Summary.

The main ideas of "Discipline and Punish" can be grouped according to its four parts: torture, punishment, discipline, and prison.

Torture.

Foucault begins by contrasting two forms of penalty: the violent and chaotic public torture of Robert-François Damiens, who was convicted of attempted regicide in the mid-18th century, and the highly regimented daily schedule for inmates from an early 19th-century prison (Mettray). These examples provide a picture of just how profound the changes in western penal systems were after less than a century. Foucault wants the reader to consider what led to these changes and how Western attitudes shifted so radically.  He believes that the question of the nature of these changes is best asked by assuming that they weren't used to create a more humanitarian penal system, nor to more exactly punish or rehabilitate, but as part of a continuing trajectory of subjection. Foucault wants to tie scientific knowledge and technological development to the development of the prison to prove this point. He defines a "micro-physics" of power, which is constituted by a power that is strategic and tactical rather than acquired, preserved or possessed. He explains that power and knowledge imply one another, as opposed to the common belief that knowledge exists independently of power relations (knowledge is always contextualized in a framework which makes it intelligible, so the humanizing discourse of psychiatry is an expression of the tactics of oppression). That is, the ground of the game of power isn't won by 'liberation', because liberation already exists as a facet of subjection. "The man described for us, whom we are invited to free, is already in himself the effect of a subjection much more profound than himself." The problem for Foucault is in some sense a theoretical modelling which posits a soul, an identity (the use of soul being fortunate since 'identity' or 'name' would not properly express the method of subjection—e.g., if mere materiality were used as a way of tracking individuals then the method of punishment would not have switched from torture to psychiatry) which allows a whole materiality of prison to develop. In What is an Author? Foucault also deals with notion of identity, and its use as a method of control, regulation, and tracking.  He begins by examining public torture and execution. He argues that the public spectacle of torture and execution was a theatrical forum, the original intentions of which eventually produced several unintended consequences. Foucault stresses the exactitude with which torture is carried out, and describes an extensive legal framework in which it operates to achieve specific purposes. Foucault describes public torture as a ceremony.  The intended purposes were:  ""It [torture] assured the articulation of the written on the oral, the secret on the public, the procedure of investigation on the operation of the confession; it made it possible to reproduce the crime on the visible body of the criminal; in the same horror, the crime had to be manifested and annulled. It also made the body of the condemned man the place where the vengeance of the sovereign was applied, the anchoring point for a manifestation of power, an opportunity of affirming the dissymmetry of forces.""  Foucault looks at public torture as the outcome "of a certain mechanism of power" that views crime in a military schema. Crime and rebellion are akin to a declaration of war. The sovereign was not concerned with demonstrating the ground for the enforcement of its laws, but of identifying enemies and attacking them, the power of which was renewed by the ritual of investigation and the ceremony of public torture.  Some unintended consequences were:  Public torture and execution was a method the sovereign deployed to express his or her power, and it did so through the ritual of investigation and the ceremony of execution—the reality and horror of which was supposed to express the omnipotence of the sovereign but actually revealed that the sovereign's power depended on the participation of the people. Torture was made public in order to create fear in the people, and to force them to participate in the method of control by agreeing with its verdicts. But problems arose in cases in which the people through their actions disagreed with the sovereign, by heroizing the victim (admiring the courage in facing death) or in moving to physically free the criminal or to redistribute the effects of the strategically deployed power. Thus, he argues, the public execution was ultimately an ineffective use of the body, qualified as non-economical. As well, it was applied non-uniformly and haphazardly. Hence, its political cost was too high. It was the antithesis of the more modern concerns of the state: order and generalization. So it had to be reformed to allow for greater stability of property for the bourgeoisie.

Punishment.

Firstly, the switch to prison was not immediate and sudden. There was a more graded change, though it ran its course rapidly. Prison was preceded by a different form of public spectacle. The theater of public torture gave way to public chain gangs. Punishment became "gentle", though not for humanitarian reasons, Foucault suggests. He argues that reformists were unhappy with the unpredictable, unevenly distributed nature of the violence the sovereign would inflict on the convict. The sovereign's right to punish was so disproportionate that it was ineffective and uncontrolled. Reformists felt the power to punish and judge should become more evenly distributed, the state's power must be a form of public power. This, according to Foucault, was of more concern to reformists than humanitarian arguments.  Out of this movement towards generalized punishment, a thousand "mini-theatres" of punishment would have been created wherein the convicts' bodies would have been put on display in a more ubiquitous, controlled, and effective spectacle. Prisoners would have been forced to do work that reflected their crime, thus repaying society for their infractions. This would have allowed the public to see the convicts' bodies enacting their punishment, and thus to reflect on the crime. But these experiments lasted less than twenty years.  Foucault argues that this theory of "gentle" punishment represented the first step away from the excessive force of the sovereign, and towards more generalized and controlled means of punishment. But he suggests that the shift towards prison that followed was the result of a new "technology" and ontology for the body being developed in the 18th century, the "technology" of discipline, and the ontology of "man as machine."

Discipline.

The emergence of prison as the form of punishment for every crime grew out of the development of discipline in the 18th and 19th centuries, according to Foucault. He looks at the development of highly refined forms of discipline, of discipline concerned with the smallest and most precise aspects of a person's body. Discipline, he suggests, developed a new economy and politics for bodies. Modern institutions required that bodies must be individuated according to their tasks, as well as for training, observation, and control. Therefore, he argues, discipline created a whole new form of individuality for bodies, which enabled them to perform their duty within the new forms of economic, political, and military organizations emerging in the modern age and continuing to today.  The individuality that discipline constructs (for the bodies it controls) has four characteristics, namely it makes individuality which is:  Foucault suggests this individuality can be implemented in systems that are officially egalitarian, but use discipline to construct non-egalitarian power relations:  Foucault's argument is that discipline creates "docile bodies", ideal for the new economics, politics and warfare of the modern industrial age - bodies that function in factories, ordered military regiments, and school classrooms. But, to construct docile bodies the disciplinary institutions must be able to (a) constantly observe and record the bodies they control and (b) ensure the internalization of the disciplinary individuality within the bodies being controlled. That is, discipline must come about without excessive force through careful observation, and molding of the bodies into the correct form through this observation. This requires a particular form of institution, exemplified, Foucault argues, by Jeremy Bentham's Panopticon. This architectural model, though it was never adopted by architects according to Bentham's exact blueprint, becomes an important conceptualization of power relations for prison reformers of the 19th Century, and its general principle is a recurring theme in modern prison construction.  The Panopticon was the ultimate realization of a modern disciplinary institution. It allowed for constant observation characterized by an "unequal gaze"; the constant possibility of observation. Perhaps the most important feature of the panopticon was that it was specifically designed so that the prisoner could never be sure whether they were being observed at any moment. The unequal gaze caused the internalization of disciplinary individuality, and the docile body required of its inmates. This means one is less likely to break rules or laws if they believe they are being watched, even if they are not. Thus, prisons, and specifically those that follow the model of the Panopticon, provide the ideal form of modern punishment. Foucault argues that this is why the generalized, "gentle" punishment of public work gangs gave way to the prison. It was the ideal modernization of punishment, so its eventual dominance was natural.  Having laid out the emergence of the prison as the dominant form of punishment, Foucault devotes the rest of the book to examining its precise form and function in our society, laying bare the reasons for its continued use, and questioning the assumed results of its use.

Prison.

In examining the construction of the prison as the central means of criminal punishment, Foucault builds a case for the idea that prison became part of a larger "carceral system" that has become an all-encompassing sovereign institution in modern society. Prison is one part of a vast network, including schools, military institutions, hospitals, and factories, which build a panoptic society for its members. This system creates "disciplinary careers" for those locked within its corridors. It is operated under the scientific authority of medicine, psychology, and criminology. Moreover, it operates according to principles that ensure that it "cannot fail to produce delinquents." Delinquency, indeed, is produced when social petty crime (such as taking wood from the lord's lands) is no longer tolerated, creating a class of specialized "delinquents" acting as the police's proxy in surveillance of society.  The structures Foucault chooses to use as his starting positions help highlight his conclusions. In particular, his choice as a perfect prison of the penal institution at Mettray helps personify the carceral system. Within it is included the Prison, the School, the Church, and the work-house (industry) - all of which feature heavily in his argument. The prisons at Neufchatel and Mettray were perfect examples for Foucault, because they, even in their original state, began to show the traits for which Foucault was searching. Moreover, they showed the body of knowledge being developed about the prisoners, the creation of the 'delinquent' class, and the disciplinary careers emerging.

Reception.

The historian Peter Gay described "Discipline and Punish" as the key text by Foucault that has influenced scholarship on the theory and practice of 19th century prisons. Though Gay wrote that Foucault "breathed fresh air into the history of penology and severely damaged, without wholly discrediting, traditional Whig optimism about the humanization of penitentiaries as one long success story", he nevertheless gave a negative assessment of Foucault's work, endorsing the critical view of Gordon Wright in his 1983 book "Between the Guillotine and Liberty: Two Centuries of the Crime Problem in France". Gay concluded that Foucault and his followers overstate the extent to which keeping "the masses quiet" motivates those in power, thereby underestimating factors such as "contingency, complexity, the sheer anxiety or stupidity of power holders", or their authentic idealism.  Law Professor David Garland wrote an explication and critique of "Discipline and Punish". Towards the end, he sums up the main critiques that have been made. He states, "the major critical theme which emerges, and is independently made by many different critics, concerns Foucault's overestimation of the political dimension. Discipline and Punish consistently proposes an explanation in terms of power—sometimes in the absence of any supporting evidence—where other historians would see a need for other factors and considerations to be brought into account."  Another criticism leveled against Foucault's approach is that he often studies the discourse of "prisons" rather than their concrete practice; this is taken up by Fred Alford: "Foucault has mistaken the idea of prison, as reflected in the discourse of criminologists, for its practice. More precisely put, Foucault presents the utopian ideals of eighteenth-century prison reformers, most of which were never realized, as though they were the actual reforms of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. One can see this even in the pictures in "Discipline and Punish", many of which are drawings for ideal prisons that were never built. One photograph is of the panopticon prison buildings at Stateville, but it is evidently an old photograph, one in which no inmates are evident. Nor are the blankets and cardboard that now enclose the cells."

Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison () is a 1975 book by the French philosopher Michel Foucault. It is an analysis of the social and theoretical mechanisms behind the changes that occurred in Western penal systems during the modern age based on historical documents from France. Foucault argues that prison did not become the principal form of punishment just because of the humanitarian concerns of reformists. He traces the cultural shifts that led to the predominance of prison via the body and power. Prison used by the "disciplines" – new technological powers that can also be found, according to Foucault, in places such as schools, hospitals, and military barracks.

Dohlížet a trestat (ve francouzském originále "Surveiller et punir") je kniha francouzského filozofa Michela Foucaulta. Jedná se o analýzu sociálních a teoretických mechanismů, které stály za změnami v západních trestních systémech v moderní době, vzniklou na základě historických dokumentů z Francie. Foucault v knize tvrdí, že se věznice nestala hlavní formou trestu jen kvůli humanitárním obavám reformistů. Sleduje zde kulturní posuny, které vedly k převaze věznic.


Athletics career.

Connor migrated with his parents to Great Britain in 1964. He went on to represent Great Britain as an athlete who mainly competed in the triple jump. He represented England and won a gold medal in the triple jump event, at the 1978 Commonwealth Games in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Four years later he won the triple jump gold again when he represented England, at the 1982 Commonwealth Games in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. He then won the 1982 European Athletics Championships gold and a bronze medal at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.  Connor attended the University of Texas at El Paso in the USA from 1978–80 and later transferred the Southern Methodist University (SMU) where he competed with distinction in the US national collegiate (NCAA)..

Coaching career.

He retired from active competition in 1984 due to injury and began an illustrious career as a coach and sports administrator. Connor was appointed head coach at the New South Wales Institute of Sport in 1990, after spending several years coaching on the American college scene following his retirement from competition. He was credited with helping Australian athletes to win medals at the Barcelona, Atlanta and Sydney Olympics due to his work in revamping the New South Wales Institute of Sport. Following his successes at NSW Institute of Sport, Connor was given the appointed as head coach of Athletics Australia in 2001.  The Australian press has described him, admiringly, as a hard-nosed disciplinarian. Herb Elliott, chairman of an Australian Sports Commission review of the sport, said: "There is a view that he has moved the sport forward. "He's had to take some very tough action. As a consequence, he's rubbed a few people up the wrong way and some are against him... but he's done an excellent job." In 2006 Keith was turned down for the job of Head Coach to British Athletics Board although he was regarded by most as the best candidate. This was his second rejection by BAB the first being in 1990. Allegations of racism surrounded his rejection.

Personal life.

Since the expiration of his contract in 2006 Keith has been a Sport Consultant to national associations, sporting bodies, sponsors and individuals.

References.

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Keith Leroy Connor (born 16 September 1957 in Anguilla, United Kingdom is a male retired athlete who represented Great Britain and England.

Keith Connor (* 16. září 1957, Anguilla) je bývalý britský atlet, jehož specializací byl trojskok. Dvakrát startoval na olympiádě v soutěži trojskokanů. V Moskvě v roce 1980 obsadil čtvrté místo, v Los Angeles skončil třetí. V roce 1982 se stal mistrem Evropy v trojskoku, v roce 1978 vybojoval na halovém evropském šampionátu v této disciplíně stříbrnou medaili.


Biography.

Escape from Chile.

Laura del Carmen Vicuña was born on April 5, 1891, in Santiago, Chile, to Jose Domingo and Mercedes Pino. The Vicuña family were Chilean aristocrats, the father in military service and the mother working at home. Forced out of Santiago by the revolution, the family took refuge in Temuco, but soon after Joseph Domenico died suddenly and Mercedes went to live with her two daughters in Argentina.

Early years in Argentina.

Mercedes and her daughters moved to the Argentine province of Neuquén. In search of a way to finance her daughters' education, Mercedes took a job in the Quilquihué Hostel. The owner of the hostel, Manuel Mora, propositioned Mercedes, promising to pay for Laura's education in exchange. Laura soon entered the Hijas de Maria Auxiliadora (“Daughters of Mary Help of Christians”) School, where, under the care of the nuns, she began to take a deep interest in the Catholic faith.  Because of her deep religious interest, she was not well liked by her classmates. She spent most of her time praying in the school's chapel. She prayed every day for her mother's salvation and for her to leave Manuel Mora. She had one good friend, Mercedes Vera, to whom she confided her desire to become a nun.

Problems at home.

During one of her school vacations, Laura was beaten twice by Manuel Mora, who wanted her to forget about becoming a nun. She held to this desire even when Mora stopped paying for her education, and when the nuns at her school learned of the conflict, they gave Laura and her sister scholarships. Although she was grateful to her teachers, she still worried about her mother's situation.

The sacrifice.

One day, remembering the phrase of Jesus: “No one has greater love than to give up one’s life for one’s friends," Laura decided to give her life in exchange for her mother's salvation. As time passed she became seriously ill with pulmonary tuberculosis. Before she died, Laura told her mother: “Mama, I offer my life for you, I asked our Lord for this. Before I die, Mother, would I have the joy of seeing you repent?” Mercedes crying, answered: “I swear, I will do whatever you ask me! God is the witness of my promise!" Laura smiled and said: "Thank you, Jesus! Thank you, Mary! Goodbye, Mother! Now I die happy!" On January 22, 1904, Laura died of her disease, weakened by the physical abuse she previously received from Mora, having offered her life for the salvation of her mother. From 1937 to 1958, Laura's remains lay in the Nequén graveyard, after which they were moved to Bahía Blanca. One of her famous sayings is "Suffer silently and Smile always"

Recent studies.

Bernhard Maier, following the work of Ciro Brugna, says that Laura's popular biographies need revision. Among the points needing revision are the following: that her parents were never married; that her father did not die before the mother left Chile with the two children; and that Laura offered her life for both her parents, as transpires in the notes left by her close friend Maria Mercedes Vera.

Beatification process.

The Salesian Sisters of Don Bosco started Laura's canonization process in the 1950s. The congregation commended that duty to the nun Cecilia Genghini, who spent many years collecting information about Laura's life. But she did not see the completion of her work; she died the same year the process began. One incentive for the congregation was the beatification of Dominic Savio (March 5, 1950) and the canonization of Maria Goretti (June 24, 1950). The progress began in the city of Viedma. But Laura could not be considered a martyr, and because of her young age there was not much hope for her beatification. Nevertheless, in 1981 the application process was completed by the congregation, and on June 5, 1986, she was declared Venerable. Every candidate for beatification, except in the case of martyrs, must be shown to have obtained a miracle from God when their prayers were invoked. In Laura's case, the requisite miracle concerned the nun Ofelia del Carmen Lobos Arellano. In August 1955, doctors told Sister Ofelia that she would die of lung cancer in a few months, but when she confidently invoked Laura's prayers, the disease disappeared. September 3, 1988, saw Laura's beatification by Pope John Paul II. Her feastday is celebrated on January 22. In the 2004 edition of the Roman Martyrology, Laura is listed under 22 January with the citation: 'Born in the city of Santiago, Chile, and a pupil of the Institute of Mary Help of Christians; for the conversion of her mother, she made an oblation of her life to God at the age of 13'.

Photograph.

No photograph of Laura was known until recently, when a group photograph taken at her school was discovered showing her true appearance. A likeness of her had been painted by Italian artist Caffaro Rore based on descriptions by her sister Julia, depicting her as a dark-haired girl with European features. Church depictions have been changed to more accurately portray her as a serious-looking mestizo child.

Shrine.

The primary shrine for Laura Vicuña is located at Renca Hill, a park of 30 hectares lying between the communes of Quilicura and Renca in Santiago, Chile. The chapel has a capacity of 100. On December 9, 1999, a shrine in the city of Junín de los Andes was inaugurated and dedicated to her memory.  There is also a small sanctuary in the village of El Durazno near the town of Combarbalá in the Coquimbo Region, where Laura spent part of her early childhood. Local people contributed 200 blocks of adobe each for the construction of the sanctuary.

Memorials.

In the Philippines, There is a brass tribute memorial statue together with St. John Bosco and St. Dominic Savio were located in St. John Bosco Parish Church in Makati City, Metro Manila, and also a colored tribute memorial statue located in Barangay Don Bosco beside PNCC Skyway Bldg. and near SM Bicutan in Parañaque City, Metro Manila.

Laura Vicuña (April 5, 1891 – January 22, 1904) is a Chilean holy figure beatified by the Roman Catholic Church. She is the patron of abuse victims, having herself experienced physical abuse.

Laura Vicuña (5. dubna 1891 Santiago de Chile – 22. ledna 1904 Junín de los Andes, Argentina) byla chilská římskokatolická dívka, která toužila po řeholním životě. Je patronkou týraných dětí a obětí znásilnění.


Early years.

He was born in a Jewish family in Rostov on Don, in the Don Host Oblast of the Russian Empire on 10 February 1894. His father was involved in revolutionary activities and spent some time in an internal exile to Siberia; after the danger of pogroms started looming in 1905, the family spent some time in Switzerland, where Yakov Frenkel began his education. In 1912, while studying in the Karl May Gymnasium in St. Petersburg, he finished his first work in physics on the earth's magnetic field and atmospheric electricity. This work attracted Abram Ioffe's attention and later turned into collaboration. He considered moving to the USA (which he visited in the summer of 1913, utilizing the hard-earned money by tuition) but was nevertheless admitted to St. Petersburg University in the winter semester of 1913, at which point any emigration plans perished. Frenkel graduated from the university in 3 years and remained there to prepare for a professorship (his oral exam for the master's degree was delayed due to the happenings of the October revolution). His first scientific paper came to light in 1917.

Beginning of scientific career.

In the last years of the Great War and until 1921 Frenkel was involved (along with Igor Tamm) in the foundation of the University in Crimea (his family moved to Crimea due to deteriorating health of his mother). From 1921 till the end of his life, Frenkel worked at the Physico-Technical Institute. Beginning in 1922, Frenkel published a book virtually every year. In 1924 he published 16 papers (of which 5 were basically German translations of his other publications in Russian), three books and edited multiple translations. He was the author of the first theoretical course in the Soviet Union. Many students learned physics from these books, in the Soviet Union and abroad. For his distinguished scientific service, he was elected a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1929.  He married Sara Isakovna Gordin in 1920. They had two sons, Sergei and Viktor (Victor). He served as a visiting professor at the University of Minnesota in the United States for a short period of time in around 1930.  Early works of Yakov Frenkel were in the field of electrodynamics, statistical mechanics and relativity, though he soon switched to the quantum theory. Paul Ehrenfest, whom he met at a conference in Leningrad, encouraged him to go abroad for collaborations which he did in 1925–1926, mainly in Hamburg and Göttingen, and met with Albert Einstein in Berlin. It was during this period when Schrödinger published his groundbeaking papers on wave mechanics; Heisenberg's appeared shortly before. Frenkel enthusiastically entered the field by discussions (he reportedly discovered what is now called Klein–Gordon equation simultaneously with Oscar Klein) but his first scientific paper on the matter (considering electrodynamics in metals) was published in 1927.  In 1927–1930 he discovered the reason for the existence of domains in ferromagnetics; worked on the theory of resonance broadening and collision broadening of the spectral lines; developed a theory of electric resistance on the boundary of two metals on of a metal and a semiconductor.

The time of the most famous discoveries.

When conducting research on the molecular theory of condensed state, he introduced the notion of the hole. The Frenkel defect became firmly fixed in the physics of solids and liquids. In the 1930s, his research was supplemented with works on the theory of plastic deformation. His theory, now known as the Frenkel–Kontorova model, is important in the study of dislocations. Tatyana Kontorova was then a PhD candidate working with Frenkel. In 1930 to 1931, Frenkel showed that "neutral excitation" of a crystal by light is possible, with an electron remaining bound to a hole created at a lattice site identified as a quasiparticle, the exciton. Mention should be made of Frenkel's works on the theory of metals, nuclear physics (the liquid drop model of the nucleus, in 1936), and semiconductors.  In 1934, Frenkel outlined the formalism for the multi-configuration self-consistent field method, later rediscovered and developed by Douglas Hartree.  He contributed to semiconductor and insulator physics by proposing a theory, which is now commonly known as the Poole–Frenkel effect, in 1938. "Poole" refers to H. H. Poole (Horace Hewitt Poole, 1886–1962), Ireland. Poole reported experimental results on the conduction in insulators and found an empirical relationship between conductivity and electrical field. Frenkel later developed a microscopic model, similar to the Schottky effect, to explain Poole's results more accurately. In this paper published in USA, Frenkel only very briefly mentioned an empirical relationship as Poole's law. Frenkel cited Poole's paper when he wrote a longer article in a Soviet journal.  During the 1930s, Frenkel and Ioffe opposed dangerous tendencies in Soviet physics, binding science and materialist ideology, which shows their remarkable courage. Soviet physics as a result of these actions never spun down as much as biology. Still, he afterwards forwent publishing several papers, fearing it will lead to some unfortunate consequences.  Yakov Frenkel was involved in the studies of liquid phase, too, – since mid 1930s (he undertook some research in colloids) and during the World War II, when the institute was evacuated to Kazan. The results of his more than twenty years of study of the theory of liquid state were generalized in the classic monograph "Kinetic theory of liquids".

Later years.

During the wartime, he worked on contemporary practical problems to help his country in sustaining the harsh war. After the war Frenkel was interested in seismoelectrics, also proposing that sound waves in metals might cause some electric phenomena. He subsequently worked mainly in the field of atmospheric effects, but did not abandon his other interests, publishing several papers in nuclear physics.  Frenkel died in Leningrad in 1952. His son, Victor Frenkel, wrote a biography of his father, "Yakov Ilich Frenkel: His work, life and letters". This book, originally written in Russian, has also been translated and published in English.

Yakov Il'ich Frenkel () (10 February 1894 – 23 January 1952) was a Soviet physicist renowned for his works in the field of condensed matter physics. He is also known as Jacov Frenkel, and he frequently put down his name as J. Frenkel when he published his papers in journals in English.

Jakov Iljič Frenkel (10. února 1894 – 23. ledna 1952) byl sovětský fyzik známý pro své práce v oblasti fyziky kondenzovaných látek.


Autoregressive integrated moving average

Definition.

Given a time series data "X" where "t" is an integer index and the "X" are real numbers, an formula_1 model is given by  or equivalently by  where formula_4 is the lag operator, the formula_5 are the parameters of the autoregressive part of the model, the formula_6 are the parameters of the moving average part and the formula_7 are error terms. The error terms formula_7 are generally assumed to be independent, identically distributed variables sampled from a normal distribution with zero mean.  Assume now that the polynomial formula_9 has a unit root (a factor formula_10) of multiplicity "d". Then it can be rewritten as:  An ARIMA("p","d","q") process expresses this polynomial factorisation property with "p"="p'−d", and is given by:  and thus can be thought as a particular case of an ARMA("p+d","q") process having the autoregressive polynomial with "d" unit roots. (For this reason, no ARIMA model with "d" > 0 is wide sense stationary.)  The above can be generalized as follows.  This defines an ARIMA("p","d","q") process with drift formula_14.

Other special forms.

The explicit identification of the factorisation of the autoregression polynomial into factors as above, can be extended to other cases, firstly to apply to the moving average polynomial and secondly to include other special factors. For example, having a factor formula_15 in a model is one way of including a non-stationary seasonality of period "s" into the model; this factor has the effect of re-expressing the data as changes from "s" periods ago. Another example is the factor formula_16, which includes a (non-stationary) seasonality of period 2. The effect of the first type of factor is to allow each season's value to drift separately over time, whereas with the second type values for adjacent seasons move together.  Identification and specification of appropriate factors in an ARIMA model can be an important step in modelling as it can allow a reduction in the overall number of parameters to be estimated, while allowing the imposition on the model of types of behaviour that logic and experience suggest should be there.

Differencing.

Differencing in statistics is a transformation applied to time-series data in order to make it stationary. A stationary time series' properties do not depend on the time at which the series is observed.  In order to difference the data, the difference between consecutive observations is computed. Mathematically, this is shown as  Differencing removes the changes in the level of a time series, eliminating trend and seasonality and consequently stabilizing the mean of the time series.  Sometimes it may be necessary to difference the data a second time to obtain a stationary time series, which is referred to as second order differencing:  Another method of differencing data is seasonal differencing, which involves computing the difference between an observation and the corresponding observation in the previous season e.g a year. This is shown as:  The differenced data is then used for the estimation of an ARMA model.

Examples.

Some well-known special cases arise naturally or are mathematically equivalent to other popular forecasting models. For example:

Choosing the order.

To determine the order of a non-seasonal ARIMA model, a useful criterion is the Akaike information criterion (AIC). It is written as  where "L "is the likelihood of the data, "p "is the order of the autoregressive part and "q "is the order of the moving average part. The "k" represents the intercept of the ARIMA model. For AIC, if "k" = 1 then there is an intercept in the ARIMA model ("c "≠ 0) and if "k "= 0 then there is no intercept in the ARIMA model ("c "= 0).  The corrected AIC for ARIMA models can be written as  The Bayesian Information Criterion can be written as  The objective is to minimize the AIC, AICc or BIC values for a good model. The lower the value of one of these criteria for a range of models being investigated, the better the model will suit the data. The AIC and the BIC are used for two completely different purposes. While the AIC tries to approximate models towards the reality of the situation, the BIC attempts to find the perfect fit. The BIC approach is often criticized as there never is a perfect fit to real-life complex data; however, it is still a useful method for selection as it penalizes models more heavily for having more parameters than the AIC would.  AICc can only be used to compare ARIMA models with the same orders of differencing. For ARIMAs with different orders of differencing, RMSE can be used for model comparison.

Forecasts using ARIMA models.

The ARIMA model can be viewed as a "cascade" of two models. The first is non-stationary:  while the second is wide-sense stationary:  Now forecasts can be made for the process formula_28, using a generalization of the method of autoregressive forecasting.

Forecast intervals.

The forecast intervals (confidence intervals for forecasts) for ARIMA models are based on assumptions that the residuals are uncorrelated and normally distributed. If either of these assumptions does not hold, then the forecast intervals may be incorrect. For this reason, researchers plot the ACF and histogram of the residuals to check the assumptions before producing forecast intervals.  95% forecast interval: formula_29, where formula_30 is the variance of formula_31.  For formula_32, formula_33 for all ARIMA models regardless of parameters and orders.  For ARIMA(0,0,q), formula_34  In general, forecast intervals from ARIMA models will increase as the forecast horizon increases.

Variations and extensions.

A number of variations on the ARIMA model are commonly employed. If multiple time series are used then the formula_36 can be thought of as vectors and a VARIMA model may be appropriate. Sometimes a seasonal effect is suspected in the model; in that case, it is generally considered better to use a SARIMA (seasonal ARIMA) model than to increase the order of the AR or MA parts of the model. If the time-series is suspected to exhibit long-range dependence, then the "d" parameter may be allowed to have non-integer values in an autoregressive fractionally integrated moving average model, which is also called a Fractional ARIMA (FARIMA or ARFIMA) model.

Software implementations.

Various packages that apply methodology like Box–Jenkins parameter optimization are available to find the right parameters for the ARIMA model.

In statistics and econometrics, and in particular in time series analysis, an autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model is a generalization of an autoregressive moving average (ARMA) model. Both of these models are fitted to time series data either to better understand the data or to predict future points in the series (forecasting). ARIMA models are applied in some cases where data show evidence of non-stationarity, where an initial differencing step (corresponding to the "integrated" part of the model) can be applied one or more times to eliminate the non-stationarity.

ARIMA (zkratka anglického "AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average", „autoregresní integrovaný klouzavý průměr“) je třída modelů časových řad, sloužících k pochopení vlastností časových řad a k předpovědi jejich chování do budoucnosti. Model ARIMA má tři části:


Structure.

Vivaldi's introduzioni are written for a solo singer, either alto or soprano, accompanied by instruments. The musical structure seems to derive from the text: four of the eight (RV 635, 636, 637, and 642) consist of two arias in da capo form surrounding a central recitative. One (RV 638) has a central aria flanked by two recitatives; another (RV 640) has just two movements – recitative then aria – and a third (RV 641) has four movements (two recitatives, aria, recitative). The remaining one (RV 639) has the structure 'aria-recitative-aria' but Vivaldi interwove the second aria into the first movement of the liturgical work which followed it - the Gloria (RV 588).

List of Introduzioni.

All of Vivaldi's "introduzioni" are ordered here by numeric order according to RV number.

Ascende Laeta, RV 635.

"Ascende Laeta", written for soprano, was intended to precede a setting of the Dixit Dominus in D Major for orchestra and five-part choir (RV 595). It was composed around 1715 and therefore written for the Pio Ospedale della Pietà. It consists of two arias surrounding a central recitative. The text of RV 635 suggests it may have been written for the celebration of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (August 15). The text addresses the Virgin Mary's ascent into heaven, along with celebration from local peasants using musical imagery of reeds and pipe organs.

Canta in Prato, RV 636.

"Canta in Prato, Ride in Fonte", written for soprano, was intended to precede the Dixit Dominus for double orchestra and double choir (RV 594). It consists of two arias surrounding a central recitative, and has a similar text to an earlier motet, "Canta in Prato, Ride in Monte" (RV 623). The present work speaks of the nightingale Philomela and her joyous singing.

Cur Sagittas, RV 637.

The piece which should follow "Cur Sagittas" is lost. Vivaldi scholar Michael Talbot has conjectured that it might precede either the Kyrie RV 587 or a lost setting of the Gloria. The form is again two arias surrounding a central recitative. The first aria speaks of mythical creatures in conflict with a man of faith. The second aria then describes the person's strong faith in the Lord.

Filiae Maestae Jerusalem, RV 638.

"Filiae Maestae Jerusalem" is the first of two introduzioni written to come before a setting of the Miserere (the second is RV 641). The Miserere itself is presumed lost. RV 638 consists of two recitatives around a single aria. This text concerns sad daughters of the Jerusalem after the death of Jesus Christ and the mourning of nature itself.

Jubilate, o amoeni cori, RV 639.

"Jubilate" is the only "introduzione" to come before Gloria (RV 588), in the form of "Aria-Recitative-Aria." It speaks of choirs joying over the celebration of Christ. The last movement of this motet is interwoven with the first movement of the preceding piece (RV 588). Vivaldi cunningly combines both texts into one, the soloist from the "introduzione" singing the text from the motet. The present motet is essentially a call for all others to rejoice with musical instruments.

Longe Mala, Umbrae, Terrores, RV 640.

"Longe Mala" is the first of two "introduzioni" for RV 589, and is related to a motet based on similar text, RV 623, composed several years later in Vivaldi's visit to Rome. Unusually, the form for this motet is "Aria-Recitative." The motet speaks of the terrors of the world and asks for the Lord to appear with his glory.

Non in Pratis, RV 641.

"Non in Pratis" is the second of two introduzioni to come before the lost Miserere. It consists of two recitatives, an aria, and a final recitative. The text, unlike the more universal message of RV 638, considers the personal pain and lament at the death of Jesus.

Ostro Picta, RV 642.

"Ostro Picta" was written to precede the Gloria (RV 589). It has the form aria-recitative-aria. The text contrasts the ephemeral glory of the world with the everlasting glory of the Virgin Mary.

An "" is a motet for solo voice intended to be sung before certain choral settings of liturgical texts. Eight introduzioni by Antonio Vivaldi survive, each in three or four movements. The texts of introduzioni are non-liturgical, but sometimes paraphrases of liturgical texts. In the Ryom Verzeichnis, Vivaldi's introduzioni are numbered from RV 635–642.

Introduzioni italského barokního skladatele Antonia Vivaldiho je osm dochovaných vokálně-instrumentálních skladeb, každá o třech nebo čtyřech částech. Texty "introduzioni" jsou neliturgické, někdy jsou však parafrázemi liturgického textu. V Ryomově seznamu (Ryom Verzeichnis, RV) Vivaldiho skladeb jsou "introduzioni" číslovány jako RV 635–642.


Early life and ordination.

Arborelius was born on 24 September 1949 in Sorengo, Switzerland, to Swedish parents, and grew up in Lund in Scania. He was raised as a Lutheran and always showed a lot of interest in the contemplative life, saying, "I always had this longing for a life of prayer and silent adoration." After a year-and-a-half-long process, he observed, "Truth has been given to me through the Catholic faith,” and converted to Catholicism at the age of 20.  At first, following his conversion, he desired to be a diocesan priest, but, after reading Saint Thérèse of Lisieux's autobiography ("The Story of a Soul"), he wanted to be a member of the Discalced Carmelites. In 1971, two years after he became Catholic, he entered the Carmelite order at the Norraby monastery located near the town of Rydebäck in Southern Sweden. In 1977, Arborelius took his perpetual vows in Bruges, Belgium, where he then obtained his degree in philosophy and theology. He also studied modern languages at Lund University. After obtaining his doctoral degree at the Pontifical Theological Faculty Teresianum in Rome, he was ordained as a priest in Malmö on 8 September 1979.

Bishop.

On 17 November 1998, Pope John Paul II appointed Arborelius Bishop of Stockholm, and he was consecrated on 29 December 1998 by Bishop Hubert Brandenburg. When he succeeded Brandenburg as the Bishop of Stockholm—the only Catholic diocese in Sweden, comprising the entire country—he became the first ethnic Swede and only the second Scandinavian Catholic bishop since the Protestant Reformation. Most Catholics in Sweden since the Reformation, particularly among the clergy, have been immigrants or of immigrant descent from all over Europe (but especially Eastern Europe) and from the Middle East, as well as Arabs and Armenians of various Catholic rites. Additionally, there are converts from various backgrounds, including some Protestant ministers, who have become part of the Catholic community in his diocese.  Arborelius took part in "The Indian Priest" (2015), a documentary film about Indian missionary priest Raphael Curian.

Cardinal.

On 21 May 2017, Pope Francis announced he would make Arborelius the first Swedish cardinal. Arborelius became a cardinal on 28 June 2017. He said he thought Francis was recognizing Sweden's role in accepting immigrants and promoting interdenominational dialogue.  Sweden's leading news magazine "Fokus" named him "Swede of the Year" for 2017. It said that he had been "part of Swedish public debate" since 1998, that he brought "a fearless attitude" to his role in "secular and otherwise Lutheran" society, and "plays an essential role in bringing native Swedes and immigrant Swedes together".  Francis made him a member of the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity on 23 December 2017. Pope Francis named him a member of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches on 6 August 2019.

Lars Anders Cardinal Arborelius (; born 24 September 1949) is a Swedish Roman Catholic cardinal. He has been the Bishop of Stockholm since 1998. Pope Francis made him a cardinal, the first ever from Sweden, on 28 June 2017.

Anders kardinál Arborelius, OCD (24. září 1949, Sorengo) je od roku 1998 biskup římskokatolické církve ve Švédsku, od roku 2017 kardinál.


Track and field career.

Nehemiah was nicknamed "Skeets" as a baby because he crawled so fast. The nickname followed him. He was the national junior champion in 1977, the same year he graduated from Scotch Plains-Fanwood High School in his hometown of Scotch Plains, New Jersey. Nehemiah's high school personal bests were 12.9 in the 110 meter hurdles and 35.8 in the 300 meter hurdles, so much faster than his competitors that his coach had him compete over 42 inch hurdles (collegiate height) and occasionally train over 45 inch hurdles. He was "Track and Field News" "High School Athlete of the Year" in 1977. The cover was noted for showing Nehemiah in a reflective mood rather than in action as most other "T&FN" covers. "I always look spaced out at meets, sort of nonchalant," Nehemiah told "The New York Times" in response. After graduating from Scotch Plains-Fanwood, Nehemiah attended the University of Maryland, where he won three NCAA titles including the 1978-9 NCAA Indoor Championships.  Nehemiah's sophomore year at UMD proved to be his breakout year. He broke the world record in the 110 meter hurdles twice in two weeks, running 13.16 and then 13.00. He won the 1979 IAAF World Cup and Pan-American Games titles, as well as the second of four U.S. national titles. At the 1979 Penn Relays, Nehemiah anchored UMD's shuttle hurdle relay, 4 × 400 meter relay, and 4 × 200 meter relay, and was named meet MVP. During the relays he recorded an unofficial split of 19.4 seconds in the 4-by-200 meter relay and a 44.3 second split in the 4 × 400 meter relay. Nehemiah described his 400-meter leg as follows:  The prohibitive favorite to win the 110-meter hurdles in the 1980 Summer Olympics, he was unable to compete due to a 64-nation boycott of the Games. Nehemiah received one of 461 Congressional Gold Medals created especially for the spurned athletes. At the 1981 Weltklasse meeting in Zürich, Switzerland, Nehemiah broke the world record for the 110 meter hurdles and became the first person to ever run the race in less than 13 seconds. In an interview, Nehemiah explained his race as less than ideal:  Pat Connolly, who also coached sprinter Evelyn Ashford, was instrumental in reviving Nehemiah's track career after his short foray in football. Connolly is quoted as saying:  She also believed he may have been better suited for the 400 m hurdle event. She is on record as saying:

Football career.

Despite never playing football in college, Nehemiah worked out in 1982 for several NFL teams, including the San Francisco 49ers, Pittsburgh Steelers, Washington Redskins, Dallas Cowboys, Philadelphia Eagles, New York Giants and New England Patriots; he signed with the 49ers. During his three years as a wide receiver he caught 43 passes for 754 yards, a 17.5 average, and four touchdowns. Although he was part of the Super Bowl winning team in the 1984 season, he did not play a major role. His football career is deemed by some to be a failure – many think it represents one of the most glaring mistakes ever made by 49ers head coach Bill Walsh – winning Nehemiah a comparison to the track star Jimmie "Oops" Hines, who won his infamous nickname for his inability to catch the ball. However, Nehemiah's presence on the field would often force opposing defenses into deep coverage. Nehemiah was deemed expendable in 1985 when the 49ers drafted Jerry Rice in the first round, and he returned to the track in 1986.

The Superstars.

Nehemiah was the only four-time winner of "The Superstars", a made-for-television decathlon-style competition broadcast by ABC Sports (and during the late 1980s, NBC Sports). He won the event in 1981, 1982, 1983 and 1986.

Management.

He is currently involved with Athletics Managers, a sports management and marketing agency. Clients he has represented have included Allen Johnson, Mark Crear and Justin Gatlin and 2012 400 meter Olympic Gold Medalist Kirani James.

Renaldo Nehemiah (born March 24, 1959) is a retired American track and field athlete who specialized in the 110 m hurdles. He was ranked number one in the world for four straight years, and is a former world record holder. Nehemiah is the first man to run the event in under 13 seconds. Nehemiah also played pro football in the National Football League (NFL) as a wide receiver for the San Francisco 49ers from 1982 to 1985, before returning to track and field athletics from 1986 to 1991. After retiring from competition, he has worked in sports management.

Renaldo Nehemiah (* 24. března 1959 Newark) je bývalý americký sportovec, který se věnoval lehké atletice (hlavně překážkovým sprintům) a americkému fotbalu. Je znám pod přezdívkou "Skeets".


Revisions.

Merlin 1A.

The initial version, the Merlin 1A, used an inexpensive, expendable, ablatively cooled carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer composite nozzle, and produced of thrust. The Merlin 1A flew only twice: First on March 24, 2006, when it caught fire and failed due to a fuel leak shortly after launch, and the second time on March 21, 2007, when it performed successfully. Both times the Merlin 1A was mounted on a Falcon 1 first stage.  The SpaceX turbopump was an entirely new, clean sheet design contracted to Barber-Nichols, Inc. in 2002 who performed all design, engineering analysis, and construction; the company had previously worked on turbopumps for the RS-88 (Bantam) and NASA Fastrac engine programs. The Merlin 1A turbopump used a unique friction-welded main shaft, with Inconel 718 ends and an integral aluminum RP-1 impeller in the middle. The turbopump housing was constructed using investment castings, with Inconel at the turbine end, aluminum in the center, and 300-series stainless steel at the LOX end. The turbine was a partial-admission (i.e., working fluid is only admitted through part of the rotation of the turbine; an arc not the whole circumference) impulse design and turned at up to 20,000 rpm, with a total weight of.

Merlin 1B.

The Merlin 1B rocket engine was an upgraded version of the Merlin 1A engine. The turbopump upgrades were handled by Barber-Nichols, Inc. for SpaceX. It was intended for Falcon 1 launch vehicles, capable of producing of thrust at sea level, and in vacuum, and performing with a specific impulse of at sea level and in vacuum. The Merlin 1B was enhanced over the 1A with a turbine upgrade, increasing power output from to. The turbine upgrade was accomplished by adding additional nozzles, turning the previously partial-admission design to full admission. Slightly enlarged impellers for both RP-1 and LOX were part of the upgrade. This model turned at a faster 22,000 rpm and developed higher discharge pressures. Turbopump weight was unchanged at Another notable change over the 1A was the move to TEA–TEB (pyrophoric) ignition over torch ignition.  Initial use of the Merlin 1B was to be on the Falcon 9 launch vehicle, on whose first stage there would have been a cluster of nine of these engines. Due to experience from the Falcon 1's first flight, SpaceX moved its Merlin development to the Merlin 1C, which is regeneratively cooled. Therefore, the Merlin 1B was never used on a launch vehicle.

Merlin 1C.

Three versions of the Merlin 1C engine were produced. The Merlin engine for Falcon 1 had a movable turbopump exhaust assembly which was used to provide roll control by vectoring the exhaust. The Merlin 1C engine for the Falcon 9 first stage is nearly identical to the variant used for the Falcon 1, although the turbopump exhaust assembly is not movable. Finally, a Merlin 1C vacuum variant is used on the Falcon 9 second stage. This engine differs from the Falcon 9 first stage variant in that it uses a larger exhaust nozzle optimized for vacuum operation and can be throttled between 60 and 100 percent.  The Merlin 1C uses a regeneratively cooled nozzle and combustion chamber. The turbopump used is a Merlin 1B model with only slight alterations. It was fired with a full mission duty firing of 170 seconds in November 2007, first flew on a mission in August 2008, powered the "first developed liquid-fueled rocket to successfully reach orbit", Falcon 1 Flight 4, in September 2008, and powered the Falcon 9 on its maiden flight in June 2010.  As configured for use on Falcon 1 vehicles, the Merlin 1C had a sea level thrust of, a vacuum thrust of and a vacuum specific impulse of. In this configuration, the engine consumed of propellant per second. Tests have been conducted with a single Merlin 1C engine successfully running a total of 27 minutes (counting together the duration of the various tests), which equals ten complete Falcon 1 flights. The Merlin 1C chamber and nozzle are cooled regeneratively by per second of kerosene flow and are able to absorb of thermal heat energy.  A Merlin 1C was first used as part of the unsuccessful third attempt to launch a Falcon 1. In discussing the failure, Elon Musk noted, "The flight of our first stage, with the new Merlin 1C engine that will be used in Falcon 9, was picture perfect." The Merlin 1C was used in the successful fourth flight of Falcon 1 on September 28, 2008.  On October 7, 2012, a Merlin 1C (Engine No. 1) of the CRS-1 mission experienced an anomaly at T+00:01:20 which appears on CRS-1 launch video as a flash. The failure occurred just as the vehicle achieved max-Q (maximum aerodynamic pressure). SpaceX's internal review found that the engine was shut down after a sudden pressure loss and that only the aerodynamic shell was destroyed, generating the debris seen in the video; the engine did not explode, as SpaceX ground control continued to receive data from it throughout the flight. The primary mission was unaffected by the anomaly due to the nominal operation of the remaining eight engines and an onboard readjustment of the flight trajectory, but the secondary mission payload failed to reach its target orbit due to safety protocols in place to prevent collisions with the ISS. These protocols prevented a second firing of the upper stage for the secondary payload.  SpaceX was planning to develop a version of Merlin 1C to be used in Falcon 9 Block II and Falcon 1E boosters. This engine and these booster models were dropped in favor of the more advanced Merlin 1D engine and longer Falcon 9 v1.1 booster.

Merlin Vacuum (1C).

On March 10, 2009, a SpaceX press release announced successful testing of the Merlin Vacuum engine. A variant of the 1C engine, Merlin Vacuum features a larger exhaust section and a significantly larger expansion nozzle to maximize the engine's efficiency in the vacuum of space. Its combustion chamber is regeneratively cooled, while the -long niobium alloy expansion nozzle is radiatively cooled. The engine delivers a vacuum thrust of and a vacuum specific impulse of. The first production Merlin Vacuum engine underwent a full duration orbital insertion firing (329 seconds) of the integrated Falcon 9 second stage on January 2, 2010. It was flown on the second stage for the inaugural Falcon 9 flight on June 4, 2010. At full power and as of 10 March 2009, the Merlin Vacuum engine operates with the greatest efficiency of an American-made hydrocarbon-fueled rocket engine.  An unplanned test of a modified Merlin Vacuum engine was made in December 2010. Shortly before the scheduled second flight of the Falcon 9, two cracks were discovered in the -long niobium-alloy-sheet nozzle of the Merlin Vacuum engine. The engineering solution was to cut off the lower of the nozzle and launch two days later, as the extra performance that would have been gained from the longer nozzle was not necessary to meet the objectives of the mission. The modified engine successfully placed the second-stage into an orbit of altitude.

Merlin 1D.

The Merlin 1D engine was developed by SpaceX between 2011 and 2012, with first flight in 2013. The design goals for the new engine included increased reliability, improved performance, and improved manufacturability. In 2011, performance goals for the engine were a vacuum thrust of, a vacuum specific impulse (I) of, an expansion ratio of 16 (as opposed to the previous 14.5 of the Merlin 1C) and chamber pressure in the "sweet spot" of. Merlin 1D was originally designed to throttle between 100% and 70% max thrust, however further refinements since 2013 now allow the engine to throttle to 40%.  The basic Merlin fuel/oxidizer mixture ratio is controlled by the sizing of the propellant supply tubes to each engine, with only a small amount of the total flow trimmed out by a "servo-motor-controlled butterfly valve" to provide fine control of the mixture ratio.  On November 24, 2013, Elon Musk stated that the engine was actually operating at 85% of its potential, and they anticipated to be able to increase the sea level thrust to about and a thrust-to-weight ratio of 180. This version of the Merlin 1D was used on Falcon 9 Full Thrust and first flew on Flight 20.  In May 2016, SpaceX announced plans to further upgrade the Merlin 1D by increasing vacuum thrust to and sea-level thrust to ; according to SpaceX, the additional thrust will increase the Falcon 9 LEO payload capability to about 22 metric tons on a fully expendable mission. SpaceX also noted that unlike the previous Full Thrust iteration of the Falcon 9 vehicle, the increase in performance is solely due to uprated engines and no other significant changes to the vehicle are publicly planned.  In May 2018, ahead of the first flight of Falcon 9 Block 5, SpaceX announced that the goal had been achieved. The Merlin 1D is now close to the sea level thrust of the retired Rocketdyne H-1 / RS-27 engines used on Saturn I, Saturn IB, and Delta II.

Merlin 1D Vacuum.

A vacuum version of the Merlin 1D engine was developed for the Falcon 9 v1.1 and the Falcon Heavy second stage. As of 2019, the thrust of the Merlin 1D Vacuum is with a specific impulse of 348 seconds, the highest specific impulse ever for a U.S. hydrocarbon rocket engine. The increase is due to the greater expansion ratio afforded by operating in a vacuum, now 165:1 using an updated nozzle extension.  The engine can throttle down to 39% of its maximum thrust, or.

Design.

Engine control.

SpaceX uses a triple-redundant design in the Merlin engine computers. The system uses three computers in each processing unit, each constantly checking on the others, to instantiate a fault-tolerant design. One processing unit is part of each of the ten Merlin engines (nine on the first stage, one on the second stage) used on the Falcon 9 launch vehicle.

Turbopump.

The Merlin LOX/RP-1 turbopump used on Merlin engines 1A–1C was designed and developed by Barber-Nichols. It spins at 36,000 revolutions per minute, delivering.

Gas generator.

The LOX/RP-1 turbopump on each Merlin engine is powered by a fuel-rich open-cycle gas generator similar to that used in the Apollo-era Rocketdyne F-1 engine. During tests of that engine (ca. 1966), Rocketdyne showed that open-cycle RP-1 gas generators of this type yield toxic hydrocarbons, such as benzene and butadiene. Due to their carcinogenicity, these combustion products are now legally regulated within the US, protections which did not exist during the Apollo era. During free-flight of the Falcon launch vehicle in the lower troposphere, the extremely hot main-engine exhaust and adequate atmospheric oxygen are observed to ignite and burn off the gas generator exhaust. However, during the test-stand and launch-stand (pre-lift-off) water deluges, as well as in-flight at altitudes above the lower troposphere, this post-combustion is halted, and these chemicals are released to the environment. SpaceX Environmental Assessments have provided no data on this environmentally important chemistry.

Production.

, SpaceX was producing Merlin engines at the rate of eight per month, planning eventually to raise production to about 33 engines per month (or 400 per year). By September 2013, SpaceX total manufacturing space had increased to nearly and the factory had been configured to achieve a maximum production rate of up to 40 rocket cores per year, enough to use the 400 annual engines envisioned by the earlier engine plan. By October 2014, SpaceX announced it had manufactured the 100th Merlin 1D engine and that engines were now being produced at a rate of 4 per week, soon to be increased to 5.  By June 2015, SpaceX was producing Merlin engines at the rate of four Merlin 1D engines per week, with a total production capacity in the factory of a maximum of five per week.  In February 2016, SpaceX indicated that the company will need to build hundreds of engines a year in order to support a Falcon 9/Falcon Heavy build rate of 30 rocket cores per year by the end of 2016.

The SpaceX Merlin is a family of rocket engines developed by SpaceX for use on its Falcon 1, Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launch vehicles. Merlin engines use RP-1 and liquid oxygen as rocket propellants in a gas-generator power cycle. The Merlin engine was originally designed for sea recovery and reuse.

Merlin je rodina raketových motorů vyvinutých společností SpaceX pro použití na raketách Falcon 1, Falcon 9 a Falcon Heavy. Jako palivo používají směs kapalného kyslíku a RP-1 v otevřeném cyklu. Motor byl navrhnut pro opakované použití.


Early life.

Sclater was born at Tangier Park, in Wootton St Lawrence, Hampshire, where his father William Lutley Sclater had a country house. George Sclater-Booth, 1st Baron Basing was Philip's elder brother. Philip grew up at Hoddington House where he took an early interest in birds. He was educated in school at Twyford and at thirteen went to Winchester College and later Corpus Christi College, Oxford where he studied scientific ornithology under Hugh Edwin Strickland.  In 1851 he began to study law and was admitted a Fellow of Corpus Christi College. In 1856 he travelled to America and visited Lake Superior and the upper St. Croix River, canoeing down it to the Mississippi. Sclater wrote about this in "Illustrated travels". In Philadelphia he met Spencer Baird, John Cassin and Joseph Leidy at the Academy of Natural Sciences. After returning to England, he practised law for several years and attended meetings of the Zoological Society of London.

Career.

In 1858, Sclater published a paper in the "Proceedings of the Linnean Society", setting up six zoological regions which he called the Palaearctic, Aethiopian, Indian, Australasian, Nearctic and Neotropical. These zoogeographic regions are still in use. He also developed the theory of Lemuria during 1864 to explain zoological coincidences relating Madagascar to India.  In 1874 he became private secretary to his brother George Sclater-Booth, MP (later Lord Basing). He was offered a permanent position in civil service but he declined. In 1875, he became President of the Biological Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, which he joined in 1847 as a member.  Sclater was the founder and editor of "The Ibis", the journal of the British Ornithologists' Union. He was Secretary of the Zoological Society of London from 1860 to 1902. He was briefly succeeded by his son, before the Council of the Society made a long-term appointment.  In 1901 he described the okapi to western scientists although he never saw one alive. His office at 11 Hanover Square became a meeting place for all naturalists in London. Travellers and residents shared notes with him and he corresponded with thousands.  His collection of birds grew to nine thousand and these he transferred to the British Museum in 1886. At around the same time the museum was augmented by the collections of Gould, Salvin and Godman, Hume, and others to become the largest in the world. Among Sclater's more important books were "Exotic Ornithology" (1866–69) and "Nomenclator Avium" (1873), both with Osbert Salvin; "Argentine Ornithology" (1888–89), with W.H. Hudson; and "The Book of Antelopes" (1894–1900) with Oldfield Thomas.  In June 1901 he received an honorary doctorate of Science (D.Sc.) from the University of Oxford.

Family.

On 16 October 1862 he married Jane Anne Eliza Hunter Blair; the couple had 1 daughter and 4 sons. Their eldest son, William Lutley Sclater, was also an ornithologist. Their third son, Captain Guy Lutley Sclater, died on 26 November 1914, aged 45, in the accidental explosion that sank HMS "Bulwark". Philip Sclater is buried in Odiham Cemetery.

Animals named after Sclater.

Although eclipsed by his contemporaries (like Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace), Sclater may be considered as a precursor of biogeography and even pattern cladistics. For instance he writes in 1858 that "...little or no attention is given to the fact that two or more of these given geographical divisions may have much closer relations to each other than to any third...".

Philip Lutley Sclater (4 November 1829 – 27 June 1913) was an English lawyer and zoologist. In zoology, he was an expert ornithologist, and identified the main zoogeographic regions of the world. He was Secretary of the Zoological Society of London for 42 years, from 1860–1902.

Philip Lutley Sclater (4. listopadu 1829 Wootton St Lawrence – 27. června 1913 Odiham) byl britský ornitolog. Pocházel z rodiny drobné venkovské šlechty, vystudoval Winchester College a práva na oxfordské Corpus Christi College, navštěvoval také přednášky přírodovědce Hugha Edwina Stricklanda. Po škole provozoval advokátní praxi, byl také tajemníkem svého bratra, politika George Sclater-Bootha. V roce 1856 podnikl zoologickou výpravu do oblasti Velkých jezer. Roku 1857 byl přijat do londýnské Linného společnosti, v letech 1860–1902 byl tajemníkem Londýnské zoologické společnosti, stál také u zrodu ornitologického časopisu "The Ibis". Je řazen k průkopníkům kladistiky a zoogeografie, na základě podobností mezi indickou a madagaskarskou faunou formuloval hypotézu o potopeném kontinentu Lemurie. Působil v Královské společnosti a v mezinárodní komisi pro zoologickou nomenklaturu zřízené roku 1895, v roce 1901 obdržel čestný doktorát Oxfordské univerzity.


Taxonomy and evolution.

The genus was established in 1878 by German arachnologist Friedrich Karsch. The fringed jumping spider ("Portia fimbriata") is the type species.  Molecular phylogeny, a technique that compares the DNA of organisms to construct the tree of life, indicates that "Portia" is a member of a basal clade (i.e. quite similar to the ancestors of all jumping spiders), and that the "Spartaeus", "Phaeacius", and "Holcolaetis" genera are its closest relatives.  Wanless divided the genus "Portia" into two species groups: the "schultzi" group, in which males' palps have a fixed tibial apophysis; and the "kenti" group, in which the apophysis of each palp in the males has a joint separated by a membrane. The "schultzi" group includes "P. schultzi", "P. africana", "P. fimbriata", and "P. labiata".  At least some species of Portia are in the state of reproductive isolation: in a laboratory, male "P. africana" copulated with female "P. labiata" but no eggs were laid; during all cases the female "P. labiata" twisted and lunged in an attempt to bite.  Some specimens found trapped in Oligocene amber were identified as related to "Portia".

Distribution and ecology.

The 17 described species are found in Africa, Australia, China, Madagascar, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, India, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, and Vietnam.  "Portia" are vulnerable to larger predators such as birds and frogs, which a "Portia" often cannot identify because of the predator's size. Some insects prey on Portia, for example, mantises, the assassin bugs "Nagusta" sp. indet. and "Scipinnia repax".

Appearance.

Portia are relatively small spiders. For example, adult females of "Portia africana" are in body length and adult males are long.

Intelligence.

"Portia" often hunt in ways that seem intelligent. All members of "Portia" have instinctive hunting tactics for their most common prey, but can improvise by trial and error against unfamiliar prey or in unfamiliar situations, and then remember the new approach.  They are capable of trying out a behavior to obtain feedback regarding success or failure, and they can plan ahead (as it seems from their detouring behavior).  "Portia" species can make detours to find the best attack angle against dangerous prey, even when the best detour takes a "Portia" out of visual contact with the prey, and sometimes the planned route leads to abseiling down a silk thread and biting the prey from behind. Such detours may take up to an hour, and a "Portia" usually picks the best route even if it needs to walk past an incorrect route. If a "Portia" makes a mistake while hunting another spider, it may itself be killed.  "Portia" uses trial-and-error to successfully solve a confinement problem (e.g. how to escape from an island surrounded by water) both when correct choices are rewarded and when incorrect choices are punished.  Nonetheless, they seem to be relatively slow "thinkers", as is to be expected since they solve tactical problems by using brains vastly smaller than those of mammalian predators. "Portia" has a brain significantly smaller than the size of the head of a pin, and it has only about 600,000 neurons, hundreds of thousands of times fewer than the human brain.

Hunting techniques.

Their favorite prey appears to be web-building spiders between 10% and 200% of their own size. "Portia" look like leaf detritus caught in a web, and this is often enough to fool web-building spiders, which have poor eyesight.  When stalking web-building spiders, "Portia" try to make different patterns of vibrations in the web that aggressively mimic the struggle of a trapped insect or the courtship signals of a male spider, repeating any pattern that induces the intended prey to move towards the "Portia". "Portia fimbriata" has been observed to perform vibratory behavior for three days until the victim decided to investigate. They time invasions of webs to coincide with light breezes that blur the vibrations that their approach causes in the target's web; and they back off if the intended victim responds belligerently. Other jumping spiders take detours, but "Portia" is unusual in its readiness to use long detours that break visual contact. Laboratory studies show that "Portia" learns very quickly how to overcome web-building spiders that neither it nor its ancestors would have met in the wild. "Portia"'s accurate visual recognition of potential prey is an important part of its hunting tactics. For example, in one part of the Philippines, local "Portia" spiders attack from the rear against the very dangerous spitting spiders, which themselves hunt jumping spiders. This appears to be an instinctive behavior, as laboratory-reared "Portia" of this species do this the first time they encounter a spitting spider. On the other hand, they will use a head-on approach against spitting spiders that are carrying eggs. However, experiments that pitted "Portia" against "convincing" artificial spiders with arbitrary but consistent behavior patterns showed that "Portia"'s instinctive tactics are only starting points for a trial-and-error approach from which these spiders learn very quickly.  Against other jumping spiders, which also have excellent vision, "Portia" may mimic fragments of leaf litter detritus. When close to biting range, "Portia" use different combat tactics against different prey spiders. On the other hand, when attacking unarmed prey, such as flies, they simply stalk and rush, and they also capture prey by means of sticky webs.  Similar to its hunting method of mimicry, Portia also relies heavily on movement cues to locate prey. In this specific strategy, undirected leaps occur in the vicinity of its prey in hopes of sending visual cues. As a result, the prey will then react to this visual cue, provides a movement cue to its predator, the trap is set, and Portia strikes when the time is right.  "Portia" may also scavenge corpses of dead arthropods they found, and consume nectar.

Social behavior.

Members of the species "Portia africana" were observed living together and sharing prey.  If a mature "Portia" male meets a sub-mature female, he will try to cohabitate with her.  "P. labiata" females can discriminate between the draglines of familiar and unfamiliar individuals of the same species. and between their own draglines and those of conspecifics. The ability to recognize individuals is a necessary prerequisite for social behavior.

Vision.

"Portia" species have complex eyes that support exceptional spatial acuity. They have 8 eyes. Three pairs of eyes positioned along the sides of the cephalothorax (called the secondary eyes) have a combined field-of-view of almost 360° and serve primarily as movement detectors. A pair of forward-facing anterior median eyes (called the principal eyes) are adapted for colour vision and high spatial acuity.  The main eyes focus accurately on an object at distances from approximately to infinity, and in practice can see up to about. Like all jumping spiders, "Portia"s can take in only a small visual field at one time, as the most acute part of a main eye can see all of a circle up to wide at away, or up to wide at away. Jumping spiders' main eyes can see from red to ultraviolet.  The inter-receptor angles of "Portia"'s eyes may be as small as 2.4 minutes of arc, which is only six times worse than in humans, and is six times better than in the most acute insect eye. It is also clearer in daylight than a cat's vision.  "P. africana" relies on visual features of general morphology and colour (or relative brightness) when identifying prey types. "P. schultzi"′s hunting is stimulated only by vision, and prey close by but hidden causes no response. "P. fimbriata" use visual cues to distinguish members of the same species from other salticids.  Cross and Jackson (2014) suggest that "P. africana" is capable of mentally rotating visual objects held in its working memory.  However, a "Portia" takes a relatively long time to see objects, possibly because getting a good image out of such small eyes is a complex process and requires a lot of scanning. This makes a "Portia" vulnerable to much larger predators such as birds, frogs and mantises, which a "Portia" often cannot identify because of the predator's size.

Movement.

When not hunting for prey or a mate, "Portia" species adopt a special posture, called the "cryptic rest posture", pulling their legs in close to the body and their palps back beside the chelicerae ("jaws"), which obscures the outlines of these appendages. When walking, most "Portia" species have a slow, "choppy" gait that preserves their concealment: pausing often and at irregular intervals; waving their legs continuously and their palps jerkily up and down; moving each appendage out of time with the others; and continuously varying the speed and timing.  When disturbed, some "Portia" species are known to leap upwards about often from the cryptic rest pose, and often over a wide trajectory. Usually the spider then either freezes or runs about and then freezes.

Reproduction.

"Portia" exhibits a mating behavior and strategy different from that of other jumping spiders. In most jumping spiders, males mount females to mate. The "Portia" male shows off his legs and extends them stiffly and shakes them to attract the female. The female then drums on the web. After the male mounts her, the female drops a dragline and they mate in mid-air. Mating with Portia spiders can occur off or on the web. The spider also practices cannibalism before and after copulation. The female usually twists and lunges at the mounted male. ("P. fimbriata", however, is an exception; it does not usually exhibit such behavior.) If the male is killed before completing copulation, the male sperm is removed and the male is then eaten. If the male finishes mating before being killed, the sperm is kept for fertilization and the male is eaten. A majority of males are killed during sexual encounters.

Health.

"Portia" species have a life span of about 1.5 years.  "P. fimbriata" can regenerate a lost limb about 7 days after moulting.  "Portia"′s palps and legs break off very easily, which may be a defense mechanism, and Portias are often seen with missing legs or palps.

Species.

it contains seventeen species, found in Africa, Asia, and Australia:

Portia is a genus of jumping spider that feeds on other spiders (i.e., they are araneophagic or arachnophagic). They are remarkable for their intelligent hunting behaviour, which suggests that they are capable of learning and problem solving, traits normally attributed to much larger animals.

Portia (skákavka) je rod pavouků z čeledi skákavkovití, kteří žijí v tropických a subtropických oblastech Afriky, na některých ostrovech Indického oceánu, v Asii, Austrálii a Oceánii. Z evolučního hlediska jde zřejmě o primitivní rod, jenž se pravděpodobně vyvinul ze síťových pavouků. Do roku 2017 bylo popsáno 17 druhů. Dosahují délky 4 až 10 mm (bez končetin) a mají nepříliš výrazný pohlavní dimorfismus. Vyznačují se zvláštním tvarem těla, které vypadá, jako by bylo tvořeno množstvím výstupků a hrbolků. Důvodem jsou nestejně husté a dlouhé chomáčky chloupků, jež jim dodávají vzezření lesního smetí. Samice si spřádají poměrně rozsáhlé sítě kónického tvaru, což je mezi ostatními skákavkami unikátní. Jejich zrak tvořený jedním párem velkých předních očí a třemi páry menších očí je velmi dobře vyvinutý. Jejich jed je zvláště účinný vůči pavoukům.


Location.

Hilversum, a municipality and a town in the province of North Holland, is known as the "Media Capital" of the Netherlands. Hilversum had become the centre of broadcasting and radio in the Netherlands in the 1920s when Dutch radio company "" settled there, and today the media sector stands as one of the top employers in the municipality of Hilversum.  After the establishment of the Dutch Radio Company in Hilversum in the 1920s, almost all other radio stations in the Netherlands followed suit with television following in the 1950s, thus making Hilversum at the end of the 1950s the best venue in the Netherlands to produce and broadcast such an international TV-transmitted event as the Eurovision Song Contest, while on the other hand TV was still a challenging advanced technology in general within Europe.  One such media network was the host of the event, Nederlandse Televisie Stichting. The venue of the contest was the studio of AVRO ("Algemene Vereniging Radio Omroep" or "General Association of Radio Broadcasting"), a building complex for the media's network among the media buildings within Hilversum, and which belonged to the Dutch public broadcasting association operating within the framework of the Nederlandse Publieke Omroep system.

Format.

The contest was held in one of the Avro studio halls. The hall contained a very small stage to function as a slightly higher stand for the singers, with the program being shot from the stage floor up. Outside of frame were the microphones' and other technical devices' wires which went through the studio's lower floor at the foot of the stage. The decorative emphasis was on the stage background, the stage front and the left side from the stage from the spectator's view where the orchestra and where the performers and host's stairway entrance were located. The rear of the stage had interchangeable backgrounds for each song to add context to each song's lyrics. The centre-front of the stage, the left area from the stage with the orchestra and stairway entrance were decorated with tulips, of which the Netherlands are known for.  The juries were not in the studio as in 1956. For the 1958 event, they remained in their own countries, listening to the event. Once the songs had all been sung, juries announced their results via telephone in reverse order of presentation, as in the previous year. The Italian entry was not picked up properly in some of the other countries, which meant that after all the other songs had been presented, Domenico Modugno had to perform his song again. It was the only year that the host country finished in last place until 57 years later in 2015 and again in 2018, and the first time more than one country was placed last. The interval act was music by the Metropole Orkest, under the direction of maestro Dolf van der Linden. There were two interval acts, one in the middle of the competing songs performances and one after all the rest of the competing performances were shown.

Participating countries.

Sweden, a country that would later be one of the most successful in the contest, debuted this year. The United Kingdom decided to withdraw from the contest after initially planning to submit an entry.  After the contest, the Italian entry ""Nel Blu Dipinto Di Blu"" (subsequently known as ""Volare"") by Domenico Modugno went on to become a worldwide hit. During the 1st Annual Grammy Awards, held on 4 May 1959 at Hollywood's Beverly Hilton Hotel, "Nel blu dipinto di blu" received two awards, for Record of the Year and Song of the Year. The song is the only foreign-language recording to achieve this honour, and it is the only song to have competed in the Eurovision Song Contest and received a Grammy Award. The song also reached the No.1 spot in the US-American Billboard Charts, making it one of the most successful Eurovision songs in the history of the contest. The song was also voted the second best Eurovision entry of all time at the 50th anniversary show "" in 2005.

Conductors.

Each performance had a conductor who conducted the orchestra.

Returning artists.

Four artists who had participated in previous editions of the contest returned in 1958: Fud Leclerc, who also represented Belgium in 1956; Margot Hielscher for Germany, who also participated in 1957; Corry Brokken for the Netherlands, who participated in 1956 and won in 1957; and Lys Assia, who won the first contest in 1956 and participated in 1957.

Scoreboard.

Each country had 10 jury members who each decided the best song and each awarded 1 point.

International broadcasts and voting.

The table below shows the order in which votes were cast during the 1958 contest along with the spokesperson who was responsible for announcing the votes for their respective country. Each national broadcaster also sent a commentator to the contest, in order to provide coverage of the contest in their own native language. Details of the commentators and the broadcasting station for which they represented are also included in the table below.

The Eurovision Song Contest 1958 was the third edition of the annual Eurovision Song Contest. It took place in Hilversum, Netherlands, following Corry Brokken's win at the 1957 contest in Frankfurt-am-Main, West Germany, with the song "Net als toen". This formed the convention that the winning country of the previous year's event would host the following year. The contest was held at the AVRO Studios on Wednesday 12 March 1958, and was hosted by Hannie Lips. It was the first Eurovision Song Contest held in a Benelux country.

Eurovision Song Contest 1958 je 3. ročník, který se konal 12. března 1958 v nizozemském Hilversumu. V tomto roce se poprvé objevilo Švédsko naopak Spojené království se rozhodlo neúčastnit se. Na konec zvítězila Francie se zastoupením André Claveaua s písní "Dors Mon Amour". na 2 místě se umístilo Švýcarsko s písní "Giorgio" a na 3. místě se umístila Itálie s písní "Nel blu dipinto di blu", která je známější jako Volare. V tomto roce se vrátili 4 umělci a to Lys Assia ze Švýcarsko, Corry Brokken z Nizozemska, Fud Leclerc z Belgie a Margot Hielscher z Německa.


Series synopsis.

The series centers on a trio of millennial women—Jane Sloan (Katie Stevens), Kat Edison (Aisha Dee), and Sutton Brady (Meghann Fahy)—living in New York City. The three best friends work for "Scarlet", a fictional global women's magazine, spearheaded by its editor-in-chief, Jacqueline Carlyle (Melora Hardin). The young women navigate their lives in the big city, including their career trajectories and romantic relationships.  Jane begins the series as a new writer for the magazine after working as an assistant, struggling to find her writing voice. Sutton is in a secret romantic relationship with Richard Hunter (Sam Page), a "Scarlet" board member and attorney for the magazine's publishing firm; she also realizes that she is ready for a change in her career and attains a fashion assistant position for the magazine under department head Oliver Grayson (Stephen Conrad Moore). Secure in her position as "Scarlet"s social media director, Kat meets photographer Adena El-Amin (Nikohl Boosheri) and starts to explore her sexuality, including the tribulations that said exploration brings.  Season two of "The Bold Type" follows Jane as she continues to find her journalistic voice in a new media-driven landscape, Kat and her struggle with her racial and sexual identity in addition to her relationship with Adena, and Sutton in the aftermath of her decision to end her relationship with Richard due to the realization that it could hinder her from advancing in her career.  The third season sees Jane entering a new relationship with a fellow writer named Ryan (Dan Jeannotte) and collaborating with Jacqueline on a story regarding the abuse of models at the hands of a prominent photographer. Kat, in a career shift, becomes inspired to run for city council, supported by her campaign manager Tia (Alexis Floyd), with whom she also becomes romantically involved. Surprised by Adena's return during her campaign, Kat ponders whether her past relationship with Adena is unfinished. Sutton, while content in her role as a fashion assistant, considers pursuing a career as a fashion designer while navigating her rekindled—and newly public—relationship with Richard.

Episodes.

Series overview.

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Production.

Development.

An untitled series inspired by the life of former "Cosmopolitan" editor-in-chief Joanna Coles was under development with a with a script commitment plus penalty by NBC, Universal Television, Ruben Fleischer and David Bernad's The District and Hearst Magazines in September 2015. The project was created by writer scribe Sarah Watson with Coles joining as executive producer along with Ruben Fleischer, David Bernad and co-producer Holly Whidden, Hearst Magazines director of editorial brand strategy. On April 7, 2016, Freeform announced they had given a pilot order to "Issues". The project was ordered to series by Freeform in January 2017 and later renamed "The Bold Type". Coles also provides a voice-over in the beginning of every episode that recaps previous events in the series. Two months after giving "The Bold Type" a full series order, Freeform announced that the series would debut on Tuesday, July 11, 2017. The pilot was aired as a special preview on June 20, three weeks before the series' premiere date. The July 11 premiere was a back-to-back airing of the series' first two episodes.  After the completion of its first season, "The Bold Type" received a two-season renewal, consisting of 10 episodes each, on October 4, 2017. At the same time, it was announced that Amanda Lasher would assume the role of showrunner after series creator Watson had "creative differences" with the network. The second season premiered on Freeform on June 12, 2018, while the third season premiered on April 9, 2019. In May 2019, the series was renewed for a fourth season at the 2019 Freeform upfront presentation; it was subsequently announced that Wendy Straker Hauser would be replacing Lasher as showrunner. On August 11, it was announced that the fourth season will consist of 18 episodes, the largest episode order for a season of the show. The fourth season is set to premiere on January 23, 2020. On April 21, 2020, it was reported that production on the fourth season would not resume, and that the episode order had been cut to sixteen episodes.

Casting.

Sam Page, who portrays Richard Hunter, was the first cast member announced to be attached to the series. His casting was announced on August 16, 2016, which was followed by that of Melora Hardin on August 18. Hardin was cast as Jacqueline, the "quietly tough and confident editor-in-chief of "Scarlet"", who was later revealed to be based on Coles. The following week, Katie Stevens, Aisha Dee, and Meghann Fahy were announced as the series' leads. Stevens plays Jane, who lands her dream job as a writer for "Scarlet", Dee portrays Kat, "Scarlet"s social media director, while Fahy plays Sutton, the last of the three friends to still be in an assistant's job. Matt Ward was also announced to be joining the main cast as Alex, a fellow writer at "Scarlet".  On March 30, 2017, it was announced that Nikohl Boosheri was cast to recur on the series as Adena El-Amin, a photographer who develops a complicated romantic relationship with Kat. Emily C. Chang also joined the cast in a recurring capacity as a "blunt, overworked executive editor" named Lauren Park on May 2.  On March 8, 2018, it was reported that newcomers Luca James Lee and Siobhan Murphy were tapped for recurring roles for season two. Lee plays Ben, a potential love interest for Jane, while Murphy portrays Cleo, a new board member at Safford Publishing. Boosheri and Stephen Conrad Moore, who portrays "Scarlet" fashion department head, Oliver Grayson, were promoted to the main cast for season two after making recurring appearances in the previous season.  On September 7, 2018, it was reported that Peter Vack and Alexis Floyd would recur during the third season. Vack was announced to be portraying a new "Scarlet" staffer named Patrick Duchand, while Floyd portrays Tia, a campaign manager for a city council candidate.  In October 2019, Raven-Symoné was announced to have been cast in a recurring role as a beauty influencer named Alice for season four.

Filming.

The pilot was filmed in Toronto, Canada in 2016, while filming locations for the rest of the series include Toronto and Montreal, Canada, and New York City. Filming in New York was done specifically to obtain exterior shots of the city's outdoor locations, such as the Brooklyn Bridge and Central Park. Production for the first season concluded on July 21, 2017.  In August 2018, it was reported that filming for the third season was underway. The fourth season of the series was in production as of September 2019. On March 12, 2020, Fahy announced that production of "The Bold Type" had been shut down due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Release.

"The Bold Type" commenced airing in the US on Freeform on June 20, 2017, with a special preview of the series' first episode, while the series officially premiered on July 11. Episodes of the series become available on the streaming platform Hulu the day after the Freeform broadcast of each episode. A week prior to its scheduled Freeform premiere broadcast, the first episode of the second season was made available for streaming on Hulu on June 5, 2018. Regarding the series' relationship with the streaming platform, Freeform president, Tom Ascheim, stated that "Hulu does a lot of marketing for [Freeform] if they like the show, and they like "The Bold Type" a lot."  The series broadcasts on the streaming platform Stan in Australia; the first two seasons were made available on November 9, 2018, while the third-season premiere episode was released the day after its broadcast in the US. In Canada, the series airs exclusively on ABC Spark after premiering on the same day as its US premiere. In the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Spain, the series premiered on February 9, 2018, on Amazon Prime Video. New episodes of the series become available in the UK the day after their US broadcasts.

Reception.

Critical response.

On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the first season of "The Bold Type" holds an approval rating of 96%, with an average rating of 7.52/10 based on 28 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "Smart, hip, and exuberantly performed, "The Bold Type" sharply blends its soapy plotting with workplace drama that feels very of-the-moment." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the series a score of 58 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".  Caroline Framke of "Vox" commended the characterization of the three lead characters, highlighting that they are "struggling with more down-to-earth, complex issues than the genre that inspired them ever made room to take on," while Sonia Saraiya of "Variety" opines that the relationship between the trio "is neither saccharine nor unbelievable." Writing for Vulture, Matt Zoller Seitz praised "The Bold Type"s ability to balance its visuals and narrative standpoint, namely the series' "young, gorgeous, impeccably dressed core cast," its "Carrie Bradshaw daydream-vision of what it means to be a New York journalist," and how the series "respects journalism as work, in a way that more outwardly'serious' narratives about the profession sometimes don't." Laura Bradley of "Vanity Fair" complimented the series' tone, specifically "Freeform's interpretation of 'boldness'—the feel-good, aspirational, Pinterest-friendly kind," and how said tone is "more than O.K.; it's necessary."  Vulture's Seitz continued to praise the series' "knack for balancing youth-focused melodrama and detailed explorations of journalistic conundrums" during its second season and credited the creators of the series for its realistic appeal and for "grounding the story in lived reality, not just secondhand research." Conversely, in a column on "The New Republic", Rachel Syme criticized the unrealistic nature of the show, asserting that the series "needs to depict the difficult, ugly side of this business, as well as the cocktail parties and the blow-outs." On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season holds an approval rating of 100%, with an average rating of 8.76/10 based on 30 reviews. The website's consensus reads, ""The Bold Type" presents an aspirational yet refreshingly realistic portrait of young women's careers, friendships and love lives in a big city."  In a positive review of the first episode of the third season, Hannah Giorgis of "The Atlantic" echoed Seitz' sentiments regarding the series' realistic appeal and further expressed that the series, with its "earnest story lines and thoughtful touches, remains a delight to watch." In a mixed review for "Forbes", Linda Maleh questioned the trajectory of the series due to the story's tendency to regress and concluded that when it "makes these big leaps forward and then takes them back, it diminishes its power." She added that she hoped the regression "doesn't become a trend for this otherwise wonderful show." The third season received a 100% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 8/10 based on 9 reviews.

The Bold Type is an American comedy-drama television series created by Sarah Watson and produced by Universal Television for Freeform. It is inspired by the life and career of former editor-in-chief of "Cosmopolitan" magazine Joanna Coles, who also serves as executive producer of the series. Filmed in Toronto, Montreal, and New York City, the series chronicles the lives of three millennial women, portrayed by Katie Stevens, Aisha Dee, and Meghann Fahy, all of whom are employed at a fictional global publication called "Scarlet" in New York City.

The Bold Type je americký televizní seriál, jehož tvůrkyní je Sarah Watson. Je inspirován životem bývalé šéfredaktorky magazínu Cosmopolitan Joanny Coles. Seriál byl objednán stanicí Freeform v lednu roku 2017. Premiérový díl se vysílal 11. července 2017. Dne 4. října 2017 stanice objednala další dvě řady, kdy každá bude mít deset dílů. 2. řada bude měla premiéru dne 12. června 2018.