History of Solar System formation and evolution hypotheses

Historie hypotéz vzniku a vývoje sluneční soustavy

Contemporary view.

The most widely accepted theory of planetary formation, known as the nebular hypothesis, maintains that 4.6 billion years ago, the Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a giant molecular cloud which was light years across. Several

Formation hypothesis.

French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes was the first to propose a model for the origin of the Solar System in his "Le Monde" (ou Traité de lumière) which he wrote in 1632 and 1633 and for which he delayed publication because of the Inquisition and it was published only after his death in 1664. In his view, the Universe was filled with vortices of swirling particles and the Sun and planets had condensed from a particularly large vortex that had somehow contracted, which explained the circular motion of the planets and was on the right track with condensation and contraction. However, this was before Newton's theory of gravity and we now know matter does not behave in this fashion.  The vortex model of 1944, formulated by German physicist and philosopher Baron Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, which harkens back to the Cartesian model, involved a pattern of turbulence-induced eddies in a Laplacian nebular disc. In it a suitable combination of clockwise rotation of each vortex and anti-clockwise rotation of the whole system can lead to individual elements moving around the central mass in Keplerian orbits so there would be little dissipation of energy due to the overall motion of the system but material would be colliding at high relative velocity in the inter-vortex boundaries and in these regions small roller-bearing eddies would coalesce to give annular condensations. It was much criticized as turbulence is a phenomenon associated with disorder and would not spontaneously produce the highly ordered structure required by the hypothesis. As well, it does not provide a solution to the angular momentum problem and does not explain lunar formation nor other very basic characteristics of the Solar System.  The Weizsäcker model was modified in 1948 by Dutch theoretical physicist Dirk Ter Haar, in that regular eddies were discarded and replaced by random turbulence which would lead to a very thick nebula where gravitational instability would not occur. He concluded the planets must have formed by accretion and explained the compositional difference (solid and liquid planets) as due to the temperature difference between the inner and outer regions, the former being hotter and the latter being cooler, so only refractories (non-volatiles) condensed in the inner region. A major difficulty is that in this supposition turbulent dissipation takes place in a time scale of only about a millennium which does not give enough time for planets to form.  The nebular hypothesis was first proposed in 1734 by Emanuel Swedenborg and later elaborated and expanded upon by Immanuel Kant in 1755. A similar theory was independently formulated by Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1796.  In 1749, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon conceived the idea that the planets were formed when a comet collided with the Sun, sending matter out to form the planets. However, Laplace refuted this idea in 1796, showing that any planets formed in such a way would eventually crash into the Sun. Laplace felt that the near-circular orbits of the planets were a necessary consequence of their formation. Today, comets are known to be far too small to have created the Solar System in this way.  In 1755, Immanuel Kant speculated that observed nebulae may in fact be regions of star and planet formation. In 1796, Laplace elaborated by arguing that the nebula collapsed into a star, and, as it did so, the remaining material gradually spun outward into a flat disc, which then formed the planets.

Solar evolution hypotheses.

Attempts to isolate the physical source of the Sun's energy, and thus determine when and how it might ultimately run out, began in the 19th century.

Kelvin-Helmholtz contraction.

At that time, the prevailing scientific view on the source of the Sun's heat was that it was generated by gravitational contraction. In the 1840s, astronomers J. R. Mayer and J. J. Waterson first proposed that the Sun's massive weight causes it to collapse in on itself, generating heat, an idea expounded upon in 1854 by both Hermann von Helmholtz and Lord Kelvin, who further elaborated on the idea by suggesting that heat may also be produced by the impact of meteors onto the Sun's surface. Theories at the time suggested that stars evolved moving down the main-sequence of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, starting off as diffuse red supergiants before contracting and heating to become blue main-sequence stars, then even further down to red dwarfs before finally ending up as cool, dense black dwarfs. However, the Sun

Red giants.

While the unusual spectra of red giant stars had been known since the 19th century, it was George Gamow who, in the 1940s, first understood that they were stars of roughly solar mass that had run out of hydrogen in their cores and had resorted to burning the hydrogen in their outer shells. This allowed Martin Schwarzschild to draw the connection between red giants and the finite lifespans of stars. It is now understood that red giants are stars in the last stages of their life cycles.  Fred Hoyle noted that, even while the distribution of elements was fairly uniform, different stars had varying amounts of each element. To Hoyle, this indicated that they must have originated within the stars themselves. The abundance of elements peaked around the atomic number for iron, an element that could only

White dwarfs.

The first white dwarf discovered was in the triple star system of 40 Eridani, which contains the relatively bright main sequence star 40 Eridani A, orbited at a distance by the closer binary system of the white dwarf 40 Eridani B and the main sequence red dwarf 40 Eridani C. The pair 40 Eridani B/C was discovered by William Herschel on January 31, 1783; it was again observed by Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve in 1825 and by Otto Wilhelm von Struve in 1851. In 1910, it was discovered by Henry Norris Russell, Edward Charles Pickering and Williamina Fleming that despite being a dim star, 40 Eridani B was of spectral type A, or white.  White dwarfs were found to be extremely dense soon after their discovery. If a star is in a binary system, as is the case for Sirius B and 40 Eridani B, it is possible to estimate its mass from observations of the binary orbit. This was done for Sirius B by 1910, yielding a mass estimate of. (A more modern estimate is.) Since hotter bodies radiate more than colder ones, a star's surface brightness can

Planetary nebulae.

Planetary nebulae are generally faint objects, and none are visible to the naked eye. The first planetary nebula discovered was the Dumbbell Nebula in the constellation of Vulpecula, observed by Charles Messier in 1764 and listed as M27 in his catalogue of nebulous objects. To early observers with low-resolution telescopes, M27 and subsequently discovered planetary nebulae somewhat resembled the gas giants, and William Herschel, discoverer of Uranus, eventually coined the

Lunar origins hypotheses.

Over the centuries, many scientific hypotheses have been advanced concerning the origin of Earth's Moon. One of the earliest was the so-called "binary accretion model", which concluded that the Moon accreted from material in orbit around the Earth left over from its formation. Another, the "fission model", was developed by George Darwin (son of Charles Darwin), who noted that, as the Moon is gradually receding from the Earth at a rate of about 4 cm per year, so at one point in the distant past it must have been part of the Earth, but was flung outward by the momentum of Earth's then–much faster rotation. This hypothesis is also supported by the fact that the Moon's density, while less than Earth's, is about equal to that of Earth's rocky mantle, suggesting that, unlike the Earth, it lacks a dense iron core. A third hypothesis, known as the "capture model", suggested that the Moon was an independently orbiting body that had been snared into orbit by Earth's gravity.

Apollo missions.

However, these hypotheses were all refuted by the late 1960s and early 1970s Apollo lunar missions, which introduced a stream of new scientific evidence; specifically concerning the Moon's composition, its age, and its history. These lines of evidence contradict many predictions made by these earlier models. The rocks brought back from the Moon showed a marked decrease in water relative to rocks elsewhere in the Solar System, and also evidence of an ocean of magma early in its history, indicating that its formation must have produced a great deal of energy. Also, oxygen isotopes

Giant impact hypothesis.

For many years after Apollo, the binary accretion model was settled on as the best hypothesis for explaining the Moon's origins, even though it was known to be flawed. Then, at a conference in Kona, Hawaii in 1984, a compromise model was composed that accounted for all of the observed discrepancies. Originally formulated by two independent research groups in 1976, the "giant impact" model supposed that a massive planetary object, the size of Mars, had collided with

Outstanding issues.

However, the giant impact model has been criticised for being too explanatory; it can be expanded to explain any future discoveries and as such, is unfalsifiable. Also, many claim that much

Other natural satellites.

While the co-accretion and capture models are not currently accepted as valid explanations for the existence of the Moon, they have been employed to

The history of scientific thought about the Formation and evolution of the Solar System begins with the Copernican Revolution. The first recorded use of the term "Solar System" dates from 1704.

Různé myšlenky týkající se původu a osudu světa se objevují již v nejstarších známých spisech, ovšem po většinu lidské historie se žádná z těchto teorií nijak nedotýkala přímo sluneční soustavy. Hlavním důvodem bylo, že sluneční soustava, jak ji chápeme dnes, zpočátku ani nebyla známa a později její existenci stále téměř nikdo nevěřil. Prvním krokem bylo uznání teorie heliocentrismu, což byl model, který umisťoval Slunce do středu celé soustavy a Zemi na jeho oběžnou dráhu. S touto myšlenkou přišel již Aristarchos ze Samu někdy kolem roku 600 př. n. l., ale všeobecného přijetí se jí dostalo až na konci 17. století.


Character biography.

Rajesh, who is normally called Raj or just by his surname Koothrappali, is from New Delhi, India. However, he despises Indian food, and his knowledge about Indian culture and Hinduism is often rebuked by Sheldon, who is seen to speak better Hindi than him. He was born into a wealthy family and has five siblings, one of whom is Priya, a former on-off girlfriend of Leonard. Raj is normally seen wearing a layered combination of a printed shirt and sweater vest under a track top-style windbreaker with khakis or cargo pants and skate shoes. White briefs are Raj's underwear of choice. Raj wore a red cap in the pilot episode, but has not worn any headgear on a regular basis for the rest of the series' run. Between seasons two and eleven, Raj styled his naturally curly hair with hair straighteners and hair gel "while trying to blend in".  Raj joins in playing "Halo" online and trading-card games with his friends, and has even claimed to have experienced gaming addiction in the past. It was revealed in "The Monster Isolation" that Raj did at least part of his higher education at the University of Cambridge, where he discovered his interest in astrophysics.

Personality.

While in general Raj is more patient with Sheldon than Leonard, Howard or Penny, Sheldon is completely oblivious to this, and even casually cuts him off as a friend on one occasion.  Another recurring joke is his metrosexuality, which manifests itself in his appreciation for media generally associated with female patrons, such as the novel "Eat, Pray, Love", the TV series "Sex and the City" and films featuring Sandra Bullock. This has led those close to him to opine that he is somewhat feminine (as in "The Closure Alternative"), and others to mistakenly conclude that he is homosexual (a theory his sister mentioned in "The Herb Garden Germination" that had been held by members of their family), which he typically denies (even asserting his metrosexuality in "The Transporter Malfunction"), but which Howard often teases him over.  One of Raj's biggest personality quirks is his tendency to speak or act inappropriately, often landing him in trouble or leading to an angry reaction from whomever he has upset. This was particularly pronounced when he was under the influence of alcohol, which could cause a catch-22, since for years he needed alcohol to even speak to a woman, but the alcohol led to him say the wrong things. On one occasion, just as Leonard and Penny are about to have sex in their hotel room, Raj enters and obliviously proceeds to climb into Sheldon's recently vacated bed, completely unaware of what he has interrupted. On another occasion, he openly discussed having had crushes on Penny and Bernadette directly in front of them, which caused both discomfort, and unwittingly hurting Amy's feelings when he admits that he never had a crush on her as well (despite Penny and Bernadette's best efforts to alert him to this fact).  When socializing with his friends, despite his Indian accent, Raj is noted for using slang and using the word "dude", although on some occasions he appears to not understand American slang. He speaks fluent Hindi, but according to Sheldon, his mother tongue is English.  Raj can play the guitar and has formed a Filk-based band called "Footprints on the Moon" with Howard (and later Bert).

Selective mutism.

Until the season six finale, Raj's principal characteristic was his inability to speak to or around unrelated women, a medical condition known as selective mutism. In the show this was alluded to by Dr. Beverly Hofstadter, Leonard's mother. Raj also stated he has selective mutism in the episode "The Cornhusker Vortex". Raj was able to speak in the presence of women only when they were part of a crowd, if he had been drinking alcoholic beverages (or thinks he has been), if he was under influence of other drugs, if he was unaware of their presence, or if the woman is deaf. He observed that this was an improvement over his previous affliction, in which the presence of women caused him to lose bladder control. He had no problem speaking to his mother, sisters, or other female relatives.  Until the end of the sixth season, Raj remained silent when Penny was present. Penny occasionally taunted him about this, saying such things as "Yo, Raj, talk to me". Raj sometimes whispered what he wanted to say to Howard or Leonard, who then repeated his words or responded to his question out loud. However, Howard sometimes used the situation to amuse himself—for example, when he "confessed" on Raj's behalf that Raj had stalked Penny with binoculars, or when Sheldon called Penny over to their table to silence Raj; Howard then refused to act as a mouthpiece and told Raj, "No no no, he won; Suck it up." In "The Dumpling Paradox", Leonard jokingly suggests cutting Raj in half so the group can play video games without Howard while Penny is in the room: Raj turns to Leonard (facing away from Penny) and responds, "Oh, sure, cut the foreigner in half. There's a billion more where he came from." Later, in "The Bat Jar Conjecture", Raj accidentally utters a few words ("good story"), much to the surprise of his friends, but he immediately realizes Penny is there and covers his mouth with both hands. A recurring gag was for Raj to find himself left alone when his friends, in the company of Penny or another woman, make plans to go somewhere and Raj's mutism prevents him from speaking up to join in.  In "The Grasshopper Experiment", Penny (who was practicing mixing cocktails in order to obtain a bartending shift) inadvertently discovered that Raj's mutism could be suppressed by consuming alcohol: even a tiny amount (such as a bite of rum cake in "The Apology Insufficiency") enabled him to have prolonged conversations with women; however, this also tends to make him loud and obnoxious. When the main characters take a train to an academic conference in San Francisco, Raj can talk to series guest Summer Glau (playing herself) while drinking beer: when Leonard inadvertently reveals the beer is non-alcoholic and that Raj is under a placebo effect, Howard uses this to his advantage and Raj is returned to his usual mute self. In some episodes, Raj took to carrying a hip flask with him to counter his problem, while in other episodes that required him to speak with Penny or other women present, he was usually shown doing so with a beer or wine glass near him to indicate he had consumed alcohol (such as "The Santa Simulation").  Raj experimented with medications that suppressed social anxiety, but they tended to have side effects. When Sheldon's sister Missy visited, Raj took medicine that enabled him to speak to her, but it resulted in involuntary repetitive hand motions. In the episode "The Wildebeest Implementation", Raj was worried that an experimental drug he was considering might affect his rationality, but Sheldon encouraged him to take it anyway: however, Raj's worries were realized while speaking to a woman in a coffee shop when he completely lost all inhibitions and removed all of his clothing.  At the end of the Season 6 finale "The Bon Voyage Reaction", Raj's girlfriend Lucy breaks up with him. The subsequent trauma apparently cures his mutism, and he finds he can talk to Penny, Amy, and Bernadette while completely sober. However, he talks so much that the women become bored and irritated and "start" drinking in order to put up with him.

Family.

Raj regularly communicates with his parents, Dr. and Mrs. V.M. Koothrappali back in India via webcam. Raj is the only one of the guys whose father has been revealed on the show until the ninth season, as Sheldon's father is deceased, Howard's father abandoned him when he was eleven, and Leonard's father didn't make an appearance until season 9, where he appeared when Leonard was again marrying Penny. When they become meddling or judgmental, he "brings his parents" into Leonard and Sheldon's apartment via his laptop. In the season 2 finale, Mrs. Koothrappali and Mrs. Wolowitz have an argument because the latter does not believe that there is not a single Outback Steakhouse restaurant in India.  A running gag in the series is Raj portraying himself as having come from humble origins and growing up in poverty in India, only for his friends to remind him that his father is a gynaecologist, drives a Bentley (which he protests was a "lease"), and had servants (although he protests on one occasion that there were only four servants, and that two of them were children). In the episode "The Wiggly Finger Catalyst", Sheldon reveals that Raj's family is wealthier than he lets on. He observes that they are "Richie Rich rich", which he explains is "halfway between Bruce Wayne and Scrooge McDuck".  Raj's cousin Sanjay (or, as he says his friends know him, "Dave from AT&T Customer Service") works in a call centre and is mentioned in a number of episodes. In one episode, Raj tries to avoid returning to India for his cousin's wedding, as Raj's parents have arranged a date for him.  Raj has three brothers and two sisters. Raj's sister Priya has a one-night stand with Leonard in Season 4. This leads to a brief argument between Leonard, Raj and Howard for breaking the "pinky swear" that Leonard and Howard made about never trying to make a move on her. Later in the series, Priya and Leonard start a relationship against Raj's wishes, which is awkward as she is living with Raj at the time. In the Season 4 finale, Raj had to move temporarily into Sheldon's apartment after overhearing Leonard using Star Trek references as sexual metaphors to his sister. In the Season 11 episode 23 "The Sibling Realignment", He mentions his brother Adoot to Sheldon and Leonard. Adoot was always mean to him, when they were children, he left the front door open causing Raj's pet mongoose to run away.  Also, in the season 3 episode "The Precious Fragmentation", Raj tries to negotiate the possession of the One Ring with the help of his cousin Venkatesh Koothrappali, who is an attorney (but agrees with Raj that he is useless in that role).  In the season 7 episode "The Table Polarization", Raj talks about naming his first child Dileep after his grandfather.

Work.

Raj is an astrophysicist in the Physics Department at Caltech, best known for a publication on Kuiper belt object size distribution.  For his discovery of a planetary object beyond the Kuiper belt,, which he named "Planet Bollywood", Raj was included in "People" magazine's "30 (Visionaries) Under 30 (Years of Age) to Watch", received a larger office, and became a celebrity of sorts, drawing the envy of his friends.  After six months of failed research on the composition of trans-Neptunian objects, Raj feared being deported back to India (at which point, he describes spending his time at work as "mostly checking e-mail, updating his Facebook status, and messing up Wikipedia entries"). To stay in the country, he sought out a research position in stellar evolution with Professor Laughlin; the job proposition failed as the research team included an attractive woman, and Raj, who became drunk so he could talk to her, made an inappropriate comment. Raj ended up working alongside Sheldon (or "for" him, as Sheldon insists), "exploring the string theory implications of gamma rays from dark matter annihilations". Ironically, he noted that he once wanted to be the "Indira Gandhi of particle astrophysics (but with a penis, of course)". During season 6, Raj has developed a talent to be a party planner that was demonstrated at the time of Howard and Bernadette's wedding, and the Halloween, and Valentine's Day parties, at the comic book store.  In the season 11 episode "The Comet Polarization", he sets up a telescope on the roof of Leonard and Sheldon's apartment building. Penny looks through the telescope and sees something interesting and takes a picture. Raj later verifies that the object is a new comet and claims sole discovery for it, angering Penny who thinks she should be named as co-discoverer. This causes friction between them as Raj knows that including Penny (who is not a scientist) will be detrimental to his career. After being confronted by Penny, Raj finally relents on giving her credit for the discovery.

Relationships.

For most of the series' run, Raj had not been involved in any lasting romantic relationship, mostly due to his inability to speak to women. However, he was much more successful in casual sex than the more sexually aggressive Howard. He once dated Lalita Gupta, a childhood friend, in an arrangement made by his parents. With Raj able to speak to her only under the influence of alcohol, the date goes badly, and Lalita left the intoxicated and bothersome Raj to have dinner with Sheldon.  After Raj behaves boorishly with Penny while at a "People" magazine reception, and presents Penny to his parents (via webcam) as his girlfriend, he later apologizes, first with a written note. When Penny forces him to do so verbally, he utters a barely audible "sorry".  Raj also seeks to date Sheldon's attractive twin sister, Missy. To do so, he takes an experimental drug to correct his anxiety disorder. He is the only one, out of himself, Howard and Leonard, in whom Missy showed any interest, but the medication wears off when he tries to ask her out.  When Sheldon, Leonard, Howard, and Raj are on a train to San Francisco, the latter three tried talking to actress Summer Glau, who they see is in their train car. After drinking what he thinks is a beer, Raj is able to charm Glau. When a jealous Howard points out to Raj that his beer is non-alcoholic, Raj stops speaking in the middle of his conversation, and flees from Glau.  Raj reveals that he once had a girlfriend, after Leonard claims that the two of them were the only ones without them. He states that she was deaf, so his inability to speak with women was not an issue. Raj has an infatuation with Howard's girlfriend, Bernadette, and is visibly unhappy when she accepts Howard's marriage proposal. This antagonizes Howard when he learns of it. Despite both being heterosexual, Raj and Howard tend to appear as if they are in a homosexual relationship. This is described by Leonard's mother, Dr. Beverly Hofstadter, as an "ersatz homosexual marriage". Even Raj's parents are aware of this, as Raj's mother once notes "the closest thing we have to a daughter-in-law is that Jewish boy Howard!". Raj often takes up the stereotypically "female" role in arguments with Howard, once expressing his displeasure at Howard constantly ditching him to chase women. Raj recounts a dream where he and Howard both had mansions with a secret tunnel that connected Howard's "front yard" to his "back yard". He uses a female avatar in "World of Warcraft". In season four he claims to be a metrosexual, and in season 8 it is revealed that he and Howard were once in couples therapy. In season 10's "The Emotion Detection Automaton", Howard tells Raj that if they are both unattached in the next thirty years, he would be open to the two of them having a relationship.  In the season 4 finale, Penny and Raj become intoxicated and, despite agreeing to remain good friends, end up in bed together. The next morning, both agree to pretend it never happened, but they are caught by Leonard, Sheldon, and Howard as they try to leave, causing Penny to think about moving back to Nebraska. In the opening episode of season 5, Raj reveals to Penny that they did not have intercourse; instead he ejaculated prematurely and they fell asleep. Penny promised not to tell the guys, although subsequently she sometimes calls him "Quick Draw".  In season 5, Raj buys a new iPhone and quickly develops feelings for the computerized personal assistant, Siri. Later in season 5, Penny believes she has found the perfect match for Raj by having him meet a woman who is deaf: however, it turns out she only dated Raj for his money and leaves him when he tells her that his parents will cut off financial ties with him if they continue to see each other. Finally, in despair, Raj asks his parents to find him a potential bride for an arranged marriage. Raj gets along well with his parents' first selection, but discovers that the woman is a lesbian trying to conceal her sexual orientation from her family: she assumes Raj is also homosexual and that they would have a lavender marriage, an idea Raj considers as a viable alternative to lifelong bachelorhood until Howard and Bernadette convince him otherwise.  Out of their concern for his loneliness, Howard and Bernadette give him a pet dog. Happy with his new companion, a female Yorkshire Terrier he names Cinnamon, Raj proceeds to see if the pup fits in his man-purse. This leads Bernadette to dispute Raj's heterosexuality. In the episode "The Thespian Catalyst", Raj fantasizes various scenarios in which Howard dies or is rendered an invalid, and Raj must satisfy Bernadette's sexual needs. This culminates in a dream sequence where he and Bernadette dance together in a Bollywood musical number. He reflects upon these fantasies by observing that he is "definitely not gay".  At Howard's bachelor party, Raj mentions that he and Howard had a threesome at Comic-Con with an overweight woman in a Sailor Moon costume.  In the season six episode, "The Tangible Affection Proof", Raj and Stuart, put together a party at the store for lonely single people on Valentine's Day. After giving a speech about how one cannot define themself by being in a relationship, he is approached by a woman named Lucy (Kate Micucci). They both leave to get a cup of coffee, with Raj hypocritically declaring "Later, losers!" In "The Monster Isolation", Lucy flees during their coffee date, sending Raj into depression and self-isolation in his apartment wearing nothing but briefs and Uggs. Lucy gives Howard her phone number to give to Raj. Later, Lucy goes to his apartment to apologize and tells him that she has problems around new people. Raj describes his own psychological problems, and they agree to have a formal date.  In the following episode, "The Contractual Obligation Implementation", he takes Lucy out for a first date to a library where they text message each other instead of speaking, in light of her social anxiety and his selective mutism. They continue to date and by "The Love Spell Potential" they kiss. However, in the season 6 finale "The Bon Voyage Reaction", Lucy feels too pressured by Raj to meet his friends, and a dinner between Lucy, Raj, and Amy does not go well. Raj apologizes for his behavior and asks Lucy to come to Leonard's goodbye party before his departure for the North Sea on Professor Stephen Hawking's expedition. However, Lucy text messages him at the party saying she will not be there and does not want to see him again. The next day, Penny goes to comfort a heartbroken Raj, who thinks he is completely unlovable. Penny suggests that this lament is attributed to alcohol, but Raj says he that he has not had a drink since the night before: he is finally cured of his selective mutism.  In season 7, Raj's newfound ability to speak to women allows him to put aside his previous difficulties with them, and though he does not date, he manages to charm several women throughout the series, including the divorced HR representative Mrs. Davis, and a veterinarian named Yvette. Eventually, he begins dating Emily Sweeney (Laura Spencer), an attractive but rather sinister young dermatologist he met on the Internet. Their initial interaction does not go well, when she finds Raj's shyness and passivity off-putting, but she eventually agrees to go on a date with him: it goes well and the two begin dating properly for the rest of the season, becoming exclusive in the final two episodes. In "The Valentino Submergence", episode 15 of season 9, Raj breaks up with Emily right before Valentine's Day, because he has developed an interest in Claire, a bartender working on a sci-fi screenplay for a children's film who he met in the previous episode. Upon learning that Claire has reunited with her former boyfriend, he begs Emily to take him back, but she refuses.  During season 12, Raj asks his now-divorced father to arrange another marriage for him: he ends up seeing an ambitious hotel concierge named Anu (Rati Gupta) whose cavalier and impersonal attitude to marriage leaves him briefly disheartened, but after she proposes to him while on one knee, he accepts. In "The Consummation Deviation", their attempts to be physical together bring about a brief relapse of Raj's mutism. In "The Paintball Scattering", Raj accidentally spies on Anu and they both conclude that they know very little about each other and they cancel the wedding. Afterwards, they agree to start together and date re-starting their relationship from the beginning. However, near the end of the season, Anu accepts a job offer in London and asks Raj if he is prepared to move to England to live with her. Though initially hesitant, Raj decides to move, but at the last second, Howard intercepts Raj at the airport and convinces him to stay in Los Angeles, telling him that he will someday find and genuinely fall in love with a better match for him. Raj subsequently stays with his friends in America, presumably ending his relationship with Anu. In the last episode he is seen holding hands with Sarah Michelle Gellar but she asks him to stop, insisting that they are not on a date.

Creation and casting.

Raj did not appear in the original, unaired series pilot, which only featured Leonard, Sheldon, and a different version of the Penny character, called Katie. The test audiences reacted negatively to Katie, but they liked Sheldon and Leonard. In the new pilot, Raj and Howard were added. Series co-creator Bill Prady stated: "The idea was, if they like these first two guys, let’s give them two more".  Raj's social anxiety around women was inspired by a former co-worker of Prady. Originally the character was called "Dave", and was an American born to Indian parents. This was changed when Nayyar won the role, because he was "so Indian". When doing scenes in which Raj must consume alcohol in order to speak, Nayyar would drink non-alcoholic substitutes. When scenes called for Raj to drink grasshoppers, the substitute was a concoction of water, cream and a heavy amount of green food coloring.

Rajesh Ramayan Koothrappali, Ph.D. is a fictional character on the CBS television series "The Big Bang Theory", portrayed by British Indian actor Kunal Nayyar. Raj is based on a computer programmer that the show's co-creator, Bill Prady, knew back when he himself was a programmer.

Rajesh Ramayan „Raj“ Koothrappali (Hindsky: राजेश रामायण कूथ्राप्पाली) je fiktivní postava z amerického seriálu "Teorie velkého třesku" (angl. "The Big Bang Theory"), kterou vytvořili Chuck Lorre a Bill Prady. Postavu ztvárnil Kunal Nayyar.


Overview.

Systems modeling using UML provides a basis for modeling all aspects of organizational architecture, along with the ability to provide a foundation for designing and implementing new systems or changing existing systems. The aspects that can be covered by this type of modeling range from laying out organizational or systems architectures, business process reengineering, business analysis, and service-oriented architectures and web modeling, through to application and database design and re-engineering, and development of embedded systems. Along with system modeling, Enterprise Architect covers the core aspects of the application development life-cycle, from requirements management through to design, construction, testing and maintenance phases, with support for traceability, project management and change control of these processes, as well as, facilities for model driven development of application code using an internal integrated-development platform.  The user base ranges from programmers and business analysts through to enterprise architects, in organizations ranging from small developer companies, multi-national corporations and government organizations through to international industry standards bodies. Sparx Systems initially released Enterprise Architect in 2000. Originally designed as a UML modeling tool for modeling UML 1.1, the product has evolved to include other OMG UML specifications 1.3, 2.0, 2.1, 2.3, 2.4.1 and 2.5.

Standards.

Enterprise Architect supports a range of open industry standards for designing and modeling software and business systems. The following are the core standards supported:  Enterprise Architect also supports industry frameworks such as:  Enterprise Architect supported frameworks supplied by industry bodies:  Supports the core service-oriented architectures: Along with Round Trip engineering of WSDL, XSD used to facilitate BPEL generation.

Standards development.

Models published by industry standards development bodies using Enterprise Architect include:

Modeling.

Underlying UML modeling are the key aspects that most modeling tools support. The core aspects supported by Enterprise Architect include: profiles, patterns, MOF, OCL, MDA transforms, and CORBA IDL. UML validation can be run against the model.

General features.

Requirements management.

The common features of requirements management supported by Enterprise Architect include customization of how requirements are documented, linking requirements to the design and implementation details, and providing requirements traceability through the design and construction phases. These requirements can be subject to change management, workflow processing, baseline comparison and auditing.

Business modeling and analysis.

Enterprise Architect supports a number of methods of modeling business processes using UML as the foundation modeling language. The core languages for business modeling and analysis include BPMN, BMM and VDML, along with various historic profiles.  Enterprise Architect supports the simulation of:  BPMN can be integrated with DMN models for simulation. This includes the ability to generate executable code from these business rules. Business modeling can be combined with Gap analysis to view potential gaps in proposed solutions.

Simulation.

Model simulation is supported for behavioral diagrams including: state machines, interaction (sequence diagrams) and activity diagrams. For state machine and activity diagrams the execution flow is defined using triggers, guards and effects. The simulation supports re-runs with alteration to the triggered events and supports viewing variables, the call stack and setting debug markers. Simulation can interact with emulated user-interface screens containing common UI fields. Graphical Plots of the simulation can be generated.  There is also support for generating executable code from State Machines for both simulation, as well for use in applications.  BPMN models (using BPSim), can be simulated creating tabulated results for analysis. BPSim also supports Monte Carlo probability-based simulations.  SysML simulation is supported for IBD and Parametric models using Open Modelica or Matlab (using Simulink and Simscape). Mathematical formulas in SysML's Internal Block diagrams and Parametric models can be simulated for plotting graphs used in the analysis.  Simulation is also supported for DMN (Decision Model and Notation). The simulation involves generating code usable in applications and supports interaction between DMN models and BPMN models using BPSim.

System development.

In line with the model-driven design principles Enterprise Architect supports MDA transforms of PIM class structures to PSM class structures, round-trip engineering of code for ten software languages and several key embedded HDL systems languages (Ada, VHDL and Verilog). It also supports code generation from behavioral models.  Languages supported include ActionScript, C, C# and C++, Delphi. Java, PHP, Python, Visual Basic and Visual Basic.NET  In accordance with model-driven development principles, Enterprise Architect provides an integrated development environment that supports code editing (with syntax highlighting and Intellisense), for building, debugging and code testing all from within the model.  Compilers and interpreters supported: Microsoft Windows Native C, C++, Visual Basic,.NET family (C#, VB); Java, PHP, and GNU compilers for C++, C and Ada (GCC and GDB). Includes features for importing MS Visual Studio and Eclipse projects.

Wireframing.

Wireframe modeling supports using templates for modeling the appearance of dialogs presented to users when interacting with an application. The supported device dialogs include: Screen Dialogs, Webpages, Android, Apple, and Windows 8.1 phones and Tablets.

Test management.

For code based testing there is support for both xUnit Testing (This involves MDA transformation of Classes to NUnit or Junit Classes with the ability to generate unit tests from the model and automatically record the results against the tested Classes). and Testpoint testing ( a model based code testing. It is parallel to test contracts defined in ‘Design by Contract’ and it runs using debug definitions. Both methods support the test definitions and test results being logged against related Classes in the model.

Visual execution analysis.

Integrated with building and debugging code Enterprise Architect allows the developer to perform abstract analysis of the software using profiling and sequence diagram generation: Sequence diagram generation provides a means to analyze the general process flow and iron out inconsistencies, and Profiling summarizes, by thread and routine, the code's general efficiency

System engineering.

System Engineering is supported with SysML 1.4 modeling which can be coupled with executable code generation. SysML supports modeling from requirement definition and system composition using SysML Blocks and Parts, through to parametric model simulation. The executable code generation supports embedded HDL system languages (Ada, VHDL and Verilog), or it can be coupled with behavioral code generation of the standard code languages defined above.

Data modeling.

Enterprise Architect supports data modeling from the conceptual to physical levels, forward and reverse engineering of database schemas, and MDA transformation of the logical (platform independent) to physical DBMS (platform dependent).  Diagram types supported include: DDL notation, ERD notation, IDEF1X notation, Information Engineering notation.  Supported DBMSs include: DB2, Firebird/InterBase, MS Access 97, 2000, 2003, 2007, 2013, MS SQL Server, all editions from 2005 including Express and Azure, MySQL, MariaDB, SQLite, Oracle from 9i (all editions), PostgreSQL, ArcGIS, Informix,Ingres,Sybase Adaptive Server Anywhere (Sybase ASA) and Sybase Adaptive Server Enterprise (Sybase ASE).

Project and change management.

Features supporting project management include: Resource allocation and tracking using Gantt charts, Kanban diagrams, event logging using model calendars, Workflow scripting for setting workflow processes, security, and model metrics.  The key facilities supporting change management are: auditing, baseline difference and merge, and version control. The version control interface supports the major version control applications: Subversion, CVS, Team Foundation Server, and SCC interface to any SCC compatible version control system.

Integration with other tools.

Features that support integration with other tools include: XMI Import/Export: Supports the XMI 1.1, 1.2 and 2.1 specifications (and import of.emx and Rhapsody files), Open Services for Lifecycle Collaboration (OSLC), CSV Import/Export, ArchiMate Open Exchange Format Import / Export.  The Pro Cloud Server Integration supports integrating data from external providers including Application Lifecycle Management, Jazz (DOORS, Rhapsody DM,Team Concert CCM & QM), Jira, Confluence, TFS, Wrike, ServiceNow, Autodesk, Bugzilla, Salesforce and SharePoint.  The Data Miner provides a means of extracting data from a range of external data sources including: databases (ODBC, ADO, OLEDB, JET), text files (XML, JSON, plain text), Excel (xls, CSV), and online files or URLs.  The Automation interface – supports a comprehensive API for use with any COM based language (and Java). This supports defining internal scripts, as well as accessibility for writing external add-ins. There is also support for model based event driven add-ins using Javascript.  Among the Add-ins available are interfaces to Microsoft Office and DOORS, along with third party add-ins.

Sparx Systems Enterprise Architect is a visual modeling and design tool based on the OMG UML. The platform supports: the design and construction of software systems; modeling business processes; and modeling industry based domains. It is used by businesses and organizations to not only model the architecture of their systems, but to process the implementation of these models across the full application development life-cycle.

Enterprise Architect (EA) od společnosti Sparx Systems je kompletní CASE nástroj pro systémovou analýzu a návrh, který pokrývá celý životní cyklus vývoje systému, tzn. od zadání požadavků přes analýzu stavů, návrh modelů, testování a údržbu, vše s využitím diagramů v UML. EA poskytuje podporu pro týmový vývoj a pro jednotlivé role (analytik, tester, projektový manažer, kontrola kvality, vývojový tým).


Early life.

Hull was born in Pointe Anne, Ontario. He was the son of Lena Cook and Robert Edward Hull, a cement company foreman. He played his minor hockey in Belleville, and then Junior B hockey for the Woodstock Warriors in the fall of 1954. Hull led the Warriors to the 1955 Sutherland Cup as Ontario champions. Later, he played for the Galt Black Hawks and the St. Catharines Teepees in the Ontario Hockey Association, before joining the Chicago Black Hawks in 1957 at the age of 18.

Playing career.

NHL career.

Hull quickly blossomed into a star, finishing second in the Calder Memorial Trophy balloting his first season. Hull originally wore numbers 16 and 7 as a Black Hawk but later switched to his famous number 9, a tribute to his childhood idol Gordie Howe. By his third season (1959–60), he led the league in goal- and point-scoring (the Art Ross Trophy), a feat which he also achieved in 1961–62 and 1965–66. He went on to lead Chicago to the Stanley Cup in 1961—their third overall and first in 23 years. He finished second in point-scoring three further times.  On March 12, 1966, Hull became the first NHL player to score more than 50 goals in a season, surpassing Maurice Richard's, Bernie Geoffrion's and his own mark of 50 goals. His 51st goal, scored on Cesare Maniago of the New York Rangers, earned him a seven-minute standing ovation from the Chicago Stadium faithful. Hull eventually scored 54 goals that season, the highest single-season total of the Original Six era. That same year, Hull set the record for the most points in a season with 97, one more than the previous record set by Dickie Moore 7 years earlier. His point total was tied the next year by teammate Stan Mikita and their record was broken three years later by Phil Esposito. Hull led the league in goal scoring seven times during the 1960s. Despite Hull breaking his own goals in a season record by four goals in 1968–69 (netting 58) and setting a career NHL high of 107 points (second in the league that year), the Hawks missed the playoffs for the first time since his rookie season that year. By his final NHL season, he had scored 50 goals or more a remarkable five times. This was only one time less than all other players in NHL history combined up until that point in time.  In his 15 full NHL seasons he was voted the First-Team All-Star left winger ten times and the Second-Team All-Star left winger twice.  His slapshot was once clocked at 118.3 mph (190.5 km/h) and he could skate 29.7 mph (47.8 km/h). During his drive to be the first to eclipse the 50 goal mark, Hull's wrist shot was claimed to be harder than his slapshot.

WHA career.

Long unhappy with his poor salary as one of hockey's preeminent superstars, Hull responded to overtures from the upstart World Hockey Association's Winnipeg Jets in 1972 by jesting that he would jump to them for a million dollars, a sum then considered absurd. Gathering the other league owners together to contribute to the unprecedented amount on the grounds that inking such a major star gave instant credibility to the new rival league that was competing directly against the entrenched NHL, Jets' owner Ben Hatskin agreed to the sum, and signed Hull as a player/coach for a contract worth $1.75 million over 10 years plus a $1 million signing bonus. Although his debut with Winnipeg was held up in litigation by the NHL, Hull instantly became the WHA's greatest star winning the Gordie Howe Trophy as league MVP in 1972–73 and 1974–75. With Swedish linemates Anders Hedberg and Ulf Nilsson he formed one of the most formidable forward lines of the 1970s (known as "The Hot Line"), leading the Jets to two AVCO Cups during his time with the club. His best performance was during the 1974–75 season, when he scored 77 goals to set a new professional mark, while adding 65 assists for a total of 142 points, five behind the league leader, one of two times he finished second in the point-scoring race in the WHA. In the five WHA seasons in which he played more than half the schedule, he was voted a First-Team All-Star thrice and a Second-Team All-Star twice, while scoring 50 goals four times and tallying 100 points four times.  Because he joined the rival league, Hull was not allowed to represent Team Canada in the 1972 Summit Series, which pitted Canada's top NHL players against the USSR's national team. Two years later, a second Summit Series was played and Hull joined many WHA stars (including Gordie Howe, who had been retired from the NHL at the time of the initial Summit Series) in a second series against the Soviet national team. The WHA lost the series four games to one (three ending in a tie), despite Hull's seven goals. He was a key member of the Canadian squad that won the 1976 Canada Cup, though, scoring five goals and three assists in seven games.

Bobby Hull rule.

Hull and teammate Stan Mikita were catalysts for a 1960s craze where players curved the blades of their hockey sticks, which became widely referred to as "banana blades". Hull is the player typically linked most to the rule that banned this practice because of the potential danger to goalies, few of whom wore masks in that era. The curved blade made the puck's trajectory unpredictable. The rule originally limited the blade curvature to between one-half and three quarters of an inch; in 1970, it was set at one-half-inch. NHL Rule 10.1 currently limits the curvature to three-quarters-inch.

Later career and retirement.

Slowed by injuries and age, Hull played only a few games in the WHA's final season of 1978–79. However, after the 1979 merger of the two leagues (including the Jets) and reportedly in financial straits, Hull came out of retirement to play once more for the NHL Jets. He played in eighteen games before being traded to the Hartford Whalers for future considerations, bringing the two-time Gordie Howe Trophy winner together with the 51-year-old Howe himself (who, after Hull's initial contest with the Whalers, told the press, "The kid looks good in his first game."). Hull played effectively in nine games (two goals and five assists) and three playoff games before retiring once more to care for his partner, who had been injured in an automobile accident.  In September 1981, Hull attempted one final comeback with the New York Rangers at age 42, at the suggestion of Rangers coach Herb Brooks, who wanted to try reuniting Hull with his former Jets teammates, Hedberg and Nilsson. The comeback attempt lasted five exhibition games, during which Hull had one goal and one assist, before he and the Rangers both decided it was best to end the comeback. It was the second time in Hull's career that he had played exhibition games with the Rangers; in 1959, after missing the playoffs the previous spring, the Rangers and the Boston Bruins had been sent on an exhibition tour of Europe, and then-emerging star Hull and Eddie Shack were added to the Rangers' roster for the tour. Hull and Shack co-led the Rangers in scoring, each netting 14 goals over the 23-game tour.  Hull ended his career having played in 1,063 NHL games, accumulating 610 goals, 560 assists, 1,170 points, 640 penalty minutes, three Art Ross Trophies, two Hart Memorial Trophies (he finished second or third in the voting an additional six times), a Lady Byng Memorial Trophy, and a Stanley Cup Championship, adding 62 goals and 67 assists for 129 points in 119 playoff games. He played in 411 WHA games, scoring 303 goals, 335 assists and 638 points, adding 43 goals and 37 assists in 60 playoff games. His professional total of 1,018 goals (NHL and WHA including playoffs) is the third most of all-time after Wayne Gretzky (1,109) and Gordie Howe (1,071).  In 1978, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada. Beside his Hall of Fame induction, Hull's no. 9 jersey has been retired by the Black Hawks, the Jets and their successor team, the Arizona Coyotes. When Bobby's son Brett Hull joined the Coyotes, they unretired the number for Brett to wear during his brief stint there to honour his father. Evander Kane, who wore number 9 for the current Winnipeg Jets franchise, sought and received Hull's permission to wear the number.  In 1998, Hull entered controversy after he allegedly made pro-Nazi comments. According to "The Moscow Times" he was quoted as saying, "Hitler, for example, had some good ideas. He just went a little bit too far." Hull later denied having complimented Hitler and said journalists had raised the subject. The incident was parodied on the Canadian news satire show "This Hour Has 22 Minutes", with Rick Mercer reading a spot saying Hull had been misquoted, and had actually said, ""Sittler" had some good ideas."  In 2003, he was named the figurehead commissioner of a new World Hockey Association, intended to operate during the 2004–05 NHL lockout; it never entered play, and the organization subsequently ran several ephemeral low-minor league and unsanctioned Tier II junior leagues. He currently serves as an ambassador for the Blackhawks' organization.

Personal life.

Hull's younger brother Dennis (nicknamed ""the Silver Jet"") starred alongside him with the Chicago Black Hawks for eight seasons, scoring over 300 goals in his own right. Some commentators often wondered which brother had the harder shot. When Bobby was excluded from the 1972 Summit Series because he played in the WHA, Dennis initially planned to boycott the event as well as a show of support for his brother, but Bobby persuaded him to stay on Team Canada.  Hull's marriage to Joanne McKay ended in divorce in 1980 after several abusive incidents. In 1986, he was accused by Deborah, his third wife, of assault and battery. She eventually dropped the charges. Hull was romantically involved with a woman named Claudia Allen. In 1980, Hull retired from the Hartford Whalers to take care of Allen, who was injured in a severe automobile accident. The couple never married and around 1983 the couple parted ways.

Children.

Hull has five children with Joanne: sons Bobby Jr., Blake, Brett, Bart, and 1 daughter Michelle.  Hull's third oldest son, Brett Hull (the ""Golden Brett""), was a star too, finishing his own illustrious career with 741 goals, still the fourth-highest goal total in NHL history. Bobby and Brett are the only father-and-son tandem to achieve the marks of more than 50 goals in a NHL season and more than 600 NHL goals. They are also the only father-and-son tandem to win the Hart Memorial Trophy (Bobby twice and Brett once) and Lady Byng Trophy and to lead the league in goal scoring (Bobby seven times and Brett three times). While playing for the Phoenix Coyotes (formerly the Winnipeg Jets) in 2005, Brett donned his father's retired No. 9 for the last five games of his career.  Bart Hull was a standout running back for the Boise State University Broncos football team in the late eighties and 1990, and played with the Ottawa Rough Riders and Saskatchewan Roughriders in the CFL as well as one season of professional indoor football prior to recurring injuries. Post football, he briefly played professional hockey with the Idaho Steelheads.  Bobby Jr. and Blake both played junior and senior hockey. Bobby Jr. won the Memorial Cup with the 1980 Cornwall Royals. Later, they played together for the Allan Cup-winning Brantford Mott's Clamatos of the OHA Senior A Hockey League (AAA Men's Amateur) in 1987. Bobby Jr. also possessed a powerful shot, but lacked the scoring touch of his father and brother Brett.  Hull's daughter, Michelle, was an accomplished figure skater, becoming British Columbia Pre-Novice Champion at the age of 11. After many knee injuries, she concentrated on her schooling and is now an attorney licensed in two states.  In July 1981, Claudia Allen gave birth to Hull's younger daughter, Jessica. Jessica graduated from Benedictine College with a degree in Elementary Education and currently resides in Minnesota.

Robert Marvin Hull, OC (born January 3, 1939) is a Canadian former ice hockey player who is regarded as one of the greatest players of all time. His blonde hair, legendary skating speed, end-to-end rushes, and ability to shoot the puck at very high velocity together earned him the name "The Golden Jet". His talents were such that one or two opposing players were often assigned just to shadow him—a tribute to his explosiveness.

Robert Marvin "Bobby" Hull (* 3. ledna 1939, Pointe Anne, Kanada) je bývalý kanadský hokejista. Je považován za jednoho z nejlepších hokejistů všech dob. V juniorských soutěžích hrával za klub Galt Black Hawks. Za 23 let působení v NHL a WHA hrál za Chicago Blackhawks, Winnipeg Jets a Hartford Whalers. V roce 1983 byl zvolen do Síně slávy, dále je držitelem nejvyššího kanadského vyznamenání Order of Canada. U příležitosti 100. výročí NHL byl v lednu 2017 vybrán jako jeden ze sta nejlepších hráčů historie ligy. Jeho syn Brett Hull byl také vynikající hokejista.


Background.

In 1970 Anthony Gavin, a 38-year-old photographer from North London, began planning the burglary of the branch of Lloyds Bank at 187 Baker Street, in the Marylebone district of the City of Westminster, London. He decided to use a nearby premises and tunnel up into the floor of the bank; the plan was inspired by "The Red-Headed League", a short story by Arthur Conan Doyle. In the story, Sherlock Holmes and Dr Watson pre-empt the burglars and are in the vault when they break in. A former army physical training instructor with connections to several career criminals, Gavin is described by the journalists Tom Pettifor and Nick Sommerlad as "a forceful personality... [who] had the propensity to be physically threatening". According to Paul Lashmar, the head of journalism at the University of Sussex, Gavin was a member of a gang headed by Brian Reader, who was also involved in the burglary, although Reader firmly denies that he had any involvement in the events at Baker Street.

Prelude.

Gavin asked Reg Tucker, a second-hand-car salesman, who had no criminal record, to reconnoitre the bank. Tucker opened an account with £500 in December 1970 and two months later he rented a safety deposit box in the branch; over the next few months he visited his box thirteen times. Bank practice of the time was for staff to leave customers in private while visiting the vault. As soon as Tucker was alone, he would measure the room using the span of his arms and an umbrella he brought with him; he was aided in getting exact measurements by the regularly sized floor tiles, each of which was square. He drew a map of the room, plotting where the cabinets were and the position of the furniture. Thomas Stephens, another second-hand car salesman with no criminal record, was used to acquire the tools needed for the break-in, including a thermal lance and a 100-ton jack; one of Reader's friends, Bobby Mills, was employed to be the lookout man. Two others were brought in for the job, one of whom was an explosives expert. Another of Gavin's friends, Mickey "Skinny" Gervaise, a burglar-alarm expert, was brought on board, as were two men who have never been identified: "Little Legs" and "TH". Lashmar reports that TH was a contact of Detective Inspector Alec Eist, whom he describes as "by reputation the most corrupt Yard officer of the 1950s to mid-1970s". The journalist Duncan Campbell describes Eist as "One of the most active bent officers from the 1950s to the 1970s".  In May 1971 the owners of the leather goods shop Le Sac at 189 Baker Street—two doors down from the bank—sold the lease of the property for £10,000 to Benjamin Wolfe, a 64-year-old seller of ornaments and knick-knacks, and a contact of several gang members. The property had a basement that, the group calculated, was at the same level as the bank vault.

Burglary.

Road works nearby meant the trembler alarms in the vault floor were turned off after several false alarms. A member of the local security company alerted the gang of the timing of the digging and when the alarms were off. Work began on the tunnel on the Friday evening of the August bank holiday 1971 and continued until 10 September 1971. To avoid being overheard, they dug only during the weekends. Gavin led the digging of the tunnel from Le Sac to under the vault floor. He later said that he lost in the process. The entry hole he, Tucker and a third gang member created in Le Sac was wide and through of concrete. Gavin dug until he reached the walls of the Chicken Inn's basement, then dug down and continued under the building, using their basement floor as the roof of the tunnel. The tunnel was long when finished, and at the end, under the vault, the gang created a cavity. The digging created of waste, which was hauled back into Le Sac and dumped towards the rear of the premises. The tunnel, which needed no supports, was later described in court as "a magnificent piece of engineering".  The gang began their entry into the vault on Friday 10 September, after the bank closed for the weekend. The gang placed a lookout man on a rooftop overlooking the bank, and kept in contact by using walkie-talkies. Their intention was to use the 100-ton jack to force a hole in the reinforced concrete floor, and railway sleepers were laid on the floor to support it. What they did not know was that there was an old well under where the tunnel ended, and the pressure of the jack pushed the bottom of their tunnel down into the well, rather than raising the vault's floor upwards. The gang then used the thermic lance in an attempt to cut through the floor; when this failed they drilled holes in the underside of the vault floor and packed them with gelignite. On Saturday the gang co-ordinated the blast of the explosives with the movement of traffic in the area to mask the noise. A hole was blasted through the floor and into the vault. The tunnel was cleared of the debris created, and the hole was widened with a hammer and chisel. By the time they had finished, the exit of the tunnel measured.  At around 11:00 pm on Saturday 11 September Robert Rowlands, an amateur radio enthusiast living in a flat in Wimpole Street, half a mile (800 m) away from the Lloyds branch, picked up the walkie-talkie conversations of the gang in error. He heard comments over the radio that made him think a local cigarette shop was being burgled. At 11:30 pm, he phoned the police; the local police officer thought it was a prank call, and told Rowlands that he should record the conversation if anything interesting was overheard. Rowlands thought it was a good idea, so used a small cassette recorder to make a record of the conversations. At around midnight he recorded dialogue between the gang inside the shop and the nearby lookout about their need to take a break:  First voice: Right, well listen carefully. We want you to mind for one hour from now until approximately one o'clock and then to go off the air, get some sleep and come on the air with both radios at six o'clock in the morning.
 Second voice: I suggest we carry on tonight, mate, and get it done with.
 First voice: Look, the place is filled with fumes where we was cutting. And if the Security come in and smell the fumes we are all going to take stoppo and none of us have got nothing. Whereas this way we have all got 300 grand to cut up when we come back in the morning. And if Security have naused it for us, well at least we have got something.  The disagreement between the lookout and gang continued for a while, and the lookout said "Money may be your God, but it's not mine, and I'm fucking off!" Eventually, after input from a woman's voice and a fourth person who seemed to carry more sway than the others, the lookout agreed to remain on the roof overnight. The lookout man was also given an update on the progress they had made in opening the safety deposit boxes: "We have done 90 per cent of the easy ones and we now face the hard ones." At 2:00 am Rowlands decided he had enough material recorded to call the police again; he did not recontact his local station, but phoned Scotland Yard directly. Scotland Yard sent members of the Flying Squad to listen to the tapes, and they confirmed that they thought a burglary was taking place. The officers stayed with Rowlands until 8:30 am on Sunday 12 September when the gang returned to the shop and radioed the lookout. One of the gang members in the shop thanked him for staying on the roof all night and informed him that they planned to finish the job early that afternoon. At one stage in the morning a waiter from the Chicken Inn restaurant heard noises from within the bank and peered through the windows of the building to see if anything could be seen. Shortly afterwards Rowlands and listening policemen heard the final radio broadcast "Would you like to change to the other channel, over". Rowlands thinks this was the code for leaving the bank.  Police contacted bank staff and local security firms to open up their branches as they began to check 750 banks in an radius. Each branch was visited by both bank staff and police. They visited the Baker Street branch of Lloyds at 3:30 pm on 12 September. They found the vault secure; they were unable to open the vault to check as it was time locked. It is not known if the gang were still in the vault at the time, although police suspect that they were, but keeping quiet following a warning from the lookout.  During the burglary 268 safety deposit boxes were opened, about a quarter of the boxes present; the gang did not try to crack the bank's safe. Lord Hailsham owned one of the boxes in the bank; at the time of the robbery he was Lord Chancellor, the most senior member of the judiciary. Estimates of the amounts stolen vary between £150,000 and nearly £4 million. Because of the way the gang communicated the burglary was soon nicknamed "the walkie-talkie job". Although the common name for the events is the "Baker Street Robbery", it is legally defined as a burglary. "A Dictionary of Law" by the Oxford University Press defines robbery as "The offence of using force against any person, or putting them in fear of being subjected to force, in order to commit a theft"; burglary is defined as "The offence, under the Theft Act 1968, of... entering a building... with the intention of committing one of three specified crimes in it... [including] theft."

Aftermath.

Investigation.

Initially a news blackout was imposed on the radio messages to avoid letting the burglars know their conversations had been overheard by the police, but this was lifted by Monday 13 September. On that morning bank staff opened the vault and found that they had been burgled. Police found the thermal lance, walkie-talkies and other tools, including an oxyacetylene torch, in the shop. Eight hundred pieces of evidence were logged and forensically examined. Police announced that they were searching for four men and a woman. They thought that during the burglary the woman was acting as a controller, based in a different location to the lookout and the gang. The police later widened their search to include five others. The bank provided the police with the names of 260 box owners; eight others refused to allow their names to be passed on.  Up to 120 detectives worked on the case, organised into four teams: one examining the scene, one contacting the known safety box owners, one covering the co-ordination from the control centre and one team dealing with all external enquiries. Police soon identified Wolfe from the lease documents, and within four days the police had a list of likely suspects that they were investigating. Informers provided the first names of two of the gang members and incomplete details of a pub that had been taken over by another member. Police made the connection between a newly acquired pub and Gavin. After several weeks of surveillance and investigation police had identified Wolfe, Gavin, Stephens and Tucker as the key individuals to arrest, but they also wanted to speak to three of four other people who they thought were involved. One of those they were interested in had been living in France and Italy since October 1971; there were no extradition agreements in place to request overseas police arrange for his return to Britain.  Towards the end of October 1971 police surveillance teams saw Tucker hand over a bag to two men, Abdullah Hashan Gangji and his nephew Ackbar Mohammad Ali Gangji. The two were arrested and £32,000 of notes were seized. Wolfe, Gavin, Stephens and Tucker were also picked up within the next two days. Police recovered £231,000 they identified as stolen from the vault.  After the end of the investigation Scotland Yard considered prosecuting Rowlands under the Wireless Telegraphy Act 1967 for listening to unlicensed transmissions, but no charges were laid against him. Shortly after the court case, Lloyds Bank sent him a cheque for £2,500 to thank him for his actions.

Court case.

The two Gangjis were remanded in custody until 16 November, when bail was set at £75,000. Tucker, Gavin and Stephens were all remanded on bail of £30,000 each on charges relating to the break in. Shortly afterwards the bank's insurers offered a £30,000 reward for information that would lead to more arrests.  The trial of the four gang members and the two Gangjis opened on 2 January 1973. Stephens, Tucker, Wolfe and Gavin were charged with breaking into the bank and stealing the contents of the security boxes—valued at a minimum of £1.5 million—and of possessing explosives; the two Gangjis were charged with handling stolen goods. Stephens, Tucker and Gavin pleaded guilty, Wolfe and the two Gangjis pleaded not guilty. The two Gangjis stated that they were acting as a courier for a Swiss-based finance house involved in purchasing sterling. Wolfe claimed that after he signed the lease for Le Sac, he had only returned to the shop once, to pick up the post, and that he was shocked to hear the news about the break in. The trial ended on 23 January 1973 and sentences were handed down three days later. The two Gangjis were found not guilty, Stephens, Tucker and Gavin were each given sentences of twelve years; Wolfe received eight years—shorter than the others on account of his age.

Lloyds.

In March 1973, 64 of those whose safety deposit boxes had been broken into sued Lloyds for £500,000. The case opened in the High Court in 1977, by which time there were 138 plaintiffs seeking damages of £660,000. One witness, a retired jeweller, recounted how he identified some of his property by walking around tables on which several items were placed; he and twenty other people were unsupervised while they did this. He noticed a single diamond that could easily have been stolen, which he estimated was worth between £3,000 and £4,000 at the 1971 price. Another customer complained that he saw a ring in a wastepaper bin, that it was too easy to steal some of the smaller items, if one wished, and that one of the bank assistants had told him that two people had tried to claim the same pair of candlesticks. Four days into the trial, the judge visited the bank and the rooms where the property had been on show. The following day he adjourned the case; no reason was given and no date to resume proceedings was set.

Rumours.

There have been several rumours circulating about the burglary. One is that the government issued a D-Notice—a formal request that the media do not publish a story on a specific subject for reasons of national security—to stop any news being released. The claim is dismissed by Duncan Campbell who writes "no D-Notice was even requested, far less granted"; the journalist Graeme McLagen observes that there was a news embargo on the Sunday—while the burglary was still in progress—but that the events were widely reported over the following days. Another rumour is that one of the safety deposit boxes contained compromising photographs of Princess Margaret and the actor and criminal John Bindon. Campbell describes the story as "cheerful nonsense". A third rumour is that photographs of a Conservative cabinet minister abusing children were discovered by the gang and left behind for the police to find, but no action was taken.

Legacy.

In 1976 James Humphreys, a Soho-based pornographer and strip club owner, alleged that police officers had stolen £1 million worth of gems "as their share" of the burglary. The following year Commander Bert Wickstead, a senior officer at Scotland Yard, was appointed to head an inquiry into the allegations.  In 2011 "The Baker Street Robbery", a documentary on the burglary, was broadcast on The History Channel; the programme included an interview with Robert Rowlands and the recordings he made of the robbery. A fictionalised version of the burglary is the subject of the 2008 film "The Bank Job", which uses the storyline that the crime was either set up—or later covered up—by MI5 to secure the compromising photographs of Princess Margaret, that were being kept in a deposit box at the bank by Trinidadian radical Michael X. The advertising for the film played up many of the rumours, both fuelling and reinforcing them:  [the gang]... looted safe deposit boxes of cash and jewellery worth millions and millions of pounds. None of it was recovered. Nobody was ever arrested. The robbery made headlines for a few days and then disappeared – the result of a UK Government 'D' Notice, gagging the press. This film reveals what was hidden in those boxes. The story involves murder, corruption and a sex scandal with links to the Royal Family – a story in which the thieves were the most innocent people involved.  The 2015 Hatton Garden safe deposit burglary bears a close resemblance to the break in at Baker Street. It was headed by Brian Reader, was carried out over a weekend and involved breaking into a vault containing safety deposit boxes, although in this case the burglars used a heavy-duty drill to enter through a wall.  Although many of the records relating to the burglary at the bank were released by The National Archives in 2013, approximately 800 pages of information remain closed; they will be available for viewing in January 2071.

The Baker Street robbery was the burglary of safety deposit boxes at the Baker Street branch of Lloyds Bank in London, on the night of 11 September 1971. A gang tunnelled from a rented shop two doors away to come up through the floor of the vault. The value of the property stolen is unknown, but is likely to have been between £1.25 and £3 million; only £231,000 was recovered by the police.

Baker Street robbery je jednou z největších bankovních loupeží v historii Británie. Odehrála se v Lloyds Bank na rohu Baker Street a Marylebone Road v Londýně v noci 11. září 1971. V roce 2008 měl premiéru film "Čistá práce" inspirovaný touto loupeží.


History.

Construction of the complex was first proposed in 2003. Due to the Capital City complex needed to be built in a quick schedule, a design team was gathered from a span of 11 time zones from Seattle to Moscow. An obstacle for planning of the skyscraper was the absence of applicable local building codes since the current codes dated back to 1950 did not apply for tall buildings. As a result, codes of the complex were modeled off after British standards, which established high standards for fire safety, such as 4-hour structural fire resistance and the use of 30-minute fire-rated glass. According to the schedule, NBBJ and the Arup Group are to focus on completing the structural design while the architectural design is being worked on. After this is completed, the design team worked with the Moscow government to fulfill the building codes for the complex.  Construction of the complex started in 2005. The office building which served as a stylobate for the complex was completed in 2008. In July 2008, the Moscow Tower surpassed the Naberezhnaya Tower as the tallest building in Russia and Europe. In 2009, construction of the complex was completed. In 2012, The Shard in London, United Kingdom surpassed Moscow Tower as the tallest building in Europe but only took that position for a few months as the Capital City complex's neighboring Mercury City Tower surpassed The Shard's height.

Design.

According to Yuri Starodubtsev of the Capital Group and Joey Myers and Larry Goetz of the NBBJ, the design complex of the Capital City complex was inspired after Vladimir Tatlin's "Corner Counter Relief" (1914). Tatlin's work in the early 20th century was to redesign the project in order to accommodate more space. One concept approached by Tatlin was a tightly-drawn interstitial shape through the orthogonal geometry of a typical room. The Capital City complex uses this concept by the offset rotation of the tower segments to create a dynamic departure from the square's stability. This rotational effect, achieved through a slight cantilever on only two façades of each vertical segment, does not compromise the regularity of the towers’ structure.  Reinforced concrete is to be used for the foundation due to its abundance in the region. Despite this, construction of the complex was carried out in atypical conditions. The tower pile caps were each installed during continuous, 33-hour mid-winter pours in temperatures ranging from -32 to -34°C (-25 to -30°F), under a large heated tent to keep the concrete from freezing. Running five meters deep and measuring 6,500 cubic meters (230,000 cubic feet) and 6,000 cubic meters (212,000 cubic feet), the foundation utilized a relatively standard rebar cage and wooden form work.  The design team collaborated with German curtain wall specialist Schüco to create a dynamic facade for the towers and podium building. The towers are enclosed in a unitized panel system with four-sided structural-silicone glazing. The aluminum panels compose a shifting super grid that resonates with the towers’ shifting blocks. The panels also shift in plan, some protruding outward while others are slightly inset to accommodate vertical LED lighting.  The City of Capitals is to serve as a mixed-use complex, featuring apartments, office space, retail, restaurants, fitness center, and a garden. The complex also features a six-level basement that includes more than 2,200 parking spaces, electrical equipment and enlarged fire compartments.  Each tower is separated into several levels. For the Moscow Tower, the top four levels which served as residences are named from bottom to top: Beleveue, Sky, Star, and Galaxy. The same applies to St. Petersburg Tower, except it only has three levels rather than four. As a result, it does not have a level named Galaxy. Apartments cover floors 18-72 of Moscow Tower and floors 18-61 of the St. Petersburg Tower.

The City of Capitals () is a mixed-use complex composed of two skyscrapers and an office building located on plot 9 in the Moscow International Business Center in Moscow, Russia with a total area of. The two skyscrapers are named after the two historical capitals of Russia: Moscow and Saint Petersburg. Construction of the complex began in 2005, with the office building completed in 2008 and the two skyscrapers completed in 2009.

City of Capitals (rusky: Город Столиц) je multifunkční komplex dvou mrakodrapů, který se nachází v obchodní čtvrti Moskva-Siti v Moskvě. Nižší mrakodrap St. Petersburg má 65 pater a výšku 257 m. Vyšší mrakodrap Moscow má 76 pater a výšku 302 m. Výstavba probíhala v letech 2003 – 2010. Celková plocha je 288 680 m, z toho nejvíce zabírají byty (přes 100 000 m) a dále pak kanceláře (asi 80 000 m). Dále se zde nachází obchodní pasáž, kinosály, restaurace a jiné zábavní prostory, samozřejmě je tu i garáž s přibližně 2000 parkovacími místy.


Background and composition.

In an interview with HitQuarters, Perry's A&R at the time, Chris Anokute, said that while travelling back from an Oscar after-party Perry texted him to say she did not think the album was finished and that it needed one more song. She said that she wanted to write a song about California girls. During a "Rolling Stone" photo shoot in April 2010, Perry revealed details about the song, allegedly a response to Jay-Z's "Empire State of Mind", she stated: Initially the song was titled "California Girls", but the spelling was changed to "California Gurls" after the passing of Big Star member Alex Chilton as a nod to their song, "September Gurls". After the song was leaked online, Capitol Records decided to release it early, and it was posted on Perry's official website, and the radio date was moved up from May 25, 2010, to May 7, 2010. The artwork was also released, featuring Perry laying out on the beach sand with a bejeweled bikini.  Perry used Wikipedia to research which rapper she wanted to collaborate with for "California Gurls", browsing West Coast artists before selecting Snoop Dogg. The publishing company for The Beach Boys had allegedly threatened a lawsuit due to Snoop Dogg's line "I wish they could all be California Girls", which they consider to be one of the classic lines in the band's song "California Girls".  "California Gurls" is composed in styles of disco-pop and funk-pop while bearing influence of new wave music and electropop within its composition. According to digital sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony-ATV Music Publishing, the song is written in the key of F major and the tempo moves at 125 beats per minute over a house beat. Perry's vocal range in the song spans from the lower note of C to the higher note of D. "California Gurls" utilizes multiple synths, drums, funk guitars, and electronic whooshes in its production.

Critical reception.

"California Gurls" received many positive reviews from critics. The song was given five stars from Nick Levine of Digital Spy who commended Perry's "charismatic" vocals on the song as well as its "unstoppable pop chorus". Leah Greenblatt of "Entertainment Weekly" and Katie Hasty of HitFix called it "the summer jam" of 2010. Rob Sheffield of "Rolling Stone" said that the song sets the tone for "Teenage Dream". Chris Richards of "The Washington Post" praised the song, calling it "fresh" and "fierce". He commended the expertise of the song's arrangement and its "buoyant" chorus. Richards went on to say that "California Gurls" is "an ever-lasting gobstopper of a tune" and that "summertime megahits rarely feel this good". Brian Wilson from American band The Beach Boys commended Perry's vocal on the song and described its melody as "infectious".  Glenn Gamboa of "Newsday" reviewed the song saying, "'California Gurls' is a fizzy-pop concoction of empty calories, but it sure does stick with you." He went on to note that the craftsmanship of the song was of a high standard. Steve Leftridge of PopMatters called "California Gurls" the radio jam of the summer of 2010 and "the gargantuan singalong fantasy that delivered on the promise built by the disco thump of hits like 'I Kissed a Girl' and 'Hot n Cold'." Leftridge also praised the song's musical composition, lyrical content and its chorus which he said "you know by heart halfway through your first listen." The track was deemed as a highlight on "Teenage Dream" by Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic. Michael Cragg of musicOMH praised the song, "First single California Gurls is brilliant, brattish fun, Perry sounding sweet and coy on the verses before that huge chorus erupts". Edna Gundersen of "USA Today" said that the track is "an effervescent toast to summer fun." Greg Kot of "Chicago Tribune", however, dismissed the song as "relentlessly mechanical". He went on to describe Perry's vocal performance on the song as "a series of syllables digitally stitched together." The single received a Grammy nomination for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals. On May 25, 2012, "Billboard" ranked the song number one on a special The 30 Summer Songs of All Time listing.

Chart performance.

"California Gurls" sold 294,000 digital downloads in its first week and debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" Digital Songs chart. It debuted at number two on the "Billboard" Hot 100, making it Perry's highest debut on the chart at the time. On the issue dated June 19, 2010, the song reached number one, becoming Perry's second number-one song and Snoop Dogg's third. "California Gurls" became the first single by an artist signed to Capitol Records in nearly 43 years to ascend to the number-one spot on the Billboard Hot 100 in its fourth week since Bobbie Gentry's single "Ode to Billie Joe" reached the top after four weeks on the chart. It is Perry's third number one on the Pop Songs chart. "California Gurls" became the first song to top the 300,000 mark in digital sales more than once in 2010 with 318,000 and 359,000 copies sold in the first and second week of June, respectively. Within seven weeks of its release, "California Gurls" sold over two million downloads, which is the second fastest pace to do so in digital history behind Flo Rida's "Right Round". It debuted at number 31 on the "Billboard" Radio Songs chart and in the July 10, 2010, issue it reached number one on the magazine's Hot Dance Airplay chart, giving Perry her second number-one single on that chart. As of January 2015, the song has sold 5.7 million copies in the US.  Elsewhere, "California Gurls" reached number one in Canada and debuted in the top 20 in Belgium (Flanders and Wallonia), New Zealand and Norway. On May 24, 2010, "California Gurls" debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number three, and later reached the number-one spot. On the RIANZ Top 10 Radio Airplay Charts, the song came in at number one in New Zealand and also received Gold certification from RIANZ. "California Gurls" entered the UK Singles Chart on June 27, 2010, at number one, becoming her second chart topper in the country. The single sold 123,607 copies in the UK in its first week (the second highest number in 2010 after the Helping Haiti charity single "Everybody Hurts"). After two weeks, the song sold 216,000 copies in the UK. On October 29, 2010, the British Phonographic Industry classified the single as a "platinum record" (meaning it has sold over 600,000 units). As of October 2013, the single had sold 780,787 copies in the United Kingdom, becoming Perry's third best-selling single there behind "Firework" and "Roar".

Music video.

The video was directed by Mathew Cullen and was inspired by the work of Will Cotton, who was also the Artistic Director of the video. Filming of the video began on May 14, 2010. It premiered on June 15, 2010. Perry explained the use of a candy theme rather than a beach theme for the video, saying, "It's definitely something to watch when you have the munchies.... It's all edible. We named it 'Candyfornia' instead of 'California', so it's a different world," she said. "It's not just like, 'Oh, let's go to the beach and throw a party and then shoot a music video!' It's more like, 'Let's put us California Gurls in a whole different world!"  In the music video, Perry is a game piece in Candyfornia, a game based in poker and board games. The settings are inspired in part by "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland", "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory", and the board game Candy Land, with much of the set decorated with cupcakes, ice creams, cotton candy, and lollipops. Snoop Dogg appears in the video as a king named "Sugar Daddy" that is holding several young women (Queens of Candyfornia) captive throughout the game, using candy related devices to hold them. Perry moves around, experimenting with objects. She moves through the land, making discoveries and freeing the women. In the chorus, she appears lying down on a cotton candy cloud, naked. Snoop Dogg tries to block her advances in many ways. When all the women are free, Perry leads them in a dance on the beach. Seeing the women freed, "Sugar Daddy" becomes enraged, marching on the women's position with an army of gummy bears. Perry, dressed in a red Wonder Woman like costume, quickly defeats the army with whip cream guns attached to her breasts, after which the stunned king throws down his staff and surrenders. The video ends with "Sugar Daddy" buried up to his neck in the sand by the women, nonetheless admiring their beauty and (in a nod to the Beach Boys song) wishing that women everywhere could be California girls. Various California landmarks appear in the video, such as the Hollywood Walk of Fame, the Hollywood Sign and some West Coast beaches which were all made out of confectionery.

Live performances.

Perry performed the song on May 20, 2010, at the CW networks' annual "upfronts" presentation in New York. Perry performed the song at the 2010 MTV Movie Awards on June 6, 2010, alongside Snoop Dogg. Perry also performed the song during her guest appearance on the September 25, 2010 episode of "Saturday Night Live". Perry performed the song on The GRAMMY Nominations Concert Live! – Countdown to Music's Biggest Night on December 1, 2010. "California Gurls" was included as the encore for her California Dreams Tour. Perry performed California Gurls without Snoop Dogg on the BBC One chat show "The Graham Norton Show" on June 28, 2010.  On February 1, 2015, Perry was the headliner of Super Bowl XLIX halftime show and "California Gurls" was part of the performance.

Covers, samples, and media usage.

The German cover band The Baseballs covered the song. It is included on their album "Strings 'n' Stripes". The Hub has released a promo for the animated series "". Entitled "Equestria Girls", it is set to the song's melody, with a new set of lyrics written specifically for the show and sung by Shannon Chan-Kent from the perspective of the character Pinkie Pie. A video clip of Cebu Pacific flight attendants performing a pre-flight safety demonstration as a dance routine to this song ended up as a viral YouTube video clip, attracting comment.  The parody song "G33k & G4m3r Girls" by Team Unicorn was released online in September 2010. The music video pays tribute to women who love gaming, manga, and science fiction. The video reached 1 million views in its first week online and stirred controversy over its sexy portrayal of geek girls.  Neil Cicierega's 2014 album of mashups, "Mouth Silence", features a mashup between "California Gurls" and Kate Bush's song "Cloudbusting" and, called "Orgonon Gurlz". Cicierega has publicly stated that "Cloudbusting" is one of his favorite songs, while "California Gurlz" is his least.

Certifications.

!scope="row"| France (SNEP)

"California Gurls" is a song recorded by American singer Katy Perry. It served as the lead single for her third studio album, "Teenage Dream" (2010). The song features verses from rapper Snoop Dogg. Both artists co-wrote the song with Bonnie McKee and its co-producers Dr. Luke and Max Martin, with additional production from Benny Blanco. According to Perry, "California Gurls" is an answer song to "Empire State of Mind" (2009), by Jay-Z and Alicia Keys. Its midtempo production incorporates disco-pop and funk-pop with influences of new wave and electropop. Its lyrics are an ode to the state of California, in which both Perry and Snoop Dogg were born and raised.

„California Gurls“ je píseň americké popové zpěvačky Katy Perry. Píseň pochází z jejího třetího alba "Teenage Dream". Produkce se ujmuli producenti Max Martin, Dr. Luke a Benny Blanco. S touto písní jí vypomohl americký rapper Snoop Dogg. V roce 2011 vydala skupina The Baseballs rock and rollovou přehrávku písně na svém albu "Strings 'n' Stripes".