisation law on the European level does not exceed mere approximation and leaves the national differences in place as long as they are not expressly regulated by the harmonising law. Here, national laws merely become closer but not identical.  Unification also focuses on substituting or combining two or more legal systems and replacing them with a single system. Harmonisation on the other hand seeks to co-ordinate different legal systems by “eliminating major differences and creating minimum requirements or standards”“Unlike unification which contemplates the substitution of two or more legal systems with one single system, harmonisation of law arises exclusively in comparative law literature, and especially in conjunction with interjurisdictional, private transactions. Harmonisation seeks to ‘effect an approximation or coordination of different legal provision or systems by eliminating major differences and creating minimum requirements or standards’”.  Harmonisation can be seen as a step towards unification and, in a way, harmonisation aims or strives towards unification.

Efforts to achieve harmonisation.

Harmonisation is not a new concept. However, the problem is that no harmonisation project has ever reached completion. That is due to the nature of harmonisation, it is designed to incorporate different legal systems under a basic framework.  This is the appeal of harmonisation, it takes into account the local factors yet applies general principles to make a consistent framework of law. It generally incorporates local factors under a relatively unified framework. An example of harmonisation can be drawn from the European Union and the use of Directives.  Directives require transposition into the domestic legal system of the Member State in order to become effective. If a Member State fails to transpose the Directive in a timely manner or fails to do it at all, the Directive will take 'direct effect', that is, individuals are able to derive rights from that Directive directly despite not being transposed into domestic law. A Directive could be transposed through enactment under legislation from the national parliament or through agreement by reference. The Directives are flexible to the extent that the national authorities of the Member States have the choice of the form and method of the implementation of the Directive. This takes into account the fact that Member States have differing legal systems. Hence this allows the establishment of a harmonised framework of laws whilst preserving the established national laws of each member. This is the major appeal of harmonisation over unification.  Harmonisation can be achieved in two ways, actively or passively. The most common is the active pursuit of harmonisation usually through the enactment of legislation which incorporates the harmonised principles into the local law. Passive harmonisation may occur through non-legislative agreements or a convergence of case law. So far, passive harmonisation is the least successful since the non-legislative agreements tend to be voluntary. The convergence of case law is more promising since: "All that matters is that the courts of different European States achieve similar results in the same cases, regardless of which norms, doctrines or procedures they apply in order to reach this end."

Harmonisation and convergence of law.

Harmonisation is synonymous with convergence of the law however harmonisation is usually associated via active pursuit through enacting legislation whereas convergence is generally associated with a passive approach such as a natural convergence of law through custom and frequent use of harmonised principles.  The most prominent example of harmonisation in international law is UNCITRAL (United Nations Commission on International Trade Law).

In the European Union, harmonisation of law (or simply harmonisation) is the process of creating common standards across the internal market. Though each EU member state has primary responsibility for the regulation of most matters within their jurisdiction, and consequently each has its own laws, harmonisation aims to:

Harmonizace práva je činnost směřující k dosažení větší či menší podobnosti v právní úpravě mezi jednotlivými státy. Na rozdíl od unifikace nesměřuje k vytvoření stejného právního předpisu.


Taxonomy.

The brown-headed cowbird was described by the French polymath Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in 1775 in his "Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux" from a specimen collected in the Carolinas. The bird was also illustrated in a hand-coloured plate engraved by François-Nicolas Martinet in the "Planches Enluminées D'Histoire Naturelle" which was produced under the supervision of Edme-Louis Daubenton to accompany Buffon's text. Neither the plate caption nor Buffon's description included a scientific name but in 1783 the Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert coined the binomial name "Oriolus ater" in his catalogue of the "Planches Enluminées". The brown-headed cowbird is now placed in the genus "Molothrus" that was introduced by the English naturalist William John Swainson in 1832 with the brown-headed cowbird as the type species. The genus name combines the Ancient Greek "mōlos" meaning "struggle" or "battle" with "thrōskō" meaning "to sire" or "to impregnate". The specific "ater" is Latin for "dull black". The English name "cowbird", first recorded in 1839, refers to this species often being seen near cattle.  Three subspecies are recognised:

Description.

The brown-headed cowbird is typical for an icterid in general shape, but is distinguished by a finch-like head and beak and its smaller size. The adult male is iridescent black in color with a brown head. The adult female is slightly smaller and is dull grey with a pale throat and very fine streaking on the underparts. The total length is and the average wingspan is. Body mass can range from, with females averaging against the males' average of.

Distribution and habitat.

The species lives in open or semi-open country and often travels in flocks, sometimes mixed with red-winged blackbirds (particularly in spring) and bobolinks (particularly in fall), as well as common grackles or European starlings. These birds forage on the ground, often following grazing animals such as horses and cows to catch insects stirred up by the larger animals. They mainly eat seeds and insects.  Before European settlement, the brown-headed cowbird followed bison herds across the prairies. Its population expanded with the clearing of forested areas and the introduction of new grazing animals by settlers across North America. Brown-headed cowbirds are now commonly seen at suburban birdfeeders.

Behavior and ecology.

Breeding.

The brown-headed cowbird is an obligate brood parasite: it lays its eggs in the nests of other small passerines (perching birds), particularly those that build cup-like nests. The brown-headed cowbird eggs have been documented in nests of at least 220 host species, including hummingbirds and raptors. The young cowbird is fed by the host parents at the expense of their own young. Brown-headed cowbird females can lay 36 eggs in a season. More than 140 different species of birds are known to have raised young cowbirds.  Unlike the common cuckoo, the brown-headed cowbird is not divided into gentes whose eggs imitate those of a particular host.  Some host species, such as the house finch, feed their young a vegetarian diet. This is unsuitable for young brown-headed cowbirds, meaning almost none survive to fledge.

Male behavior and reproductive success.

Social behaviors of cowbird males include aggressive, competitive singing bouts with other males and pair-bonding and monogamy with females.  By manipulating demographics so juveniles only had access to females, juvenile males developed atypical social behavior; they did not engage in the typical social singing bouts with other males, did not pair bond with females, and were promiscuous. This demonstrates that there is great flexibility in the behavior of cowbirds, and that the social environment is extremely important in structuring their behavior. Adult males housed with juvenile males were shown to have greater reproductive success compared to adult males housed with other adult males. Being housed with juvenile males honed the reproductive skills of the adult males by providing them with a more complex social environment.  This finding was further studied by comparing the behaviors and reproductive success of males exposed to a dynamic flock, consisting of changing individuals, with males exposed to a static group of individuals. The individuals that stayed with the same group (i.e., static flock) had a stable, predictable relationship between social behavior and reproductive success; the males that sang frequently to females experienced the greatest reproductive success. The adult males that were exposed to a rotating roster of new individuals (i.e., dynamic flock) had an unpredictable relationship between social variables and reproductive success; these males were able to copulate using a much greater variety of social strategies. The males who lived in static flocks had high levels of consistency in their behaviors and reproductive success across multiple years, whereas the males in dynamic flocks experienced varying levels of dominance with other males, differing levels of singing to females, and differing levels of reproductive success.

Brood parasitism.

Brown-headed cowbirds do not raise their own young, instead laying their eggs in the nests of other bird species. As a result, young cowbirds are not exposed to species-typical visual and auditory information like other birds. Despite this, cowbirds are able to develop species-typical singing, social, and breeding behaviors. A 2017 study demonstrated that cowbird brains are wired to respond to the vocalizations of other cowbirds, allowing young to find and join flocks of their own species. These vocalizations are consistent across all cowbird populations, and serve as a sort of species-recognition password. If a young cowbird is not exposed to these "password" vocalizations by a certain age, it will mistakenly imprint on the host species.

Host response.

Accepting a cowbird egg and rearing a cowbird chick can be costly to a host species. In the American redstart, nests parasitized by cowbirds were found to have a higher rate of predation, likely due in part to the loud begging calls by the cowbird nestling, but also partly explained by the fact that nests likely to be parasitized are also more likely to be predated.  Host species sometimes notice the cowbird egg, with different hosts reacting to the egg in different ways. Some, like the blue-grey gnatcatcher, abandon their nest, losing their own eggs as well. Some, like the American yellow warbler, bury the foreign egg under nest material, where it perishes. And some, like the brown thrasher, physically eject the egg from the nest. Experiments with grey catbirds, a known cowbird host, have shown that this species rejects cowbird eggs more than 95% of the time. For this species, the cost of accepting cowbird eggs (i.e. the loss of their own eggs or nestlings through starvation or the actions of the nestling cowbird) was far higher than the cost of rejecting those eggs (i.e. where the host might conceivably eject its own egg accidentally). Brown-headed cowbird nestlings are also sometimes expelled from the nest. Nestlings of host species can also alter their behavior in response to the presence of a cowbird nestling. Song sparrow nestlings in parasitized nests alter their vocalizations in frequency and amplitude so that they resemble the cowbird nestling, and these nestlings tend to be fed equally often as nestlings in unparasitized nests.

Parasite response.

It seems that brown-headed cowbirds periodically check on their eggs and young after they have deposited them. Removal of the parasitic egg may trigger a retaliatory reaction termed "mafia behavior". According to a study by the Florida Museum of Natural History published in 1983, the cowbird returned to ransack the nests of a range of host species 56% of the time when their egg was removed. In addition, the cowbird also destroyed nests in a type of "farming behavior" to force the hosts to build new ones. The cowbirds then laid their eggs in the new nests 85% of the time.

Relationship to humans.

With the expansion of its range and its parasitic behavior, the brown-headed cowbird is often regarded as a pest. Humans sometimes engage in cowbird control programs, with the intention of protecting species negatively impacted by the cowbirds' brood parasitism. A study of nests of Bell's vireo highlighted a potential limitation of these control programs, demonstrating that removal of cowbirds from a site may create an unintended consequence of increasing cowbird productivity on that site, because with fewer cowbirds, fewer parasitized nests are deserted, resulting in greater nest success for cowbirds.

The brown-headed cowbird ("Molothrus ater") is a small obligate brood parasitic icterid of temperate native to subtropical North America. They are permanent residents in the southern parts of their range; northern birds migrate to the southern United States and Mexico in winter, returning to their summer habitat around March or April.

Vlhovec hnědohlavý ("Molothrus ater") je malý druh pěvce z čeledi vlhovcovitých (Icteridae). Vyskytuje se v otevřených lesích a v blízkosti lidských obydlí v mírných a subtropických částech Severní Ameriky. Jižní populace jsou stálé, severní však na zimu migrují na jih Spojených států a do Mexika, odkud se zpět na hnízdiště navrací během března až dubna.


History.

The stereoscope was first invented by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1838. It showed that when two pictures are viewed stereoscopically, they are combined by the brain to produce 3D depth perception. The stereoscope was improved by Louis Jules Duboscq, and a famous picture of Queen Victoria was displayed at The Great Exhibition in 1851. In 1855 the Kinematoscope was invented. In the late 1890s, the British film pioneer William Friese-Greene filed a patent for a 3D movie process. On 10 June 1915, former Edison Studios chief director Edwin S. Porter and William E. Waddell presented tests in red-green anaglyph to an audience at the Astor Theater in New York City and in 1922 the first public 3D movie "The Power of Love" was displayed.  Stereoscopic 3D television was demonstrated for the first time on 10 August 1928, by John Logie Baird in his company's premises at 133 Long Acre, London. Baird pioneered a variety of 3D television systems using electro-mechanical and cathode-ray tube techniques. The first 3D TV was produced in 1935, and stereoscopic 3D still cameras for personal use had already become fairly common by the Second World War. Many 3D movies were

Technologies.

There are several techniques to produce and display 3D moving pictures. The following are some of the technical details and methodologies employed in some of the more notable 3D movie systems that have been developed.  The future of 3D television is also emerging as time progresses. New technology like WindowWalls (wall-size displays) and Visible light communication are being implemented into 3D television as the demand for 3D TV increases. Scott Birnbaum, vice president of Samsung's LCD business, said that the demand for 3D TV would skyrocket in the next couple of years, fueled by televised sports (but this did not happen). One might be able to obtain information directly onto their television due to new technologies like the Visible Light Communication that allows for this to happen because the LED lights transmit information by flickering at high frequencies.

Displaying technologies.

The basic requirement is to display offset images that are filtered separately to the left and right eye. Two strategies have been used to accomplish this: have the viewer wear eyeglasses to filter the separately offset images to each eye, or have the light source split the images directionally into the viewer's eyes (no glasses required). Common 3D display technology for projecting stereoscopic image pairs to the viewer include:  In a CEATEC 2011 exhibition, Hitachi released glasses-free 3D projection systems that use a set of 24 projectors,

Producing technologies.

Stereoscopy is the most widely accepted method for capturing and delivering 3D video. It involves capturing stereo pairs in a two-view setup, with cameras mounted side by side and separated by the same distance as is between a person's pupils. If we imagine projecting an object point in a scene along the line-of-sight for each eye, in turn; to a flat background screen, we may describe the location of this point mathematically using simple algebra. In rectangular coordinates with the screen lying in the Y–Z plane, with the Z axis upward and the Y axis to the right, with the viewer centered along the X axis; we find that the screen coordinates are simply the sum of two terms. One accounting for perspective and the other for binocular shift. Perspective modifies the Z and Y coordinates of the object point, by a factor of D/(D–x), while binocular shift contributes an additional term (to the Y coordinate only) of s·x/(2·(D–x)), where D is the distance from the selected system origin to the viewer (right between the eyes), s is the eye separation (about 7 centimeters), and x is the true

3D production.

Production of events such as live sports broadcasts in 3D differs from the methods used for 2D broadcasting. A high technical standard must be maintained because any mismatch in color, alignment, or focus between two cameras may destroy the 3D effect or produce discomfort in the viewer. Zoom lenses for each camera of a stereo pair must track over their full range of focal lengths.  Addition of graphical elements (such as a scoreboard, timers, or logos) to a 3D picture must place the synthesized elements at a suitable depth within the frame, so that viewers can comfortably view the added elements as well as the main picture. This requires more powerful computers to calculate the correct appearance of the graphical elements. For example, the

TV sets.

These TV sets were high-end and generally included Ethernet, USB player and recorder, Bluetooth and USB Wi-Fi.

3D-ready TV sets.

3D-ready TV sets are those that can operate in 3D mode (in addition to regular 2D mode) using one of several display technologies to recreate a stereoscopic image. These TV sets usually supported HDMI 1.4 and a minimum output refresh rate of 120 Hz; glasses may be sold separately.  Philips was developing a 3D television set that would be available for the consumer market by about 2011 without the need for special glasses (autostereoscopy). However it was canceled because of the slow adoption of customers going from

Full 3D TV sets.

Full 3D TV sets included Samsung Full HD 3D (1920×1080p, 60 Hz) and Panasonic Full HD 3D (1920×1080p, 60 Hz).  A September 2011 Cnet review touted Toshiba's 55ZL2 as "the future of television". Because of the demanding nature of auto-stereoscopic 3D technology, the display features a 3840x2160 display; however,

Standardization efforts.

The entertainment industry was expected to adopt a common and compatible standard for 3D in home electronics. To present faster frame rate in high definition to avoid judder (non-smooth, linear motion), enhancing 3-D film, televisions and broadcasting, other unresolved standards are the type of 3D glasses (passive or active), including bandwidth considerations, subtitles, recording format, and a Blu-ray standard. With improvements in digital technology, in the late 2000s, 3D movies have become more practical to produce and display, putting competitive pressure behind the creation of 3D television standards. There are several techniques for Stereoscopic Video Coding, and stereoscopic distribution formatting including anaglyph, quincunx, and 2D plus Delta. A Serial digital interface standard exists to carry 3D TV signals within TV stations.  Content providers, such as Disney, DreamWorks, and other Hollywood studios, and technology developers, such as Philips, asked SMPTE for the development of a 3DTV standard in order to avoid a battle of formats and to guarantee consumers that they will be able to view the 3D content they purchase and to provide them with 3D home solutions for all pockets. In August 2008, SMPTE established the "3-D Home Display Formats Task Force" to define the parameters of a stereoscopic 3D mastering standard for content viewed on any fixed device in the home, no matter the delivery channel. It explored the standards that need to be set for 3D content distributed via broadcast, cable, satellite, packaged media, and the Internet to be played-out on televisions, computer screens and other tethered displays. After six months, the committee produced a report to define the issues and challenges, minimum standards, and evaluation criteria, which the Society said would serve as a working document for SMPTE 3D standards efforts to follow. A follow-on effort to draft a standard for 3D content formats was expected to take another 18 to 30 months.  Production studios are developing an increasing number of 3D titles for the cinema and as many as a dozen companies are actively working on the core technology behind the product. Many have technologies available to demonstrate, but no clear road forward for a mainstream offering has emerged.  Under these circumstances, SMPTE's inaugural meeting was essentially a call for proposals for 3D television; more than 160 people from 80 companies signed up for this first meeting. Vendors that presented their respective technologies at the task force meeting included SENSIO Technologies, Philips, Dynamic Digital Depth (DDD), TDVision, and Real D, all of which had 3D distribution technologies.  There are many active 3D projects in SMPTE for both TV and filmmakers. The SMPTE 35PM40 Working Group decided (without influence from the SMPTE Board or any other external influence) that the good progress being made on 3D standards within other SMPTE groups (including the IMF Interoperable Master Format) means that its "overview" project would be best published as an Engineering Report. Broadcasters and other participants are still very active in 3D development, and SMPTE continues to be the forum where everyone from content creator to consumer manufacturer has a voice.  However, SMPTE is not the only 3D standards group. Other organizations such as the Consumer Electronics Association (CEA), 3D@Home Consortium, ITU and the Entertainment Technology Center (ETC), at USC School of Cinematic Arts have created their own investigation groups and have already offered to collaborate to reach a common solution. The Digital TV Group (DTG), has committed to profiling a UK standard for 3DTV products and services. Other standard groups such as DVB, BDA, ARIB, ATSC, DVD Forum, IEC and others are to be involved in the process.  MPEG has been researching multi-view, stereoscopic, and 2D plus depth 3D video coding since the mid-1990s; the first result of this research is the Multiview Video Coding extension for MPEG-4 AVC that is currently undergoing standardization. MVC has been chosen by the Blu-ray disc association for 3D distribution. The format offers backwards compatibility with 2D Blu-ray players.  HDMI version 1.4, released in June 2009, defines a number of 3D transmission formats. The format "Frame Packing" (left and right image packed into one video frame with twice the normal bandwidth) is mandatory for HDMI 1.4 3D devices. All three resolutions (720p50, 720p60, and 1080p24) have to be supported by display devices, and at least one of those by playback devices. Other resolutions and formats are optional. While HDMI 1.4 devices will be capable of transmitting 3D pictures in full 1080p, HDMI 1.3 does not include such support. As an out-of-spec solution for the bitrate problem, a 3D image may be displayed at a lower resolution, like interlaced or at standard definition.

Broadcasts.

3D channels.

In 2008, 3D programming was broadcast on Japanese satellite BS11 approximately four times per day.  Cablevision launched a 3D version of its MSG channel on 24 March 2010, which was a limited service that was only available only to Cablevision subscribers on channel 1300. The channel was dedicated primarily to sports broadcasts, including MSG's 3D broadcast of a New York Rangers-New York Islanders game, limited coverage of the 2010 Masters Tournament, and (in cooperation with YES Network) a game between the New York Yankees and Seattle Mariners.  The first Australian program broadcast in high-definition 3D was Fox Sports coverage of the soccer game Australia-New Zealand on 24 May 2010.  Also in Australia, the Nine Network and Special Broadcasting Service will be bringing the State of Origin (matches on 26 May, 16 June and 7 July 2010) (Nine) and FIFA World Cup (SBS) in 3D on Channel 40 respectively.  In early 2010, Discovery Communications, Imax, and Sony announced plans

List of 3D Channels.

Standard HD channels have also broadcast in 3D. BBC HD occasionally broadcast high-profile events in 3D including the Wimbledon

3D episodes and shows.

There have been several notable examples in television where 3D episodes have been produced, typically as one-hour specials or special events.

1980s.

The first-ever 3D broadcast in the UK was an episode of the weekly science magazine "The Real World", made by Television South and screened in the UK in February 1982. The program included excerpts of test footage shot by Philips in the Netherlands. Red/green 3D glasses were given away free with copies of the TV Times

1990s.

In November 1993, the BBC announced a one-off week of 3D programming filmed using the pioneering Pulfrich 3D technique. 3D glasses were sold in shops around the UK, a percentage of the sales going to the Children In Need charity. The week's programming concluded with a screening of the 3D "Doctor Who" special "Dimensions In Time" as well as specially shot segments of Noel's House Party and the annual Children In Need charity appeal.  3D television episodes were a brief fad on U.S. television during the May 1997 sweeps. The sitcom "3rd Rock from the Sun" showed a two-part episode, "Nightmare On Dick Street", where several of the characters'

2000s.

Recent uses of 3D in television include the drama "Medium" and the comedy "Chuck" (Season 2, episode 12).  Channel 4 in the UK ran a short season of 3D programming in November 2009

2010s.

On 31 January 2010, BSKYB became the first broadcaster in the world to show a live sports event in 3D when Sky Sports screened a football match between Manchester United and Arsenal to a public audience in several selected pubs.  On 31 January 2010, the 52nd Grammy Awards featured a Michael Jackson Tribute Sequence in 3D, using anaglyph format.  The very first stereoscopic indie live action comedy one-hour show called "Safety Geeks : SVI : 3D" specifically for 3DTV and 3D VOD was produced and released in March 2010 through Digital Dynamic Depth / Yabazam and their Yabazam website portal. "Safety Geeks:SVI" is the comic adventures of an elite force of safety experts, the P.O.S.H. (Professional Occupational Safety Hazard) team. Obsessed with making the world safer, the CSI-like team investigates accidents to find out what went wrong and who is to blame. It won the Los Angeles 3D film Festival in 2010 as best pilot or series in 3D.  In April 2010, the Masters Tournament was broadcast in live 3D on DirecTV, Comcast, and Cox.  The Roland Garros tennis tournament in Paris, from 23 May to 6 June 2010, was filmed in 3D (center court only) and broadcast live via ADSL and fiber to Orange subscribers throughout France in a dedicated Orange TV channel.  Fox Sports broadcasts the first program in 3D in Australia when the Socceroos played The New Zealand All Whites at the MCG on 24 May 2010.  The Nine Network broadcasts the first Free-to-air 3D telecast when the Queensland Maroons faced the New South Wales Blues at ANZ Stadium on 26 May 2010.  On 29 May 2010, Sky broadcasts Guinness Premiership Final in 3D in selected pubs and clubs.  25 matches in the FIFA World Cup 2010 were broadcast in 3D.  The Inauguration of Philippine President Noynoy Aquino on 30 June 2010 was the first presidential inauguration to telecast in live 3D by GMA Network. However, the telecast was only available in select places.  The 2010 Coke Zero 400 was broadcast in 3D on 3 July on NASCAR.com and DirecTV along with Comcast, TWC, and Bright House cable systems.  Astro broadcast the 2010 FIFA World Cup Final on 11 July 2010 in 3-D on their B.yond service.  Satellite delivered Bell TV in Canada began to offer a full-time pay-TV, 3D channel to

Decline.

As early as 2013, 3D televisions were being seen as a fad. DirecTV had stopped broadcasting 3D programs in 2012, while ESPN stopped in 2013. In the UK, Sky moved its content to on-demand, and the BBC ended airing

World record.

The 2011 UEFA Champions League Final match between Manchester United and Barcelona was broadcast live in 3D format on a Ukrainian-produced

Health effects.

Some viewers have complained of headaches, seizures and eyestrain after watching 3D films. There have been several warnings, especially for the elderly. Motion sickness, in addition to other health concerns, is more easily induced by 3D presentations.  There are primarily two effects of 3D TV that are unnatural for the human vision: crosstalk between the eyes caused by imperfect image separation and the mismatch between convergence and accommodation caused by the difference between an object's perceived position in front of or behind the screen and the real origin of that light on the screen.  It is believed that approximately 12% of people are unable to properly see 3D images, owing to a variety of medical conditions. According to another experiment, up to 30% of people have very weak stereoscopic vision preventing depth perception based on stereo disparity. This nullifies or greatly decreases immersion effects of digital stereo to them.

3D television (3DTV) is television that conveys depth perception to the viewer by employing techniques such as stereoscopic display, multi-view display, 2D-plus-depth, or any other form of 3D display. Most modern 3D television sets use an active shutter 3D system or a polarized 3D system, and some are autostereoscopic without the need of glasses. As of 2019, most 3D TV sets and services are no longer available.

Televize, tak jak jsme je znali doposud, byly schopny zobrazit pouze dvourozměrný obraz. Takové televize vyrábí mnoho různých výrobců a v tomto oboru panuje velký konkurenční tlak. Aby zvýšili své zisky, museli tedy výrobci přijít s nějakou novinkou. Propojení televize s internetem, zvýšení kvalitativní úrovně obrazu, barevného podání apod. byly sice krokem vpřed, ale ne tak velkým, aby to poskytlo velkou konkurenční výhodu. 3D obraz v televizi je však něco, co diváka uchvátí a co vytváří v podstatě vlastní kategorii televizí, která je na úplné špičce pokroku. Díky konkurenčnímu tlaku a přirozenému vývoji máme tedy konečně možnost podívat se na nové filmy v přirozeném trojrozměrném podání.


History.

The circus is an oval polygon of 20 sides, with Corinthian columns at the angles, giving the impression of an oval building enclosing the oval ring, surrounded by steeply banked seating for spectators, very much like a miniature indoor Colosseum. A low angled roof is self-supporting like a low dome, so that there is no central pole, as under a tent, to obstruct views or interfere with the action.  The building was designed by the architect Jacques Ignace Hittorff and opened as the Cirque Napoléon, a compliment to the new Emperor of the French Napoleon III. The sculptor James Pradier was called upon to provide exterior bas-reliefs of Amazons, and Francisque Duret and Astyanax-Scévola Bosio sculpted the panels of mounted warriors. The guiding entrepreneur was Louis Dejean, the proprietor of the Cirque d'Été ("Summer Circus") erected annually in the bosquets that flanked the Champs-Élysées. Dejean wagered that evening circus performances under the limelight, with the spectators well removed from the dust and smells of the tanbark floor, would provide a dress occasion for "le tout-Paris", and he was well rewarded for his acumen.  At the end of the Second Empire, the Cirque d'Hiver was renamed the Cirque National, and was administered by Victor Franconi. It was given its present name in 1873. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec repeatedly found inspiration in rehearsals and performances at the Cirque d'Hiver; Georges Seurat painted an afternoon performance, with a distinctly middle-class audience, in "The Circus", one of the greatest unfinished canvases in the history of Western painting (1890–91, Musée d'Orsay). Franconi's son Charles assumed direction, 1897–1907. Since 1934 it has been the Cirque d'Hiver-Bouglione, operated by the Bouglione brothers and their heirs. The original configuration accommodated 4,000, which has now been reduced to 2,090 due to fire codes.  The Cirque d'hiver was the site of the organization meeting of the American Legion from March 15 to 17, 1919. The American Legion was originally founded as an organization for American veterans of the First World War and has since expanded its membership to include veterans of subsequent conflicts. It is the largest veterans organization in the United States.  At the Cirque d'Hiver in August 1955, Richard Avedon took his famous photograph of the fashion model "Dovima with the Elephants" to show a floor-length evening dress by Dior, one of the most iconic fashion photographs of the century. In 1995, Parisian designer Thierry Mugler held a special fashion show at the circus, to celebrate his firm's 20th anniversary. Performers and special guests included James Brown, Tippi Hedren and many of the decade's top supermodels, including Naomi Campbell.

The Cirque d'Hiver ("Winter Circus"), located at 110 rue Amelot (at the juncture of the rue des Filles Calvaires and rue Amelot, Paris 11ème), has been a prominent venue for circuses, exhibitions of dressage, musical concerts, and other events, including exhibitions of Turkish wrestling and even fashion shows. The theatre was designed by the architect Jacques Ignace Hittorff and was opened by Emperor Napoleon III on 11 December 1852 as the Cirque Napoléon. The orchestral concerts of Jules Etienne Pasdeloup were inaugurated at the Cirque Napoléon on 27 October 1861 and continued for more than twenty years. The theatre was renamed Cirque d'Hiver in 1870.

Cirque d'hiver ("Zimní cirkus") je stavba v Paříži v 11. obvodu mezi ulicemi "Rue des Filles Calvaires" a "Rue Amelot". Původní cirkus dnes slouží k různým kulturním představením. Cirque d'hiver je dnes poslední z 18 cirkusů, které byly postaveny v Paříži.