Location.

The Etruscan and Roman city is situated on the long plateau of La Civita to the north of the current town.  The ancient burial grounds (necropoleis), dating from the Iron Age (9th century BC, or Villanovan period) to Roman times, were on the adjacent promontories including that of today's Tarquinia.

History.

Etruscan city.

Tarquinii (Etruscan "Tarch(u)na") was one of the most ancient and important Etruscan cities; the ancient myths connected with Tarchuna (those of its eponymous founder Tarchon - the son or brother of Tyrrhenus - and of the infant oracle Tages, who gave the Etruscans the "disciplina etrusca"), all point to the antiquity and cultural importance of the city. Basing on archaeological finds, Tarchuna eclipsed its neighbours well before the advent of written records. It is said to have been already a flourishing city when Demaratus of Corinth brought in Greek workmen.  Descendants of Demaratus, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus and Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, became kings of ancient Rome. Numerous Roman religious rites and ceremonies derived from Tarchuna, and even in imperial times a collegium of sixty haruspices continued to exist there.  The emergence of Tarchuna as a trading power as early as the 8th Century BC was influenced by its control of mineral resources located in the Tolfa Hills to the south of the city and midway to the Caeretan port of Pyrgi.  In 509 BC, after the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, the family of Tarquinius Superbus went into exile in Caere. He sought to regain the throne at first by the Tarquinian conspiracy and, when that failed, by force of arms. He convinced the cities of Tarchuna and Veii to support him and led their armies against Rome in the Battle of Silva Arsia. Although the Roman army was victorious, it is recorded by Livy that the forces of Tarchuna fought well on the right wing, initially pushing back the Roman left wing. After the battle the forces of Tarchuna returned home.  At the end of the 5th century and during the first half of the 4th century BC a brief revival took place, both in the political and artistic sphere, probably under the ascendancy of the Spurinna family, whose members contributed to the renewed expansion of Tarchuna and the repopulation and growth of towns in the hinterland. The Spurinnas' tomb, known as the Tomba dell'Orco, is decorated with frescoes of a banquet uniting members of the family who are identified by inscriptions. The Spurinna family was prominent in Tarquinii up to the 1st century AD. Two fragmented slabs, known as the Elogia Tarquiniensis, pay tribute to Velthur Spurinnas and Aulus Spurinnas, and give a rare glimpse of Etruscan history, including the mention of one King Orgolnium of Caere, recalling the family name of Urgulanilla, which included among its members the wife of the emperor Claudius.  During this period, Tarchuna overtook Caere and other Etruscan cities in terms of power and influence. In this period colossal walls were built around the city in response to threats from the Celts and from Rome. Tarchuna, not affected by Celtic invasions, finally colonised all its previously held territories in about 385 BC. This new flourishing state allowed a rapid recovery of all activities. Large burial monuments decorated by paintings, with sarcophagi and funerary sculptures in stone, reflect the eminent social position of the new aristocratic classes, but several inscriptions on walls and sarcophagi show the gradual process of an increasingly democratic transition was taking place.  However, during the 4th century BC when Tarchuna's expansion was at its peak, a bitter struggle with Rome took place. In 358 BC, the citizens of Tarchuna captured and put to death 307 Roman soldiers; the resulting war ended in 351 BC with a forty years' truce, renewed for a similar period in 308 BC.

Roman city.

When Tarchuna came under Roman domination is uncertain, as is also the date at which it became a "municipium"; in 181 BC its port, Graviscae (modern Porto Clementino), in an unhealthy position on the coast (due to malaria from nearby marshes), became a Roman "colonia" that exported wine and had coral fisheries. Little is known about Tarquinii in Roman times, but the flax and forests of its extensive territory are mentioned by classical authors, and Tarquinii offered to furnish Scipio with sailcloth in 195 BC. A bishop of Tarquinii is mentioned in 456 AD.

Post-Roman era.

The ancient city had shrunk to a small fortified settlement on the "Castellina" location during the early Middle Ages, while the more strategically placed Corneto (possibly the "Corito" mentioned in Roman sources) grew progressively to become the major city of the lower Maremma sea coast, especially after the destruction of the port of Centumcellae (modern Civitavecchia). The last historic references to Tarquinii are from around 1250, while the name of Corneto was changed to Tarquinia in 1922. Reversion to historical place names (not always accurately), was a frequent phenomenon under the Fascist Government of Italy as part of the nationalist campaign to evoke past glories.

Main sights.

Etruscan necropolis of Monterozzi.

The main necropolis of Tarchuna, part of which can be visited today, is the Monterozzi necropolis with some 6,000 tombs, at least 200 of which include beautiful wall paintings, and many of which were tumulus tombs with chambers carved in the rock below.  The painted scenes are of a quality virtually unrivalled elsewhere in the Etruscan world and give a valuable insight into the secretive world of the Etruscans which is rarely documented. They show banquets with dances and music, sporting events, occasional erotic and mythical scenes. In the late period underworld demons escorting the dead on their journey to the beyond including scenes in the nether world were depicted, and also processions of magistrates and other symbols of the rank of the eminent members of the families buried there.  Famous tombs include the Tomb of the Bulls, Tomb of the Augurs and the Tomb of the Leopards.  During the second half of the 4th century sculpted and painted sarcophagi of nenfro, marble and alabaster came into use. They were deposited on rock-carved benches or against the walls in the by then very large underground chambers. Sarcophagi continued until the second century and are found in such numbers at Tarquinia that they must have been manufactured locally.

The Ancient City (La Civita).

The city towered above the Marta valley and was about 6 km from the sea. La Civita is made up of two adjoining plateaux, the pian di Civita and the pian della Regina, joined by a narrow saddle.

The Temple "Ara della Regina".

Measuring c. 44 × 25 m and dating to c. 4th-3rd century BC, it was built in tufa with wooden structures and decorations, notably the famous and exquisite frieze of winged horses in terracotta that is considered a masterpiece of Etruscan art.

City walls.

The large walls were built during the city's most prosperous period in the 6th century BC and measured about 8 km long, enclosing 135 ha, and long parts of the northern section are visible.

Tarquinia DOC.

The Italian wine DOC of Tarquinia produces red, white "frizzante" style wine. The grapes are limited to a harvest yield of 12 tonnes/ha with finished wines needing a minimum 10.5% alcohol level. The reds are a blend of at least 60% Sangiovese and/or Montepulciano, up to 25% Cesanese and up to 30% of other local red grape varieties such as Abbuoto. The whites are composed of at least 50% Trebbiano and/or Giallo, up to 35% Malvasia and up to 30 other local grape varieties with the exception of Pinot grigio that is specifically excluded from the DOC wines of Tarquinia.

Tarquinia (), formerly Corneto, is an old city in the province of Viterbo, Lazio, Italy known chiefly for its ancient Etruscan tombs in the widespread necropoleis or cemeteries which it overlies, for which it was awarded UNESCO World Heritage status.

Tarquinia je město v Laziu v provincii Viterbo ve střední Itálii s několika tisíci obyvateli. Jeho historie sahá hluboko do minulosti do dob Etrusků.


Morphology.

While typical owls (hereafter referred to simply as owls) vary greatly in size, with the smallest species, the elf owl, being a hundredth the size of the largest, the Eurasian eagle-owl and Blakiston's fish owl, owls generally share an extremely similar body plan. They tend to have large heads, short tails, cryptic plumage, and round facial discs around the eyes. The family is generally arboreal (with a few exceptions like the burrowing owl) and obtain their food on the wing. The wings are large, broad, rounded, and long. As is the case with most birds of prey, in many owl species females are larger than males.  Because of their nocturnal habits, they tend not to exhibit sexual dimorphism in their plumage. Specialized feathers and wing shape suppress the noise produced by flying, both taking off, flapping and gliding. This silent flight allows owls to hunt without being heard by their prey. Owls possess three physical attributes that are thought to contribute to their silent flight capability. First, on the leading edge of the wing, there is a comb of stiff feathers. Second, the trailing edge of the wing contains a flexible fringe. Finally, owls have downy material distributed on the tops of their wings that creates a compliant but rough surface (similar to that of a soft carpet). All these factors result in significant aerodynamic noise reductions. The toes and tarsi are feathered in some species, and more so in species at higher latitudes. Numerous species of owls in the genus "Glaucidium" and the northern hawk-owl have eye patches on the backs of their heads, apparently to convince other birds they are being watched at all times. Numerous nocturnal species have ear-tufts, feathers on the sides of the head that are thought to have a camouflage function, breaking up the outline of a roosting bird. The feathers of the facial disc are arranged in order to increase sound delivered to the ears. Hearing in owls is highly sensitive and the ears are asymmetrical allowing the owl to localise a sound in multiple directions. Owls can pinpoint the position of prey, such as a squeaking mouse, by computing when the sound from the object reaches the owl's ears. If the sound reaches the left ear first, the mouse must be to the left of the owl. The owl's brain will then direct the head to directly face the mouse. In addition to hearing, owls have massive eyes relative to their body size. Contrary to popular belief, however, owls cannot see well in extreme dark and are able to see well in the day.  Owls are also able to rotate their heads by as much as 270 degrees in either direction without damaging the blood vessels in their necks and heads, and without disrupting blood flow to their brains. Researchers have found four major biological adaptations that allow for this unique capability. First, in the neck there is a major artery, called the vertebral artery, that feeds the brain. This artery passes through bony holes in the vertebra. These bony holes are ten times larger in diameter than the artery that passes through it (extra space in the transverse foramina). This creates cushiony air pockets that allow for more movement of the artery when twisted. 12 of the 14 cervical vertebrae in the owls neck have this adaptation. This vertebral artery also enters the neck higher up than it does in other birds. Instead of going in at the 14th cervical vertebrae, it enters in at the 12th cervical vertebrae. Finally, the small vessel connection between the carotid and the vertebral arteries allow the exchanging of blood between two blood vessels. These cross connections allow for uninterrupted blood flow to the brain. This means that even if one route is blocked during extreme head rotations, another route can continue blood circulation to the brain.  Several owl species also have fluorescent pigments called porphyrins under their wings. A large group of pigments defined by nitrogen-containing pyrole rings, including chlorophyll and heme (in animal blood), make up the porphyrins. Other bird species will use porphyrins to pigment eggshells in the oviduct. Owl species, however, use porphyrins as a pigment in their plumage. Porphyrins are most prevalent in new feathers and are easily destroyed by sunlight. Porphyrin pigments in feathers fluoresce under UV light, allowing biologists to more accurately classify the age of owls. The relative ages of the feathers are differentiated by the intensity of fluorescence that they emit when the primaries and secondaries are exposed to black light. This method helps to detect the subtle differences between third and fourth generation feathers, whereas looking at wear and color makes age determination difficult.

Niche competition.

It has been noted that there is some competition for niche space between the spotted owl and the barred owl (both of which are true owls). This competition is related to deforestation, and therefore a reduction in niche quantity and quality. This deforestation is more specifically the result of over-logging and forest fires. These two species of owl are known to traditionally live in mature forests of old and tall trees, which at this point in time are mostly limited to public lands. As niche overlap is occurring in these two families, there is a concern with the barred owls encroaching on the spotted owl's North American habitats, causing a decline of the spotted owl. As noted above, these species prefer mature forests which, due to deforestation, are at limited supply and take a long time to reestablish after deforestation has occurred. Because the northern spotted owl shares its territories and competes with other species, it is declining at a more rapid pace. This invasion by barred owls occurred about fifty years ago in the Pacific Northwest, and despite their low numbers, they are considered an invasive species because of the harm done to native spotted owls. In this competition for resources, hunting locations and general niches, the barred owl is pushing the spotted owl to local extinction. It is thought that the rapid decrease in population size of spotted owls will cause a trophic cascade, since the spotted owls help provide a healthy ecosystem.

Behaviour.

Owls are generally nocturnal and/or crepuscular and spend much of the day roosting. They are often perceived as tame since they allow people to approach quite closely before taking flight, but they are instead attempting to avoid detection. The cryptic plumage and inconspicuous locations adopted are an effort to avoid predators and mobbing by small birds.

Communication.

Owls, such as the eagle owl, will use visual signaling in intraspecific communication (meaning communication within the species), both in territorial habits and parent-offspring interactions. Some researchers believe that owls can employ various visual signals in other situations involving intraspecific interaction. Experimental evidence suggests that owl feces and the remains of prey can act as visual signals. This new type of signaling behavior could potentially indicate the owls' current reproductive state to intruders including other territorial owls or non-breeding floaters. Feces are an ideal material for marking due to its minimal energetic costs. Feces can also continue to indicate territorial boundaries even when the owner is occupied in other activities other than territorial defense. Preliminary evidence also suggests that owls will use feces and the feathers of their prey to signal their breeding status to members within the same species.

Migration.

Some species of owl are migratory. One such species, the northern saw-whet owl migrates south even when food and resources are ample in the north.

Habitat, climate and seasonal changes.

Some owls have a higher survival rate and are more likely to reproduce in a habitat that contains a mixture of old growth forests and other vegetation types. Old growth forests provide ample dark areas for owls to hide from predators Like many organisms, spotted owls rely on forest fires to create their habitat and provide areas for foraging. Unfortunately, climate change and intentional fire suppression have altered natural fire habits. Owls avoid badly burned areas but they benefit from the mosaics of heterogeneous habitats created by fires. This is not to say that all fires are good for owls. Owls only thrive when fires are not of high severity and not large stand-replacing (high-severity fires that burn most of the vegetation) which create large canopy gaps that are not adequate for owls.

Parasites.

Avian malaria or "Plasmodium relictum" affects owls and specifically, 44% of northern and Californian spotted owls harbor 17 strains of the parasite. As mentioned in the niche competition section above, spotted owls and barred owls are in competition so their niche overlap may be resulting in the plasmodium parasite having more hosts in a concentrated area but this is not certain.

Predators.

The main predators of owls are other species of owls. An example of this occurs with the northern saw-whet owl that lives in the northern U.S. and lives low to the ground in brushy areas typically of cedar forests. These owls eat mice and perch in trees at eye level. Their main predators are barred owls and great horned owls.

Systematics.

The family Strigidae was introduced by the English zoologist William Elford Leach in a guide to the contents of the British Museum published in 1820.  The nearly 220 extant species are assigned to a number of genera, which are in taxonomic order:

Fossil record.

The fossil database for Strigiformes is highly diverse and shows an origin from ~60MYA into the Pleistocene. The maximum age range for the Strigiformes clade extends to 68.6MYA.  Placement unresolved:  The supposed fossil heron ""Ardea" lignitum" (Late Pliocene of Germany) was apparently a strigid owl, possibly close to "Bubo". The Early–Middle Eocene genus "Palaeoglaux" from west-central Europe is sometimes placed here, but given its age, it is probably better considered its own family for the time being.

The true owls or typical owls (family Strigidae) are one of the two generally accepted families of owls, the other being the barn owls (Tytonidae). The Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy unites the Caprimulgiformes with the owl order; here, the typical owls are a subfamily Striginae. This is unsupported by more recent research (see Cypselomorphae for details), but the relationships of the owls in general are still unresolved. This large family comprises nearly 220 living species in 25 genera. The typical owls have a cosmopolitan distribution and are found on every continent except Antarctica. There are three accepted subfamilies of Strigidae including Striginae, Asioninae, and Surniinae.

Amy Diamond, rodným jménem Amy Linnéa Deasismont, (* 15. dubna 1992 Norrköping, Švédsko) je anglicky zpívající švédská dětská zpěvačka. Její debutová píseň "What's in It for Me" byla vydaná, když jí bylo teprve 12 let. Tato píseň byla v roce 2005 hitem ve Švédsku, Dánsku, Norsku a Finsku. Stala se nejhranější písni v Polsku v roce 2005; udržela se mezi nejlepšími deseti po čtyři měsíce.


Description.

Mosasaurs breathed air, were powerful swimmers, and were well-adapted to living in the warm, shallow inland seas prevalent during the Late Cretaceous period. Mosasaurs were so well adapted to this environment that they gave birth to live young, rather than returning to the shore to lay eggs as sea turtles do.  The smallest-known mosasaur was "Dallasaurus turneri", which was less than long. Larger mosasaurs were more typical, with many species growing longer than. "Mosasaurus hoffmannii", the largest known species, may have reached up to in length. Currently, the largest publicly exhibited mosasaur skeleton in the world is on display at the Canadian Fossil Discovery Centre in Morden, Manitoba. The specimen, nicknamed "Bruce", is just over long.  Mosasaurs had a body shape similar to that of modern-day monitor lizards (varanids), but were more elongated and streamlined for swimming. Their limb bones were reduced in length and their paddles were formed by webbing between their long finger and toe bones. Their tails were broad, and supplied their locomotive power. Until recently, mosasaurs were assumed to have swum in a method similar to the one used today by conger eels and sea snakes, undulating their entire bodies from side to side. However, new evidence suggests that many advanced mosasaurs had large, crescent-shaped flukes on the ends of their tails, similar to those of sharks and some ichthyosaurs. Rather than use snake-like undulations, their bodies probably remained stiff to reduce drag through the water, while their tails provided strong propulsion. These animals may have lurked and pounced rapidly and powerfully on passing prey, rather than chasing after it.  Early reconstructions showed mosasaurs with dorsal crests running the length of their bodies, which were based on misidentified remains of tracheal cartilage. By the time this error was discovered, depicting mosasaurs with such crests in artwork had already become a trend.

Paleobiology.

Mosasaurs had double-hinged jaws and flexible skulls (much like those of snakes), which enabled them to gulp down their prey almost whole. A skeleton of "Tylosaurus proriger" from South Dakota included remains of the diving seabird "Hesperornis", a marine bony fish, a possible shark, and another, smaller mosasaur ("Clidastes"). Mosasaur bones have also been found with shark teeth embedded in them.  One of the food items of mosasaurs were ammonites, molluscs with shells similar to those of "Nautilus", which were abundant in the Cretaceous seas. Holes have been found in fossil shells of some ammonites, mainly "Pachydiscus" and "Placenticeras". These were once interpreted as a result of limpets attaching themselves to the ammonites, but the triangular shape of the holes, their size, and their presence on both sides of the shells, corresponding to upper and lower jaws, is evidence of the bite of medium-sized mosasaurs. Whether this behaviour was common across all size classes of mosasaurs is not clear.  Virtually all forms were active predators of fish and ammonites; a few, such as "Globidens", had blunt, spherical teeth, specialized for crushing mollusk shells. The smaller genera, such as "Platecarpus" and "Dallasaurus", which were about long, probably fed on fish and other small prey. The smaller mosasaurs may have spent some time in fresh water, hunting for food. The larger mosasaurs, such as "Tylosaurus", "Hainosaurus" and "Mosasaurus", reached sizes of long and were apex predators of the Late Cretaceous oceans, attacking other marine reptiles, as well as preying on large fish and ammonites.

Soft tissue.

Despite the many mosasaur remains collected worldwide, knowledge of the nature of their skin coverings remains in its early stages. Few mosasaurid specimens collected from around the world retain fossilized scale imprints. This lack may be due to the delicate nature of the scales, which nearly eliminates the possibility of preservation, in addition to the preservation sediment types and the marine conditions under which the preservation occurred. Until the discovery of several mosasaur specimens with remarkably well-preserved scale imprints from late Maastrichtian deposits of the Muwaqqar Chalk Marl Formation of Harrana in Jordan, knowledge of the nature of mosasaur integument was mainly based on very few accounts describing early mosasaur fossils dating back to the upper Santonian–lower Campanian, such as the famous "Tylosaurus" specimen (KUVP-1075) from Gove County, Kansas. Material from Jordan has shown that the bodies of mosasaurs, as well as the membranes between their fingers and toes, were covered with small, overlapping, diamond-shaped scales resembling those of snakes. Much like those of modern reptiles, mosasaur scales varied across the body in type and size. In Harrana specimens, two types of scales were observed on a single specimen: keeled scales covering the upper regions of the body and smooth scales covering the lower. As ambush predators, lurking and quickly capturing prey using stealth tactics, they may have benefited from the nonreflective, keeled scales. Additionally, mosasaurs had large pectoral girdles, and such genera as "Plotosaurus" may have used their front flippers in a breaststroke motion to gain added bursts of speed during an attack on prey.  More recently, a fossil of "Platecarpus tympaniticus" has been found that preserved not only skin impressions, but also internal organs. Several reddish areas in the fossil may represent the heart, lungs, and kidneys. The trachea is also preserved, along with part of what may be the retina in the eye. The placement of the kidneys is farther forward in the abdomen than it is in monitor lizards, and is more similar to those of cetaceans. As in cetaceans, the bronchi leading to the lungs run parallel to each other instead of splitting apart from one another as in monitors and other terrestrial reptiles. In mosasaurs, these features may be internal adaptations to fully marine lifestyles.  In 2011, collagen protein was recovered from a "Prognathodon" humerus dated to the Cretaceous.  In 2005, a case study by A.S. Schulp, E.W.A Mulder, and K. Schwenk outlined the fact that mosasaurs had paired fenestrae in their palates. In monitor lizards and snakes, paired fenestrae are associated with a forked tongue, which is flicked in and out to detect chemical traces and provide a directional sense of smell. They therefore proposed that mosasaurs probably also had a sensitive forked tongue.

Metabolism.

A study published in 2016 by T. Lyn Harrell, Alberto Pérez-Huerta and Celina Suarez showed that mosasaurs were endothermic. The study contradicted findings published in 2010 indicating mosasaurs were ectothermic. The 2010 study did not use warm-blooded animals for comparison but analogous groups of common marine animals. Based on comparisons with modern warm-blooded animals and fossils of known cold-blooded animals from the same time period, the 2016 study found mosasaurs likely had body temperatures similar to those of contemporary seabirds and were able to internally regulate their temperatures to remain warmer than the surrounding water.

Coloration.

The coloration of mosasaurs was unknown until 2014, when the findings of Johan Lindgren of Lund University and colleagues revealed the pigment melanin in the fossilized scales of a mosasaur. Mosasaurs were likely countershaded, with dark backs and light underbellies, much like a great white shark or leatherback sea turtle, the latter of which had fossilized ancestors for which color was also determined. The findings were described in the journal "Nature".

Ontogeny and growth.

Mosasaur growth is not well understood, as specimens of juveniles are rare, and many were mistaken for hesperornithine birds when discovered 100 years ago. However, the discovery of several specimens of juvenile and neonate-sized mosasaurs unearthed more than a century ago indicate that mosasaurs gave birth to live young, and that they spent their early years of life out in the open ocean, not in sheltered nurseries or areas such as shallow water as previously believed. Whether mosasaurs provided parental care, like other marine reptiles such as plesiosaurs, is currently unknown. The discovery of young mosasaurs was published in the journal "Palaeontology".  In late 2014 the Guinness World Records awarded the museum with a record for Largest Publicly Displayed Mosasaur - Bruce. The record was added to the 2016 print edition of the Guinness World Records.

Possible Eggs.

A 2020 study published in "Nature" described a large fossilized hatched egg from Antarctica from the very end of the Cretaceous, about 68 million years ago. The egg is considered one of the largest amniote eggs ever known, rivalling that of the elephant bird, and due to its soft, thin, folded texture, it likely belonged to a marine animal. While the organism that produced it remains unknown, the egg's pore structure is very similar to that of extant lepidosaurs such as lizards and snakes, and presence of mosasaur fossils nearby indicates that it may have been a mosasaur egg. It is unknown whether the egg was laid on land or in the water. The egg was assigned to the newly-described oospecies "Antarcticoolithicus bradyi".

Environment.

Paleotologists compared the taxonomic diversity and patterns of morphological disparity in mosasaurs with sea level, sea surface temperature, and stable carbon isotope curves for the Upper Cretaceous to explore factors that may have influenced their evolution. No single factor unambiguously accounts for all radiations, diversification, and extinctions; however, the broader patterns of taxonomic diversification and morphological disparity point to niche differentiation in a “fishing up” scenario under the influence of “bottom-up” selective pressures. The most likely driving force in mosasaur evolution was high productivity in the Late Cretaceous, driven by tectonically controlled sea levels and climatically controlled ocean stratification and nutrient delivery. When productivity collapsed at the end of the Cretaceous, coincident with bolide impact, mosasaurs became extinct. Sea levels were high during the Cretaceous period, causing marine transgressions in many parts of the world, and a great inland seaway in what is now North America. Mosasaur fossils have been found in the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, Portugal, Sweden, South Africa, Spain, France, Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic, Bulgaria, the United Kingdom, Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Japan, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Syria, Turkey, Niger, Angola, Morocco, Australia, New Zealand, and on Vega Island off the coast of Antarctica. Tooth taxon "Globidens timorensis" is known from the island of Timor; however, the phylogenetic placement of this species is uncertain and it might not even be a mosasaur. Mosasaurs have been found in Canada in Manitoba and Saskatchewan and in much of the contiguous United States. Complete or partial specimens have been found in Alabama, Mississippi, New Jersey, Tennessee, and Georgia, as well as in states covered by the Cretaceous seaway: Texas, southwest Arkansas, New Mexico, Kansas, Colorado, Nebraska, South Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, and the Pierre Shale/Fox Hills formations of North Dakota. Lastly, mosasaur bones and teeth are also known from California, Mexico, Colombia, Brazil, Peru, and Chile.  Many of the so-called 'dinosaur' remains found on New Zealand are actually mosasaurs and plesiosaurs, both being Mesozoic predatory marine reptiles.

Discovery.

The first publicized discovery of a partial fossil mosasaur skull in 1764 by quarry workers in a subterranean gallery of a limestone quarry in Mount Saint Peter, near the Dutch city of Maastricht, preceded any major dinosaur fossil discoveries, but remained little known. However, a second find of a partial skull drew the Age of Enlightenment's attention to the existence of fossilized animals that were different from any known living creatures. When the specimen was discovered between 1770 and 1774, Johann Leonard Hoffmann, a surgeon and fossil collector, corresponded about it with the most influential scientists of his day, making the fossil famous. The original owner, though, was Godding, a canon of Maastricht cathedral.  When the French revolutionary forces occupied Maastricht in 1794, the carefully hidden fossil was uncovered, after a reward, it is said, of 600 bottles of wine, and transported to Paris. After it had been earlier interpreted as a fish, a crocodile, and a sperm whale, the first to understand its lizard affinities was the Dutch scientist Adriaan Gilles Camper in 1799. In 1808, Georges Cuvier confirmed this conclusion, although "le Grand Animal fossile de Maëstricht" was not actually named "Mosasaurus" ('Meuse reptile') until 1822 and not given its full species name, "Mosasaurus hoffmannii," until 1829. Several sets of mosasaur remains, which had been discovered earlier at Maastricht but were not identified as mosasaurs until the 19th century, have been on display in the Teylers Museum, Haarlem, procured from 1790.  The Maastricht limestone beds were rendered so famous by the mosasaur discovery, they have given their name to the final six-million-year epoch of the Cretaceous, the Maastrichtian.

Relationships.

Cladogram of the Mosasauridae modified from Simões et al. (2017):

Evolutionary history.

Based on features such as the double row of pterygoid ("flanged") teeth on the palate, the loosely hinged jaw, modified/reduced limbs and probable methods of locomotion, many researchers believe that snakes share a common marine ancestry with mosasaurs, a suggestion advanced in 1869 by Edward Drinker Cope, who coined the term Pythonomorpha to unite them. The idea lay dormant for more than a century, to be revived in the 1990s. Recently, the discovery of "Najash rionegrina", a fossorial snake from South America, cast doubt on the marine origin hypothesis.  The skeleton of "Dallasaurus turneri", described by Bell and Polcyn (2005), has a mixture of features present in the skeletons of derived mosasaurs and in the skeletons of mosasaurid ancestors, such as aigialosaurids. "Dallasaurus" retains facultatively terrestrial limbs similar in their structure to the limbs of aigialosaurids and terrestrial squamates (plesiopedal limb condition), unlike derived mosasaurids, which evolved paddle-like limbs (hydropedal limb condition). However, the skeleton of "Dallasaurus" simultaneously had several characters that linked it with derived members of the subfamily Mosasaurinae; the authors of its description listed "invasion of the parietal by medial tongues from the frontal, teeth with smooth medial enamel surface, high coronoid buttress on surangular, interdigitate anterior scapulo-coracoid suture, humeral postglenoid process, elongate atlas synapophysis, sharp anterodorsal ridge on synapophyses, vertically oriented vertebral condyles, elongate posterior thoracic vertebrae, and fused haemal arches" as the characters uniting "Dallasaurus" with Mosasaurinae. The phylogenetic analysis conducted by Bell and Polcyn indicated that hydropedal mosasaurids did not form a clade that wouldn't also include plesiopedal taxa, such as "Dallasaurus", "Yaguarasaurus", "Russellosaurus", "Tethysaurus", "Haasiasaurus" and "Komensaurus" (in 2005 only informally known as "Trieste aigialosaur"); the analysis indicated that hydropedal limb condition evolved independently in three different groups of mosasaurs (Halisaurinae, Mosasaurinae and the group containing the subfamilies Tylosaurinae and Plioplatecarpinae). The result of this phylogenetic study was subsequently mostly confirmed by the analyses conducted by Caldwell and Palci (2007) and Leblanc, Caldwell and Bardet (2012); the analysis conducted by Makádi, Caldwell and Ősi (2012) indicated that hydropedal limb condition evolved independently in two groups of mosasaurs (in Mosasaurinae and in the clade containing Halisaurinae, Tylosaurinae and Plioplatecarpinae). Conrad "et al." (2011), on the other hand, recovered hydropedal mosasaurs forming a clade that excluded their plesiopedal relatives. If the hypothesis of Bell and Polcyn (2005) is correct, then mosasaurs in the traditional sense of the word, i.e. "lizards that evolved paddle-like limbs and radiated into aquatic environments in the late Mesozoic, going extinct at the end of that era", are actually polyphyletic; Bell and Polcyn (2005) maintained monophyletic Mosasauridae by including "Dallasaurus" and other aforementioned plesiopedal taxa in the family as well, while Caldwell (2012) suggested (though explicitly stated that it was not "a formal proposal of new nomenclature") to restrict Mosasauridae only to the genus "Mosasaurus" and its closest hydropedal relatives.  The exact phylogenetic position of the clade containing mosasaurids and their closest relatives (aigialosaurids and dolichosaurs) within Squamata remains uncertain. Some cladistic analyses recovered them as the closest relatives of snakes, taking into account similarities in jaw and skull anatomies; however, this has been disputed and the morphological analysis conducted by Conrad (2008) recovered them as varanoids closely related to terrestrial monitor lizards instead. Subsequent analysis of anguimorph relationships conducted by Conrad "et al." (2011) based on morphology alone recovered mosasaurids, aigialosaurids and dolichosaurs as anguimorphs lying outside the least inclusive clade containing monitor lizards and helodermatids; the analysis based on combined datasets of morphological and molecular data, on the other hand, found them more closely related to monitor lizards and the earless monitor lizard than to helodermatids and the Chinese crocodile lizard. The large morphological analysis conducted by Gauthier "et al." (2012) recovered mosasaurids, aigialosaurids and dolichosaurids in an unexpected position as basal members of the clade Scincogekkonomorpha (containing all taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with "Gekko gecko" and "Scincus scincus" than with "Iguana iguana") that didn't belong to the clade Scleroglossa. The phylogenetic position of these taxa turned out to be highly dependent on which taxa were included in or excluded from the analysis. When mosasaurids were excluded from the analysis, dolichosaurs and aigialosaurids were recovered within Scleroglossa, forming a sister group to the clade containing snakes, amphisbaenians, dibamids and the American legless lizard. When mosasaurids were included in the analysis, and various taxa with reduced or absent limbs other than snakes (such as dibamids or amphisbaenians) were excluded, mosasaurids, aigialosaurids and dolichosaurs were recovered inside Scleroglossa forming the sister group to snakes. Longrich, Bhullar and Gauthier (2012) conducted a morphological analysis of squamate relationships using a modified version of the matrix from the analysis of Gauthier "et al." (2012); they found the phylogenetic position of the clade containing mosasaurs and their closest relatives within Squamata to be highly unstable, with the clade "variously being recovered outside Scleroglossa (as in Gauthier "et al.", 2012) or alongside the limbless forms".  Morphological analysis alone is not sufficient to categorize species due to the presence of convergent evolution, especially within Squamata. There is no clade that contains snakes, amphisbaenians, dibamids, and the American legless without including all other squamates based on genetic analysis, which highlights the inability of morphological analysis to accurately categorize squamates. With an integrated approach using molecular and morphological data, mosasaurs were placed as a sister group to snakes.

Distribution.

Though no individual genus or subfamily is found worldwide, the Mosasauridae as a whole achieved global distribution during the Late Cretaceous with many locations typically having complex mosasaur faunas with multiple different genera and species in different ecological niches.  Two African countries are particularly rich in mosasaurs: Morocco and Angola.

Mosasaurs (from Latin "Mosa" meaning the 'Meuse river', and Greek σαύρος "sauros" meaning 'lizard') comprise a group of extinct, large marine reptiles containing 38 genera in total. Their first fossil remains were discovered in a limestone quarry at Maastricht on the Meuse in 1764. Mosasaurs probably evolved from an extinct group of aquatic lizards known as aigialosaurs in the Earliest Late Cretaceous. During the last 20 million years of the Cretaceous period (Turonian-Maastrichtian ages), with the extinction of the ichthyosaurs and pliosaurs, mosasaurs became the dominant marine predators. They became extinct as a result of the K-Pg event at the end of the Cretaceous period, about 66 million years ago.

Mosasauridi („ještěři od řeky Mázy“) byli velcí až obří druhohorní mořští plazi ještěrovitého vzhledu. Jejich první rozeznané fosílie byly objeveny již kolem roku 1764 v podpovrchových lomech v okolí nizozemského Maastrichtu. Fosilní pozůstatky těchto pravěkých mořských dravců byly objeveny také na území současné České republiky.


Personal data.

Michael Tyurin lives in Korolev, a small city outside Moscow. He was born March 2, 1960, in Kolomna, Russia (then part of the Soviet Union) (about 60 miles from Moscow) where his parents still reside. He is married to Tatiana Anatoleyvna Tyurina. They have a daughter, Alexandra, born in 1982. He enjoys sailing in his free time.

Education.

He graduated from the Moscow Aviation Institute in 1984 with a degree in engineering and a specialization in creating mathematical models related to mechanical flight. He is currently doing graduate work in his field of research.

Experience.

After graduating from the Aviation Institute he began working at the Energia corporation as an engineer. The main subjects of his job have been dynamics, ballistics, and software development. His personal scientific research is connected with the psychological aspects of cosmonauts' training for the manual control of spacecraft motion.

Awards.

Tyurin was awarded the Hero of the Russian Federation medal.

Cosmonaut career.

In 1994 he was selected to begin cosmonaut training, and in 1998 he started training as a flight engineer for the Expedition 3 crew. He also served as a backup crew member for the first ISS mission.

Expedition 3.

Tyurin lived and worked aboard the International Space Station as part of the Expedition 3 crew. carrying Tyurin and six other crewmembers on STS-105 mission blasted off to space from the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) on August 10, 2001. The shuttle docked with the ISS on 12 August at 18:41 UTC. Tyurin spent approximately 4 months aboard the station as Flight Engineer 1. During the long duration mission The Expedition 3 crew enjoyed a unique view of the 2001 Leonid meteor storm. At the end of the stay Expedition 3 crewmembers, NASA astronaut Frank Culbertson, Tyurin, and cosmonaut Vladimir Dezhurov returned to Earth on board Space Shuttle. "Endeavour" STS-108 mission delivered the Expedition 4 crew to the ISS and landed at KSC on December 17, 2001.

Expedition 14.

Tyurin with NASA astronaut Michael Lopez-Alegria and spaceflight participant Anousheh Ansari lifted off on board the Soyuz TMA-9 spacecraft from the Baikonur Cosmodrome on 18 September 2006 at 04:08 UTC, to the ISS. The spacecraft docked with the ISS on September 20 at 05:21 UTC following two days of autonomous flight. Tyurin served as the Soyuz commander, and after docking with the ISS they exchanged with the resident crew on board ISS and became the fourteenth station crew, Expedition 14. Tyurin spent 215 days aboard the International Space Station as a Flight Engineer. The Soyuz TMA-9 capsule carrying Tyurin, Lopez-Alegria and spaceflight participant Charles Simonyi landed southwest of Karaganda, Kazakhstan on 21 April 2007 12:30 UTC.

Expedition 38/39.

Tyurin was commander of flight Soyuz TMA-11M, which docked with the ISS on November 7, 2013. The Soyuz FG rocket carrying Tyurin, American astronaut Rick Mastracchio and Japanese astronaut Koichi Wakata lifted off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome at 04:14 GMT and docked with the ISS six hours later. The Soyuz TMA-11M crew carried a torch for the 2014 Sochi Olympics. Once at the ISS, Tyurin, Mastracchio and Wakata met Fyodor Yurchikhin, Karen Nyberg, Luca Parmitano, Oleg Kotov, Sergey Ryazansky, Michael Hopkins. This was the first time since October 2009 that nine people have served together aboard the station without a space shuttle being docked to the orbital station.  During his stay at the space station, Tyurin was involved in studying the cardiovascular and neurological systems as a part of understanding how human body adapts to zero gravity.  Tyurin returned to Earth on May 14, 2014 after 188 days in space. The Soyuz crew carrying Tyurin touched down southeast of Dzhezkazgan in Kazakhstan at 01:57 UTC.

Spacewalks.

As of June 2010, Tyurin has performed four career spacewalks. Tyurin's EVA time through four spacewalks is 17 hours and 14 minutes.  Tyurin conducted his first three career spacewalks during the Expedition 3 mission to the ISS. On October 8, 2001, Tyurin and Dezhurov ventured outside ISS to mark the 100th spacewalk to be carried out by Russian cosmonauts. The main objective of the spacewalk was to outfit the "Pirs" Docking Compartment and make connections between that newly arrived compartment and the "Zvezda" module. The spacewalkers installed a cable that allows space walk radio communications between the two station sections. They also installed handrails on the new compartment and an exterior ladder that will be used to help spacewalkers leave "Pirs" hatch. Tyurin and Dezhurov also installed a Strela cargo crane onto the station. The spacewalk lasted 4 hours and 58 minutes ending at 19:21 UTC.  On October 15, 2001, Tyurin performed his second career spacewalk. The two spacewalkers returned to space outside the ISS from the "Pirs" airlock. Dezhurov and Tyurin installed Russian commercial experiments on the exterior of "Pirs". Among the experiments is a set of investigations of how various materials react to the space environment over a long time. Called MPAC-SEEDS, the investigation is housed in three briefcase-sized containers. The spacewalk lasted 5 hours and 52 minutes.  On December 3, 2001, Tyurin conducted his third career spacewalk. Dressed in Orlan spacesuits, Tyurin and Dezhurov floated out of the "Pirs" airlock at 13:20 UTC. Dezhurov and Tyurin used a cutting tool to remove an errant rubber seal that had prevented a Progress resupply ship from firmly docking with the ISS. The two spacewalkers also took pictures of the debris, which was a rubberized seal from the previous cargo ship, and of the docking interface. The spacewalk lasted 2 hours and 46 minutes.  On November 22, 2006 Tyurin performed his fourth career spacewalk starting at 23:17 UTC. The spacewalk had been delayed from its scheduled 20:00 UTC start time due to a cooling issue in Tyurin's suit. Tyurin got out of the suit and straightened a suspect hose which apparently had become kinked. During the spacewalk, Tyurin hit a golf ball from the exterior of the "Pirs" airlock. This "experiment" was sponsored by a Toronto-based commercial company, "Element 21", which manufactures golf clubs made of scandium. The ball weighs just 3 grams, compared with 48 grams for a standard golf ball. At that weight, it was unlikely to damage any station components which might accidentally have been hit. The two spacewalkers next task was to inspect a Kurs antenna on the Progress M-58 spacecraft that had docked on October 26, 2006. Tyurin and Lopez-Alegria moved to the rear of the "Zvezda" module and photographed the antenna. Since it was still fully extended, Tyurin used a screwdriver to release a latch and tried to retract the antenna. Russian flight controllers also tried to retract it by activating a motor. Neither succeeded, and the task was abandoned. Next they relocated a WAL antenna, that was to guide the unpiloted European cargo carrier, the Automated Transfer Vehicle, to dock with the station. The two spacewalkers also installed a BTN neutron experiment, which characterizes charged and neutral particles in low Earth orbit. Two thermal covers from the BTN were jettisoned before Tyurin and Lopez-Alegria returned to the "Pirs" airlock at 04:55 UTC on 23 November. The spacewalk lasted 5 hours and 38 minutes.

Mikhail Vladislavovich Tyurin () (born March 2, 1960) is a former Russian cosmonaut who flew several missions to the International Space Station and completed four spacewalks during his career. He was awarded the title Hero of the Russian Federation for his work as a cosmonaut.

Michail Vladislavovič Ťurin (, * 2. března 1960 v Kolomně, Moskevská oblast, RSFSR) je od dubna 1994 ruský kosmonaut, člen oddílu kosmonautů RKK Eněrgija. V letech 2001 a 2006/2007 absolvoval dva půlroční kosmické lety na Mezinárodní vesmírnou stanici (ISS) o celkové délce 344 dní. Potřetí se na ISS vydal na půlroční misi v listopadu 2013 jako člen Expedice 38/39.


History.

Early years.

In 1839, the Missouri Legislature passed the Geyer Act to establish funds for a state university. It was the first public university west of the Mississippi River. To secure the university, the citizens of Columbia and Boone County pledged $117,921 in cash and land to beat out five other central Missouri counties for the location of the state university. The land on which the university was constructed was just south of Columbia's downtown and owned by James S. Rollins. He was later called the "Father of the University." As the first public university in the Louisiana Purchase, the school was shaped by Thomas Jefferson's ideas about public education. The school admitted only white male students.  In 1862 the American Civil War forced the university to close for much of the year. Residents of Columbia formed a Union "home guard" militia that became known as the "Fighting Tigers of Columbia". They were given the name for their readiness to protect the city and university. In 1890, the university's newly formed football team took the name the "Tigers" after the Civil War militia.  In 1870 the institution was granted land-grant college status under the Morrill Act of 1862. The act led to the founding of the Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy as an offshoot of the main campus in Columbia. It developed as the present-day Missouri University of Science and Technology. In 1888 the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station opened. This grew to encompass ten centers and research farms around Missouri. By 1890 the university encompassed a normal college (for training of teachers of students through high school), engineering college, arts and science college, school of agriculture and mechanical arts. school of medicine, and school of law.

1892–present.

On January 9, 1892, Academic Hall, the institution's central administrative building, burned in a fire that gutted the building, leaving little more standing than six stone Ionic columns. Under the administration of Missouri Governor David R. Francis, the university was rebuilt, with additions that shaped the modern institution.  After the fire, some state residents tried to have the university moved further west to Sedalia; but Columbia rallied support to keep it. The columns were retained as a symbol of the historic campus. Today they are surrounded by the Francis Quadrangle, the oldest part of campus. At the quad's southern end is Academic Hall's replacement, Jesse Hall, named for Richard Jesse (the president of the university at the time of the fire). Built in 1895, Jesse Hall holds many administrative offices and Jesse Auditorium. The buildings surrounding the quad were constructed of red brick, leading to this area becoming known as Red Campus. The area was tied together in planned landscaping and walks in 1910 by George Kessler in a City Beautiful design of the grounds. Jesse Hall is scheduled for a $9.8 mil. makeover to include a fire sprinkler system, work on its elevators, and a new heating and cooling system as part of a $92 mil. total renovation package the Board of Curators approved in June 2013. This upgrade is expected to be completed in March 2015.  To the east of the quadrangle, later buildings constructed of white limestone in 1913 and 1914 to accommodate the new academic programs became known as the White Campus. In 1908 the world's first journalism school opened at MU. It became notable for its "Missouri Method" of hands-on, experience-based instruction. It later established an award for "Distinguished Journalism".  In April 1923, a black janitor was accused of the rape of the daughter of a University of Missouri professor. James T. Scott was abducted from the Boone County jail by a mob of townsfolk and students, and was lynched to death from a bridge near the campus before his trial took place. In the winter of 1935, four graduates of Lincoln University—a traditionally black school about away in Jefferson City—were denied admission to MU's graduate school. One of the students, Lloyd L. Gaines, brought his case to the United States Supreme Court. On December 12, 1938, in a landmark 6–2 decision, the court ordered the State of Missouri to admit Gaines to MU's law school or provide a facility of equal stature. Gaines disappeared in Chicago on March 19, 1939, under suspicious circumstances. The university granted Gaines a posthumous honorary law degree in May 2006. Undergraduate divisions were integrated by court order in 1950, when the university was compelled to admit African Americans to courses that were not offered at Lincoln University.  On June 5, 1935, the university erected a memorial to the Confederate soldiers of Missouri popularly known as the Confederate Rock. The monument was removed in 1974.  After World War II, the enrollment at universities around the country grew at an extraordinary pace, and MU was no exception. This was due in part to the G.I. Bill, which allowed veterans to attend college with the assistance of the federal government.  Following the 2015–16 University of Missouri protests, the chancellor and System president resigned, amid racial complaints by students.

Campus.

The campus of the University of Missouri is just south of Downtown Columbia and is maintained as a botanical garden. The historical campus is centered on Francis Quadrangle, a historic district listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and contains a number of buildings on the National Register of Historic Places.  The academic buildings are classified into two main groups: Red Campus and White Campus. Red Campus is the historic core of mostly brick academic buildings around the landmark columns of the Francis Quadrangle; it includes Jesse Hall and Switzler Hall. In the early 20th century, the College of Agriculture began a period of rapid expansion in which several buildings were constructed to accommodate the growing program and student body. The new buildings, constructed in Neo-Gothic style from native Missouri limestone, form the White Campus. Its most notable building is Memorial Union. During the 1990s, Red Campus was extended to the south with the creation of the Carnahan Quadrangle. Hulston Hall of the University of Missouri School of Law, completed in 1988, formed the eastern border of the future quad. The Reynolds Alumni Center was completed in 1992 on the west side of the new quad. It was completed in 2002 with Cornell Hall of the Trulaske College of Business and Tiger Plaza. Plans for a new plaza on the north end of the Carnahan Quadrangle were unveiled in 2014. Called Traditions Plaza, it was opened on October 25, 2014 during homecoming festivities.  While the original MU intercollegiate athletic facilities, such as Rollins Field and Rothwell Gymnasium, were just south of the academic buildings, later expanded facilities were constructed across Stadium Boulevard, where Memorial Stadium opened in 1926. The Hearnes Center was built to the east of the stadium in 1972. In 1994, the university developed the first draft of a master plan for the campus to tie together all of Tiger athletic facilities to the south of Stadium Boulevard and add to its design. Today, the MU Sports Park includes the Mizzou Arena, Taylor Stadium, Walton Stadium, Mizzou Athletics Training Complex, University Field and Devine Pavilion. Student athletic facilities remain in the core area of campus. Rothwell Gymnasium and Brewer Fieldhouse are part of the Student Recreation Center, which was ranked number one in the nation in 2005 by "Sports Illustrated."  The main campus of the University of Missouri Hospitals and Clinics is north of the sports complex. It includes the University of Missouri Hospital and Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital. Two of the hospitals, Columbia Regional Hospital and Ellis Fischel Cancer Center, are northeast of the main campus near I-70.  To the south of the MU Sports Park is the MU Research Park. It includes the University of Missouri Research Reactor Center, International Institute for Nano and Molecular Medicine, MU Life Science Business Incubator at Monsanto Place, and Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center. In 2005, the University of Missouri Board of Curators approved legislation to designate the South Farm of the College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources (CAFNR) as a research park. The park, southeast of the main campus on US63, is now known as Discovery Ridge Research Park. Tenants at Discovery Ridge include ABC Laboratories and the MU Research Animal Diagnostic Laboratory. The main campus is flanked to the east and west by Greek Life housing. The University of Missouri has nearly 50 national social fraternities and sororities, many of which occupy historical residences now valued in the millions of dollars. Beta Sigma Psi, Kappa Alpha Order, Sigma Chi, Beta Theta Pi (Originally Zeta Phi), Alpha Gamma Rho, Tau Kappa Epsilon and Sigma Nu form a Greek Row (also called Frat Row) along College Avenue in the East Campus area. Delta Tau Delta, Kappa Sigma, Lambda Chi Alpha, and Sigma Alpha Epsilon are in the West Campus area along Stewart Street, which leads directly into the Francis Quadrangle. Most of the Greek-letter organizations are in a Greek Town, with approximately 30 Greek residences, to the north of Memorial Stadium.  The main campus, along with all other MU-owned or operated facilities, is protected by the University of Missouri Police Department, which is in the Virginia Avenue parking garage on the main campus. In 2019 a new Center for Missouri Studies was opened as a new headquarters for the State Historical Society of Missouri. It contains a vastly expanded gallery/collection display area, a library/reading room, classrooms, offices, open and closed stacks, microfilm rooms, art restoration lab, a large event room, and a gift shop. In 2020 a new home for the School of Music was finished, the Sinquefield Music Center. The building houses faculty offices, classrooms, two large ensemble rehearsal spaces, a recording studio, many small rehearsal rooms. As of 2020 the NextGen Precision Health Institute was under construction on the University of Missouri Health campus. This five-story 265,000 square-foot building will provide state-of-the-art medical research space.

Academics and rankings.

MU is the largest public university in Missouri. Of those applying for freshman admission, 78.1% are admitted with those matriculating having an average GPA of 3.6, an average SAT composite score of 1232 out of a maximum of 1600, and an average ACT composite score of 26 out of a maximum of 36.  MU is a member of the Association of American Universities and classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". MU is also one of two designated land-grant universities in the state, along with Lincoln University. In 1908, the Missouri School of Journalism (known colloquially as the "J-school"), was founded in Columbia, claiming to be the first of its kind internationally; however, the French had first established their "Ecole Supérieure de Journalisme de Paris" in 1899.  The UM System owns and operates KOMU-TV, the NBC/CW affiliate for Columbia and nearby Jefferson City. It is a full-fledged commercial station and a working lab for journalism students. The MU School of Journalism publishes the "Columbia Missourian" and "Vox Magazine," where students learn reporting, editing and design in a newsroom managed by professional editors. It operates the local National Public Radio Station KBIA and produces "Radio Adelante", a Spanish-language radio program.  Founded in 1978 after 23 years as a unit of the School of Medicine, the School of Health Professions became an autonomous division in December 2000. The school's five departments and eight accredited academic programs have a long history, some dating to the early 20th century. It is Missouri's only state-supported school of health professions on a campus with an academic health center, and the only allied health school in the UM system.  The university maintains the largest library collection in the State of Missouri. As of the 2011–12 academic year, the collection held 3.1 million volumes, 8.1 million microforms, 678,596 e-books, almost 1.7 million government documents, more than 284,000 print maps, and more than 53,000 journal subscriptions. The collection is housed in Ellis Library, the University Archives, and seven other specialized academic libraries across campus. Most of the original collection, housed in Academic Hall, was lost in the 1892 fire.  During the American Civil War, Union troops used the Library in Academic Hall as a guard room. The Union troops caused significant damage, including taking 467 volumes to build fires. The Board of Curators later sued the US Army for the destruction on campus. Settled in 1915, the suit's award was used to build the Memorial Gateway on the northern edge of Red Campus.  In 1913, construction began on a new main library, completed in 1915. It was expanded in 1935, 1958, and 1985. It was dedicated as Elmer Ellis Library on October 10, 1972, in honor of the thirteenth president of the University of Missouri. Today, the MU libraries are home to the 47th largest research collection in North America.  The Jeffrey E. Smith Institute of Real Estate was founded in 2005 by a donation from alumnus Jeffrey Smith to meet the growing interest of students in the College of Business, seeking to learn more about the real estate industry.  MU merged two departments, the Center for Distance and Independent Study and MU Direct: Continuing and Distance Education, to form Mizzou Online in 2011. Mizzou Online offers online courses for 18 of the university's colleges and operates the University of Missouri High School, a distance learning K-12 high school., the University of Missouri Research Reactor Center is the highest power university research reactor in the U.S. at 10 megawatt (10 million watts) thermal output.

Organization and administration.

The University of Missouri is organized into seven colleges, eleven schools and hosts approximately 300 majors.

Name.

Upon creation of the system, each university was renamed with its host city; thus, the university in Columbia became the University of Missouri–Columbia. In the proceeding decades, colloquial and verbal usage of the generic name in reference to MU continued. There were attempts to drop Columbia from its name by students, faculty, alumni, and administrators who felt it might cause the university to be perceived as a regional institution. This change was long resisted by the UM System and the other universities on the basis of uniformity and fairness. However, after a renewed effort for "name restoration", the Board of Curators voted unanimously on November 29, 2007 to allow MU to drop Columbia from its name for all public use. Continued use of the name University of Missouri–Columbia is not incorrect but is being phased out by MU, except as required on official internal documents within the UM System. Its use also continues to be advocated by some faculty, administration, and alumni of UMKC, UMSL, and Missouri S&T.

Presidents and chancellors.

Each campus of the University of Missouri System is led by a chancellor, who reports to the president of the UM System. Prior to the formation of the system in 1963, the Columbia campus and its offshoot in Rolla were led directly by the president and the position of chancellor did not exist. The below contains a list of presidents from 1963–present but does not include interim presidents or chancellors. John Lathrop is the only president or chancellor to have served nonconsecutive terms.  Presidents, 1841–63 and Chancellors, 1963–present  † Ellis became president of the University of Missouri System upon its creation, serving until 1966.

Student life.

Residential life.

The University of Missouri operates 23 on-campus residence halls and least two other off-campus sites. The two off-campus locations include: Tiger Diggs at Campus View Apartments and True Scholars House. Many residence halls on campus offer learning communities and freshman interest groups. Both programs seek to ensure students succeed academically while living in the residence halls.  Three of the older halls: Jones, Lathrop, and Laws are scheduled to be torn down and replaced as the largest and first part ($71 million) of a $92 million campus improvement project approved by the Board of Curators on June 13, 2013. The plan also includes replacing the dining hall north of Faurot Field. The three halls presently can house up to 1,010 students. The new halls will expand the capacity to 1,242 by the time the first part is completed in May 2017. The renovation of Swallow Hall (1893) is also part of the plan, costing $11.5 million of the total.  Two residence halls, Excellence and Respect will be on standby starting in the Fall 2016 semester, and only used if necessary because Fall enrollment is expected to drop by 1,500 students, which it did by 2,273 including 1,412 fewer freshmen. The 319 beds will be used over the summer until August 4, 2016. Both halls will undergo repairs if not needed. The new George C. Brooks Hall will open as planned for the Fall 2016 semester and house 293 students.  Three more residence halls will temporarily close in the Fall of 2017: Center, Responsibility, and Discovery. Previously it was announced Respect, Excellence, Schurz and McDavid wouldn't operate in the Fall unless there was sufficient demand to reopen some of them. Combined, the seven halls are capable of housing about 1,500 students. The closures are estimated to save about $2 million, largely through reduced utility costs. The university says two of the closed halls also could get some use as guest and conference housing. The temporary closures come after freshman enrollment dropped 24 percent for this academic year. The declining enrollment precipitated a budget plan to cut 400 jobs, but most of them are from those resigning or retiring, so less than 100 actual jobs will be eliminated for the 2018 fiscal year.  Residence Halls: Dining Halls: Convenience Store:  Residence Halls: Dining Hall: Convenience Store:  Residence Halls: Dining Halls:  Residence Halls: Dining Halls:  Residence Halls: Dining Halls:

Groups and activities.

Tap Day is an annual spring ceremony in which the identities of the members of the six secret honor societies are revealed. The participating societies are QEBH, Mystical Seven, LSV, Omicron Delta Kappa, Mortar Board, and the Rollins Society. The ceremony, first held in 1927, takes place at the columns on Francis Quadrangle.  The Associated Students of the University of Missouri (ASUM) is a student-run lobbying organization that represents the students' interests in the state and national capitals. ASUM's platform has included issues such as equalizing the "Access Missouri" grant, expanding "Bright Flight" funding, and giving students a vote on the Board of Curators.  The Trulaske Consulting Association was started in 2009. It is a relatively new student organization and is open to students of all departments. However, most members are MBA and undergrad business students. The association aims to increase awareness, provide exposure, and facilitate networking between students and professionals in the consulting industry. The growing popularity of the association has been attributed to the resources available to student members. Workshops by management consultants and case studies on strategy form an integral part of the activities organised by TCA.  The Muslim Student Organisation (MSO) provides an inclusive, inviting educational and social environment for the Muslims at the University of Missouri-Columbia; and works to create bridges between Muslims and other groups in the Columbia community. The Muslim Student Organisation engages in religious, educational, and social activities that aim to increase unity on campus and awareness of Islam among Muslims and people of other faiths. The Organization aspires to promote a healthy understanding of Islam in the context of social and cultural settings. MSO membership is open to all students at MU.  Rabbi Avraham Lapine of Chabad provides a wide range of services to students, including teaching courses at The Rohr Jewish Learning Institute's Sinai Scholars, which allows students to explore the modern significance of the Ten Commandments.

Greek life.

MU is home to one of the oldest and largest Greek systems in the nation. Founded in 1869, the Greek Community represents 22% of the student population. More than 70 Greek-letter organizations are active at MU.

Athletics.

The Missouri Tigers are a member of the Southeastern Conference with the exception of wrestling, which competes in the Mid-American Conference. Mizzou is the only school in the state with all of its sports in the NCAA Division I and a football team that competes in the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS). These are the highest levels of college sports in the United States. The official colors are black and gold.  Athletic sports for the Tigers include men's and women's basketball, baseball, cross country, football, golf, gymnastics, swimming & diving, softball, track, tennis, volleyball, women's soccer, and wrestling. Historic sports included a shooting club, in which the ladies' team in 1934 won a national championship. Former football coach Gary Pinkel holds the record at the university for the most wins on the gridiron. Additionally, former basketball coach and alum Norm Stewart maintains the record for the most wins on the hardcourt.  MU football games are played on Faurot Field at Memorial Stadium ("The Zou"). Built in 1926, this stadium has an official capacity of 71,168, and features a nearly wide "M" behind the north-end zone. Men's and women's basketball games take place at the Mizzou Arena, just south of the football stadium. The Hearnes Center had hosted men's and women's basketball from 1972 to 2004 and it is still used for other athletic (including wrestling, volleyball, and indoor track and field) and school events. The Missouri Tiger men's basketball team has had 22 NCAA Tournament appearances, the second-most Tournament appearances without a Final Four. The Tigers have appeared in the regional finals (Elite Eight) of the NCAA Tournament six times (twice under coach Norm Stewart, Missouri head coach from 1967 to 1999). The Tigers have won 15 conference championships, beginning with the Missouri Valley Conference, followed by the Big Six, the Big Eight, and the Big 12 Conference. In 1994, the Tigers went undefeated in the Big Eight to take the regular season title. In 2009, Missouri won its first Big 12 Championship over Baylor. Missouri went on to win its second Big 12 Championship in its final season in the Big 12 in 2012, once again defeating Baylor. Standout players from the Mizzou's basketball team include, Anthony Peeler, John Brown, Jon Sundvold, Steve Stipanovich, Kareem Rush, Keyon Dooling Doug Smith, Willie Smith, Norm Stewart, Linas Kleiza, Derrick Chievous, DeMarre Carroll, Kim English. Jordan Clarkson and Marcus Denmon.  The official mascot for Missouri Tigers athletics is Truman the Tiger, created on September 16, 1986. Following a campus-wide contest, Truman was named in honor of Harry S. Truman, the only U.S. president from Missouri. Today, Truman appears to cheer on the team, mingle with supporters at Mizzou athletic events as well as at pep-rallies, alumni association functions, and frequent visits to Columbia-area schools. On November 24, 2007, the Mizzou football team played against its biggest rival, Kansas, at Arrowhead Stadium in Kansas City, Missouri. At that time, KU was ranked No. 2 and MU was ranked No. 3 nationally. At the end of the game, Mizzou defeated KU, 36–28. The following day MU was ranked No. 1 in the country for the second time in its history. On December 1, 2007, the Mizzou football team lost the Big 12 Championship game in San Antonio, Texas, to Oklahoma 38–17, falling out of national title and Bowl Championship Series contention. The team regrouped and played in the Cotton Bowl January 1, 2008, at Dallas, Texas, defeating Arkansas, 38–7. In the final Associated Press "Top 25 football poll" of the 2007 season, Mizzou was ranked No. 4 in the country, its highest finishing position in the team's history.  On November 6, 2011, the University of Missouri announced it would leave the Big 12 Conference to join the Southeastern Conference effective July 1, 2012. In September 2012, the school's wrestling team became an associate member of the Mid-American Conference, as the SEC does not sponsor wrestling.  On December 7, 2013, Mizzou played in the SEC Championship Game in Atlanta in the Georgia Dome against Auburn. The teams were ranked 5th and 3rd, respectively in the nation. Mizzou fell to the eventual national runners-up 59-42, and ended up playing in the 2014 Cotton Bowl Classic at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas. Missouri (#9) defeated Oklahoma State (#13) 41-31, winning their second Cotton Bowl Classic.  On December 6, 2014, #17 Mizzou played #1 Alabama in its second consecutive SEC Championship Game falling to the Crimson Tide, 42-13. Mizzou went on to play Minnesota in the Citrus Bowl, winning 33-17 and finishing #16 in the nation.

Traditions.

Tiger Walk and Prowl.

The Tiger Walk is held annually before the fall semester in the Quad, as welcome and orientation for new students to the university. Students can meet and also learn about school organizations, which have stations around the Quad. After hearing of the four pillars of success, students walk in procession through the quad and the Columns toward Jesse Hall, symbolizing their entrance into the university. Tiger Prowl is held for graduation seniors on the Quad. They walk through the columns, away from Jesse Hall, to symbolize becoming alumni. Refreshments, such as famous tiger stripe ice cream, are provided after the ceremony.

Homecoming.

In 1911, athletic director Chester Brewer invited alumni to "come home" for the big football game against the University of Kansas. A spirit rally and parade were planned as part of the celebration. The Council for Advancement and Support of Education has called MU's homecoming celebration the best in the nation and a model program. Missouri Homecoming also includes several service elements, and the homecoming blood drive has earned the Guinness Record as the nation's largest.

Undergraduate tuition.

The annual tuition for in-state residents for 2016–17 is $9,518 and $25,892 for out-of-state residents, plus $10,298 for room and board on campus with that total not counting books and supplies ($1,344) or transportation ($4,756) expenses. A 1.7% undergraduate increase in tuition and fees was previously approved in the 2014 operating budget by the Board of Curators in June 2013, which also approved salary increases of 1.5% to 3% for the faculty.

Notable faculty and alumni.

In the Spring of 2016, there are 300,315 living alumni worldwide. 274,447 reside in the United States, 156,585 in Missouri, 61,346 in the St. Louis area, 30,018 in the Kansas City area, and 2,718 outside the U.S.

The University of Missouri (Mizzou, MU, or Missouri) is a public research university in Columbia, Missouri. It is Missouri's largest university and the flagship of the four campus University of Missouri System. Founded in 1839, it was the first public university west of the Mississippi River. It is a member of the Association of American Universities as well as a land-grant and space-grant institution.

University of Missouri (také známa jako University of Missouri-Columbia, MU nebo Mizzou), Missourská univerzita, je státní univerzita ve městě Columbia v americkém státě Missouri. S 27 985 studenty je nejdůležitějším střediskem Univerzitního systému státu Missouri (University of Missouri System). Univerzita je členem Asociace amerických univerzit (Association of American Universities) a je zvláště známá díky svému výzkumu a výuce v oborech: žurnalistika, právní vědy, zemědělství a veterinární lékařství. V současnosti se obzvláště zaměřuje na biotechnologie.


Appearance.

The Kromfohrlander comes in 2 coat variations: rough hair ("Rauhaar") and smooth hair ("Glatthaar"). The distinction is the presence of a beard on the rough variety and a rather long coat on the furnishings of the smooth variety. Therefore, the rough resembles a terrier, while the smooth looks rather like a spaniel. The color is brown/tan/buff markings on a white background with a blaze on the face 'as symmetrical as possible.'

Size.

This dog is medium in size Height: at the withers. Weight:.

Temperament.

The Kromfohrlander is a very lively, sensitive, athletic, good-natured, intelligent breed. They love to play and run, but have comparatively little hunting instinct.  Kromfohrlanders are very much "people dogs" and they rarely stray very far from their owner. They can adapt to many situations fairly well with proper socializing. They take to strangers and children rather hesitantly at first, but once they become familiar, remain friends for life.

Health.

Breed health problems include epilepsy, cystinuria (buildup of amino acids in the urine), hyperkeratosis ('corny feet' known in some terrier breeds), and patellar luxation (knee dislocation). Breeding dogs are tested for hyperkeratosis through an inexpensive DNA test.  It is a breed with very limited genetics and is very difficult to acquire. Currently, a genetics expansion project, supervised and sanctioned by FCI, is being conducted in Finland and Germany. Large panel DNA tests are being used by some breeders.

History.

Origin.

The Kromfohrlander originated in Germany in the 1940s. It is the only dog breed descended from a military mascot dog. 'Original Peter' was found in France by American soldiers during World War II. Peter came to Germany with his troop and was lost. He was discovered by Ilsa Schleifenbaum, who developed the breed using various dogs (most likely terrier and griffon type breeds) for 10 years.  The Kromfohrlander remains an exceptionally rare breed, even in its country of origin. As of 2018, there are / have been 54 recorded AKC FSS Kromfohrlanders and 7 undocumented Kromfohrlanders in North America.

Spread outside of Germany.

The Kromfohrlander was first recognized by FCI for showing in 1955. The Kromfohrlander came to Scandinavia starting in the early 1970s. The first smooth Kromfohrlander came to North America from Germany in 1997 when he was 2 years old. He sired the first smooth Kromfohrlander litter born in the US in 2000. He sired a second smooth Kromfohrlander litter in 2004. Each litter produced 2 puppies, all of which were kept by the breeders and none of whom reproduced. The first rough Kromfohrlander came to North America (USA) from Luxembourg in 1993, but was never bred. No other Kromfohrlanders brought to North America between 2004–2016 were ever bred, and no Kromfohrlander of either coat type has ever otherwise been bred to any other dog of any breed in North America. The Kromfohrlander was admitted to American Kennel Club (AKC) Foundation Stock Service (FSS) in 2012.  The rough Kromfohrlander was first exhibited in the US in 2013 at a United Kennel Club dog show in Ann Arbor, Michigan. The rough Kromfohrlander was first exhibited at an American Kennel Club Open Show in 2014 in Orlando, Florida. The first breeding of rough Kromfohrlanders in North America was in the US in 2016. There were 9 puppies; as of 2018 none have yet bred. The first rough Kromfohrlander was exhibited in Mexico in 2017.

The Kromfohrländer ( ) is a breed of dog that originated in Germany. It is used as a companion dog.

Kromfohrländer je jedno z nejmladších německých psích plemen. Jeho název je odvozen od regionu „krom Fohr“ v Severním Porýní–Vestfálsku, odkud pocházela první chovatelka plemene, Ilse Schleifenbaumová.